GAMES,GAY tionality, sexual orientation, religion, or An international festival of ath- athletic ability. In keeping with the Mas- letic competitions and the arts, the Gay ters Movement in sports, athletes com- Games are held quadrennially as a celebra- peted with others in their own age group. tion of the international gay community. The track and field and swimmingevents The first and second Gay Games were held were officially sanctioned by their re- in San Francisco in August of 1982 and spective national masters programs. 1986. The third Games are scheduled Athletes participated, not as representa- for the summer of 1990 in Vancouver, tives of their respective countries, but as Canada. individuals on behalf of cities and towns. The Gay Games at San Francisco There were no minimum qualifyingstan- were founded by Tom Waddell and organ- dards in any events. ized by San Francisco Arts and Athletics, The Games have been used by Inc. The 1982 Games involved 1,300 male gay liberationists for ideological purposes. and female athletes in sixteen sports; four Historically, homosexuality has been as- years later the games attracted 3,482 ath- sociated with pathology, and the rise of letes with a ratio of men to women of 3:2 AIDS in the homosexual community has in a total of 17 sports. (This may be con- reasserted that association. Many of those trasted with the 1984 Olympics in Los who spoke at the 1986 Games said that Angeles where the sex ratio was 41.) the Games emphasized a healthy image Among the events were basketball, soccer, of gay men and lesbians. Brown also said bowling, cycling, diving, triathlon, soft- in her opening address that the Games ball, physique, track and field, marathon, "show the world who we really area. power-lifting, volleyball, swimming, ten- We're intelligent people, we're attractive nis and wrestling. The artistic festival, people, we're caring people, we're healthy called "The Procession of the Arts," fea- people, and we're proud of who we are." tured over twenty events including dance, The organizers of the Gay Games theatre and plastic art exhibits. Although have experienced considerable legal diffi- athletescame frommanyparts of the world, culties. Before the 1982 Gay Games, the the majority were from North America. United States Olympic Committee In her opening address at the 1986 (USOCJfiled a court action against the Gay Games, novelist Rita Mae Brown organizers of the Gay Games, which were highlighted the meaning of the games, going to be called the "Gay Olympic ". . . these games are not just a celebration Games." In 1978, the United States of skill, they're a celebration of who we are Congress passed the Amateur Sports Act and what we can become: . . . a celebration which, among other things, granted the of the best in us." USOC exclusive use of the word "olym- Tom Waddell said that the Games pic." Although the USOC had allowed were "conceived as a new idea in the the "Rat Olympics," "Police Olympics," meaning of sport based on inclusion rather and "Dog Olympics," it took exception than excl~sion.~'Anyone was allowed to to the term "Gay Olympic Games." Two compete regardless of race, sex, age, na- years later, the USOC continued its 4 GAMES, GAY harassment of the Gay Games and filed and the Renaissance (above all Giovanni suit to recover legal fees in the amount of Boccaccio in his Genealogia Deorum of $96,600. A lien was put on the house of 1375) presented a number of examples of TomWaddell,amemberofthe1968United the male amours of the Greek gods, and States Olympic Team. these texts influenced artists. In 1532Mich- Just as the Sacred Olympic Games elangelo created a drawing of Ganymede andpythian Games in ancient Greece were Abducted by the Eagle for presentation to a celebration which gave expression to a Roman nobleman, Tommaso de' Cavali- Hellenic values of the time, so, too, the eri, forwhom he experienceda deep, though Gay Games are a celebration and expres- Platonic affection. Other images of sion of the contemporary spirit of the gay Ganymede were produced by Correggio, community. Parmigianino, Giulio Romano, and Brian Pronger Benvenuto Cellini. In the French language, begin- ning in the sixteenth century, the divine youth's name became a common noun, GANYMEDE with the sense of "passive homosexual" or In Greek Ganymede bardache. Joachim duBellay (1558)speaks was a beautiful Phrygian shepherd boy of seeing in Rome Hun Ganym&deavoir le who attracted the attention of Zeus, the rouge sw. la t6teu ["A Ganymede with red king of the gods. Unable to resist the boy, on his head," that is, a cardinal).The Die- Zeus seized him and carried him aloft to be tionnuire comique ( 17181 of P. J. Le R~~~ his cupbearer and bedmate on Mount is explicit: "Ganymede: berdache, a young ~lympus. hil lethe motif of flightthrough man who offers pleasure, permitting the the heavens is probably of Near Eastern act of sodomy to be committed on him." origin, the abduction recalls the Cretan In As You Like It (Act I] custom of older men "kidnapping" their Shakespeare made the transvestite Rosa- adolescent innamorati and living with ~n~assumet~enameo~~anyme~e,~~ove~s them in the wild for a time. (Plato states own page.^^ rn 1611 the lexicographer that the myth of Ganymede originated in ~~~dl~cotgravedefined u~~~~~~d~u as Crete.) In any event the is part a an ingle [passivehomosexual or catamite). large Set of stories of the Olympian gods A pointed reference comes from Drum- falling in love with mortal boys. mond of Hawthornden: "I crave thou wilt In ancient art Zeus is sometimes be pleased, peat God, to save my sover- depicted abducting the boy in mortal form ,ig,from a canymedeu (16491, referring to and sometimes in the guise of an eaglet his the tradition of royal minions at the Stuart attribute. Vasepaintings occasionallyshow court. such associations the anthro~om~~~hicZeus pursuing in the seventeenth century Simon Marius Gan~medeasananaloguetothewooing named Jupiter's largest moon after ~~nductedby n~ortalpederasts. In later Ganymede, giving him preference over the antiquity the motif of the beautiful youth female lovers who are commemo- beingcarriedaloftb~an eagle wasgiven an rated in the names given to the smaller allegorical significance, as the soul's flight moons. ~h~~ the way was paved for away from earthly cares to the serenity of Ganymede to enter today's age of space the empyrean. exploration. In the medieval debate poem Altercatio Ganimedis et Helenae [twelfth BIBLIOGRAPHY.Gerda Kempter, century) Ganymede conducts an able de- Ganymed: Studien zur Typologie, Ikonographie und Ikonologie, Cologne: fense of male homosexuality. The Bohlau Verlag, 1980; James M. Saslow, mythographers of the later Middle Ages Gnnymede in the Renaissance: Homo- sexuality in Art and Society, New connote the conduct of a playboy or dash- Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. ing man about town, whose behavior was Wayne R. Dynes not always strictly moral but not totally depraved either; hence the popularity of GARC~ALORCA, such expressions as "gay lothario," "gay FEDERICO deceiver," and "gay blade." Applied to women in the nineteenth century (or per- See Lorca, Federico Garcia. haps somewhat before), it came to mean "of loose morals; a prostitute": "As soon GAY as a woman has ostensibly lost her reputa- tion we, with grim inappositeness, call her This word is often taken as the 'gay"' (Sunday Times, London, 1868). contemporary or colloquial equivalent of Curiously the 18 11Lexicon Balatronicum, homosexual without further distinction. attributed to Captain F. Grose, defines But there are other nuances of meaning, especially as some activists vigorously guying instrument as "penis." Thus far, the development has an interesting fore- disown the latter term which they falsely believe to be of medical origin and bear the runner in the Latin lascivus, which first stigma of the pathological, while others meant "lively, frolicsome," and then "lewd, wanton." would see in gay the designation of the What was to come, however, has politically conscious and militant sup- no independent parallel in any other lan- porter of the homosexual liberation move- ment, as opposed to sexual orientation guage. The expansion of the term to mean which is an artifact of personal history homosexual man constitutes a tertiary stage of modification, the sequence being rather than a matter of deliberate choice. To some the word has proven trouble- "lothario," then "female prostitute," then some, and for this reason it merits ex- "homosexual man." Viewed in the per- tended discussion. spective of the saturation of nineteenth- The word gay (though not its three century usage by the spectacle of the "gay later slang meanings) stems from the Old woman" (- whore), this final application Proven~algai, "high spirited, mirthful." A to homosexual men could not fail to bear derivation of this term in turn from the overtones of promiscuity and "fallen" Old High German gahi, "impetuous" (cf. status. Despite ill-informed speculations, modem German jlih, "sudden"), though thus far not one unambiguous attestation attractive at first sight, seems unlikely. of the word to refer specifically to homo- Gai was a favorite expression among the sexual men is known from the nineteenth troubadours, who came to speak of their century. The word (and its equivalents in intricate art of poetry as gai saber, "gay other European languages) is attested in knowledge." Despite assertions to the the sense of "belonging to the demi- contrary, none of these uses reveals any monde" or "given to illicit sexual plea- particular sexual content. In so far as the sures," even specifically to prostitution, word gay or gai has acquired a sexual but nowhere with the special homosexual meaning in Romance languages, as it has sense that is reinforced by the antonym very recently, this connotation is entirely straight, which in the sense of "heterosex- owing to the influence of the American ual" was known exclusively in the gay homosexual liberation movement as a subculture until quite recently. While the component of the American popular cul- latter semantic innovation (straight) has ture that has swamped the non-Commu- been tacitly accepted by those to whom it nist world. applied, it has not spread to other lan- Beginning in the seventeenth guages, just as K. H. Ulrichs' coinage Dion- century, the English word gay began to ing (= heterosexual) never gained any cur- 4 GAY rency with the general public, even if its the two shifts were contemporary. To be antonym Urning (and the English sure gay has gained the allegiance of many counterpart Uranian) were used for some well-meaning outsiders for the same decades by German authors and their Brit- reason as black, the assumption being ish imitators. The earliest appearance of that these terms are the ones preferred by the words gaylstraight in tandem must the individuals they designate. Many therefore be the term of development of lesbian organizations now reject the term the whole semantic process. gay, restrictingit to men, hence the spread Although it has not been found in of such binary phrases as "gay andlesbian" print before 1933 (when it appears in Noel and "lesbian and gay people." Such ukases Ersine's Dictionary of Underworld Slang notwithstanding, expressions such as as gay cat, "a homosexual boy"), it is safe "Is she gay?" are still common among to assume that the usage must have been lesbians. circulating orally in the United States for Despite all the problems, brevity a decade or more. (AsJackLondon explains and convenience suggest that this three- in The Road of 1907, gay cat originally letter word is here to stay. Significantly, in meant--or so he thought-an apprentice 1987, in the aftermath of negotiations with hobo, without reference to sexual orienta- the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against tion.) In 1955 the English journalist Peter Defamation (GLAAD), the New York Wildblood defined gay as "an American Times, which had formerly banned the use euphemism for homosexual," at the same of gay except in direct quotations, assented time conceding that it had made inroads in to its use. Britain. Grammatically, the word is an Wayne R. Dynes adjective, and there has been some resis- tance to the use of gay, gays as nouns, but GAYLIBERATION this opposition seems to be fading. See Liberation, Gay. In the light of the semantic his- tory outlined above, a particularly ludi- crous complaint is the notion, advanced GAYRIGHTS by some heterosexual writers, that the See Decriminalization; Move- "innocent" word gay has been "kidnap- ment, Gay. ped" by homosexuals in their insouciant willingness to subvert the canons of lan- GAYSTUDIES guage as well as morals. As we have seen, Gay scholarship on the subject of the sexual penumbras of meaning were homosexuality has been fostered by both originally introduced by the mainstream political and personal motives. On the society (i.e., chiefly heterosexuals),first to political plane, it has meant the search for designate their own rakes and ramblers, other cultures and societies in which the and then the women these men caused to homosexual was not a criminal and an "fall." Quite apart from the quaint charge outcast, in which homosexual love was of verbal kidnapping (which ignores the not the object of opprobrium and disgust, fact that many words in English are poly- but both were an accepted part of thesocial semous in that they have two or more and sexual life of the age. Above all, the distinct meanings), there does exist a le- homoerotic component of the glorious gitimate concern among homosexuals civilizations of the past-ancient Greece themselves that the aura of frivolity and and Rome, medieval Islam and Japan- promiscuity adhering to the word has not was a stimulus and a challenge to homo- been dissolved. In that sense the compari- sexual researchers seeking the roots of son of the substitution of gay for homosex- their own situation. At the same time they ualwith black for Negro is not valid, though were studying themselves through the GAY STUDIES 4 mirror of the gay personalities and literary subject, with major articles on the history, monuments of the past-and even the biography, and psychology of homosexu- clandestine literature of the present-that ality, as well as precious bibliographical shed light on their own psychologicalstates lists and surveys of the literature of past and life situations. By demonstrating that and present. For the collaborators of the homosexual love had enriched the cul- Committee, working under the overall tural heritage of mankind, that homosex- supervision of Magnus Hirschfeld, their ual experience was attested universally, scholarship was a tool for demonstrating gay scholars were arguing for its legiti- the position that the homosexual person- macy and acceptance at the present day. ality was a constant and stable type Origins. Heinrich Hoessli throughout human history, that it was (1784-1864) was both the first homosex- found in all strata of society, and was ualrights advocate and the first gay scholar. therefore a biological phenomenon which His book Eros: Die Mhnnerliebe der couldnot besuppressed, but was deserving Griechen (Eros: The Male Love of the of legal andsocial toleration. Such scholar- Greeks; 1836-38) was in large part an as- ship was all the more needed as university semblage of literary materials from An- curricula and standard reference works cient Greece and Medieval Islam that il- alike dishonestly omitted all reference to lustrated the phenomenon of love between homosexuality, evenin the lives andworks males. Far more erudite than he was the of individuals who were "notorious" in jurist and polymath Karl Heinrich Ulrichs their lifetimes for their proclivity to their (1825-1895) whose Forschungen zur own sex. mannmiinnlichen Liebe (Researches on In England John Addington Love between Males),published from 1864 Symonds may be considered the first gay to 1870, ranged in an encyclopedic manner scholar, since he composed two privately over the history, literature, and ethnogra- printed works, A Problem in Greek Ethics phy of past and present. and A Problem in Modern Ethics, the lat- Driven into exile in Italy at the ter of which introduced to the English- end of his life, Ulrichs was the first of a speaking world the recent findings of series of investigators who lived and pub- continental psychiatrists and the new lished abroad to escape the intolerance of vision of Ulrichs and Walt Whitman. the Germanic world; and down to the Symonds was also a major contributor to 1960s many works that could not see the the first edition of Havelock Ellis' Sexual light of print in the English-speaking Inversion (German 1896, English 1897). countries were issued in France, where At the same time the American university publishing houses such as those of Charles president Andrew Dickson White quietly Carrington at the end of the nineteenth inserted into his two-volume History of century and the Olympia Press after World the Warfare of Science with Theology in War II produced books for British and Christendom (1896) a comprehensive American tourists-who now and then analysis and demolition of the Sodom managed to slip them back into their legend. In the same year Marc-AndrC Raf- native lands. falovich published his Uranisme et uni- Far broader in scope was the ac- sexualit6 (UranismandUnisexuality], with tivity of the Wissenschaftlich-humanitiire copious bibliographical and literary mate- Komitee (Scientific-Humanitarian Com- rial, some from German authors of the mittee) with its journal, the Iahrbuch fir nineteenth century, which he supple- sexuelle Zwischenstufen (Yearbook for mented at intervals in a series of articles in Sexual Intergrades], whose 23 volumes, the Archives d'anthropologie criminelle published between 1899 and 1923, cover down to World War I. In the Netherlands almost every imaginable aspect of the L.S.A.M. von Romer, besides contributing 4 CAY STUDIES several major articles to thelahrbuch, also Assisted at first by John Adding- published a study entitled Het uranisch ton Symonds, Havelock Ellis devoted the gezin (The Homosexual's Family], which second volume of his monumental Stud- arguedfor thegenetic determination of the ies in the Psychology of Sex to Sexual condition on the basis of abnormalities in Inversion [third edition 1915J. In the book the ratio of the sexes among the siblings of he assembled case histories that he had male and female homosexuals. Edward collected, mainly by correspondence, and Irenaeus Prime-Stevenson, writing under an assortment of ethnographic and histori- the pseudonym "Xavier Mayne," published cal materials from his own vast reading as in Naples a major work The Intersexes, well as the German literature that had which roamed the historical and socio- accumulated since the founding of the logical scenes of past and present, collect- Scientific-Humanitarian Committee in ing much of the folklore of the gay subcul- 1896. The editions and translations of his ture of early twentieth-century Europe. work made the subject part of the body of In the last decades of the nine- scientific knowledge accessible to the teenth century heterosexuals began to rather small public that was willing to study homosexual behavior, often from accept it in the first half of the century. the biased standpoint of the clinician The psychoanalytic study of observing patients in psychiatric wards or homosexuality began with Freud's Drei the forensic psychiatrist examining indi- Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheone (Three viduals arrested for sexual offenses. The Contributions to the Theory of Sexuality; writings of Krafft-Ebing, notably his Psy- 19051, which rejected the static notion of chopathia sexualis (first edition 1886)were innate homosexuality with the attendant of this sort, followed by those of Albert therapeutic nihilism in favor of an ap- Moll and Albert Freiherr von Schrenck- proach that stressed the role of the dy- Notzing, the last of whom did, however, namic unconscious in the formation of achieve a good critical overview of the sexual orientation. Because this assump- subject in an article published in Zeitschrift tion played into the hands of the enemies fur Hypnotismus in 1898. In Italy Carlo of the homosexual emancipation move- Mantegazza had collected anthropological ment, it has led to a good deal of intellec- materials on the subject in Gli amori degli tual dishonesty and hypocrisy, with even uomini (The Sexual Relations of Man- Catholic and Communist thinkers who lund; 1885). He was followed by Iwan reject psychoanalysis on philosophical Bloch, who early in his career as sexologist grounds championing the views of depth attacked thenotion of innate homosexual- psychologists whom they regarded as al- ity in his Beitrijge zur Atiologie der Psy- lies at least on this issue. A series of papers chopathia sexualis (Contributions to the based mainly on psychoanalytic case his- Etiology of Psychopathia sexualis; 19021, tories appeared in the journals of the which had the merit of giving the phe- movement, sometimes growing into full- nomenon an anthropological rather than a length books such as those of Wilhelm medical dimension, but later in Das Sexu- Stekel, who promoted the view that bi- alleben unsererzeitin seinen Beziehungen sexuality was normal but that homosexu- zur modernen Kultur (The Sexual Life of ality was a "curable neurosis." These papers Our Times in its Relations to Modern couldalso take the form of psychoanalytic Civilization; 1907) rallied to the stand- biographies of famoushomosexua1~~a genre point of the Committee. Albert Moll pro- initiated by Freud's philologically rather vided homosexual apologetics with one of weak Eine Kindheitserinnemng des Le- its favorite themes in a book entitled Ber- onard~da Vinci (A Childhood Reminis- iihmte Homosexuelle {FamousHomosexu- cence of Leonardo da Vinci; 1910 J. als; 1910). GAY STUDIES +

This scholarship had to be con- The homosexual movement in ducted almost entirely outside the walls of theunited Stateswasfrom its outset inter- the university-in physicians' consulting ested in promoting the study of the phe- rooms or the private libraries of independ- nomenon in order to prove that its follow- ent scholars--and published in specialized ers were "like other people" as opposed to journals or in limited editions "for mem- the psychiatrists who were always ready bers of the medical and legal professions." to argue that homosexuals were at least Hence an academic tradition could not be neurotic and sometimes pre-psychotic. born, much less develop within the para- Hence groups like the early Mattachine meters of scholarly discipline, and the field Society furnished the subjects for the in- continues to attract amateurs who pass off vestigations of Evelyn Hooker and others their journalistic compositions--often whose clinical soundings showed that produced by exploiting the talent and homosexuals could not be distinguished industry of others-as works of genuine from heterosexuals on the basis of the scholarship. Rorschach or other standard tests. The The interest of geneticists in twin workof the German and other continental studies led to some papers on the sexual predecessors of the American movement orientation of monozygotic and dizygotic was used fitfully at best, and has never twins, a field pioneered by Franz Kall- been fully exploited by American investi- mann. While certain issues continue to be gators, in some instances because they disputed, the study of monozygotic twin cannot even read it. A certain amount of pairs has revealed concordances as marked vulgarization occurred on the pages of as those for intelligence and other charac- Mattachine Review, ONE, The Ladder ter traits, albeit with a complexity in the and their counterparts Arcadie and Der developmental aspect of the personality KreislLe Cercle, which fondly revived that earlier thinkers had not fully appreci- memories of past epochs of homosexual ated. greatness. Trendsin the United States. The The new phase in the history of survey method of investigating sexual the American movement that began with behavior had been used sporadically in the New York's Stonewall Rebellion of June 1920s and 1930s, but only in 1938 did 1969 did not at first find an echo in the Alfred C. Kinsey undertake the monu- halls of learning, besieged as the elite insti- mental series of interview studies that tutions were by students vociferously provided the material for Sexual Behavior demonstrating for the privilege of not being in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual drafted to serve in Vietnam. But in time Behavior in the Human Female (1953), the gay llcounter-culture" coalesced in the which astounded the world by stating Gay Academic Union, whose founding (perhaps overstating) the frequency of conference was held at John Jay College in homosexual experience in the American New York City in November 1973. A population, and enraged the psychoana- journal named Gai Saber was created lysts by disclosing the biased and statisti- shortly thereafter, and went through a cally unreliable character of the popula- number of issues. Only a minority of the tion on which they based their often adherents of GAU had academic motives fanciful interpretations. However, his work and goals; many more were interested only has lasting merit in demonstrating that in "lifestyle politics" or in causes that the homosexual was not an exhibit in a began to fade from public attention once pathological waxworks museum, but a the Vietnam War ended in a stalemate in stable minority within the entire popula- 1973. A few introductory courses made tion and within all the diverse segments of their way into college curricula, chiefly in the American nation. 4 GAY STUDIES sociology and psychology, so that the gay unwieldiness of such a list, many scholars undergraduate could confront his identity have clung to their own institutional bases, problems with a modicum of academic so that sociologists tend to see the matter guidance; but no standard textbooks or chiefly in terms of contemporary social syllabi were ever produced that would formation, literary critics are interested compare with the advances in women's mainly in reflections in novels and poetry, studies in the same period. Even these and so forth. concessions to the radical mood of the It seems, however, that three main early 1970sbegan to vanish as the far more constellations or domains of research may conservative trend of the following decade beidentified. (1)The empirical-synchronic reached the campuses. domain studies the behavior and attitudes However, it became possible for of living subjects, using primarily ques- the first time to utilize and to publish vast tionnaires and interviews. Thisgreat realm amounts of historical and biographical comprises sociology, social and individual material that had simply been ignored or psychology, public opinion research, medi- deliberately suppressed in previous centu- cine, and law enforcement (including po- ries. The role of homosexual experience in lice studies]. The advantage inherent in the lives of the great and near-great, the this range of disciplines is direct access to meanings and innuendos of obscure pas- the groups of human beings that are being sages in the classics of world literature, the studied. Yet problems arise from researcher paths and byways of the clandestine gay bias, the difficulty of obtaining adequate subculture in the cities of Modem Europe samples from a still largely closeted popu- and the United States-all these matters lation, and (in sociology] a neglect of the could now be legitimate subjects of aca- biological and historicalsubstrates. (2)The demic concern, to be discussed as calmly historicalLos Angeles homophile education founda- tion, claiming (in a few extreme examples) tion, articulated the subject in the follow- that there were no homosexuals before ing fields: anthropology, history, psychol- 1869. In anthropology there is a continu- ogy, sociology, education, medicine and ing temptation to 'lethnoromanticism," biology, psychiatry, law and its enforce- that is overidealizing the exotic culture ment, military, religion and ethics, biogra- one is studying, viewing it as "natural," phy and autobiography, literature and the "nonrepressive," "organic," and so forth. arts, the homophile movement, and trans- (31 The final domain is that of cultural vestism and transsexualism (An Anno- representation, and it studies the appear- tated Bibliographyof Homosexuality, New ance of homosexual themes and charac- York, 1976). Apart from the intrinsic ters in novels, poetry, the visual arts, film, GENDER 4 and radio and television. Here one can see, not exempt from advocacy scholarship and in gay-authoredworks, the ways in which apologetics. Now that these studies are homosexuals have sought to image them- receiving serious academic attention, it is selves, while in "straight" works the stere- essential that accepted canons of evidence otypes, as well as the rare instances of and exposition be observed. In this way honest effort toward understanding, are gay studies will not only find its proper available for inspection. In researching this place in the constellation of knowledge, third domain one cannot neglect the con- but in so doing replace homosexual behav- straints of publishers, producers and other ior in its proper context as part of the cultural "gatekeepers" in shaping the mainstream of history. material. Apart from this suggested articu- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wayne R. Dynes, Homosexuality: A Research Guide, New lation of research in three main domains, York: Garland, 1987. some general desiderata should be men- Wayne R. Dynes and tioned. Narrow parochialism should yield Warren Iohansson to horizons that are as broad as the subject demands. For example, a study of the gay subculture in early twentieth-century New GENDER York City should show an awareness not In current social science usage only of other places in America, but also of gender denotes consciousness of sexual the European setting, from which so many dimorphism that may or may not be con- immigrants came. Moreover, a study of gruent with actual genital sex in human causal factors should be polythematic, beings. The expression gender role was considering a variety of conditioning fac- introduced by John Money in 1955, as a tors, and not reducing them, say, to a mere relatively new use of a term that has a long matter of the socioeconomic base (histori- history in English in other senses. In a cal materialism) or conversely the down- relatively short time, however, it found ward trickle of learned notions (thehistory acceptance in both scientific and political of ideas approach). Researchers must be usage as a needed complement to the older alert to lingering biases in their own term sex. makeup, as from Christianity or secular Origins in Linguistics. The con- belief systems such as Marxism. Unex- cept of gender originated in linguistics, pected differentiations must always be where it designates a specific grammatical watched for: for example with male trans- category of the noun that can find expres- vestites there are at least three distinct sion morphosyntactically. In this function varieties, none of which is assimilable to it bondswith adjectives ("agreement") and the model of the "gay person." Finally, verbs and with particular suffixes limited there is an urgent need for the acquisition to a single gender. There is also a syntactic of auxiliary sciences; in this field that aspect, expressed through combination means first and foremost foreign Ian- with appropriate forms of the article and guages-the standard academic languages the pronoun. For the speaker of English, in of German and French to assimilate the which these relationships have been lost, older literature, plus Latin, Greek, Arabic, they may be somewhat hard to under- Persian, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, and stand. And indeed gender based upon the like according to one's particular re- analogy with the natural sex of animate search interest. beings is not universal; it is limited to the Having been relegated to the Indo-European and Semito-Hamitic fami- margin of academia for so long, it is per- lies. However, of the six classical lan- haps understandable that the field devel- guages of the world, five have the category oped somewhat idiosyncratic standards, of sex gender: Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit 4 GENDER have the three-gender system of Indo- non of gender. European-masculine, feminine, and This macroevolutionary fact-the neuter-and Hebrew and Arabic have the sexual dimorphism of humanity and of its two-gender system [masculine and femi- phylogenetic ancestors-predetermined nine) inherited from Common Semitic. the dimorphism in behavior that consti- Only Chinese operates with noun classes tutes gender. Moreover, the accumulating not based upon the real or ascribed sex of evidence of animal sexology on the fetal the person or object. But because of the influence of hormones on the governance cultural diffusion and influence of the first of sexual behavior by way of the central five literary languages, the intelligentsia nervous system precludes the ascription of virtually all civilized peoples have some of gender differences to merely social and familiarity with the notion inits linguistic cultural determinants, even though the application. assignment of particular traits has an ele- General Considerations. In so- ment of the arbitrary. Granted, the struc- cial psychology gender means one's per- ture of gender in the culture of a particular sonal, social, and legal status as male or society may virtually dictate what at first female, or mixed, on the basis of somatic glance seems fortuitous; in this matter the and behavioral criteriamore inclusive than binary logic of the differentiating process the genital organs alone. That is to say, overrides the scattered distribution of a human beings possess a reflective con- trait in red populations. sciousness that includes a perception of Core Gender Identity. Differen- the masculinity or femininity of oneself tiation of a core gender identity probably and of others. Moreover, this perception is follows the same principle as the morpho- determined by a host of traits of the indi- logical differentiation of the gonads and vidual, some having to do with secondary the internal organs of reproduction. Both sexual characteristics, others conditioned systems are latent, but one alone finally by the cultural typing of modes of thought becomes functional. In the case of gender and action as appropriate to one sex or the identity, however, the nonfunctional other. schema does not become vestigial, in the Because it is impossible to know true sense, but is negatively coded- what another human being feels, personal marked as not to be manifested by oneself, gender identity can only be inferred from but appropriate to members of the oppo- what the subject under observation ex- site sex and even to be demanded of them. presses in speech, gesture, and movement. The two-gender schema is encoded in the These sources of data constitute one's brain of the human subject, with one half gender behavior or gender role. Yet gender suitable for one's personal gender identity, identity remains private and subjective; it and the other half for use in predicting and is a dimension of the personality that has interpreting the gender role of the opposite been scripted in the course of the sex. individual's lifetime in accordance with In the customary nuclear family, forces guiding his psychological develop- the child identifies primarily with the ment. Gender is more subtle and more parent of the opposite sex, though other inclusive than sex, as it embraces far more members of the household may be sur- than the genitals and their functioning. rogates or complements for theparents. As But because homo sapiens is characterized the child grows, the models for identifica- by sexual dimorphism-the basicanatomi- tion and complementation extend beyond cal contrast-human societies have gen- the household to include older siblings, der dimorphism as well: they operate with playmates, and figures of folklore, sports, the dichotomy masculine/feminine in politics, the media, and even the world of assigning behavioral traits to the phenome- learning. The latter figures require no re- GENDER r* sponsive reaction, except in the world of sexual interaction. An age (such as our fantasy, but they may offer an ideal which own)that has undergone tremendous cul- the individual strives to realiz~reven tural change has also seen the traditional excel-in the course of his lifetime. norms of sexual behavior rejected and With the advent of hormonal openly flouted. While there has been no puberty, a new milestone in psychosexual change of tradition in respect to the pair- development is reached, namely the abil- ing of couples similar in age-with its ity to fall in love. The onset of this capacity negative implications for the man-boy is not simultaneous with puberty, but is homosexual relationship-the sanctions triggered by a mechanism whose site is against homosexuality are being reexam- still unknown. Falling in love resembles ined and (with much ambivalence) eased imprinting in that a releaser mechanism in favor of consensual activity between from within must encounter a stimulus adults. The trend is towardgreater individ- hom without before the event can occur. ual freedom, though not necessarily to- That event has remarkable longevity; its ward a greater social good. The leading echoes can last a lifetime. The stimulus, pressure point of change in the area of normal or pathological, that will affect a gender is toward a greater diversity and given individual will have been written plurality of roles, for males and for fe- into his psychosexual program, so tospeak, males, on a basis of interchange and reci- in the years before puberty and as far back procity. Nature and nurture interact in the as infancy. determination of gender; somegender traits Broader Connotations. Beyond are common to all members of the species, the sphere of sexuality in the narrow sense, while others result from the unique life a vast amount of human behavior is gen- history of the individual. der-marked in that what men do one way, The genetic code does not find women do another way. Such gender-re- expression in a vacuum, it requires a per- lated behaviorranges from fashions in dress missive environment. The limits of per- to conventions at work and earning a liv- missiveness are prescribed for each spe- ing, from rules of etiquette and ceremony cies and must be empirically defined for to labor-sharing in the home. These stere- each variable, including gender identity. otypes of what is masculine and what is The bulk of the available evidence points feminine ultimately stem from such to the early years of life as very important macroevolutionary differences as stature, for gender-identity differentiation. There weight, and muscle power, menstruation, is a parallel here with the ability to use childbearing, and lactation, but the con- language: by the age of five a child has an ventions themselves are defined by cus- effective grasp of the grammatical and tom-the accumulated residue of eco- syntactic principles of his native tongue, nomic and cultural processes--which may and his gender identity is firmly imbed- resist change or conversely be subject to ded. As a system in the brain, the latter sudden shifts of taste and fashion. What programs a boy's masculine behavior and mattersis that they exist at any given time imagery while at the same time program- and place, that in allsocieties human beings ming the feminine counterpart as the are exquisitely sensitive to the signals and mirror image of the boy's own reactions in cues emanating from others, and that if a relationships with the opposite sex. Gen- collective can adapt and change the signals der identity is not simply the effect pro- over time, it cannot obliterate them alto- duced by an immanent (genetic)cause; the gether. genetic endowment interacts with the Cultural traditiondetermines not environment to yield the final effect. just the criteria of behavior related to sexual The only absolutes in male and dimorphism, but also sundry criteria of female roles are those determined by the + GENDER genital apparatus: males ejaculate, females Gender Studies. Along with menstruate, gestate, and lactate. Other women's studies, gender studies have since criteria of sexual dimorphism either de- the early 1970s become a focus of atten- rive from these irreducible four, or are tion in the academic world. Articles, functions of time and place--as can be monographs, and books are devoted to the learned from economic history and cul- problem of gender, and to such questions tural anthropology. The optional (and as how it can be measured by standardized optimal) content of male and female roles tests, how it is socially defined in different is changing and will change further with historical epochs, and how it affects the the evolution of technology and society. functionality and the psychic health of the Ideally, both parents will agree on the role individual in various occupations and life suitable for each child, even if the goal is stages. Crossing as they do the boundaries not always easy to achieve. Also, the child's of conventional disciplines, gender stud- family will ideally not be isolated and ies and women's studies utilize a multi- stigmatized for the role definition it has dimensional approach to arrive at a deeper chosen, since this societal reaction would understanding of the forces that shape and mark a child negatively among his age- maintain sexual identity in human beings. mates, and could force him to choose be- Gender studies also intersect with a reex- tween his parents and his peer group. amination of the legal status of men and Ludic (Playful) Variations on women, and the effort to correct discrimi- Gender. In the seventeenth and eighteenth nation against women by legal enactments centuries, members of Europe's aristoc- and their enforcement. In 1988 the Uni- racy enjoyed dressing in the clothingof the versity of Texas Press began to publish a opposite sex. From the Chevalier dlEon journal, Genders, with a primarily cul- (Charles dlEon de Beaumont; 1728-18 lo], tural emphasis. who adopted women's dress during a dip- lomatic mission to Russia, stems the name BIBLIOGRAPHY. Suzanne J. Keseler and Wendy McKenna, Gender:An Ethno- that Havelock Ellis invented for transves- methdological Approach, New York: tism: Eonism. In the nineteenth-century John Wiley, 1978; John Money, Venuses these practices trickled down to a larger Penises, Buffalo: Prometheus, 1986; public through the popular stage produc- Marilyn Strathem, The Gender of the tions employing female and male imper- Gift, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. sonators. These performers in turn were Warren Johansson imitated by people of working-class ori- gin, giving rise to the modern drag queen and the mannish dyke. In the period after GENDERDYSPHORIA the Stonewall Rebellion (1969+], drag See Dysphoria, Gender. queens were prominent in activist circles, combining a defiance of society's gender GENET,JEAN norms with opposition to sexual confor- (1910-1986) mity. This old tradition in a new guise, French poet, novelist, and play- sometimes known as gender bending or wright. The son of an unknown father, gender fuck, is notable not only for its abandoned by his mother shortly after his political awareness, but also for the fact birth, Genet was brought up by a country that the illusion of assuming the opposite couple. At a very early age, Genet began to sex need not be convincing-indeed it is think that there was no clear-cut distinc- often deliberately not. Such behavior re- tion between parent, master, and judge-a flects an intuitive awareness of the sophis- conflation that was to become the corner- ticated contemporary concept of gender. stone of his philosophy. At the age of 16 he Social psychology and socialactivism meet. was convicted of theft and sent to a reform GENET, JEAN 9 school. Four years later he escaped and prison is metamorphosed into the ceremo- joined the Foreign Legion but deserted nies of a cathedral within whose walls after a few days. Rebelling against society, miracles occur. 'i'he inmates deliberately he became a drifter who lived by begging, flout therules of a society that has rejected dealing in narcotics, and prostitution. and condemned them, and within thewalls Crime became for him a ritual with reli- of their jail they create a new hierarchy. gious overtones, but he was unlucky The reader is made to sense that any con- enough to be caught and sentenced several cept can yield to its opposite, that if vice is times to prison, where he wrote poems, not virtue, it may equal virtue. novels, and plays. In the last decades of his life Genet With the encouragement and became involved in political causes, in- financial support of friends, Genet wrote cluding the defense of the Black Panthers the novels that were to launch his fame, in the United States in the early 1970s. He Notre-Dame des Flews (Our Lady of the declined any affiliation with the gay Flowers; 1944) and h4iracle de la rose liberation movement that had emerged as (Miracle of the Rose; 1946).In 1948, on the part of theradicalupheaval of theVietnam verge of being sentenced to prison for life, War era, saying that he considered homo- he was pardoned by president Vincent sexuality a personal rather than a political Auriol at the behest of such influential matter. His own interpretation of the literary figures as Jean Coeteau and Jean- homosexual experience strayed far from Paul Saare. (The latter was to devote a the precepts of a movement that set its huge, but not always factually accurate face against much of the role-playing pre- book to thewriter, Saint Genet, comkdien scribed by the criminal and inmate milieu et martyr [1952].)Set free, Genet concen- that forms the background of his tales. For trated on his literary work and soon be- Genet the sexual relationship is always came a writer of international renown, yet one of power asymmetry, yet the line still without afixed domicile andusing his between promiscuity and fidelity is also publisher's address for purposes of con- effaced. The novelist remained a rebel, not tact. a revolutionary inspired by a dream of a An autobiographical work, Le new sexual morality. Journal du volew [The Thief's Journal; The homosexuality of Genet's 1949),gave an account of the writer's ear- characters is explicit, and the scenes of lier vicissitudes in the purlieus of the lovemaking attain the limit of physical French criminal underworld and of prison. and psychological detail, recounted in the Genet also wrote a number of plays that- argot of the French criminal underworld unlike the novels-have no overt homo- [which largely defies English translation) sexual theme. In the novels, the clarity and in a style once possible only in porno- and purity of the style contrasts with the graphic novels sold "under the counter." If sordidness of the content. It is the world of the homosexuality of the heroes of Genet's prisons and brothels that forms the back- novels has a strong sado-masochistic drop to the plot. These settings are waiting component, their love is depicted with rooms for violent death, either by assassi- honesty and tenderness. The plot con- nation or by legal execution, and they struction borders on free association, while provoke almost insufferable scenes of the sordid and brutal aspects of male love passionate hatred or love--often homo- are not suppressed or denied. Criminality sexual-among the inmates. In the micro- and homosexuality are two sides of the cosm inhabited by Genet's characters , personality of Genet's heroes. The novels everything comes at a high price, either in are suffused with a poetry studded with a money, or in loss of ideals, of liberty, or of striking imagery in which memories, de- life. The burdensome daily routine of the sires, and fantasies are interwoven by a + GENET, JEAN creative writer who freely transmutes The diminished visibility that experience into art. The frankness of most homosexuals find it expedient to Genet's handling of the homoerotic caused adopt (and the absence of any usable cen- no little embarrassment to the critics and sus or survey statistics)hinder an accurate literary scholars who even managed to estimation of these clustering patterns. write articles in which the homosexual On the one hand, naive observers miss component of his work went totally almost all the identifying signals; finding unmentioned. But the novels in their real- homosexuals nowhere, these people as- ism defied all conventions and shattered sume that they must be everywhere. the last barriers against the treatment of Others, more alert to the gay presence, homosexuality in literature. Since French register it only in such areas of concentra- writing shapes literary trends throughout tion as those mentioned, concluding that the world, the influence of Genet on future the concentration is absolute. It is not. depictions of homosexual experience is There are many homosexuals living iso- likely to mount. latedlivesinremoteand unexpected places. Just as there are village atheists, there are BIBLIOGRAPHY. Albert Dichy and village gays-though most small-town Pascal Fouchk, lean Genet: essai de chronologie 1910-1964, Paris: Universitk homosexuals choose to maintain a low de Paris 7, 1989; Jean-BernardMoraly, profile. In any event, this article is con- lean Genet: Lo Vie &rite, Paris: Editions cerned with the concentrations, and with de la Diffkrence, 1988; Laura Oswald, the social semiotic that allows the inhabi- Iean Genet and the Semiotics of tants therein to establish group identity Performance, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Richard C. Webb and community. and Suzanne A. Webb, Jean Genet and High-Visibility Concentrations. His Critics: An Annotated BibLiography, In the United States media attention has 1943-1 980, Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow spotlighted certain urban quarters in which Press, 1982. homosexuals are highly visible, and even Warren Johansson predominate, such as New York's Greenwich Village, San Francisco's Polk GEOGRAPHY,SOCIAL Street and Castro Street areas, and Geographical distribution of Houston's Montrose. These quarters are homosexuals in Western industrial socie- often termed "gay ghettos," a problematic ties is not random. Gay men and lesbians expression, though one that would be dif- are more likely to live in urban areas than ficult to eradicate. The word ghetto origi- in the countryside, in large cities rather nally served to designate sections of Ital- than towns, and (in the United States) on ian cities of the sixteenth century in which or near the two coasts rather than in the Jews were compelled to live under condi- hinterland. In many countries, regions tions of strict segregation. The ghettos noted for their religious conservatism are were surrounded by walls behind which not favored by homosexuals. In North all Jews were required to withdraw at America, where mobility is common, the night-to prevent them from having sex- single homosexual is more mobile than ualrelations with Christians. In the 1920s most, and will seek new locales based not the meaning of the term ghetto was sig- only on the expectation of tolerance, but nificantly extended by sociologists of the on climate and the availability of good Chicago School, who used it to to refer not cultural and recreational facilities. Many only to the urban enclaves favored by gay men and lesbians deliberately move various immigrant goups-the Little far from their home areas to escape family Italys, Little Warsaws, and Chinatowns-- constraints as well as peer pressure from but also to sections populated by bohemi- people with whom they grew up. ans, hobos, and prostitutes. Since the 1960s GEOGRAPHY, SOCIAL O it has been common to refer to black dis- Initially, the quarter was somewhat run tricts, such as New York's Harlem and down, but it contains solid residential Bedford-Stuyvesant, as ghettos. Clearly, structures with "character" so that homo- the expression "gay ghetto" stretches the sexuals, using their stereotypical (but of- definition, possibly misleadingly so. Since ten real) interior-decorating skills, can most gay men and lesbians are not stere- restore the buildings to their original livea- otypically identifiable to outsiders, they bility and dignity. This process of urban cannot be forced into a strictly delimited reclamation and rehabilitation has some- geographical enclave; indeed in all cities a times been termed "gentrification." Be- majority of homosexuals choose to live cause they lead to increases in rents, such outside "their" quarter, though they will improvements are often resented by older, usually visit it for entertainment and more impoverished residents. Inasmuch commercial transactions. Moreover, the as many of these are members of racial boundaries of the gay urban concentra- minorities, the refurbishment trend has tions are porous, so that it is impossible to caused intergroup tensions. say that some particular street marks the As the character of the newly dividing line. Traditionally, the denizens settled urban enclave begins to emerge, a of the ethnic slums struggled to climb out number of features become evident. There of them; the fashionable gay person is a greater profusion of shops catering to struggles to acquire enough income to the childless affluent: antique stores, deli- move in. Finally, gay populations often catessens, ice cream parlors, and book- overlap in a kind of patchwork with other stores. Bars and restaurants increase in group concentrations, such as intellectu- number and elegance as the old-fashioned als and drug users. In some cases the over- dives are gradually forced out by rising lapping of groups is a direct descendent of rents. Many of these changes parallel those the early twentieth-century bohemias. occurring in "yuppie" (young, upwardly During this period homosexuals often lived mobile professional) districts, and indeed in boarding houses and YMCAs, which the relative affluence of both groups, and were also favored by other single people the general absence of children, creates a who hadcome to the city in order to be free degree of superficial social symbiosis. In of restrictions. Significantly, only one gay Madison Avenue jargon both are the home enclave today, West Hollywood, CA, is of SINCS (single income, no children) and incorporated as a city, and that is shared DINCS (dual income, no children). To with other groups. Although lesbians are distinguish the gay enclaves one must usually welcome, few choose to live in the develop a more subtle eye for social enclaves, perhaps because many have small semiotic. Theinhabitants themselves have children who need appropriate space and little difficulty, and when gay and yuppie schools. It may be, however, that we are districts overlap as they do in San witnessing the beginnings of specifically Francisco's Folsom Street, mutual hostil- lesbian enclaves in such areas as New ity may occur. The dress and deportment York's East Village and the zone north of of passersby provide good clues, as do the the Castro in San Francisco. names of bars and other commercial estab- CharacteristicFeaturesof the En- lishments whichreflect fashionable trends claves. Typically, the enclave is located in the gay world. Cinemas are likely to fairly centrally-not downtown, but close favor camp classics or current films ap- enough and reachable by public transpor- pealing to gay taste. Pedestrian traffic, tation for those who do not wish to use interlaced with cruising, abounds at all cars. In this way it stands at the opposite hours, in contrast to most other neighbor- pole from the universal emporium of hoods, where traffic peaks only as resi- today's mainstream: the suburban mall. dents are leaving for, or returning from, O GEOGRAPHY,SOCIAL work. These signs are not lost on inter- veillance may make some spots perma- ested outsiders. Insurance companies and nently unattractive. The need to use a car other businesses are said to pinpoint en- need not itself be a bar to the appropriation clave locations by their particular postal of "gay space," and is a positive advantage ZIP codes. during periods of police "heat." Outside Analogous Formations. These the cities certain commercial strips, high- enclaves just discussed are characterized way reststops, and toilets are reachable by a combination of residential and com- only by automobile. All these public areas mercial use. And in fact it is possible for of encounter seem at first bewilderingly someresidents to passvirtually their whale diverse, but reflection shows that a key lives within the enclave, working, shop- common denominator is the cover ration- ping, banking, and cruising there. There ale that they all provide for loitering. In are, however, other more limited zones of Europe in former times, churchyards "gay space." University districts often host (whereone could simulate contemplation a goodly share of homosexual residents, of one's sins) and bridges (where fishing attracted by their relative tolerance and served as an excuse) flourished as cruising the cultural amenities. Some are simply spots for similar reasons. In traditional students who stayed on, never having Spain ports (Seville, Valencia, Barcelona) formed families which would require larger were meeting places, as were (probably) quarters. Old warehouses, in industrial inland establishments serving mule driv- zones where no one lives, may open at ers. night as bars or discos that attract surpris- Some city neighborhoods have ing numbers of people. These locales are bars that serve, say, construction workers chosen for their inconspicuousness, and during the day, but switch to a gay clien- may not even present a sign on the street, tele at night, the daytime patrons being much as Christian churches in old Cairo scarcely aware of the double hat that have their entrances off obscure court- '/theirv bar is wearing. This time-sharing yards so as to maintain a low profile. City phenomenon is found in other spheres of parks, which may lie at some distance urban life, as in the hotels that boast " 110 from the residential-commercial gay en- percent occupancy," because they rent clave, are claimed after a certain hour at rooms for sexual assignations for an hour night as cruising grounds. In Europe a or two in the middle of the day. fragmentary history of such "zones of li- Social Semiotics. Although much cence" may be pieced together from the attention has been given to the behavioral late Middle Ages onwards. A church-spon- geography of cities, little work has been sored inquiry undertaken in Cologne in done on what might be termed their "gay 1484, for example, ascertained the pres- semiotics." What determines the appro- ence of sodomites in several areas of the priation and modification of the built city, at least one of which corresponds to environment by male homosexuals and an area still frequented by homosexuals in lesbians? How do their kinetic patterns, the early years of the present century. To those of movement and loitering, serve to be sure, changes in favored spots occur for "stake out" and structure the parts of the various reasons. Modem methods of trans- city they favor? And finally what mental port made railroad depots and bus stations maps do these individuals form of land- favorite places. Curiously, airport termi- marks and pathways that are significant to nals do not seem to fulfill this function, in them? part because they are not easily reachedon Resorts. Differing significantly foot or by ordinary means of transporta- from the urban gay enclaves and their tion and in part because security is omni- satellites are what might be termed "ex- present. Repeated raids or obtrusive sur- claves": the gay resorts. Some of these, GEORGE, STEFAN 9 located like Key West and Palm Springs in in: M. P. Levine, ed., Gay Men: The tropical climes, function the year round. Sociology of Male Homosexuality, New Here gay residents and retirees who live York: Harper & Row, 1979, pp. 182-204; Neil Miller, In Search of Gay Americo, there share the towns with transients. In New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, some places the influx of gay tourists, who 1989. in their holiday mood may behave more Wayne R. Dynes flamboyantly than at home, causes ten- sion with straight "townies," the regular residents; for those in business the influx GEORGE,STEFAN of dollars is most welcome. On the East (1868-1933) Coast, Provincetown, MA, and Fire Island German lyric poet. A student of near New York City are seasonal resorts, languages, George traveled widely, knew where the population shrinks to almost Mallarm6 and Verlaine in Paris, and was nothing in winter. Occupying an interme- profoundly influenced by Spain. His life diate position with respect to seasonal and work have a strongly esoteric charac- use are the European islands of Ibiza ter, as despising the mass culture of the and Mykonos, with their international fin-de-sikcle, he chose to live amidst a clientele. Although Italian gay groups circle of admiring disciples, with and for sponsor a summer camp each year in the whom he published the journal Bliitter fiir south of their country, there seems as yet die Kunst (1890-1 9 19).Membership in the no homosexual equivalent of the Club circle was conferred on an elite group of MCditerranCe. men qualified by their handsome and aris- Rural Gays. Far from American tocratic bearing. Though certain themes cities are small settlements, occasionally in his work-noble youths, exalted lead- communes, but usually just farms run by ers, and a "new ReichU-were interpreted one or two individuals. In some instances by the National Socialists as akin to their these establishments are owned by rural cause, George spurned their advances, people on inherited family land; most, going into voluntary exile at the end of his however, show the influence of the ecol- life. ogy and hippy movements and are worked I The homosexual aspect of by one-time urbanites who have fled the George's work is difficult to define: on the stress and pollution of the urban "rat race." surface it is invisible, at deeper levels Although a slight preference for the west- omnipresent. By the end of the 1890s he em states may be detected (possibly re- achieved a studied elegance, a perfection flecting the mystique of the cowboy as a 1 of form, a regularity of rhythm and purity rugged individualist), these farms and of rhyme that remain the hallmarks of his communes are usually geographically best poetry. His later poems have a pro- isolated; residents communicate with phetic, quasi-mystical character, inspired other sympathetic people by mail, tele- I by his worship of a "divine" youth, Max- phone, and computer modem. They also imin, and a longing to realize in life the have a periodical, RFD: A Country Journal vision of theideal that permeates his poetry, for GayMen Everywhere (Bakersville,NC). together with a rapturous quality of love. The homosexual strain of the text is never BIBLIOGRAPHY. Manuel Castells, The expressed in conventional erotic topoi; City and the Grassroots: A Cross- rather it is masked by various strategems Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements, Berkeley: University of that escape the uninitiated reader: gender- California Press, 1983; Frances neutral language, poems in the genderless FitzGerald, Cities on a HiU: A Iourney second person "Du," allusions to tradi- through Contemporary American tionally- homosocial groupings such as Cultures, New York: Simon & Schuster, military or athletic formations, setting the 1986; Martin P. Levine, "Gay Ghetto," 4 GEORGE, STEFAN poem in a historical period rich in ho- served in the American army of occupa- moerotic connotations (such as the credo: tion in the Rhineland, where he discov- "Hellas eternally our love"), even using a ered the German homosexual movement female persona or pretending to demean or in full bloom. The upshot of this experi- satirize homosexual attachments. Yet in ence was that on his resettlement in Chi- his work the passion between males is cago Gerber founded the Society for Human always named "love," never disguised as Rights, inspired in name and purpose by mere "friendship," but at the same time the Liga fiir Menschenrechte. On Decem- discretely merged with heterosexual ber 10,1924, the State of Illinois granted a "love," or with the asexual "love" of charter to the society-the first docu- Christian theology. In some passages mented homosexual rights organization masculine and feminine signals alternate in the United States. It saw as its task the in an androgynous pattern, leaving the combatting of the "almost wilful misun- reader to divine what is intended. derstanding and ignorance on the part of The taboo on overt manifestation the general public concerning the nature of homosexuality in late nineteenth-cen- of homosexuality," and the forging of an tury Germany obliged George to devise for organized, self-disciplined homosexual self-expression to a discerning minority a community. Like its German predeces- complicated code that utilizes masks and sors, it focused on the repeal of the laws- symbols inherited from previous literary in this case those of Illinois-that penal- epochs, while cherishing the dream of a ized homosexual acts. It managed to issue "new world" of male beauty and comrade- two numbers (now lost] of a periodical ship. The very notion of the "secret" is named Friendshipand Freedom, again after tantamount to the forbidden, the ho- the German Freundschaft und Freiheit, moerotic-as it was objectively in the before Gerber and several of his associates culture of George's time-but it is the were arrested, and he lost his job and his "secret" that perceptive critics recognize savings. Although the members of the as the clue to all of George's life and work, society were finally acquitted, Gerber however veiled these may be to the pro- remembered this failure with the bitter- fane reader. George remains the outstand- ness of one who went unaided in his hour ing representative of a literary school, of trial. forbidden to express homosexual feeling Between 1928 and 1930 he con- and experience openly, that conveyed its tributed three articles to homosexual peri- message by a complex linguistic code odicals in Germany, and in 1932, under which united form and content with en- the pseudonym "Parisex," he published during aesthetic mastery. what was for the time a bold defense of homosexuality. In the same period he BIBLIOGRAPHY. Marita Keilson- produced two mimeographed journals in Lauritz, Von der Liebe die Preundschaft heisst: Zur Homoerotik im Werk Stefan which he printed several essays on homo- Gwrges, Berlin: Verlag Rosa Winkel, sexuality. Through an advertisement for 1988. pen-pals in one of these he began a corre- Warren Johansson spondence with Manuel Boyfrank, who had ideas, impractical at the time, for a GERBER,HENRY homosexual emancipation organization. (1892-1972) Gerber conceived its structure and pur- American gay rights pioneer. Born poses in a manner that notably anticipated in Bavaria, Gerber arrived in the United theMattachineSociety in theearliest phase States only in 1914, and the following year of its existence. In the 1940s his activities joined the U.S. Army under a provision took the form of correspondence and of admitting aliens. From 1920 to 1923 he translating into English several chapters GERMANY 4 of Magnus Hirschfeld's Die Homosexual- who became the mother of his illegitimate itit desMannes und des Weibes (Maleand son. For those given to simple either-or Female Homosexuality), which were later thinking, this would seem to settle the published in ONE Institute Quarterly. question. But as Edward Lucie-Smith has After the founding of the Mattachhe Soci- pointed out, the matter is more complex. ety he joined its Washington chapter, but The question of what is homosexual art is took no prominent role in its functions, still in flux, but it seems clear that it fearing a repetition of the catastrophe that cannot be resolved by a straightforward had befallen his first venture. Like Karl litmus test stemming from the known Heinrich Ulrichs in Germany, Henry facts of the artist's life. The work tells its Gerber was a lone pioneer-ne of those own story, and in the case of GCricault who came before their time, but had the there are strong elements of homosexual vision which others would later realize sensibility, regardless of what hemay have and bring to fulfillment. done in bed. Admittedly, it is different Warren lohansson from the sensibility of twentieth-century gay artists, but has more in common with G~RICAULT,THEODORE suchRenaissance masters as Michelangelo (1791-1824) and Cellhi. As our studies of art as expres- French romantic painter. Like sion of the complexities of gender identity most artists of his day, GQicault was become more subtle, greater understand- trained in the Neo-Classic style with its ing of the riddle of GCricault's powerful didactic foundation in studies from the oeuvre is likely to emerge. male nude. unlike other artists whomoved BIBLIOGRAPHY. Edward Lucie-Smith, into a romantic style, GCricault never "The Homosexual Sensibility of evinced a complementary interest in the GCricault's Paintings and Drawings," sensuality of the female form. Indeed, some European Gay Review, 2 (1987],32-40. of his drawings and paintings show an Wayne R. Dynes almost torrential response to the virility and force of the male body, which in his GERMANICLAW military scenes extends to highly charged See Law, Germanic. scenes of comradeship. In other works his response to the human body is more con- GERMANY flicted. His most important work, the vast Since, historically speaking, there canvas of The Raft of the Medusa (Louvre; is no unambiguously defined territory 18 19), shows agroup of shipwrecked people named "Germany," the following article in their last extremities before being res- concentrates on the geographical area cued. GQicault had an affinity for grisly included in the present Federal Republic of and harrowingsubject matter, and toward Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) the end his life, when he was suffering and the German Democratic Republic from the effects of a nervous breakdown, (DeutscheDemokratische Republik). he painted a series of portraits of the in- The Middle Ages. In medieval sane, in which an element of self-identifi- German literature male homosexuality is cation is unmistakeable. seldom mentioned, lesbianism never. In Speculation about his personal the Passion of Saint Pelagius composed in homosexuality has been fueled by the Latin by Roswitha (Hrotswith)of Gander- apparent absence of a romantic interest in sheim, there is the story of the son of the the artist's life. Recently, however, it has king of Galicia in Spain who, captured by been discovered that Giiricault conducted the Moslem invaders, was approached by a clandestine affair with a maternal aunt Abderrahman with offers of the highest by marriage, Alexandrine-Modeste Caruel, 4 GERMANY honors if he would submit to his pederas- the anti-homosexual Paragraph 175 of the tic advances but violently refused-at the uniform Imperial Penal Code. cost of his life. The Latin poem on Lantfrid From theReformation to Roman- and Cobborelates the loveof two men, one ticism. With commentaries on the rele- homosexual, the other bisexual. A High vant passages in the Bible as their starting German version of Solomon and Morolf point, Martin Luther (Warning to His composed about 1190 makes an allusion Beloved Germans, 1531) began a tradition to sodomy, while the Eneit of Heinrich of reproaching the Catholic church by vonveldekehas themother of Lavinia, the claiming that the clergy and especially the daughter of King Latinus of Italy accuse monks were homosexual. This polemic Aeneas of being a notorious sodomite to became a staple of Protestant-Catholic dissuade her from marrying him. Moriz debate. As late as the Nazi period, the von Craun, a verse narrative of ca. 1200, regime conducted a campaign against the makes the emperor Nero the archetype of Catholic churchin which numerous priests the mad sodomite, who even wishes to were accused of homosexuality in show give birth to a child. In his rhymed trials (193738). Frauenbuch (1257))Ulrich von Lichten- The translation and reception of stein presents a debate between a knight ancient texts since the eighteenth century and a lady, in which the latter accuses men offered frequent occasion for the treat- of preferring hunting, drinking, and boy ment of homosexuality (a partial transla- love to the service of women. About the tion of Petronius' Satyricon by Wilhelm same time the Austrian poet Der Stricker Heinse in 1773, Vindications of Horace by used references to Sodom and Gomorrah Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in 1754, On the in his negative condemnation. Male Love of the Greeks by Christoph Legal History. Down to the found- Meiners in 1775 and others), as did like- ing of the German Empire in 1871 there wise translations of Enlightenment texts existed numerous smaller states whose from France and Italy (Pierre Bayle, Dic- penal codes had very different provisions tionnaire historique et critique, 1741-44, regarding homosexuality. While in the Cesare Beccaria, Dei delitti e delle pene, Middle Ages there was no punishment at 1766). all for homosexual acts, in 1532 the death In German poetry, however, the penalty for "Sodomiterey" (sodomy]was homosexual theme was rare before the introduced throughout the Holy Roman nineteenth century. Friendship between Empire, as Charles V promulgated a men is, to be sure, a frequent subject of uniform Constihltio Criminalis Carolina poetry (especially in Friedrich Gottlieb with a corresponding paragraph as part of Klopstock, Johann WilhelrnLudwig Gleim, the criminal law of his realm. The death .-Wilhelm Heinse, even in Hans Jakob penalty remained in force- in individual Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and German states, but was applied in a quite others], but the amicable feelings depicted different manner that varied with time in them are clearly demarcated from the and place and on the whole rather incon- longing of pederasts and sodomites, and sistently. Prussia was the first German the boundary between friendship and sexu- state that in 1794 abolished the death ality is seldom if ever crossed (though penalty for sodomy and replaced it with possibly in F. W. B. von Ramdohr, Venus imprisonment and flogging. After 18 10 Urania, 1798, Part 2, pp. 103ff.) many states [includingBavaria, Wiirttem- Homosexual Lifestyles and Their berg, and Hannover) followed the model of Conceptualization. All such texts, how- the Code NapolCon in France and intro- ever, tell us scarcely anything of the every- duced complete impunity for homosexual day life of those who were actively in- acts, a policy reversed in 1871 in favor of volved in homosexuality. The first docu- GERMANY O ment that shed light on this matter is first third of the twentieth centurywas the Johann Friedel's Letters on the Gallantries outstanding feature that set the homo- of Berlin (17821, where what amounts to a sexuals in Germany apart from those in homosexual subculture in a German city other countries. is described. It is quite possible that the The movement was accompanied conditions in Berlin that are described by major scholarly efforts, augmentingthe as "having become fashionable only since groundswell of studies in the field of sexu- Voltaire's time" existed in a more or ality that had appeared from the mid-1880s less pronounced form in other German onward. The campaign for the abolition of capitals such as Dresden, Munich, or Paragraph 175 provoked an enormous lit- Hannover. erature of books, pamphlets, and articles In the nineteenth century homo- pro and con, so extensive that by 1914 the sexual lifestyles developed parallel to the criminologist Hans Gross could write that growth of the population and the expan- everything that anyone could ever have to sion of the big cities in such a manner that say on the subject had by then appeared in one increasingly finds documents of print. There was also a profusion of gay and homosexual self-depiction and reflection lesbian poetry, short stories, and novels. such as had not previously occurred, for Such mainstream authors as Hans Henny example the diaries of the poet August von Jahnn, Klaus Mann, Thomas Mann, Anna Platen and autobiographical accounts Elisabet Weihrauch, and Christa Winsloe embedded in the works oi physicians and also discussed the theme. This cultural forensic psychiatrists such as Johann efflorescence lent substance to the claim Ludwig Casper, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, of Weimar Germany to be a land of cul- and Albert Moll. Apologetic theories of tural innovation, though to be sure the the naturalness of homosexuality (K. H. Republic had its dark side as well. Ulrichs, K. M. Kertbeny, and perhaps the From the Thirties to the Present. philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer) were This gay movement developed in a rela- formulated, competing with a different tively straightforward course-with inter- conceptualization that was developed by ruptions caused by the Eulenburg affair the aforementioned medical authors, de- and World War I. The era also saw the scribing homosexuality as a congenital beginnings of a lesbian movement, and a disease. full panoply of homosexual subculture The Rise of the German Homo- unfolded down to the year 1933. If until sexual Rights Movement. The criminali- then Germany was probably unique and zation of male homosexuality in the Ger- unparalleled in the world in terms of gov- man empire came about through the in- ernmental liberalism and of opportunities clusion of a special article in the Imperial for homosexual life, then the same was Penal Code of 1871: Paragraph 175. The true in reverse for the Nazi era from 1933 article was the occasion and precondition to 1945: at least 10,000 homosexual,men, for the emergence of a modern gay move- stigmatized with the pink triangle, were ment, the founding of the Scientific- confined in German concentration camps Humanitarian Committee (Wissen- under the Holocaust during those twelve schaftlich-humanitare Komitee) by years, and many of them were killed. Apart Magnus Hirschfeld in 1897, which soon from this fact, for the vast majority of gay became active not just inBerlin, but also in men the period of Hitlerism was a time of other cities such as Leipzig, Munich, intensified peril, of persecution and pun- Hamburg, and Frankfurt am Main, as well ishment, since alongside the threat of as abroad in the Netherlands and in Aus- internment in a concentration camp, Para- tria, which had their own organizations. graph 175 was made even more punitive The flowering of a gay movement in the and applied with mounting frequency. 4 GERMANY

After the victory over the Nazis surface displaying nervousness. Gestures the situation of the homosexuals in the of the first type are culturally determined two newly emerging states was different. signs and vary enormously in meaning In West Germany after about 1948 condi- across the world, while the latter are more tions returned to what they had been be- the product of somatic processes and tend fore 1933. Although the Nazi version of to be relatively uniform, though vaguer in Paragraph 175 remained on the books, signification. The degree of acceptance of homosexual organizations, bars, and gay gesticulation varies from one culture to magazines were tolerated in many West another, so that the peoples of northwest- German cities and in West Berlin. In East em Europe and North America are much Germany, to be sure, only the milder pre- more sparing in its use than, say, those of 1933version of paragraph 175was in force, Sicily or Argentina. In our culture this but homosexual life was subject to restric- restraint goes together with a general re- tions on the part of thestate and the police, duction of affect, and a consequent magni- so that gay men and lesbians had scarcely fication of its significance when enacted, any opportunity to organize and express so that a touch or a kiss that would be a their views freely. After the liberalization minor matter in another society may be of the penal laws against homosexuality in taken as a sexual invitation and found both German states (East Germany 1968, offensive. West Germany 19691, a gay movement of In ancient Greece, to judge from a new type arose in the Federal Republic depictions in vase paintings, a man's court- under the influence of Anglo-American ship of a boy was conveyed by an eloquent models. In East Germany the beginnings gesture with one hand touching the youth's of an independent gay and lesbian organi- genitals while the other chucked his chin zation tolerated by the state appeared only in entreaty. In modem western culture, in the mid-1980s. the best-known courtship gesture among See also Austria. gay men is less directly physical: the eye lock employed in cruising, or ambulatory BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gisela Bleibtreu- sexual solicitation. This act constitutes a Ehrenberg, Tabu Homosexualitat, Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, 1978; deliberate violation of the taboo on star- Magnus Hirschfeld, Die Homosexualitdt ing, and if the partner is uninterested'or des Mannes und des Weibes, Berlin: uncomprehending he will immediately Marcus, 1914, reprint, Berlin: Walter De break contact. A different eye gesture is Gruyter, 1985; Riidiger Lautmann, reading, now less common than in the Seminar Gesellschaft und Homosexual- itat, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, first half of the century, in which the gay 1977; Richard Plant, The Pink Triangle, person indicates by a knowing look that he New York: Henry Holt, 1986; James D. is aware that the other individual is also Steakley, The Homosexual Emancipa- homosexual. Seeminglyrecent is attitude, tion Movement in Germany, New York: a bodily posture found in makeout bars Arno, 1975. Manfred Herzer conveying hauteur and disdain. The queen of former decades was inclined to adopt gestures associated with the gentility of GESTUREAND BODY upper-class drawing rooms and caft soci- LANGUAGE ety, as in the distension of the little finger Gestures can have a specific when taking tea. Winks and eyebrow-rais- import, as (in our culture) the forefinger ingmay be common in some circles, though laidvertically against thelips, whichmeans these are not specifically gay. In the world "silence." Contrastingwith such semiotic of entertainment, drag performers devel- gestures are ones expressing more general oped an elaborate repertoire of exaggerated states, as drumming of the fingers on a gender-crossing gestures, which were GHETTOS, GAY + imitated by other members of the gay walk. These devices of mimicry reflect the community only on occasion, as camp. notion that homosexual persons are irre- One would expect that during sistibly drawn to adopt the conduct of the earlier times of clandestinity self-protec- opposite sex. tion would have fostered a sophisticated Another aspect of body language language of gesture to signal the suspected studied by scholars is proxemics, the dis- presence of plainclothesmen, dangerous tance that people assume from one an- individuals and the like, but in fact such other. In social encounters Europeans prefer warnings seem to have been expressed greater distance than Arabs and Brazilians. mainly in verbal form ('/tilly," "dirtl'J, To come close makes the other individual usingslang known to the adepts but not to feel uncomfortable, and may even be inter- outsiders. The comparative study of ges- preted as a sexual "pass." In straight ture is still in its infancy and future studies company, therefore, many homosexuals are likely to discover a richer heritage of check themselves from approching "too gay and lesbian gestures worldwide than close" to their interlocutor-so that para- the few now known. In our culture, non- doxically the exce.3sive distance which verbal communication also takes the form they maintain amounts to a giveaway. of tokens and regalia, such as lambda pins See also Semiotics, Gay. and pink triangle buttons, as well as keys Wayne R. Dynes worn externally and colored handkerchiefs dangling from a back pocket. Deprecatory gestures signaling GHETTOS,GAY the presence of gay people occur among The term ghetto originated in heterosexuals.Widespread is thelimp wrist Renaissance Italy, as the Venetian dialect posture connoting sissihood and affecta- form derived from Vulgar Latin iectus tion: the arm is kept close to one's side but "foundry," the name of the enclosed area bent sharply at the elbow, while the hand of Venice in which the Jews were not dangles helplessly aloft. Some gestures are merely required to live, but even had to be quite culture-specific. In Latin America an after a certain hour in the evening, whlle "invert" may be signified by placing the conversely Christians were forbidden to arm along one's side with the thumb and enter the Jewish quarter after dark. The forefinger forming a circle just below the motive for the creation of theghettowas to belt; the implication is that the other per- prevent sexual intercourse between Jews son possesses a vagina rather than a penis. and Christians. In the nineteenth century Also in Latin America, the suspected pres- the abolition of the ghetto was a signifi- ence of a lesbian may be signaled by slap- cant part of the eniancipation of the Jewish ping the hands together, alluding to the communities of Western and Central word tortillera, "tortilla maker, lesbian." Europe. As this example shows, some gestures are In the 1960~~the survival of the parasitic on verbal language, which must word in English usage led to its being be known in order to decipher them. Other applied by analogy to areas in the inner hostile gestures seek to convey the notion citles of the United Stares in which racial of effeminacy through disposition of other minorities, especially blacks and Latinos, parts of the body, as through swaying hips were concentrated by reason of poverty or and supercilious smiles. Male homosexu- of the collusion of real estate interests to als are traditionally thought to have a prevent them front obtaining homes or "mincing" gait, a stereotype that is re- apartments outside of designated neigh- flected in such slang labels as swish and borhoods. It also connoted the exclusion flit. By contrast lesbians are caricatured (or self-exclusion)of such minorities from through heavy gestures and a stomping the political and cultural life of the larger 4 GHETTOS, GAY society. As early as 1942, a survey of resi- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Martin P. Levine, dential patterns in New York City had "Gay Ghettos,"lourno1 of Homosexual- ity, 4 (1979),363-77. found similar clusters of homosexuals in Warren fohnnsson three areas of Manhattan: Greenwich Vil- lage, the East Side in the 50s, and the neighborhood around 72nd Street and GHULAMIYYA Broadway. Subsequently, other cities were This rare Arabic term (pluralghu- noted to have sections largely populated lamiyyat) alludes to a girl whose appear- by those practicing an evident homosex- ance is as boyish as possible, and who ual lifestyle. Along with the West Village therefore possesses a kind of boyish sensu- and Chelsea in New York City, Chicago's ality. Especially prominent in the ninth North Side and San Francisco's Castro and tenth centuries, this phenomenon Valley have such an ambience. seems to have originated in the court of the Such concentrations probably Abbasid caliph Al-Amin (809-13) in stem from the bohemias of the late nine- Baghdad. ~t is said that his mother ar- teenth century, in which the sexually ranged for a number of girls to be disguised unconventional mingled openly with art- as boys in order to ,,,bat the caliph's ists, writers, and political radicals, among preferencefor male eunuchs. The practice them advocates of what was then called spreadquickly, especially amongtheupper "free love." The gay ghettos of the Present classes, where many female slaves and are oftendistrictsthat havebeen reclaimed servants circulated dressed and coifed as from previous decay, with neatly refur- boys. bished apartments and brownstones along- A ghulamiyya dressed in a short side fashionable boutiques and exotic res- tunic with loose sleeves; her hairwas worn tamants, as well as enterprises offering long or short, with ornamental curls across wares or services specifically for a homo- the temples. Some girls even painted a sexual clientele. The urban homosexual mustache on their upper lips, using a col- can be the spearhead of gentrification in ored perfume such as musk. ('Did you that he frequently has considerable discre- perhaps kiss the rainbow? ~tis just as if he tionary income, no wife or children who is drawn on your red lips.") Ghulamiyyat would suffer from the initially depressed also tried, as much as possible, to act and environment, and a preference for the speak like boys, often taking up sports or anonymity of the metropolis over the high other masculine pastimes. social visibility of the upper-middle-class These girls were adept in two suburb with its basically heterosexual life- varieties of sexual intercourse, and there- s~le-This tendency of gay ghettos to fore potentially attractive to both men encroach upon former working-class who loved girls and those who loved boys. minority neighborhoods as Part of the But true pederasts, naturally, would not be gentrification (and Europeanization) of fooled: '/But how could she, alas, plug up American cities has at times generated that deep and sombre pit, something that social friction between the two groups. no boy possesses." Abu Nuwas once made However, while theghettosin whichother the mistake of being attracted to a ghu- minorities find themselves confined are lamiyya, d~~lth~~~hthe love of generous resented as symbols of discrimination and breasts is not my taste," but regretted this exclusion, the gay ghetto can be a haven of when he nearly drowned: u~~dI swore toleration whose denizens enjoy liberties that for as longas I lived I never seldom accorded to overt homosexuals again choose the abundant froth, but residing elsewhere. would only travel by back." See also Geography, Social; Sub- The short-lived popularity of the culture. ghulamiyya illagr ha~ederived from an- GIDE, ANDRB 9 drogynousideals of beauty, which a boyish Life and Works. In 1891 Gide met girl or a girlish boy can approximate more Oscar Wilde, the flamboyant aesthete, who closely than agrown male or female. In the set about ridding him of his inhibitions- Middle East, male prostitutes often wear with seductive grace. Gide's first really female clothing, possibly to appear more striking work of moral "subversion" was attractive. In ancient Greece, female pros- Les Nourritures terrestres (The Fruits of titutes were obliged to wear male clothing, the Earth; 18971, a set of lyrical exhorta- and in seventeenth-century Japan they tions to a fictional youth, Nathanael, who dressed as boys, which made them popular is urged to free himself of the Christian with Buddhist monks, who were prohib- sense of sin and cultivate the life of the ited from being seen in the company of senses with sincerity and independence. women. During the political turmoil of the 1930s The term ghulamiyya stems from Gide returned to the same themes and an Arabic root, ghalima, which means "to stylistic manners in Les nouvelles nourri- be excited by lust, be seized by sensuous tuxes (1935). desire." Derived terms are ghalim, "ex- In 1895 he married his cousin, cited by lust, lewd," ghulma, "lust, heat, Madeleine Rondeaux, and suffered an acute rutI1' and ghulam, "boy, youth, lad; slave; conflict between her strict Christian val- servant, waiter." The two facets of mean- ues and his own yearning for self-libera- ing seem to be clearly pederastic in nature. tion, together with his awakening homo- Ghulamiyya in the present sense seems to sexual drives. The never-ending battle be derived from ghulam, simply being the within himself between the puritan and feminine form of the better-known word. the pagan, the Biblical and the Nietzsch- See also Mukhannath. ean, caused his intellect to oscillate be- tween two poles that are reflected in his BIBLIOGRAPHY.Maarten Schild, "The succeeding books. In Les Caves du Vati- Irresistible Beauty of Boys: Middle Eastern Attitudes Towards Boy-love," can (TheVatican Cellars; 1914),the hero, Paidika, 3 (1988), 37-48. Lafcadio, "lives dangerously" accordingto Maarten Schild the Gidean formula and commits a seem- ingly senseless murder as a psychologi- cally liberating "gratuitous act." A further GIDE, ANDRE series of short novels have an ironic struc- (1869-1951) ture dominated by theviewpoint of asingle French novelist, diarist, and play- character, while his major novel, LesFaw- wright. Born into a family that gave him a monnayeurs (The Counterfeiters; 1926) strict Calvinist and puritanical upbring- has a Chinese-box like structure meant to ing, Gide rebelled against his background, reflect the disorder and complexity of real yet throughout his life joined a Protestant life. attachment to the Gospels with a pro- In 1908 he was among the found- found admiration for the beauty and sen- ers of the highly influential periodical suality of the pagan classics. After his Nouvelle Revue Fran~aise.After World visits to North Africa between 1893 and War 11 he traveled widely, writing ever 1896, he gave open expression to a pagan more on colonialism and communism. value system that was for him a self-libera- During the period of the popular front he tion from the moral and sexual conven- joined other intellectuals in rallying to the tions of his upbringing. He became a con- left, but aftcr visiting the Soviet Union in troversial figure in the French intellectual 1936, he wrote a book voicing his disillu- world of the first half of the twentieth sionment with the workers' paradise, century, not least because of his public Retour de1'U.R.S.S. (Backfrom the USSR; defense of homosexuality. 1936).While others were dazzled by what their Soviet hosts chose to show them, or essay is designed to oppose the medical turned a blind eye to what they preferred point of view, as Gide thought physicians not to see, Gide's experience as a homo- the social group most hostile to homo- sexual had taught him to look for the tell- sexuality in that era. Religion is ignored tale signs of the disparity between the save for remarks in the fourth dialogue surface of society and the hidden reality- about the monastic suppression of the which he espied only too well. pederastic literature of antiquity and the His publications include an Christian exaltation of chastity. The first autobiography, Si le grain ne meurt (If It two dialogues argue that homosexuality is Die . . .; 1926) and his lournal, which natural because deriving from the struc- ultimately covered the years 1885 to 1949. ture of sexual polarity, the ratio between His ambivalent stand during the years of the sexes, and the independence of sexual the German occupation cost him much of pleasure from reproduction. The third and the influence which he had enjoyed during fourth dialogues then claim that homo- the height of his career, and even the sexuality occursnaturally in human beings, Nobel Prize for literature awarded him in and so far from being the unfortunate relic 1947 could not restore his prestige. He of an earlier stage of evolution, it is capable died in 1951 at a moment when his impor- of inspiring a great and classic civilization. tance as a man of letters had largely waned Responding to the polemic litera- and the homosexual liberation movement ture of his time, Gide addressed two anti- that was to vindicate a significant part of thetical issues in the discussion of homo- his life's work was just beginning. sexuality. The first was the origin of Views on Homosexuality. Gide's homosexual response as a problem in major work on homosexuality was a set of human macroevolution; the second was four dialogues entitled Corydon. A short the role of homosexuality as a factor in the first version had been privately printed in erotic and cultural life of human society. 1911, the enlarged essay was issued pri- Going against the temper of the age, he vately in March 1920, and the public ver- noted that the positive achievements of sion was placed on sale in May 1924, ancient civilization credited to the ho- creatingascandal in that it made a tabooed moerotic impulse all belong to the institu- subject the talk of the literary salons of tion of pederasty, not to the androphile Paris. Limited in scope as they were, Gide's homosexuality of modern times, and even four dialogues constituted a remarkable less to "inversion," the passive-effemi- achievement for their time by blending natemale homosexuality which hespurned personal experience, the French literary as diseased or "degenerate." The problem- mode of detached presentation of abnor- atic equation of the "natural" with the mal behavior, the traditional appeal to socially desirable he therefore left unre- ancient Greece, and the then quite young solved, even if his work answers some of science of ethology-the comparative the conventional objections to homosexu- study of the behavior of species lower on ality on pseudo-biological grounds. the evolutionary scale. Andre Gide blazed a trail in The incidents that prompted the making homosexuality a topic for litera- dialogues were the Harden-Eulenburg af- ture and for literary criticism, and the fair in Germany and a debate over Walt capital fact of his own sexual orientation- Whitman's homosexuality on the pages of including the narcissistic side of his the journal Mercure de France. Their personality-remainscrucialto the under- publication followed the appearance of standing of his entire life's work as a Proust's Sodomeet Gomorrhe (19211, with French prose writer. the explicit depiction of the homosexual- ity of the character Baron de Charlus. The BIBLIOGRAPHY. lustin O'Brien, Portrait 1 of Andrt? Cide A Critical Biography, GILGAMESH +

New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953; And16 he knew not the cultivated land." To tame Gide, Corydon,with a comment on the the wild man a harlot offers her services, second dialogue by Frank Beach, New York: Noonday Press, 1950. "she made herself naked and welcomed Warren Iohansson his eagerness, she incited the savage to love and taught him the woman's art." At the conclusion, the transforming power of GILGAMESH eros has humanized him; the wild animals This Mesopotamian figure ranks flee from him, sensing that as a civilized as the first tragic hero in world literature. man he is no longer one of them. The The Epic of Gilgamesh has survived in metamorphosis from the subhuman and Sumerian, Akkadian, and Hittite versions savage to his new self proves strikingly that go back to the third millennium be- how love is the force behind civilization. fore our era. Lost from sight until the Gilgamesh has two dreams with decipherment of the cuneiform script re- symbolism which presages the homoerotic trieved the literatures of early Mesopota- relationship which the gods have planned mia, the epic is a blend of pure adventure, for him and the challenger Enkidu. In the morality, and tragedy. Only the final ver- Akkadian text there are puns on the words sion, that of Assurbanipal's library in kism, "ball (of fire),meteorite," andkeuu, Nineveh, has survived in virtually com- "male with curled hair," the counterpart pleteform, but all the episodes in the cycle of the harlot, and on hassinu, "axe," and existed as separate poems in Sumerian. assinu, "male prostitute." Gilgamesh's The setting of the story is the third millen- superior energy and wisdom set him apart nium, and the original language was from others and make him lonely; he needs Sumerian, the Paleoeurasian speech of the a male companion who can be his intimate first literate civilization of Mesopotamia, and his equal at the same time, while their which continued like Latin to be copied as male bond stimulates and inspires them to a dead language of past culture even after action. After a wrestling match between it was displaced by the Eastern Semitic Enkidu and Gilgamesh in which the latter Akkadian. triumphs, the two become comrades. Their The epicopens with a brief r6sumC erotic drive is not lost, but rather trans- of the deeds and fortunes of the hero whose formed and directed to higher objects; it praises it sings. Two crucial themes are leads to a homoerotic relationship that sounded: (I)that love is at the heart of the entails the rejection of Ishtar, the goddess hero's character, and (2)that love (or eros of love. Aliaison of this kind is not contin- as the Greeks later called it) is the force gent on the physical beauty of the lover, that provokes the transformation and it endures until death. Gilgamesh himself development of man's nature. Gilgamesh abandons his earlier oppressive conduct is announced at the outset as a hero: two- toward Uruk and comes to behave like thirds god and one-third man, endowed a virtuous ruler who pursues the noble by the gods with strength, with beauty, goals of fame and immortality through w* wisdom. His sexual demands upon great deeds. But adreamwarns Gilgamesh: the people of Uruk are insatiable: "No son "The father of the gods has given you is left with his father, for Gilgamesh takes kingship" but "everlasting life is not your them all. . . . His lust leaves no virgin to destiny. . . . Do not abuse this power, deal her lover, neither the warrior's daughter justly with your servants in the palace." nor the wife of the noble." In reply to Because the pair have slain the their complaints Aruru, the goddess 'of Bull of Heaven and have slain the demon creation, forms Enkidu out of clay. "His Humbaba, the council of the gods decrees body was rough, he had long hair like a that one of the two must die, and the woman's.. ..He was innocent of mankind; choice falls on Enkidu, who succumbs to -- + CILGAMESH

illness. Gilgamesh grieves for him and was launched. Already in 1889 von Gloe- orders a statue erected in his honor. To den won a prize at an exhibition in Rome; obtain the secret of everlasting life he other prizes followed in London, Cairo, journeys far across the sea toutnapishtim, Milan, and Paris. The male nudes forwhich who tells him the Babylonian version of he is best known today were not his only the story of the Deluge, On his return he work; he also produced landscapes and carries with him a flower that has power of studies of peasant life, and was perhaps the conferring eternal youth, but loses it to a world's best-selling photographer in the serpent lying beside a pool and so reaches first decade of this century. Uruk empty-handed, yet still able to en- His life changed abruptly again in grave the tale of his journey in stone. 1914, when he was repatriated to Ger- Gilgamesh has been transformed by a love many upon the outbreak of World War I. that makes him seek not the pleasures of His studio and home were left in the care the moment, but virtue, wisdom, and of his assistant, PancrazioBucini, who had immortality, hence the motif of the epic is joined him as a model years before at the that male bonding is a positive ingredient age of 14. Although von Gloeden returned of civilization itself. in 1918, and continued to photograph until 1930, cultural trends had changed and he BIBLIOGRAPHY. George F. Held, never regained his reputation. Upon his "Parallelsbetween The Gilgamesh Epic and Plato's Symposium," Iournal of Near death he was buried in his adopted village. Eastern Studies, 42 (19831, 133-141; Beri t Bucini inherited some 3000 glass Thorbjamsrud, "What Can the Cil- plate negatives, but five years later was garnesh Myth Tell Us about Religion and forced to defend von Gloeden's work the View of Humanity in against obscenity charges brought by the Mesopotamia?"Temenos, 19 (1983)) 112-137. fascist authorities. His defense was suc- Warren Johansson cessful, but nearly two-thirds of the plates were destroyed during the proceedings or ,' ' never returned. %: -7 ;i r' .. , -,* GLOEDEN,WILHELM, Von Gloeden's work must be seen BARONVON (1856-1931) in the light of the artistic concerns of the . +' German photographer. Wilhelm mid-nineteenth century, during which he von Gloeden was born nearwismar on the was trained. On the one hand, his studies Baltic Sea. Though his stepfather was an of peasant life reflect a concern for finding advisor to the Kaiser, von Gloeden opted a source of artistic inspiration in common for the arts, and trained as a painter in the life; on the other, his famous male nudes academic tradition. In his early twenties work out in photography the concern for he showed signs of tuberculosis, and was taking classical and academic forms and advised to seek awarmer, dryer climate. In naturalizing and humanizing them. 1878 he settled in Taormina, Sicily. More BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. F. Barbaro, Marina than just the weather there proved attrac- Miraglia, and ltalo Mussa, Le Potografie tive, as he was also able to explore his di von Gloeden, Milan: Fotolibri homosexuality more freely. It was family Longanesi, 1980; Charles Leslie, money and not his painting that supported Wilhelm von Gloeden, Photographer, him, until 1888when his stepfather defied New York: Soho Photographic Pub., 1977; Ulrich Pohlmann, Wilhelm von the new Kaiser and his family estates were Gloeden: Sehnsucht nach Arkadien, forfeited. Berlin: Nischen, 1987; Bruce Russell, Through his cousin, Wilhelmvon "Von Gloeden: A Reappraisal," Studies Pliischow, a professional photographer in in Visual Communication, 9:2 (19831, Naples, von Gloeden had become inter- 57-80. Donald Mader ested in photography, and a new career ------. - - - --. -. ------GNOSTICISM *%

GNOSTICISM Pauline epistles. Anti-Judaism and anti- Derived from the Greek word nomianism often occur, even when Old meaning "pertaining to knowledge," Testament myths and personages are util- Gnosticism is a generic term mainly used ized as the basis for Gnostic speculations. of sects that hroke with Christianity dur- The account of the Naassenes in inpthe~~cond2nd third centuri~~,tbough Hippolytns' Refutation of All Heresies C)PP can also s~pak Tewish and other assprts that the serpent in Genesis (naas, gnostics, some of whom were independent from Hebrew nuhas*)was the first pederast, of the Jewish-Christian tradition and since he had homosexual intercourse with formed syncretistic movements in the Adam and introduced depravity into the Middle East. Simon Magus, Basilides, world. The passage further ascribes to the Valentinus, and Mmichaean gnostics de- Naassenes a text incorporated in Romans rived many of their doctrines from Chris- 1:18-32 that blames idolatry for departure tianity. Although gnostic groups differed from the sexual order of nature that pro- more among themselves than did Chris- voked the deluge and the destruction of tian groups because they had no "Book," Sodom. In Gnostic thinking, the primal most had certain beliefs in common: man was androgynous, and the intercourse (a) Rejection, as in Hellenized of woman with man wicked and forbid- Zoroastrianism and late Jewish apocalyp- den, while the restoration of androgyny tic, of the material universe as an emana- was tantamount to the abolition of sexual- tion of an evil spirit-darkness as opposed ity. A profound malaise in regard to the to light, which was identified with the origin of sexuality and the meaning of good. sexual dimorphism is evident in the Gnos- (b)A view of the universe as the tic thinkers, who equated sexual repro- creation not of the high god, but of an duction with prolonging the soul's en- incompetent, perhaps even malign slavement in the material universe of the demiurge. Human beings ought not repli- body, taking as their point of departure cate his mischief by engaging in procrea- Jewish (andultimately Babylonian]anthro- tive sex; other forms might be acceptable, pogonic and cosmogonic myths. however. For centuries after the end of clas- (c]An assertion that souls in the sical antiquity, knowledge of the Gnostic elect are imprisoned temporarily in bod- systems came almost exclusively from the ies, awaiting a redeemer to awaken them writings of Christian heresiologists who and help them to escape and ascend to opposed and condemned them. In 1945, heaven. however, a cache of Gnostic manuscripts Gnostics held that all religions in the Coptic language came to light at provided partially valid myths describing Nag Hammadi in Egypt. These, together the human condition. Because the world, with other writings such as those in the and not man, was evil, most sects advo- Hermetic tradition, the Manichean litera- cated extreme asceticism. The Christian ture in languages of Central Asia, and gnostic sect, the Carpocratians, however, magical and astrological texts preserved in advocated sexual licence based in part on manuscript or on papyrus, have broadened an antinomian reading of Pauline predesti- the picture of the religious life of the late nation and antitheses between grace and Roman Empire. law, between soul and body. Some groups The Paraphrase of Shem, a Gnos- incorporated Mithraism's ascent of the tic text from Nag Hammadi, even makes soul through seven planets, and angelol- heroes of the Sodomites for having op- ogy and demonology from such disparate posed the will of the Jewish creator God. sources as the Old Testament, noncanoni- "The Sodomites, according to the will of cal scriptures, Philo Judaeus, and the the Majesty, will bear witness to the uni- 4 GNOSTICISM versa1 testimony. They will rest with a GOD, HOMOSEXUALITYAS pure conscience in the place of their re- A DENIALOF pose, which is the unbegotten Spirit. And In the debates on the Wolfenden as these things happen, Sodom will be Report and later proposals for decriminali- burned unjustly by a base nature. For the zation, some Christian clergy asserted that evil will not cease." Another such work, llhomosexuality is a denial of God" be- the Gospelof the Egyptia~s,declares: "The cause it is "an affront to the Creator who great Seth came and brought his seed. And made them male and female" (cf. Genesis it was sown in the aeons which had been 1:27). The underlying assumption is that brought forth, their number being the since God divided the human race into amount of Sodom. Some say that Sodom is opposite sexes, any sexual dalliance with the place of pasture of the great Seth, one's own gender frustrates his express which is Gomorrah. But others say that purpose and command. thegreat Seth took his plant out of Comor- The critique of this argument can rah and planted it in the second place, to take various lines. First, there is good evi- which he gave the name Sodom." dence from the early text of the Septuagint In the view of some scholars, (theGreek Old Testament) and its daugh- Gnostic elements in Christianity helped terversions, as well as from some passages to differentiate it from Rabbinic Judaism. in Rabbinic literature, that the original Judaism developed in the following centu- reading of Genesis 1:27 was "And God ries, to a considerable degree, as a dialecti- created man; in the image of God he cre- cal reaction to the spread of Pauline Chris- ated him male-and-female," which is to tianity in the Roman Empire. What in say androgynous, since the Semitic lan- Judaism had been concrete and national guages have no formal way of compound- was in Gnosticism metamorphosed into ing two nouns, and must express the rela- the symbolic and cosmic. The legacy of tionship paratactically-by juxtaposing Gnostic. speculation framed the incarna- them. Theversein questionwould then be tion and death of Jesus as an event of a mutilated fragment of an earlier Babylo- universal import in which the whole of nian myth in which the future heterosex- mankind was redeemed from the sin of ual pair is a male-female, an androgynos. Adam and offered the possibility of salva- Modern evolutionary theory recognizes tion; it also strengthened theascetic, world- that man is sprung from phylogenetic reiecting tendencies of primitive Christi- ancestors who were hermaphroditic, and anity that led to a devaluation of sexuality from them, even with the later sexual and exaltation of virginity which remained dimorphism, he has inherited the archaic foreign to Judaism in any form. In thisway, capacity for erotic response to members of Gnosticism reinforced ascetic Zoroastrian both sexes. and Stoic motifs familiar to the Greco- But a more fundamental objec- Romanenvironment. As the upshot of this tion to this line of thinking noted at the complex process, a radical denial of sexual outset lies in thevery notion of purpose (or expression which neither biblical Jewish teleology). Economy and purpose itself are law nor classical Greek philosophy had functions of areflective consciousness that urged became for later Christian thinkers 1 is aware of the scarcity of the resources at an ethical ideal, and one to which homo- its disposal. An intelligence that had at its sexual gratification was counterpoised as command infinite time, infinite space, the ultimate moral evil. infinite matter, and infinite energy could U'illiam A Percy have no notion of economy, or even of purpose, because anything and everything woultl bepossible, anywhereand anywhen. Man is forced to organize his activity on GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON 4 economic principles because he lives in a The occurrence of homosexual world whose every resource is finite, and activity in homo sapiens, therefore, im- he must constantly reflect on how best to plies norhing with refelence to Cod or his deploy his limited means to attain his supposed purposes. The 3 percent or so of desired ends. the population that is exclusively homo- The conventional Christian re- sexual insignificantly diminishes the birth ply amounts to claiming that because rate of the nation-which is only one fac- homosexuality does not lead to reproduc- tor in the demographic picture. Even if a tion, if tolerated it would lead to the bio- tenth of human sexual activity is homo- logical death of mankind and thus frus- sexual, the other nine-tenths more than trate the will of the Creator. Hence the suffices to maintain any population in positive injunction: "Be fruitful and multi- eyuilikrium with the ecor~omicresources ply" (Genesis 1:28)which the homosexual at its command. Indeed, the task of the implicitly violates by "wastinghis semen," modem state is to synchronize its demo- which is the formal evil represented by graphic movement with the evolution of sodomy. its economy, so that not just a privileged Therejoinder to this claim is that few, but all its citizens can enjoy a rising the finite character of the economic means standard of living. Family planning serv- at man's disposal-land, naturalresources, ices will in the future have the role of capital and industrial plant, social and guiding the citizenry in this direction. cultural infrastructure-itself imposes a Warren Johansson limit upon his numbers, if distributive justice is to accord each member of the human family the irreducible minimum GOETHE,JOHANN of worldly goods necessary for his exis- WOLFGANGVON tence. If one admits for the sake of argu- (1749-1 832) ment that God created the planet Earth as Greatest German writer. Born in a habitat for man, then by making its land Frankfurt am Main, he studied arts at mass and resources finite he has also Leipzig and law at Strasbourg. His tragedy implicitly set limits on the numbers which Gotz von Berlichingen (1773) and Roman- the human species could attain. Further- tic short novel Tha Sorrows of Young Wer- more, macroevolution has severely lirn- thsr (1774) began the literary movement ited the reproductive potential of hetero- known as Sturrn und Drang, often said to sexuality kly excludingsuperfetation. That be the start of Romanticism. Settling at is to say, once the human female has been Weiniar under the patronage of the ducal impregnated she cannot conceive again heir and elected to the Privy Council, he until the end of the nine-month gestation became leader in that intellectual center, period. Male and female have been allotted associatingwith Wieland, Herder, and later quite different roles in the reproductive Schiller. His visit to Italy recorded in Ital- process; theoretically the male can have ienische Reise and probably involving hundreds or even thousands of offspring, pederastic adventures inspired him anew the female can have only a handful, even if as did his intimate friendship with Schiller. impregnated again and again during her Even after he married in 1806 he contin- child-bearing years. The principle holds ued his frequent love affairs w~thwomen. true for the thoroughbred stalllon and mare His autobiographical Wilhelm Meister, a as much as it does for man and woman. Bildungsroman or novel of charactcr for- Even the economic interest of the breeder mation, and the second part of Foust (in cannot offset this reproductive disparity 18321, exalted his reputation further, al- attendant upon sexual dimorphism. though he was already first in German 1iterat::re. The nonexhaustive Weimar + GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG WON edition of his works extends to over 130 BIBLIOGRAPHY. "Notizen aus Coethes volumes. Werken iiber Homosexualitat," Zeitschrift fur Sexualwissenschaft, 1 Goethe often hinted at his own ilSOS), 179-81. sympathy for bisexuality. It is perhaps in W~lliarnA. Porcy the nature of Germans to seek something that they do not have-a basic Romantic yearning. And this striving and seeking, GOODMAN,PAUL extending to sexuality outside the bour- (1911-1972) geois norm-not a crass sexuality but a American novelist, short story refined sensitivity-goes into homoeroti- writer, playwright, psychologist, and so- cism and at times even into homosexual- cial critic. Born in New York City, ity. An epigram of his reads: Goodman was too poor to obtain a regular college educaticn during the Depression, Knaben liebt ich wohl auch, doch but he managed to combine auditing of lieber sind mir die Madchen, college courses with a program of self- Hab ich als MHdchen sie satt, dient education that continued throughout his sle als habe rnir noch. life. His continuing production. of fiction; ji iuveci 3yj~~3, UUL i plL.~i LILC though it did nct result ir, any master- girls, pieces, showed his tenacity and serious- If I have had enougii ci dne iib a girl, ness of purpose. In 1947 he c,oauthored, she dlselves me as a b0y.j with his brother the architect Percival In the play Egmont (1788) the Goodman, the book Communitas, which hero's enemy Alba is embarrassed by his is concerned with city planning and which son's intense emotionai bonding with foreshadowed the critical social utopian- Egmont. The figure of Mignon, the waif ism of his later work. In an attempt to deal with his own personal conflicts he devel- girl in Wilhelm Meistw, could be androgy- oped, together with F. S. Perls and Ralph nous. In his Travels in Switzerland he waxed rapturous over the sight of a nude Hefferline, Gestalt Therapy, an invention comiade hathirig !n ih~!ake, and in the that did not prove to be very durable. Goodman flnaliy gained public West-Easten!Diva11 r1819; ~i~1agrdedi- tion, 1827)) he ilsed the pretext of being attention in Crowing Up Absurd (19601, a study ot youth and delinquency which inspiied by Persian poetry to allude to the captured the mood of a country attempt- "pure" love which a handsome cupbearer evokes from his master (seciioil nine). In ing to extricate itself from the conformity thi: last act of Faust, Part 11, Mephistophe- of the Eisenhower years. A copious flow of les frecly admits the drtrartii>n that he other writings explored alternative possi- bilities for American society. hot si;.rpris- feels for "'ka;~ds,lriieboys," so pi~tothat ingly, in view of his unwavering philo- he "could kiss them on the mouth." These sophical anarchism, Goodman emerged as and other passages demonstrate that Goethe, though he may not have practiced one of the major gurus of the Countercul- it, had a clear and remarkably unpreju- ture movement of the late 1960s. Yet his diced understanding of homosexuality in insistence on the need for competence, several of its forms. carefully acquired through study and con- In Gerrnz11 1itci.atuic Goethe's templation alienated him frcni some nanii xil! %!wayste lirikedwitk, Lhatof his yocnger. would be supporters hid close frikad Friediich vcn Sih;llir i:~odmnc nevrx hls nznrs- sexuaur?, and his open proposition:ng oi (1759-18051, who left at his ilcath the unfinished malrusiript of a lzomophile students tended to make h~sappc>nitrnznts dram^, Cie Maltsssr at rhe various colleges where he taught controversial and shortlived. ~loneiyman, GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE 9

Goodman never seemed to achieve in life possessed by a longing for martyrdom, and the balance and harmony that he seemed his actions fully confirmed the desirewhich to be seeking for society. In his work he he repeatedly expressed in words to those aspired to be a Renaissance man, but his closest ro hlm. Gn t(ass1ari so11and nn the own temperament, and perhaps the times savage hand-to-hand fighting against the as well, worked agalnsr his reaiumg this ? alprng rebels In China, hz illvited d~atrn ambition. He nonetheless remains a wor- at every step, exposing himsed to wholiy thy exemplar of the independent gay needless risks and unarmed except for a scholar, doggedly marching to the beat of rattan cane. Again in the Sudan, whether his own "different drummer," and unper- tracking down slavers or suppressing a turbed by changes in fortune. tribal rebellion, he wouid delight K. out- panr:g h~smilitary escol t ill order to arrive alone in the enemy's ialr ~LIJin the final GORDON,CHARLES year of his llfe, in complete disregard of GEORGE(1838-1885) official instructions, he courted and met English general, surnamed "Chi- death at the hands of the Mahdi's warriors. nese Gordon." In 1852 ht entered the Gordon never married and his relation- engineer corps and took part in [he (311- ships with wormell seem all to have been mean War and then in the war against platoilic. W hlle living at Gravesend in the China. After peace was concluded he trav- mld-1860s, he took a remarkable interest eled in China and in 1863 entered Chinese in the ragged urchins of the neighborhood, service to suppress the Taiping rebellion. "~cuttlers"or "kings," as he called them. In February 1874 the Viceroy of Egypt He fed them and taught them, and when summoned him to continue the campaign they were filthy, he would wash them to subdue the upper Nile as far as the himself in the horse trough. He preached equatoriallakes. After his success, in 1877 to theri?, though rrdt vely well, gave them he was named Pasha and Governor Gen- talks ;.I +-,rrent affairs, arnd most impor- eral of the Sudan. Resigning this post in tailt, 11; toand them jobs--in the army, in 1879, he was for a brief time Military barges and warehouses, and at sea. Secretary of the Viceroy of India and then It seems probable that ~orning adviser to the Chlnese government. In frc.irt a stlizr xnihtary failrilY he wrs tor- January 1884 he was hspatched to Khan- rntni~dwith guilt over his honlustxual toum by the British governnient to assert ur~pulses,and thai reprcsaillg his urges Egyptian rule in the Sudan against the was so painful ta him that he sought death Mahdi. Furnished as he was wlth insuffi- as a release from unbe~rableinner an- cient means, he took up a military posi- guish. In his personality he was both con- tion in the city and W~Svigurous In purau- formist and rebel, one who could never ing his nssignmer~t~but as the Mahdi's reconcile his inner ilature with the obliga- supporters grew in number, while the tions that tradition and discipline imposed Gladstone cabinet failed to send relief upon him. His life was one continuous forces, after a ten-month siege Khartoum conflict, and he resolved it only by service was captured and Gordon himself was to the point of self-sacrifice and a hero's transfixed by a spear (January26,1885). He death at Khartoum. was immediately recognized and hcngred as a national hero whose legecd reroains to RIRLiOGR APHY tb0r.y hh',ltting, Gordon of Khortnurn, Martyr and Misfiti ths day. dew Yoric: Clalkvun N.Potter, 1966; The horn,;sci~al aspcir tJf C'kxulcs Chencvu: Trench, Tile i

Gordon's persunalit y ~crnainsI,~~~~~r~ allj Knul ;.,mil: A Lif6 c>) i:orid~~ii?Ch,*;il~ disputed. From his early i.weiitl;s, wten Gurdoi,, Niv: YJTR:W. W. Norton, 1979 he left to fight in the Crimean War: lie was WmenJohn~!ss .O GOVERNMENT

GOVERNMENT notorious pairs as Nero and Sporus, Heli- This subject has two main as- ogabalus and Hierocles, stands the noble pects: homosexuals in government and relationship of Hadrian and Antinous. the actions of government with respect to The minion habit recurred in homosexuality. The coming of modem medieval and early modem Europe with regimes based on "the consent of the gov- Edward I1 and JamesI of England, Hemi III erned" would have seemed to promise and Louis XIII of France. More influential improvement in this often adversarial than royal minions were powerful politi- relationship but, as the contemporary cians who used their office for their own struggle for gay rights shows, this is far purposes, including Lord John Hervey from the casc. Insofar as the residual igno- (1896--17431,who was Vice-Chamberlain rance and hatred of homosexuality among to the household of George I1 for ten years, the masses offer a tempting opportunity and Jean-Jacques RCgis de CambacCrPs for reactionary propagandists and dem- (1753-1 8241, archchancellorunder theFirst agogues, rational arguments that can sway Empire who was responsible for the crea- the educated go unheard. Conversely, tion of the Napoleonic code. earlier authoritarian regimes often allowed Traditionally homosexuals in some room for aristocratic homosexuality government service have had an affinity that was subsequently lost; such "zones of with the diplomatic corps, perhaps be- licence" were particularly fostered when cause the practice in masking their feel- the rulers themselves were prone to take ings to conceal their sexual orientation is same-sex favorites. good preparation for diplomatic discre- Historical Perspectives. The first tion. In any event it is interesting that indication comes from a surprisingly early nineteenth-century British history pro- source. The last great pharaoh of the Old vides information on two foreign secretar- Kingdom in Egypt, Pepy I1 (2355-2261 B.c.), ies. Robert Stewart, Lord Castlereagh conducted an affairwith his general Sisine. (1769--18221, committed suicide after Much later the controversial pharaoh confessing his homosexuality to George Akhnaten (reigned ca. 1372-1354 B.c.] has IV. Archibald Philip Primrose, Lord Rose- been held by some to have combined sex- bery (1847-1929), who himself had a ual variation with his better-known inno- homosexual secretary, was rumored to vations in religion and art. Beginning in have been involved with Lord Alfred ancient Sumeria Mesopotamia saw the Douglas. emergence of institutions of state-sup- Modem Times. Modem nations, ported cult prostitution, male and female, where rumor and the media can conspire attached to the temples. In some instances to spread sexual innuendo, have whisper- the inmates received aregular salary. This ing campaigns to discredit politicians who institution became controversial in an- are claimed to be sexually deviant. Until cient Israel) and the suppression of the recent decades the favorite accusation was male cult prostitutes (~Zdbhim;sing. adultery, homosexuality apparently hav- kiidbh) may be said to constitute the first ing been believed either unlikely in hold- state interference in homosexuality. ers of high office or statistically quite rare. In ancient Greece the pederastic As homosexuality has come to be more institution played an important role in discussed and familiar, such diverse fig- state building, and not a few of the boys ures as Hitler, Stalin, and Adlai Stevenson whose names appear on vases followed by have been accused of having homosexual kalos ["handsome") later became gener- affairs. In the absence of evidence such als, admirals, and statesmen of the Athe- claims must be dismissed as the product of nian polis. Some Roman emperors were smear campaigns. noted for their minions. Alongside such GKAFFITI 9

In the United States, Walt most vocal and vigorous of those promi- Whitmanwas discharged on June 30,1865, nent in the 1960s. from a job in Washington after his supervi- Openly Gay OfficeHolders. The sor discovered a book of immoral poems in more militant phase of the gay movement his desk (Leaves of Grass]. The ensuing (after 1969)with its demand "Out of the gilded age is largely an era of silence, though closets!" made possible the first openly there are reports of cruising grounds in lesbian and gay elected officials, Elaine Washington, D.C. In 1918-21 the United Noble and Alan Spear, state representa- States Navy was involved in the suppres- tives in Massachusetts and Minnesota, sion of a complex scandal at Newport, respectively. Somewhat later Wisconsin Rhode Island. The New Deal saw such representative David Clarenbach was able individuals as Sumner Welles, under sec- to achieve both decriminalization and a retary of state, and Senator David Walsh of gay rights bill in his state. Massachusetts implicated. Persistent In San Franc,isco the 1978 homo- rumors have circulated about the person of phobicmurder of openly gay elected super- J. Edgar Hoover, who was the immensely visor Harvey Milk, and Mayor George powerful director of the Federal Bureau of Moscone, togehter with the judicial treat- Investigation from 1924to 1972. Although ment of their murderer, produced local Hoover never married and had a life-long riots and nationwide outrage. From this buddy relationship with his subordinate time forward, however, gay politics have Clyde Tolson, it has not been possible to been a central and irrepressible feature of learn the true nature of his sexuality, and the Bay City. In Southern California a probably it never will be. newly incorporated City of West Holly- In 1950 Senator Joseph R. Mc- wood seems to be largely, though not Carthy of Wisconsin began a vociferous completely, gay. and unprincipled campaign against com- In the 1980s a new frankness in munists and homosexuals in government. the media regarding the sexual behavior of A spurious legitimacy was lent to this by politicians has sometimes had unfortu- such cases as the Austrian double agent nate results, witness the 1987 Gary Hart Alfred Red1 before World War I and the affair. In the U.S. House of Representa- recent Burgess-McLean-Blunt scandal in tives a closeted conservative Republican, Britain. It was rarely pointed out-except Robert Bauman, was hounded out of of- by homophile activists-that the only fice, but openly gay Democrats Gerry reason that gay people in government serv- Studds andBarney Frank of Massachusetts ice are subject to blackmail is the exis- seem secure in their districts. tence of archaic laws. In most advanced In theBritish House of Commons countries these laws have been eliminated, Maureen Colquhoun and Chris Smith have while (perhaps not coincidentally) the both been open about their sexual orienta- leading sex scandals in the diplomatic corps tion. In Norway the Conservative law- have been heterosexual. After MrCarthy- maker Wenc,he Lowzow is lesbian. For ism had died down, another case made the understandable reasons. given the pres- headlines, that of an aide to President sures of public office, most gay and lesbian Johnson, Walter Jenkins, who had been lawmakers chose to remain in the closet arrested in a publicrestroom. No one knows everywhere, but anecdotal evidence sug- how many civilservants accepted discharge gests that they are numerous. in silence. However, Frank Kameny, a Wayne R. Dynes government astronomer, decided to fight back after his dismissal in 1957. Although GRAFFITT Kameny never was reinstated, his experi- Since classical a~tiquity,the art ences made him a gay activist, one of the of writing has afforded the opportunity to record one's sexual feelings, interests, contact-time and place, telephone num- desires, and experiences in the form of ber, and the like. Presumably such texts inscriptions, for themost part anonymous, were originally inspired by the more con- that were left for all and sundry to read. A ventional personal advertisements that few of these have survived over many were printed in nineteenth-century news- centuries to be recorded by modern ar- papers. Then there are general comments chaeologists. The oldest known texts of a on sexual mores, expressions of ridicule or pederastic character are from the Dorian hostility directed against classes of indi- island of Thera; stemming from the sixth viduals disliked by the writer, or rhymes century B.C. and later, they seem a record and sayings of an erotic nature. The sig- of homosexual acts performed as rites of nificance of such graffiti is that they ex- initiation. The ruins of Pompeii and the press notions that are taboo in the conven- remains of ancient Rome furnish a consid- tional media which, until quite recently, erable number of erotic graffiti duly re- had to conform to all the restrictions corded in the Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- imposed by society, attest the occurrence narum; some relate sexual adventures, of socially condemned forms of sexual ex- others are insults dir~ctedat the hapless pression, and record non-literary and ob- passerby. scene words and phrases excluded from The word graffito made its ap- polite speech. pearance in Italian toward the end of the Sometimes, as during the 1968 sixteenth century. The study of homosex- uprising in Paris, graffiti emerge from their ual graffiti in modern times began shortly accustomed haunts in toilets and under- after the beginning of this century. The passes and appear prominently on the first articles in which homosexual urinal streets, where they make some political inscriptions were published appeared in point. The prominence of graffiti.-usually 191 1 in Anthropophyteia, the journal of neither sexual or political-in New York sexual folklore edited by Friedrich S. City subways has prompted an effort to Krauss. Morerecently wholevolumes have interpret them as an art form. However been devoted to collections made i~?men's this may be, the gnv artist Keith Haring, rooms from different parts of the world. now internationaily hown, first attracted Some of these loca!es were in effect hoino- attention through his siibway drawings, sexual rendezvous where the writer could which were executed clandestinely in a expect rn ettrentive-and respon.sive- deliberately simplified style. public. The analysis of graffiti can yie1.d The graffiti may take either ver- evidence for linguistic forms unattested bal or pictorial form, or both. 'The pictures elsevrhere,. for sexual behavior not usually are hequently dbs~cne.,often of the elect recorded by the participants, and for the virile rnirnLe.t ox of two v~ inore persoiis attitudes nor just of those engagingin such engagcd iir ;ii~iilfi+.e:;~dii.iterccpuise, Ex- behavior but also of outsiders. Thus homo- ceptionally, the t,n.s iiiRY 'Gi: nmativee sexual gr;affiti may provoke dialogues with diary entries a it wr:r:--of scxxuai encoun- others so inclined, or abusive and hostile ter. Gi' experi~nc~,ii~~1ily c;;ibeili3'ne:l by comments by heterosexuals, even threats the writer" ii.ul:;;y. Zthers alz of violence to die author of the llomoerotic advertis~meixis.ii.aL ur;til quite rzcently inscrlirtir-,n. In the 198i)s the spre3.d of could not be pilLl;:hed in aiiy ?eriodica? AIDS. m the gay community became a and so had iu u- inscribed on the wall. freqviilt topic ol comment. Clever puns, These are reqiicscs for partners for sexual rimes, word piays and the like may reflect encounters, with the desired physical at- a lnoiment of lewd inspiration on the part ~ribtates,age ziid the like specified in de- of the author. Others are banal pieces of < ~:lc - ><. & illl oit -)I instruc;ioiis fci;. maki~ig doggerel. Wir1;iil the walls ot an institu- GRANADA 4 tion graffiti may contain bits of malicious dens of Andalucia, the Generalife. The gossip about the sexual identity or the city of Fez (Morocco) is said to resemble sexual life of a wellknown individual, who Moorish Granada. cannot retaliate because of the anonymity When the Castilian armies con- of the writers. This function of givingvent quered C6rdoba and Seville in the thir- to repressed feelings recalls the grotesque teenth century, Granada, with its natural marginalia of medieval manuscripts that defenses, reached new prominence as a spill over into the crudely obscene. Politi- center for refugees. There are great gaps in cal opinions and attitudes, especially ones our knowledge of Granadine culture, and excluded from the media by contemporary basic source works, such as Ibn al-Khatib's unofficial censorship, can find vivid ex- Encyclopedia of Granadine History, re- pression in erotic graffiti that blend anger main untranslated. The last major poets and satire, insult and defiance, reality and whose works survive are the fourteenth- fantasy. Nearly all homosexual ,graffiti are century Ibn al-Khatib, his disciple Ibn by men; lesbian inscriptions are so far the Zamrak, whose verses adorn the walls of rare exception. the Alharnbra, and the king Yusuf IXI. Five Graffiti are thus in modern times, thousand manuscripts, which would pre- even with the freeing of the media from sumably have much illuminated the fif- long-standingtaboos, a precious document teenth century, were publicly burned by of the attitudes and mores of the culture Cardenal Cisneros shortly after the con- that produces them and of the evolution of quest of the city. The best-known and both homosexuals' own behavior and the most-translated Spanish source is GinCs attitudes of heterosexuals toward homo- Pkrez de Hita's Granadan Civil Wars; it sexual expression. and other sixteenth-centurypresentations of former Granadan life include much that BIBLIOGRAPHY. Emilio CantA, et al., I1 is deliberate falsification. cesso d~gliangefi: Graffiti sessuali sui mnri di unn metropoli, Milan: Gamrnali- What information we have sug- bri, 1979; Ernest Ernest, Sexe et graffiti, gests that homosexuality was widely prac- Paris: .&iainMo~eau, 1979; Peter Kreuzer, ticed in Granada, as part of a broad tapestry Das I=rafi!i-T~~~Lnq,Ww~irh: rJey.le, of hedonistic indulgence. (Wine and hash- 1W6. ish were also -cir!?lp used.) 11s preserver of lt,'.:,--.p,j hJj,?n pm the spirit of Islam in Spain, anything else would he vex y surprising. Granada v~as"an GRANAPA example ui worldly wisdom" in which c.:r~nad:i is7 small*:ity, until 1492 '"heir quest in life was to impart beauty to capital of thelast fs1~r;i.ckirrphn. irp Spain. every obiect, andjiby to evq how." All Blessed hy climate and qeirgraphy, it is a the major GrariaPan poets are linked to striking example of the inc~rpor~tionof homc?.scxu&ty to a greater or lesser ex- running water into architecture: and urban tent. Varioos of its rulers, apparently in- design Much of the Moorish city has been clu.ding the last king Boa.bdi1, openly in- lost, and visitors should be aware that for dulged. Castilian monarchs who were many present-day gr~nadinosits Moorish sympathetic t u Romosexua lity (Jazn11, heritage is only a source of tourist income. Enrique IVJ lidin relative pmce with However, there remains the superlative Granada. ISR!)CU~'Sexpensive campaign palace. the b.ha~nbra,with a mique es- against Granada was partly motivatetl by thetic which has s~lggestedhomosexual- fear of a Grandine alliance with Ta~rkcy, ity or andru~rnyto niari~,al.thoagh the which hadr~.cr.~t!yconqncrcd Constnntin- tapir bas yet to he given Proper exarni~a- ople; it may well have had $3 another tjon in grict. Theis als? the most impor. rnrrti?:r the i:'.p~-'t~;;i.~nof ho?~i.:~-~:ua!ity tmt mi vivor of thz rnanv plezsure..ear. in C29:iJp. At the time of its coriquest gay guidebooks in any language, Martinez Granada was the most prosperous, cul- Sierra's Granada: Guia emotional, with tured, and densely-populated part of Spain; photos by "Garz6n1' ("an ephebe"), was its population and economy declined published in 191 1. With Manuel de Falla's sharply after its conquest and did not re- relocation to Granada in 1919, the city cover. Contrary to misconception, its reached internationalstatus. Falla said that Moorish inhabitants were not expelled in he felt in Granada as if he were in Paris, "at 1492 (it was the Jews who were expelled the center of everything." In Granada that year); Islam was permitted in Granada homophiles had a sympatheticnewspaper, until 1499 and Arabic language and dress El defensor de Granada (the name sug- until the 1560s, when their prohibition gests sympathy with the Moorish heri- brought civil war, ending with the forced tage), a bar, El Polinario, built on the site of resettlement of the Moorish inhabitants a former Moorish bath, and in the Centro elsewhere in Spain. They were finally Artistico a sympathetic organization. The expelled in 1609. peakwas the internationally famous festi- Into the seventeenth century, val of Cante Jondo in 1922, whose program however, and from the mid-nineteenth appeared under the imprint of the Uranian century until the Spanish Civil War, the Press. Subsequently the leading figure was Alhambra and the legend of Moorish De 10s Rios' protege, Federico GarciaLorca, Granada it preserved have been an inspira- executed along with many others in 1936. tion to dissidents and reformers. St. John What homosexual life remained in Granada of the Cross wrote some of his most fa- after the Civil War went underground. mous works, taking the female role in a See also Jews, Sephardic. mysticalunionwithGod, in Granada. Poets of withdrawal, such as Espinosa and Soto BIBLIOGRAPHY. Maria Soledad Carrasco-Urgoiti, The Moorish Novel, de Rojas, dealt with Granada's gardens and Boston: Twayne, 1976; Emilio Garcia- rivers. In the nineteenth century Pedro Gbmez, "Ibn Zamrak, el poeta de la Antonio de Alarcdn, Valera, Ganivet, and Alhambra," in Cincopoetas musulma- Salmerdn (president of the first Spanish nes, Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1945, pp. 171- republic), are all associated with Granada. 271; idem, ed., Poemas arabes en 10s muros y fuentes de La Alhambra, More important, the great Instituciirn Libre Madrid: Instituto Egipcio de Estudios de Enseiianza is also so linked, as Sanz del Islimicos, 1985; JamesMonroe, Hispano- Rio and Giner de 10s Rios studied in Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology, Granada, and Giner's disciple and nephew krkeley: University of California Press, Fernando de 10s Rios made Granada his 1974; JoseMora Guamido, "Granada, ciudad triste," in his Pederico Garcia home in 1915 and was elected to represent Lorca y su mundo, Buenos Aires: Losada, it in the Republican legislature. America 1958, pp. 35-49; Luis Rosales, "La Castro, whose identifying the Semitic and Andalucia del Ilanto," Cruz y Raya, 14 especially Jewish elements in the Spanish (May 1934),39-70. nationality marks a watershed in Spanish Daniel Eisenberg intellectual history, was a graduate of the University of Granada. Both the influen- GRANT,DUNCAN tial Residencia de Estudiantes (Madrid), a (1885-1978) descendent of the Institucidn Libre de Englishpainter. In his youth Grant Enseiianza, and the Centro Artistico y was the lover first of Lytton Strachey and Literario [Granada], opened buildings in then of John Maynard Keynes; all three the Alhambra style in 1915. were members of the Bloomsbury group of In the early twentieth century writers, artists, and intellectuals. After Granada had the most important homo- study in Italy and France, Grant partici- sexualsubculture in Spain. Oneof the first pated in several English group exhibitions GREECE, ANCIENT 9 in the heady days before World War I, revolution and the Enlightenment were when the continental avant-garde was working profound changes in the charac- beginning to shake up Britain's relatively ter of Westem civilization; in the new stodgy art scene. Together with Vanessa context the values of Hellenic culture no Bell, he headed the Omega Workshops, a longer seemed the eternal truths that the modemist design studio (1913-19), where world had only to accept and revere. But in he created pottery, textiles, interior deco- no aspect of its social order was the nine- ration, and stage flats. In 1916 Duncan teenth century in Europe and the United Grant established a mCnage ii trois at the States farther from the value system of the country house of Charleston in Sussex Greeks than in the matter of homosexual- with David Garnett and Bell. Although ity. Accordingly, the study of same-sex Bell bore him a daughter, Angelica, in behavior in ancient Greece is valuable not 1918, Grant's later sexual career seems to only for its own sake but for the contrast it have been exclusively homosexual. points with our own society. Despite much sophisticated Basic Features. Although homo- proselytizing by the critic Roger Fry and sexual behavior was ubiquitous in ancient others, the artistic achievements of Greece, had an extensive literature, and Bloomsbury never attained the success of was never seriously threatened either in its literary productions. Grant tended to be practice or as an ideal (as it was to be in dismissed as a tepid follower of Matisse, later times), it is not easy to appreciate just and his name scarcely figures in the stan- how the Greeks themselves conceptual- dard histories of modem art. As in the case ized it. The specific function of homosexu- of such American artists as Charles De- ality in their civilization was one which muth and Marsden Hartley, his homo- the modern world rejects, and which the sexuality may have hindered recognition. homophile movement of the twentieth Despiteneglect, Grant continued painting century has regarded as marginal at best to almost until the end of his life, accumulat- its own goals and aspirations. Paideras- ing an extensive oeuvre. Since his death, teia, or the love of an adult male for an however, a more pluralistic approach to adolescent boy, was invested with a par- twentieth-century art has facilitated ticular aura of idealism and integrated reevaluation of his work, and it can be seen firmly into the social fabric. The erastes or that his best paintings are valid works in lover was a free male citizen, often a their own right. member of the upper social strata, and the eromenos or beloved was a youth between BIBLIOGRAPHY. Paul Roche, With 12 and 17, occasionally somewhat older. Duncan Grant in Southern Turkey, London: Honeyglen, 1982; Douglas Blair Pedophilia, in the sense of erotic interest Turnbaugh, Duncan Grant and the in young children, was unknown to the Bloomsbury Group, Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Greeks and the practice never approved by Stuart, 1987; idem, Private: The Erotic them. An interesting question, however, Art of Duncan Grant, London: Gay is what was the average age of puberty for Men's Press, 1989. Wayne R. Dynes ancient Greek boys? For some men (the philobupais type), the boy remained at- tractive after the growth of the first beard, GREECE,ANCIENT for most he was not-exactly as with the Beginning with the Romans, ev- modem pederast. The insistence upon the ery succeeding people in Western civiliza- adolescent anthos (bloom) and the nega- tion has felt the attraction of ancient tive symbolism of body hair that occur Greece. The adulation of Greece peaked in repeatedly in the classical texts leave no the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. doubt that modem androphile (adult-adult) Ironically, just at this time the industrial homosexuality was foreign to the Greek * GREECE, ANCIENT

mentality, both in aesthetic theory and in innovated-and created a new model of the practice of male courtship. the state and society, a new conception of When it emerges into the light of truth and justice that were the founda- history in the archaic period, pederasty is tions of Western civilization. Sir Francis the specific Greek form of a relationship Galton calculated in the late nineteenth that may have been institutionalized century that in the space of two hundred among some Indo-European peoples in years the population of Athensa mere prehistoric times. It formed part of the 45,000 adult male citizens-had produced process of initiation of the adolescent into 14 of the hundred greatest men of all time. the society of adult males, of his appren- This legacy-the "Greek miracleu-owed ticeship in the arts of the hunter and war- no small part of its splendor to the pederas- rior. The attachment of the lover to his boy tic ethos that underlay its educational eroticized the process of learning, making system and its civic ideal. it less arduous and more pleasurable, while Pederasty was in each of the city- reinforcing the bond between the mentor states a channel of transmission of its and his pupil. specific traditions and values from the The homoerotic ties between the older generation to the younger. In many older male and the youth were, it is true, states, it was virtually inseparable from grounded in a biological universal-the preparation for the rights and duties of physical beauty and grace of the adoles- citizenship. The emphasis on outdoor cent that invest him with an androgynous athletic training and practice in the nude, quality soon lost when he reaches adult- and the concomitant eroticization and hood. The Greek form of pederasty institu- glorification of the adolescent male body, tionalized 5hat bond of affection in a form strongly reinforced the pederastic spirit. that varied from one city-state to another, Homoerotic behavior in eitherthe because Greece never had a unitary, active or passive roles in no way disquali- homogeneous civilization. Each polis (city- fied one for heterosexual activity. Mar- state) preserved and used its own local riage and fatherhood were part of the life dialect; each had its own constitution and cycle of duties for which the initiation and laws. If periodic festivalssuch as the Olym- training prepared the eromenos. Needless pic games were pan-Hellenic, they bore to say, family life did not hinder a male witness only to the sense that allHellenes from pursuing boys or frequenting the shared certain values in common which geisha-like hetairai. Down to the fourth set them apart from the other peoples of century B.c., however, the really intense the eastern Mediterranean. and reciprocal passion that the modern The Greeks were at first barbari- world calls romantic love was reserved for ans invading arealrn whose civilizations-- relationships between males. Only in the Babylonian, Phoenician, Egyptian-were Hellenistic period [after 323 B.c.)was the already old at the moment when the art of additional possibility of love between man alphabetic writing reached the mainland and wife recognized. (ca. 720 B.c.). The achievements of their Misinterpretations. Some au- own history necessarily rested upon the thors-including Christian apologists and legacy of three thousand years of cultural historians influenced by them--have tried evolution in the Semitic and Hamitic to maintain that while pederastic liaisons nations. In technology and material cul- were intenseenough, they rarely descended ture they-and their successor peoples-- to the level of physical union and sexual never went far beyond the accomplish- release. This nonsense stems from a mis- ments of the non-Indo-European civiliza- interpreation of the "double standard" that tions of the East. It was in the realm of prescribed a modest and coy demeanor for theory and philosophy that the Greeks the boy, who was to yield his person onlv GREECE, ANCIENT 4 to a worthy suitor and-above all-could of Western civilization against the en- never offer his body for money. Such croachments of Persian despotism. Only mercenary conduct was unworthy of a free on the eastern periphery of the Hellenic citizen and could incur the penalty of world-where Greeks lived as subject atirnia, civic degradation. The misinter- peoples under Persian rule--could the pretations have been reinforced by the Zoroastrian beliefs gain a foothold. strictures of the elderly Plato in the Laws, Sexual Mores. The bulk of the where an element of ressentiment toward available evidence-and the universal the young and of embitterment at his own grounding of male physiology and psy- failures and disappointments as a teacher chology-support the view that Greek seems to have been at work. This text, pederasty was carnal in expression, and however it may anticipate later Judeo- not restricted to intercrural intercourse Christian attitudes and practices, was never but often involved complete penetration. typical of Greek thought on the subject. Oral-genital sexuality seems not to have The evidence of theclassical authors shows been popular, but this was probably for that as late as the early third century of our hygienic reasons specific to the ancient era the Greeks accepted pederasty noncha- world. But again, it is a profound error to lantly as part of the sexual order, without project modern attitudes shaped by Chris- condemnation or apprehension. tian theology and the definitions of sod- The greatest error of which mod- omy or ages of consent upheld by Anglo- em commentators have been guilty has American courts onto the social or legal been to take the strictures of the Mosaic setting of ancient Greece. It is important Code as if they were moral truths that had to bear in mind, however, that (1) the been decreed at the beginning of time, active-passive dichotomy was crucial for when in fact they are part of a text that was the ancient mind, rather than the compiled by the Jewishpriests living under heterosexual-homosexual one, (2)norms Persian rule in the fifth century before our of sexual behavior were not uniform, but era. The Greeks knew nothing of the Book varied for different social classes, and (3) of Leviticus, cared nothing for the injunc- that while men and women could have tions it contained, and scarcely even heard sexual relations for procreation within of the religious community for which it marriage, men alone were allowed to pur- was meant down to the beginning of the sue sexual pleasure outside of marriage. Hellenistic era, when Judea was incorpo- That is to say, some forms of homosexual rated into the empire of Alexander the behavior were proscribed for certain indi- Great. On the other hand, there is evi- viduals on the basis of sex and socialstatus, dence that in the Zoroastrian religion but there was no general taboo such as pederasty was ascribed to a demonic in- Christianity later formulated for its whole ventor andregarded as an inexpiable sin, as community of believers. a vice of the Georgians, the Caucasian The career of Sappho suggests that neighbors of the Persians-just as the Isra- lesbian relations in ancient Greece took elites identified homosexual practices with the same pattern, that is to say, they were the religion of the heathen Canaanites corophile-between adult women and whose land they coveted and invaded. adolescent girls who were receiving their However, the antagonism between the own initiation into the arts of woman- Greeks and the Persians precluded any hood. But the paucity of evidence makes it adoption of the beliefs and customs of the difficult to assay the incidence of the "evil empireu-against which they won phenomenon, especially as Greek sexual their legendary victories. The Greek mores were entirely androcentric--every- spirit-of which pederasty was a vital thing was seen from the standpoint of the component-stood guard over the cradle adult male and free citizen. The subordi- 4 GREECE, ANCIENT nate status of women and children was tized as "against naturef1-a concept which taken for granted, and the effeminate man thesemiticmind, incidentally, lackeduntil was the object of ridicule if not contempt, it was adopted from the Greek authors as can be seen in the plays of Aristophanes translated in the Middle Ages. and his older contemporary Cratinus. Such In Hellenistic and Roman times a individuals were a liability in a society in genre of contest literature emerged that which each city-state had constantly to debated the merits of boys versus those of field armies that would fight for its inde- women as sexual partners for men. The pendence and hegemony. option falls to the adult male: adolescent The central opposition in the boys or adult women, although there was Greek mind was between the active (ho usually an age disparity between husband poion] and the passive (hopaschon) part- and wife that was greater than customary ner in the sexual encounter. The Greeks in modern times. Plutarch was even will- were concerned not with the act as a vio- ing to entertain the idea that an older lation of a religious taboo (as in the Chris- woman might legitimately aspire to marry tian Middle Ages) or with the orientation a teenaged boy. So in terms of age marked as psychological substratum (thelegacy of asymmetry is commonplace. forensic psychiatry), but with the role as Greek attitudes toward homo- becoming or unbecoming particular ac- sexuality reflected the allocation of status tors. A man behaves appropriately when and power in Greek society, and the goals he penetrates boys or women (or even which Greek education pursued. They other men whom he has vanquished and were, furthermore, embedded firmly in captured on the battlefield). From this the context of Greek religion and mythol- perspective, the dichotomous classifica- ogy, in which pederastic loves were tion of men as heterosexual or homosex- ascribed to gods and heroes who in a ual makes no sense, although the ancient sense furnished the sublim3syd@&@ch sources sporadically mention as an idio- their admirers cbuld?oJEw aniltatetIf syncrasy bf character that particular his- the Greeks were less psychologically in- torical figures loved only women or only trospective than the heirs of their civiliza- boys. Disapproval-which could be in- tion have become, it was because they tense, though it never took the form of st4a#mmb&wW.wl devel- imprisonment or death-was reserved for opment; they cannot be blamed far feilulg males who took the passive-effeminate to anticipate what came only millennia role and for women who played the active- later-often in a context ~f guilt and self- aggressive part in relations with men. exculpation. . .,: .- ,,r' , a,:13C_I+ '. These two phenomena, then- .,'T -- Historical Evidence. Modern the idealization of pederasty and the pri- archeology has determined that proto- macy of the active-passive dichotomy- Greek dialects were spoken in the south- made Greek homosexuality radically dif- em area of the Balkan peninsula that later ferent from what the homophile apolo- was called Hellas from about 2000 B.c., gists and forensic psychiatrists of the late that is, during the whole of the Mycenean nineteenth century defined by that name, period. While material evidence has given leaving aside the evaluation of sexual scholars more information about this pe- contacts between members of the same riod than the Greeks themselves possessed, sex in Judeo-Christian moral theology. It scarcely anything can be said with cer- is true that the more abstract thinking of tainty about the sexual life of this prehis- the Greeks ultimately recognized the par- toric age. There is no basis whatever for allel between male and female homosexu- the currently popular assumption that this ality, beginning with a passage in Plato's was a matriarchal period. Toward the end Laws (636b-c)in which both are stigma- of the second millennium the Mycenean GREECE, ANCIENT O era closed with a series of disasters, both western Asia hinterland. In a mere four natural catastrophes and wars--of which centuries Greek civilization had matured the Trojan war sung by Homer was an into a force that intellectually and militar- episode. During this period the Dorians ily dominated the world-and laid the invaded Greece, blending with the older foundations not just for Western culture, stocks. One landmark paper on Greek but for the entire global metasystem of pederasty, Erich Bethe's article of 1907, today. What followed was the Hellenistic ascribed pederasty to the military culture era, in which Greek thought confronted of the Dorian conquerors, an innovation the traditions of the peoples of the east ostensibly reflected in the greater promi- with whom the colonists in the new cities nence of the institution among the Dorian founded in Egypt and Syria mingled. The city-states of history. More recently, emergence of huge bureaucratic monar- however, Sir Kenneth Dover has shown chies effectively crushed the independ- that the evidence for specific links with ence of the city states, eroding the base of the Dorian areas of Greece is weak. What the pederastic institution with its empha- may be worth exploring is the notion, sis on civic initiative. The outcome of this stressed by Bethe, that the essence of the period, once Rome had begun its eastward lover passes into the soul of the beloved expansion, was Roman civilization as a through sexual union-a survival of ar- derivative culture that blended Greek and chaic beliefs on the function of sexuality indigenous elements. Even under Roman in initiatory rites. rule the position of the Greek language As Greece emerged from the dark was maintained, and the literary heritage age of the heroic period into the light of of previous centuries was codified in the history, one of the salient features is the form in which, by and large, it has been relative insignificance of the priestly caste transmitted to modem scholars and ad- as compared with its predominance in the mirers. cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia. This Authors and Problems: The Early entailed the absence of sacral prostitution Epic. For nearly two hundred years schol- of mernbersMhksextsae was found, for ars have argued theHomeric question: Did example, in the Ishtar worship of western &el two, or many authors create the two Asia. The sexual lives of the Greeks were great epic poems known as the Iliad and free of ritualistic taboos, but enacted in a the Odyssey? What were the sources and context ?f _ 'paalnwd&w reehnfques of composition of the author i6k =&=devotion of Achilles (or authors)?The current consensus favors and Patroclus, which foreshadowed the a single author utilizing a traditional stock pederastic ideal of the Golden Age. The of legends and myths; the final redaction lyric poetry composedin the dawn of Greek may have taken place as late as 640 B.C. A literature was rich in allusions to male second question arises in connection with love, between gods and between mortals. these epic poems: Did they recognize In the art of this period the male nude-as homoerotic passion as a theme, or was this seen especially in the monumental kouros an accretion of later times? figuresd)roung men-was cultivated and The central issue is the relation- perfected. The classic age (480-323 B.c.] ship of Achilles and Patroclus in the Mad, produced the great dramatists and philoso- which forms the real subject of the poem. phers, and savir the rise of Greek science Later Greekopinion in general judged their and medicine. friendship to have been an erotic one At the conclusion of this phase of (Aeschylus, Plato, Lucian], a judgment tremendous creativity, the armies of Alex- reversed by many modern scholars who ander the Great conquered the whole of would like to imagine the heroic age as free the eastern Mediterranean littoral and the of the "decadence" of later periods, and + GREECE, ANCIENT point to the absence of explicit passages. irrational feelings he invites comparison Recently, however, opinion has veered with the Roman Catullus. In fragment 85 about, identifying subtleties of the Ho- he concedes to a male that "desire that meric text that support the contention loosens our limbs overpowers me." The that Achilles and Patroclus were male famous Athenian lawgiver Solon was also lovers. This recognition makes still other a poet, and in two surviving fragments (13 verses in Homer even clearer: Telema- and 14) he speaks of pederasty as abso- chus' male bedmate in Pylos (Odyssey, 3, lutely normal [see also Plutarch's Life of 397); Hermes' ephebic attractiveness to Solon). Odysseus (Odyssey, 10, 277); and the The isle of Lesbos, off the coast of Ganymede story (Iliad, 5, 266; 20, 282: Asia Minor, was the home of a school that "godlike Ganymede that was born the brought Greek lyric poetry to its peak. fairest of mortal men"). Homer may not Alcaeus is in fact the first poet whose have judged the details of their intimacy surviving corpus takes pederasty as its suitable for epic recitation, but he was not major theme. Despite the mutilated and oblivious to a form of affection common to fragmentary state in which Sappho's po- all the warrior societies of the Eastern etry has been transmitted, she was hailed Mediterranean in antiquity. The peculiar in antiquity as the "tenth Muse," and her resonance of the Achilles-Patroclus bond poetry remains one of the high points of probably is rooted in far older Near Eastern lyric intensity in world literature. In the epic traditions, such as the liaison be- nineteenth century philologists tried to tween Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Meso- reconcile her with the Judeo-Christian potamian texts. tradition by dismissing the lesbian inter- Hesiod, the other great epic poet pretation of her poems as libelous, and of early Greece, left a much smaller body misinterpreting or misusing bits of bio- of work, but the Shield of Hemcles, a work graphical data to make her nothing but the of his school, if not actually by him, de- strait-laced mistress of a g&ls' finishing picts a pederastic relationship between school. The homoerotic intensity and the hero and his page Iolaus. Later poems candor of her poems has been vindicated in the epic genre devoted far more atten- by modern critics, who locate her entire tion to mythological and legendary tales of career in the sett&ef&e eros paida- homoeroticism. gogikos, the affection between teacher and 7%e Archaic Lyric. Paiderasteia pupil that was integral to Greek educa- may not yet have become self-conscious, tion. Again, not surprisingly the last book but in the seventh century a new lyric of her collected poems contniped the ep- genre arose that marked an advance over kbhmiade had written for the wed- the epic in that it recorded vivid fragments dings of the alumnae of her school. The of experience tinged with personal emo- corophile lesbianism of Sappho was part of tion. The subjectivity of Greek lyric po- the training that prepared a girl for her etry is saturated with the vicissitudes of duties as mistress of a household, just as homosexual passion. Though none of these the boy's education prepared him for serv- early writers is preserved in entirety, they ice to the polis. Over the centuries, her come from the whole far-flung Hellenic name has become a byword for the love of world. woman for woman, hence the earlier term Archilochus of Paros, writing "sapphist" and the modern "lesbian." perhaps about 650 B.c., is generally recog- Anacreon of Teos, who flourished nized as the earliest major figure of the in themid-sixth century, owes his fame to group. His sense of personal ambivalence his drinking songs, texts composed for strikes an almost modem chord. In admit- performance at the symposia, which in- ting contradictory, unheroic, and at times spired an entire genre of poetry: anacreon- GREECE, ANCIENT + tic. Though bisexual like most of the poets, homoerotic attachments: Solon, Themis- he clearly preferred boys. Theognis of tocles, Xenophon, and Alcibiades. Megara is more serious and moralizing, Toward the end of the sixth cen- and the second book ascribed to him (with tury Athens took the lead in the style of less certainty than the first) presents ped- vase painting with red figures, replacing erasty m its ideal form, as it flourished for the older black-figure style. Many of these only some two centuries, from 600 to 400 ceramic works were inscribed with the B.C. lbycus of Rhegium composed poems names of the male beauties who enjoyed at the court of the tyrant Polycrates, where the favor of the Athenian (male]public and among other subjects he explored love in the word kalos: Alkibiades kalos meant old age. "Alcibiades [is] handsome." These ped- Phdar of Thebes (518-438) com- erastic "calendar boys" were thus cele- posed magnificent odes fusing the mten- brated throughout the Hellenic world. sity of the new lyric trend with the monu- Although some girls' names appear with mental style of the earlier epic tradition, the inscription kale, it is revealing that so joining the personal with the public. they are outnumbered by boys' names His poems celebrate youths of the aristoc- almost U)to 1. In the field of sculpture the racy, above all the victors in the athletic strapping kouros type of youth yielded to contests that played a major role in Hel- the more supple and graceful ideal of the lenic life. Changes in cultural expecta- classic type, beginning with the so-called tions ~sd&asslltllntl..np-de - ex=a-=- his Critian Youth (Athens, Acropolis Mu- poetry more remote than that of other seum). classical authors, but he still represents Drama and History. The fifth one of thegiants of worldliterature, and he century saw Athenian drama reach its deals with themes integral to in apogee in thework of the three great trage- its noblest form. dians who all composed plays that dealt Atheman Pohtics and Art. Ar- with one homoerotic aspect or another of chaic Greece had many political and cul- Greek mythology: Aeschylus wrote The tural centers, but among those of the Myrmidons and Laius; Sophocles The mainland Athens emerged k&&-h - Lovws of Achilles; and Euripides Chrysip- century as the dominant force in its cul- pus, all unfortunately lost save for a few ture- "the schoul oi Hellas." A pohucal surviving quotations. In comedy as well, power as well, Athens witnessed a shift lost plays of Cratinus, Eupolis, Timocles, +. horn tyrolrny to d ana%enander, and the surviving master- in whlch homoerotic bonding played a pieces of Aristophanes dealt with the catalytic role. In 514 s.c. Harnludius and subject, often in subtle double entendre Atistogiton, angered by the sexual and other satiric word plays that the harassment of one of the Peisistratid ty- modem philologist must struggle to re- rants, slew hmand opened the way for the trieve from the text. family's downfall. Although they perished In a different genre, Herodotus, in the attempt, the heroes were thence- the "Father of History," used the data that forth honored as major benefactors of the he gathered on his extensive travels to polis, honored by annual sacrifices and the point up the relativism of moral norms. perfontlance of odes. Two statuary groups Among the phenomena that he reported were successively commissioned to pre- was the Scythianinstitution of theEnarees, serve the11likenesses, the second of which a shift in gender that puzzled the Greeks, (477 B.c.) is one of the first landrnarkv of who called it the nousos theleia or "femi- the emerging clrss~cstyle in art. Other nine disease," but can now be identified as civic leaders were renowned for their akin to the shaman and the berdache of the 4 GREECE, ANCIENT sub-Arctic and New World cultures. Prof- ily be disentangledfrom that of his teacher, iting from the insights of the pre-Socratic never married, and left a record of ambiva- thinkers, Herodotus anticipated the find- lence toward sexuality and homosexuality ings of modern anthropology in regard to in particular that is one of the problematic the role of culture in shaping social norms. sides of his thinking. His influence on The consequence of his relativistic stand- Western civilization has been incalculable. point was to discredit absolutist concepts One of the ironies of history is that the of "revealed" or "natural" morality and to atypical hostility to pederasty in the eld- allow for a pluralist approach to sexual erly Plato, probably reflecting both per- ethics. sonalresentment and envy and the decline Law. The legal institutions of the of the institution in the fourth century Greeks were highly diverse owing to the (while anticipating later "puritan" atti- particularism of theregions and city-states, tudes), was often received with enthusi- and comparatively few of the laws and asm in later centuries, becoming a Hel- analyses of the political structure of the lenic source of Christian homophobia. polis have survived. Thanks to a sunriving In one of Plato's most brilliant oration of Aeschines, the Contra Ti- dialogues, the Symposium, the speaker marchurn of 346 B.c., we know of the Aristophanes explains the origin of differ- restrictions that Athenian law placed on ences in sexual orientation by means of a the homosexual activity of male citizens: myth of Babylonian proven&ce: hurnan the male who put his body in the power of beings as but the severed halves of three another by prostituting himself incurred ~in&&y:, atimia or infamy, the gymnasia ah'female, and male-fema who had authority over youth were sub- is thus the yearning for reparation and ject to legal control, and a slave could not wholeness of the first two types, hetero- be the lover of a free youth. There is no sexuality the lonwhysical ef 4 t L.- -. evidence for parallel statutes elsewIGere, the third. In thii dialomePlato- also adum-' and certainly no indication that homosex- brated the concept of sublimation, sug- ual behavior per se was ever the object of gesting that the contemplation of male legal prohibition, or more stringently regu- beauty should only be a stage in an upward lated than heterosexual, which had its path towda plic- own juridical norms. itly one of continence. Thus he inculcated Philosophy. Socrates (469-399 the notion of sexual activity as ignobleand B.c.) wrote nothing, but left disciples who demeaning, which was integrated with have transmitted his teaching to later ages. ohib&&,ms of biblical Juda- He was undeniably a pivotal figuajnbe ;;&tic ideal of complete evolution of Greek philosophy, the one asexuality which was to have fateful con- who reoriented it from the preoccupation sequences for homosexuals in later centu- of theIonians with the physical cosmos to ries. questionsof ultimate hurnanconcem, such A completely negative approach as the nature of knowledge and the critical to pederasty emerges in one of his last scrutiny of ethical norms. In the writings works, the Laws, the product of the pessi- of Plato and Xenophon, Socrates basks in a mism of old age disappointed by Athenian strongly homophile ambiance, as his audi- democracy and the failure of his ambitions tors are exclusively male, even if he was no at statecraft inSici1y.h the first book (636) stranger to heterosexuality and had a wife Plato calls homosexual acts "against na- named Xanthippe who has come down in ture" (para physin) because they do not history as the type of the shrewish wife. lead to procreation, and in the eighth book His chief disciple, Plato (ca. (836b-839a) he proposes that homosexual 429347 B.c.), whose thought cannot eas- activity can be repressed by law and by GREECE, ANCIENT 9 constant and unrelenting defamation, lik- could be imputed. In the thirteenth cen- ening this procedure to the incest taboo. tury Thomas Aquinas utilized this pas- The designation of homosexual acts as sagein arguingthat sodomy was unnatural "contrary to nature" found its way into in general, but connatural in some human the New Testament in a text that inter- beings; yet in quoting Aristotle he sup- twined Judaic myth with Hellenic reason- pressed the mention of homosexual urges ing, Romans 1:18-32. This passage argues as determined "by nature," so that Chris- that "the wrath of God is revealed from tian theology has never been able to accept heaven" in the form of the rain of water the claims of gay activists that their be- that drowned the Watchers and their havior had innate causes. At all events, human paramours and the rain of fire that Aristotle can be cited in favor of the belief obliterated the homosexual denizens of that in some forms, at least, homosexual- Sodom and Gomorrah. Later Christian ity is inborn and unmodifiable. thinkers were to insist that the morality of The successors of Plato and Aris- sexual acts was coterminous with procrea- totle, the Stoics, are sometimes regarded tion, and that any non-procreative gratifi- as condemnatory of pederasty, but a closer cation was "contrary to nature," but this examination of their texts shows that they view never held sway in pagan antiquity, approved of boy-love and engaged in it, but so that Plato himself cannot be charged counseled their followers to practice it in with the tragic aftermath of this belief and moderation and with ethical concern for the attempt to impose it upon the entire the interests of the younger partner. population by penal sanctions and by 0s- However, they lived in'an age when the tracism. The attempt of modern Christian pederastic ideal was more and more fading historians to prove that Plato's idiosyn- into the past, as the aristocratic way of life cratic later attitude corresponded to the of the ruling class in the Greek city-states mores of Athenian society, or of Greece as gave way to a more sensual, more oriental a whole, is unfounded. type of pederasty in the Hellenistic world Plato was succeeded by the al- ruled by the successors of Alexander the most equally influential Aristotle (384-322 Great. B.c.), who sought to correct some of the Medicine. Greekmedicine stands imbalances in his teacher's work and bring at the beginning of the Western tradition it more in line with experience. Aristotle of the art of healing, both in theory and was more concerned with the empirical practice. Medical theory accomplished far sciences and the match between theory less than other branches of Greek thought andobjective, multifaceted reality. Though because of the limitations of technique known to have had male lovers, he also and the restriction that Greek religion expressed some reservations about homo- imposed on such practices as dissection. sexual relations, but his work evaluating However, the Hippocratic corpus knew the Cretan form of pederasty has not sur- the term physis (nature) in the sense of vived. In the Nicomachean Ethics (1148b) llconstitution, inborn trait," and recog- he undertook to differentiate two types of nized that there were innate differences in homosexual inclination, one innate or sexual orientation correlated with the constitutionally determined ("by nature") secondary sexual characters. The ethical and one acquired from having been sexu- corollary of this distinction is that the ally abused ("by habit"). He stated cate- individual is obliged only to act in accord gorically that no fault attached to behavior with his own nature, not with any hypo- that flowed from the nature of the subject thetical unitary "human nature." (thereby contradicting Plato's assertion Also, the Greek physicians that homosexuality per se was unnatural 1, evolved a number of fanciful notions in while in the second type some moral fault regard to human physiology which, though + GREECE, ANCIENT now discarded by science, influenced later knowledge that psychiatry was to recoup civilization. For example, the pseudo- only in modern times. Aristotelian Problernata (N, 26) claims The HeLlenistic Age. Beginning that the propensity to take the passiverole with the death of Alexander the Great in in anal intercourse is caused by an accu- 323 B.c., the Hellenistic period saw many mulation of semen in the rectum that profound changes in Greek institutions stimulates activity to relieve the tension. such as had to attend the formation of a far Another notion was pangenesis-the be- more cosmopolitan culture shared by lief that the semen incorporated major subject peoples of different races for whom parts of the body in microscopic form; yet the Greek language was a binding force. another the belief that the male seed alone The instrument for its cultivation was the determines the formation of the embryo system known as paideia, or humanistic (only in the nineteenth century was the training grounded in the mastery of the actual process of fertilization of the ovum classics. This new emphasis on teaching observed and analyzed). Another major worked to promote a fusion between the belief system was the theory of the four person of the paidagogos, the instructor, humors, which became the basis of four and the ideals of paiderasteia bequeathed temperaments associated with the char- by the earlier part of the Golden Age of acterological ideas embraced by Sirnonides, Hellenic civilization. Alexandria in Egypt, Theophrastus, and the comic playwrights. the capital of the kingdom of the Ptol- TheHippocratic treatise On Airs, emies, emerged as the intellectual center Waters, and Places touched upon the ef- of the Hellenistic age. Two poets, both feminacy of the Scythians, the so-called associated with the great library in that nusos theleia, which it ascribed to cli- city, composed works that dealt with mate-a view that was to recur in later aspects of boy-love. Callistratus exhibits centuries. The Greek adaptation of- late the Hellenistic penchant for recondite Babylonian astrology created the individ- allusions to and quotations from older ual horoscope-which included the fac- literature; a number of his surviving epi- tors determining sexual characterology. grams are pederastic in theme. Theocritus Such authors as Teucer of Babylon and created the poetic convention later known Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria named as Arcadian pastoral that s-ed as amodel the planets whose conjunctions foretold for much of laterwestern poetry.Hisidylls that an individual would prefer his or her are tinged with homoerotic sentiment in a own sex or would be effeminate or viragi- rustic setting. nous. Because Greek religion and law did However, the greatest single col- not condemn homosexual behavior, it fell lection of the pederastic poetry of the into the category of an idiosyncrasy of Hellenistic period is the twelfth book of temperament which the heavenly bodies the Greek Anthology, the core of which had ordained, not of a pathological condi- was assembled by Meleager of Gadara about tion that entitled the bearer to reprieve 80 B.C.The collection was several times from the severity of the law. Ptolemy enlarged, notably by Strato of Sardis in the taught, for example, that if the influence of middle of the second century. His anthol- Venus is joined to that of Mercury, the ogy bore the name Muslrpaidike or Boyish individuals affected "become restrained in Muse; its sparkling epigrams sound the their relations with women but more whole diapason of emotions felt by the passionate for boys" (Tetrabiblos, 111, 13). Greek lover of male youth: the fleeting The astrological texts make it abundantly radiance of his anthos doomed to perish as clear that the ancients were familiar with adulthood encroaches upon his charms; the whole range of sexual preferences-a unresponsive or avaricious boys; the dis- GREECE, MODERN O appointment that awaits the boy himself world of ancient Greece offers almost a when age overtakes him; and fear of the millennium of evidence for homosexual loss of the boy's affection, expressed in the behavior from poems, prose, inscriptions, mythological guise of Zeus' abduction of and works of art. Many of these are not Ganymede. only documents of the occurrence of Another literary innovation of the homosexual relations, but vivid capsules Hellenistic was the romance of of personal feeling. The historian must, of adventure or Milesian tale. Though most course, be wary of anachronism--of the of the extant examples tell of the vicissi- temptation to project back our own same- tudes of heterosexual lovers, homoerotic sex customs and judgments onto a very episodes and characters often figure as different era. Every allowance made, secondary motifs. A good instance is The however, there remain notable similari- Adventures of Leucippe and CLitophon by ties; the differences themselves set in re- Achilles Tatius (probably of the Roman lief the spectrum of homosexual expres- period that followed the Hellenistic one). sion of which human beings are capable. The chief homosexual component is a debate on the respective merits of love for BIBLIOGRAPHY. Erich Bethe, "Die dorische Knabenliebe: ihre Ethik und women and love for boys-a subject that ihre Idee," Rheinisches Museum, 62 was to reappear in later centuries. Essays (19071,438-75; Fklix Buffikre, Eros on pederasty were also written, the most adoleant: la pddhrastie dans la Grke notable being those ascribed to Lucianand antique, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1980; to Plutarch. The latter composed the Par- Sir Kenneth Dover, Greek Homosexual- ity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University allel Lives in which the homosexual pro- Press, 1978; Hans Licht, Sexual Life in clivities of Greco-Roman statesmen are Ancient Greece, London: Routledge and frankly discussed, but also a humorous Kegan Paul, 1932; William A. Percy, piece entitled Gryllus in which a talking Greek Pederasty, New York: Garland, pig argues that pederasty is unnatural 1990; Bernard Sergent, Homosexuality in Greek Myth, Boston: Beacon Press, 1986. because it is unknown among animals- Wayne R. Dynes and an assertion that contradicted the observa- Wmen Iohansson tion of ancient naturalists. (See Animal Homosexuality.) Perhaps the last major work in GREECE,MODERN the Hellenistic tradition that deals exten- A republic of ten million occupy- sively with pederasty is Deipnosophistae ing the southern extremity of the Balkan or Banquet of the Learned by Athenaeus, peninsula and the adjacent islands, Greece composed about A.D. 200. It treats the today has a strong sense of national iden- subject of love for boys with utter noncha- tity. Each year it is the goal of millions of lance, and preserves quotations from ear- tourists, some of them in quest of sexual lier works that have not survived in their experience. entirety. The pagan culture of the Greco- History. The modern Greeks Roman world accepted homosexual inter- derived their sexual mores, like their music, ests and telationships as a matter of every- cuisine, and dress, from their overlords the day life, with no scorn or condescension. It Turks rather than from ancient Greece. was the growing influence of Christianity, Duringthelong Ottomandomination from and its adoption as the state religion of the the fall of Byzantium in 1453 to 1821 and Roman Empire, that sounded the death in Macedonia and Crete until 1911, and in knell of this major era in the annals of Anatolia and Cyprus even today, the de- homosexuality. scendants of the Byzantines who did not Conclusion. If we include its convert to Islam preserved their language prolongation into the Roman period, the and religion. Orthodox bishops were given 4 GREECE, MODERN wide political authority over their flocks The socialist government headed by An- whom they helped the Turks fleece. The dreas Papandreou engaged in some harass- black (monastic)clergy were forbidden to ment of meeting places and organizations marry, and they were often inclined to during the 1980s. Apart from Athens, gay homosexuality. Greeks, like Armenians, tourists flock to Mykonos, while the is- often rose in the hierarchy at the Sublime land of Mytilene, home of Sappho, under- Porte, sometimes as eunuchs. Also they standably attracts lesbians. Three gay served as Janissaries in the Ottoman regi- magazines have been active: Bananas (now ments which were taught to revere the defunct),Amphi (1978- ),and ToKraksimo Sultan as their father, the regiment as their (1984- ), while the literary review Odos family, and the barracks as their home. Panos, though not strictly gay, often pub- Forbidden to marry, they engaged in sod- lishes works of a homophile nature. omy, particularly pederasty, and in such Since the Greeks generally reject Ottomanvices as opium and bribery. Along the hybrid compounds formed by Western with the Armenians, Greeks became the European scholars and scientists from chief merchants of the Empire, especially classical roots, the Modem Greek term for dominating the relatively backward Bal- i'homosexuality is omophylophilia, lit- kan provinces where they congregated in erally "same-sex-love," in contrast to etero- the cities and towns as Jews did in the phylophilia, "heterosexuality." Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth. Literary Achievements. As in After being inspired by theFrench ancient Greek literature, homosexual Revolution and Napoleon,-Greek maasion- thsrnes. hgwe prominently in the work of alists sought to revive their ancient tradi- several twentieth-century writers. With tions. The war for independence, in which his special linguistic gifts and his interest Lord Byron died fighting, began in 1821 in both ancient and modem reality, the and triumphedin 1Wwjthmuchsupport poet Constantine I?. Cavafy (1863-1933), from Hellenophiles in Western Europe considerably influenced modern Greek inspired originally by J. J. Winckelmann. verse. His specifically homoerotic themes The German art historian was murdered have inspired such contemporaries as in Trieste while waiting for a ship to carry Dinos Christianopoulos. Born in 1931 in him to Venice on his return to Rome; he Salonika, Christianopoulos was abandoned never reached Greece itself as he wished. by his parents at the age of one and a half, Byron visited Ali Pasha, a notori- then adopted. In 1945 the poet began to use ous Albanian Moslem pederast, and then the pseudonym "Christianopoulos," which Athens, where he went in search of boys suggests ,,son of a Christian" or "little for pederasty. Oscar Wilde was taken to Christian." He studied literature at Aris- Greece by his Dublin professor, Mahafy, totle University in Salonika, receiving his probably influencing his later sexual pro- degree in 1954. In 1958 he founded the clivities. literary review Diagonal and in 1962 Although Orthodox prelates like opened his own publishing firm under the Makarios, Archbishop of Cyprus, contrib- same name. In his earliest poems, he began uted to the nationalist leadership and still dealingwith what was to become his major exert a strong homophobic influence theme: homosexual love. His first throughout modern Hellas, native homo- collection, Season of the Leon Cows (1950], sexuals, often in contact with gay foreign includes several historical poems in the tourists, and scholars such as RenCe Vivien Cavafy mode. The juxtaposition of situ- and Kimon Friar revived ancient concepts. ations and details from diverse periods and Homosexuality over the age of sensuality in conflict with Christian faith seventeen is not criminal in Greece, but reveals T. S. Eliot's influence. In Knees of public disapprovalis sometimes expressed. Strangers (1954), Defenseless Craving GREECE, MODERN 4

(1960), Suburbs (19691, and The Cross- moved by his mother from Salonika to Eyed (written between 1949 and 1970), Athens where he was raised by a half- Christianopoulos discards historical set- crazed grandmother, then settling by acci- tings for erotika piimata, "erotic poems" dent into a building inhabited by female or "love poems," which, although similar prostitutes, he took some of their custom- to Cavafy's in their directness and sirnplic- ers for himself. Influenced by Rimbaud, he ity, being void of metaphor, move beyond won recognition in Greece after his works them in their even greater boldness and were translated into French and English. contemporaneity. The poems commemo- He was found strangled to death on his bed rate emotions, corporal sensations, ren- in Athens. Taksis discussed homosexual- dezvous, chance encounters, nights spent ity in a long interview included in his My searching for love in city parks, evenings Grandmother Athens and Other Texts spent in a lover's embrace far beyond the (1979). city limits. In 1960 Christianopoulos be- Two other major writers on gan writing what he calls mikra piimata, homosexuality are Yiorghos Ioannou "short poems," cryptic epigrams based on (1927-1 985) and Menis Koumandareas puns and psychological paradoxes. In his (born 1933), while Alexis Arvanitakis, later work the poet deplores the influence Yiannis Palamiotis, Vassilis Kolonas, and of the American and European gay move- Prodromos Savidis have also dealt with it. ment entailing the evanescence of the strict Themos Kornaros'novel Mount Athos (for Middle Eastern division sod roles into which he was sent to prison) treated the "active" and "passive." His previous col- initiation rites undergone by novice monks lections of verse are now published in one in monasteries. The ecclesiastic code of largevoiume, Poems4 198S),whkh isaegu- ,the Greek Orthodox Church has specific larly updated and reprinted. statutes dealing with the punishments to Andreas Angelakis (bom 1940)has be inflicted (e.g., prayers to be said in written a series of poems based on the life atonement) for homosexual acts. of Cavafy (Cavafy on the Way, 1984)) i' As for the vestiges, especially in several homosexual plays, and compiled colloquial speech and folksongs, of homo- and translated an anthology of American sexual mores from the earlier periods of gay poetry (1982))the first such to appear modem Greece, much work has been done in Greece. Also influenced by Cavafy, the by Elias Petropoulos (The Bordello; Re- poet Yiannis Ritsos (born 1909) in the betic Songs; Kaliardli; The Underworld several volumes of his fictionalized and Greek Shadow Theater) and by Mary autobiography, lconostasis ofAnonymous Koukoules in her continuing series Saints, has written more frankly of his Neoelleniki Athyrostomia (1984- ). A own homosexuality than he had earlier. play has also been staged dealing with the An early poet who wrote explicitly ho- life of transvestites and homosexual pros- moeroticpoetry wasNapoleon Lapathiotis; titutes, Yiorghos Maniotis' The Pit of Sin. more discreet was Mitsos Papanikolaou. Such writers depict traditional Two contemporaries are Loukas Theodor- Greek (or Middle Eastern] or Mediterra- akopoulos and Yiorghos Khronas. nean homosexuillity in terms of strict role KostasTaktsisi (1927-1988) novel opposition: "active" counterposed to The Third Wedding Crown (19631, now "passive" partners, as well as each writer's considered a classic of twentieth-century views on the coming to contemporary fiction, and a few stories in the collection Greece of "European" homosexual The Leftover Chance (1972) deal in par- mores-the "Gay Movementu-in which ticular (though as minor themes) with sexual roles are not so strictly defined, homosexual incest and transvestism. First because "identity" has taken the fore- shocked by the divorce of his parents and ground. Greek readers by no means con- 4 GREECE, MODERN sider the work of many of these writers, These poems, assembled in the some of whom were or are major figures in twelfth book of the Anthology (with oth- Greek literature, to exemplify a specific ers scattered elsewhere in the collection], literary genre designated "homosexual" or are monuments of the passion of an adult "gay" literature (though the more explicit male for an adolescent boy (never another work of certain contemporary writers may adult, as some modern scholars have sug- modify this situation). Whether eros is gested; XII, 4 is the most explicit testi- depicted in its homosexual or its hetero- mony on this matter) that was an integral sexual manifestation is secondary in im- part of Greek civilization. The verses portance to the literary power with which frankly reveal the mores and values of it is depicted. Greek pederasty, exalting the beauty and charm of the beloved youth, sounding the BIBLIOGRAPHY. Kimon Friar, "The intensity of the lover's attachment, and no Poetry of Dinos Christianopoulos: An Introduction," lournal of the Hellenic less skillfully describing the physical prac- Diaspora, 611 (Spring 19791, 59-83; Tom tices to which these liaisons led, so that it Homer, Eros in Greece, New York: is not surprising that the complete set of Aegean Books, 1978; John Taylor, "The these poems was not published until 1764. Poetry of Dinos Christianopoulos," They are realistic in that they deal with Cabirion, 12 (1985), 11-13. William A. Percy and the rejection and frustration of the lover, John Taylor the brief and ephemeral quality of the boy's prime (anthos), and the loss of his attractiveness once the coarseness and GREEKANTHOLOGY hairiness of the adult male make their The Greek Anthology is another appearance, even the gloating at the down- name for the Palatine Anthology preserved fall of a youth who once could tease and in a unique manuscript belonging to the reject his lovers with cruel impishness. Palatine Library in Heidelberg. It was as- The whole set of themes belongs specifi- sembled in the tenth century by the Byz- cally to the world of the boy-lover and his antine scholar Constantine Cephalas on paramour, not that of the androphile the basis of three older collections: (1)the homosexual of modern times, even if cer- Garland of Meleager, edited at the begin- tain poems also profess an exclusively ning of the first century B.c.; (2) the Gar- homosexual orientation that is indifferent land of Philippus, which probably dates to women's beauty. Some of the verses are from the reign of Augustus; and (3) the little masterpieces of Greek literature Cycle of Agathias, collected in the reign of whose euphony can scarcely be rendered Justinian (527-535) and including only into English; and when they were trans- contemporary works. But in addition lated, until quite recently, often the sex of Cephalas incorporated in his anthology the subject or the addressee was falsified to the Musa Puerilis or "Boy-love Muse" of conform to the mores of contemporary Strato of Sardis, who probably flourished society. It has been said that if every other under Hadrian (second quarter of the sec- work of Greek literature had perished, the ond century). It is probable that the segre- Anthology would make it possible to re- gation of the poems on boy-love from the construct the private life of Hellenic civi- rest of the anthology (with the mistaken lization down to the smallest detail, and inclusion of some heterosexual pieces) this truism certainly applies to its image of reflects the Byzantine attitude, quite dif- thepaiderasteia that informed the culture ferent from that of the pagan Meleager of Greece not just in its golden age, but who indifferently set the two themes side even in later centuries, when the Hellenis- by side. tic world embraced the whole of the East- GRIERSON, FRANCIS 4 ernMediterranean The most recent poems his talent as a pianist and gave musical in the group are from the second century, recitals along the Atlantic coast in 1868. showing that in pagan circles the old ethos He met Walt Whitman then and the two was undimmed. remained life-long correspondents and The prudery that persisted into friends. modem times compelled scholars to treat Not yet twenty, he went to Paris, this section of the Anthology only in the where his singing and piano improvisa- obscurity of Latin annotations, and just tions made him an international star. On recently has it become possible to discuss March 25, 1870, he sang the lead part in the content of these poems in the clarity of Leon Gastinelle's mass at Notre Dame the modern languages. Students of classi- Cathedral.1nvitinghim to dinner, the elder cal literature and apologists for pederasty Dumaspredicted "With your gifts youwill alike have undertaken the task of analyz- find all doors open before you." In 1874 he ingand commenting this corpus of poems; returned to theunited States and in Octo- in particular one may consult the works of ber conducted seances at Chittenden, J. 2. Eglinton, Greek Love (New York, Vermont, with Helena Petrovna Blavat- 1964) and Felix Buffikre, Eros adolescent sky, the founder of Theosophy. She, how- (Paris, 1980), as well as the bilingual edi- ever, disapproved of Grierson because he tions of the Anthology that have appeared had performed at Salle Koch, a St. Peters- in various countries, beginning with the burg dancehall frequented, Blavatsky Loeb Classical Library text in English claimed, "by dissipated characters of both (1918).No account of the homosexuality sexes." Jesse was not deterred in his career of the Greeks can be written without tak- as a medium, which he combined with his inginto account the abundant and express music. He made his way to San Francisco testimony of the Anthology on the facet of and thence to Australia. In 1880 he was in their civilization that marked the apogee London lecturing and in 1885 he met of love and fidelity between males. Waldemar Tonner, a German Jewish tailor Warren lohansson in Chicago; the two remained lovers for forty-two years. Offered acity blockin San Diego, the couple movedfor a time to 20th GRIERSON,FRANCIS and K streets, where they built the Villa (1848-1927) Montezuma with contributions from spiri- American musician and essayist. tualists and theosophists. Grierson was born Benjamin Henry Jesse With the collapse of their San Francis Grierson Shepard in England; until Diego venture, the couple returned to 1899hewas called Jesse Shepard.His family Europe in 1890. Taking the name Francis moved to frontier Illinois,where Jesseheard Grierson, Jesse wrote a series of books: Lincoln debate Douglas in 1858, an inci- Essays and Pen-Pictures [Paris, 18891, dent incorporated in his The Valley of the PensSes et essais (Paris, 1889)) Modem Shadows (London, 1909; Boston, 1948). Mysticism and Other Essays (London, The family next moved to St. Louis, where 18991, 7'he Celtic Temperament and Other the boy's beautiful singing voice attracted Essays (London, 190I), Parisian Portraits the attention of John Fremont (explorer, (London, 1910), La Vie et les hommes first Republican presidentialcandidate, and (London, 191 I), Some Thoughts [London, Civil War general 1. Fremont took thirteen- 19 1I), and The Humour of the Underman, year-old Jesse as his page, but when the and Other Essays (London, 19111. as older man lost his command, the boy 1 works denounced materialism, praised art moved with his family to Niagara Falls and explored a cosmic consciousness. and then to Chicago. Jesse early developed 1 Grierson's sketch of Paul Verlaine details + GRIERSON, FRANCIS visits to the poet's garret and concluded BIBLIOGRAPHY. Harold P. Sirnonson, that two lines of Verlainewere worth more Prancis Grierson,New York: Twayne's United States Authors Series, 1966. than the whole of Paradise Lost. Charley Shively Fearing the onslaught of war, Grierson ret-ed to New ~orkCity in 1913. The New York Evening Post sent a GRIFFES,CHARLES reporter to interview him, who laterwrote, TOMLINSON(1884-1 720) "I had never seen a man with lips and American composer. Growing up cheeks rouged and eyes darkened. His hair a middle-class home in ~l~ir~,N~~ was arranged in careful disorder Over his York, the youngGriffes early became aware brow, his hands elaborately manicured and of his musical talent as well as his "differ- with many rings on his fingers; he wore a encew-his lack of attraction to girls and softly tinted, flowing cravat." Grierson's dislike of contact sports. ~i~ ability as a writings on the German n~enaceand the pianist attracted the attention of an eccen- l'yellow peril" show him at his weakest: tric patron, M~~~selma ~~~~~h~~~, who The Invincible Alliance, and Other Es- arranged for him to go to ~~~linto study says, Political, Social, and Literary (Lon- (1903).There his acquaintance with the don, 19131 and Illusions and Realities of city's thriving gay subculture must have the War (New York, 1918). given him an insight into his own nature Grierson's fame in the United far richer than the hints that he been able States faded with the years; he remained to piece together in Elmira. He also ac- known only among spiritualist circles. His quired a uspecial friend" in an older stu- last two books were Abraham dent, Konrad Walcke, who helped him to The Practical Mystic (New York1 1918) become acclimated in Germany. The two and Psycho-PhoneMessages(LosAngeles~ remained devoted to one another for a 1921);his lover never found apublisher for number of years. on the advice of his a Poetry anthology and Grierson's autobi- teacher, Engelbert Humperdinck, Griffes' OS~P~YIwhich were left in manuscript- professional goal shifted from piano per- Tonner and Grierson moved to LOSAnge- formanceto composing.ss first composi- les in 1920 and soon took UP with a Hun- tions reflected the heavy, Germanic taste count1 Michael Albert Teleki, and that he had learned; later, however, under his msther; they all ran a dry-cleaning the influence of French and Russian mu- businesstogether.In19271Tomermanged sic, he acquired the lighter, more colorful a concert for Grierson; at the end of the accents that are characteristic of his ma- performance, when he did not turn to the ture work. audience, Tonner checked and found his In 1907 Griffes returned to the lover dead. United States, and the following year he HavingobservedQueenVictoria's accepted an appointment at the Hackley funeral, Grierson was no sexual libera- school for boys in ~~~~t~~~,~y.Fre- tionist. ~hilehe was flamboyant and quently complaining of overwork, he was enjoyed theairsof thearistocracy, hedeeply to remain there until his death. During his loved and shared his life with a tailor. He trips to N~~ york city he became a regu- lived his entire life like the grasshopper lar patron of the Lafayette Place Baths and enjoying whatever prosperity ~howered the Produce Exchange Baths. Although he upon him. When his funds ran low1 he disliked some aspects of these establish- pawned his fur coat or ruby ring. More ments, he found them an indispensable truly than his contemporary Oscar Wilde~ resource for sexual contacts. Griffes' last Grierson could have said that he put his ye,s were illuminated by a deeply emo- genius into his life and only his talent into tional friendshipwith a married N~~ York his books. policeman, Dan C. Martin, an arrange- GROSS INDECENCY *> ment recalling one effected some years ity (buggery),required proof of penetration later by the English novelist E.M. Forster. (down to 1828 the law was interpreted to Always of a delicate constitution, Charles require proof of penetration and emission). Tomlinson Griffes died of pneumonia in Ambitiously, the 1885legislation enlarged 1920. His papers passed into the hands of the prohibition to include any homosex- his younger sister Marguerite, who de- ual contact whatsoever. As Havelock Ellis stroyed many of them, apparently because pointed out in 1897, it was illogical to she feared their "compromising" nature. include private acts, sinceno one would be In this way preciousmaterial for theunder- present to record the indecency or be out- standing of his inner life has been lost. raged by it. At all events, Oscar Wilde was Griffes was the first important convicted ten years later under the 1885 American composer to be fully conversant Act inacase that sent shockwaves through- with the avant-garde, as represented by out the Western world. such figures as Claude Debussy, Ferruccio "Indecency" has a broad connota- Busoni, and Edgard Varbe. He was also tion, suggesting anything held to be un- influenced by Indonesian and Japanese seemly, offensive, or obscene. The 1861 music. His Symphony in Yellow of 1912 Act had mentioned "indecent assault" bears a dedication to Oscar Wilde. The against both females and males. Appar- choral work These Things Shall Be em- ently wishing to leave no uncertainty that ploys a text by another English homosex- consensual acts, as well as coercive ones, ual writer, John Addington Symonds. One fell within the scope of the prohibition, of his last works, the experimental Salut Labouchkre seems to have deleted the noun auMonde, uses texts from Walt Whitman's "assault," adding the adjective i'grossll by Leaves of Grass. The general public, way of compensation. There is no crime of however, knows Griffes best for his sen- ,'petty indecency." sual short pieces, The Pleasure-Dome of In 1921 a Scottish Conservative Kubla Khan and The White Peacock. M.P. proposed to criminalize acts "of gross indecency between female persons." This BIBLIOGRAPHY. Edward Maisel, legislation was not adopted, and in fact Charles T.Griffes: The Life of an American Composer, rev. ed., New York: lesbian acts have never been against the Knopf, 1984. law in the United Kingdom. The 1967 Ward Houser Criminal Offenses Act (Englandand Wales) removed private conduct between con- senting adults from the scope of the crimi- GROSSINDECENCY nal law, but left the expression "gross As a term of art for homosexual indecency" for public acts. If committed acts, "gross indecencyi1 entered Engiish by members of the Armed Forces or Navy, law through the Criminal Law Amend- even private acts remain a matter of gross ment Act of 1885. An amendment, drafted indecency. It also remains illegal to "pro- by Henry Labouchkre and retained as Sec- cure" an act of gross indecency; in a bizarre tion 11 of the Act, has the following lan- case, the director of a play, The Romans in guage: "Any male person who, in public or Britain, was prosecuted in 1982 for a brief private, commits, or is party to the com- episode of simulated buggery. mission of, or procures or attempts to Five New England states and procure the commission by any male per- Michigan imitated the British statute. As son of, any act of gross indecency with of 1988 Michigan still recognized "gross another male person, shall be guilty of a indecencies between males" and "gross misdemeanor. . . ." Earlier legislation, indecencies among females." Generally, culminating in the 1861 Offenses Against however, the expression has little cur- the Person Act, directed against anal activ- rency in American law and is unlikely to 4 GROSS INDECENCY acquire much, as it would be vulnerable to useful for the historian who wishes to attack under the "void for vagueness" establish the "homo-geography" of the principle. recent past. See also Common Law. Currently three well-established publications dominate the field: the Spar- Gays and tacus Guide, covering the world outside the Law, London: Pluto Press, 1982; H. Montgomery Hyde, The Love That theunitedstates; theMovement-oriented Dared Not Speak Its Name, Boston: annual Gayellow Pages, blanketing North Little, Brown, 1970. America, with one national and five re- William A. Percy gional editions; and the lesbian Gaia's Guide, edited by Sandy Horn. Gay guides have also been published for such cities as GUIDES,GAY London, Paris, Amsterdam, Berlin, New In thenineteenth century York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, with guides of limited circulation were pub- special telephone books (11~~11~~pages~~~ lished of the demimondes of Paris, Lon- appearing also for the latter two. don, Brussels and other cities, sometimes Wayne R. Dynes including directories of prostitutes; none is known to have had a homosexual em- phasis. For some decades in our own cen- GUYON,RENE CHARLES tury, it appears, homosexual men ex- MARIE(1876-1961) changed among themselves handlists of French jurist and sexual theorist. favorite haunts-bars, restaurants, hotels, Guyon earned a doctorate in law from the baths and public meeting places. A few University of Paris with his study La seem to have been duplicated in a kind of Constitution australienne de 1900 (Paris: samizdat form, reproduced in carbon- Chevalier-Marescq, 1902). This work and copied or mimeographed sheets. Th se his Ce que la loi punit: code pbnal ex- lists were distributed privately, and sold,3 if pliqud (Paris: Larousse, 1909)brought him at all, clandestinely. This clandestinity to the attention of the King of Siam, who served to protect the establishments listed appointed him in 1908 a member of the from notoriety that might result in police Code Commission and in 1916 chief of the harassment. Drafting Committee of the Siamese Code Out of the small handlists pam- of Law. In 1919 the Siamese government phlets and books emerged. The earliest published Guyon's The Work of Cohfica- surviving example seems to be The Gay tion in Siam in both English and French Girl's Guide (69 pp.), a male-oriented editions. Ren6 Guyon developed early the publication with a directory of "where to principle of privacy, that law should never make contacts," that apparently began invade the bedroom. "Thegreatest charity publication in Boston in 1949. It was suc- you can render your neighbors," he wrote, ceeded by the international Guide Gris, "is keeping out of their private lives." In first published in San Francisco in 1958 Siam (called Thailand after 19491, as the with subsequent editions, which seems to Spartacus Gay Guide notes, "The right to be the first such collection to appear as a be homosexual has never been forbidden real book. In the 1960s) the Incognito or restricted." Guide, published in Paris, enjoyed fairly In his philosophy, Guyon devel- wide circulation. In 1972, "John Francis oped a rationalism endebted to Epicurus Hunter" (John Paul Hudson] published a and updated with Einstein, Freud, and heroic one-man job of 629 pages, The Gay modem science. He expounded his ideas Insider USA. While these and other guides inaseriesof works: EssaidemBtaphysique of those decades are now obsolete, they are matBrialiste (Paris: Costes, 1924);Essai de GUYON, RENB CHARLES MARIE 9 biologiematdrialiste (Paris:Costes, 1926), (Saint-Denis: Dardaillon, 1938). The first Reflexions sur la toldrance (Paris: Alcan, volumewas translated into Enghshin 1934 1930); Essai de psychologie matt?rialiste and the second volume in 1939 with intro- [Paris: Costes, 1931 1, and La porte large ductions by Norman Haire. (Paris:Rieder, 1939).His belief in freedom, A further volume which would science, and reason was absolute: he vigor- have included homosexuality has never ously opposed the irrationalities incorpo- appeared, but Guyon's analysis of the topic rated in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. emerges from his other volumes. He re- From anthropology and from his jected all notions of perversion, abnormal- own travels, Guyon found many supersti- ity, inversion, third sex, and the "woman's tions but also sexual freedoms unknown soul trapped in a man's body." Separating to Europeans. With his brother he wrote an sexual gratification from human repro- account of Brazil's emerald forest: A trav- duction, he argued that any and all sexual ers la forkt vierge: aventures extraordi- pleasures are reasonable, natural, and le- naires de deux jeunes Fran~aisnu Brdsil gitimate. What he labeled tiintersexual" (Paris: Gedalge, 1907). Guyon traveled (manand woman] intercourse is relatively extensively throughout Asia and Africa uncommon (abnormal); masturbation, he and closely studied the works of James argued, was the most common (normal] Frazer (The Golden Bough), Paul Gauguin form of sexual activity. He rejected the (Noa Noa), General A. H. Pitt-Rivers (The idea of "genital" sexuality and argued that Clash of Cultures and Contact of Races), the mouth, anus, fingers, tongue, or other and Sigmund Freud (Totem and Taboo). outlet was no less erogenous than the Most of the latter half of his long penis and vagina. For him bestiality, in- life was spent inBangkok, where he died in cest, festishism, talking dirty, exhibition- 1961. Editing a two-volume Anthologie ism, voyeurism, necrophilia, coprophilia, bouddhique (Paris: Crts, 19241, Guyon and other activities are equally joyful. praised Buddhism, whose general ideas he "Every mechanical means of producing found "logical, acceptable, and relatively sexual pleasure," Guyon postulates, "is practical" because "sexuality is not made normal and legitimate; there is no room an object of special odium of an unreason- for moral distinctions between the various able and almost pathological kind." In La available methods: all are equally justifi- cmautd (Paris: Alcan, 1927))he contrasted able and equally suited to their particular theBuddhist attitude toward animals with ends." Christian cruelty. His reservations were sadism, In 1929, Guyon published the first chastity, and love. The first, he argued, too volume of his monumental Etudes often violated "the fullest respect for the d'kthique sexuelle. Before World War II, liberty of others and the free consent six volumes appeared: I. La ldgitimitt? des (uncomplicated by any element of vio- actes sexuels (Saint-Denis: Dardaillon, lence or deceit) of the sexual partner." 1929);11. La liberti sexuelle (Saint-Denis: Deliberate chastity to Guyon was an Dardaillon, 19331; 111. Rdvision des incomprehensible disease. Love was institutions classiques (Mariage:Famille) understandable, but too limited: "Individu- (Saint-Denis: Dardaillon, 1934); IV. alized love is only sexual desire concen- Politique rationnelle de sexualitd, la trated on a single person," which is unduly reproduction humaine (Saint-Denis, selfishandlasts at most afew years. Guyon Dardaillon, 1936); V. Politique ra tionelle was nearly unique among sexologists in de sexualitd; leplaisirsexuel (Saint-Denis: recognizing that homosexual and incestu- Dardaillon, 1937);ynd VI. La persdcution ous love "enjoy exactly the samepossibili- des actes sexuels I. Les courtisanes ties of passion, the same paroxysms of joy, + GUYON, REN~CHARLES MARIE the same jealousies and torments, in a the RenC Guyon Society in Los Angeles. word the same characteristics, as the most Their motto-credited to Guyon-was usual forms of intersexual love." "Sex before eight or it's too late," and they Guyon participated in the work encouraged training children in the use of of the World League for Sexual Reform on condoms. Tom O'Hare for some time is- a Scientific Basis and supported Magnus sued the RenC Guyon Society Bulletin, but Hirschfeld and the founding of a French the organization suffered persecution and chapter of the organization under Pierre repression in the anti-sex climate of the Vachet. Guyon corresponded with Nor- eighties. man Haire in London and Sigmund Freud Guyon's unfinished Etudes in Vienna. He himself became a practicing resemble Foucault's unfinished History of psychoanalyst, but Freud did not go far Sexuality in the ambition of the authors. enough for him. Freud's Three Essays on There is no evidence that Foucault ever the Theory of Sex (1905) identified the studied Guyon, but Foucault's argument libido of the child but failed to reject cen- that sexologists invented the idea of sorship and repression. Guyon defended homosexuality could be corrected by read- infant sexuality as natural and normal, but ing Guyon. Guyon's books were published social conventions "as abnormal and in editions as small as a hundred copies. undesirable." In his reply, Freud argued The Nazis who conquered France in 1940 that homosexuality was not natural but and Charles DeGaulle, who took power "acquired." Guyon also rejected the idea after World War 11, had an equal repug- of a death instinct advanced in Freud's nance for sexual liberation. Guyon's work Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920);for still remains to be discovered. Guyon, the conflict was not between Charley Shively thanatos and eros, but between eros and convention. Guyon corresponded with Alfred GYMNASIA Kinsey and warmly welcomed the appear- The Greek sports ground, usually ance of Sexual Behavior in the Human at first outside the city walls, was open to Male (1948).Kinsey in turn studied Guyon all citizens but not to slaves or foreigners. closely and cited his six-volume Etudes in Gymnasia evolved from the Cretan dro- the notes and bibliography of Sexual Be- mos (simple running track) where in the havior in the Human Female (1953). seventh century B.C. boys and young men Guyon's work has had a continuing influ- began to exercise together nude. The ence among sexologists. In 1952 Milan's Greeks and those nations they influenced Scienza e Sessualith published Guyon's were the only civilized peoples ever to "L'istinto sessuale" as a supplement to exercise regularly in the nude. As in- their journal. "Chastity and virginity: the stitutionalized pederasty spread to Sparta case against" appeared in the year of and the rest of Greece, so did gymnasia, Guyon's death in the Albert Ellis-edited some of which added covered tracks. The The Encyclopedia of Sexual Behavior oldest in Athens date to the sixth century, (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1961). probably established by Solon, who for- Guyon is best known today for bade slaves, as in Crete, to enter them: the his teachings on childhood sexuality. He Academy and the Lyceum, originally as vigorously opposed all notions of inno- elsewhere on the outskirts of the city, cence, chastity or virginity; he wrote: outside the walls and large enough for "nature is on the side of the child, and parades and riding lessons. Soon a third artificial convention on the side of the was added for metics, the Cynosarges. In average adult." A year after his death, a the larger gymnasia special areas of the group of seven intersexual adults formed palestra were set aside for the teenagers, GYMNASIA +

from which men were barred so that they though most Romans disapproved of nu- would not cruise the boys while they were dity and gymnastics, preferring hunting exercising. The principal supervisor, the and war games. During the empire Roman paedotribe, had to be over 40. baths, some of which had mixed patrons, That the gymnasia early became often added exercise rooms and even li- centers of plotting is attested by the fact braries, thus coming to resemble the in- that Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos (d.521 creasingly elaborate Hellenistic gymna- B.c.], had them burned. The more ped- sia, which even in the eastern provinces erasty became associated with tyrannicide they rivaled and to some extent replaced. as it did, the more tyrants opposed it. The No more is heard of gymnasia Persians also opposed gymnasia, as did the after A.D. 380, when the intolerant Chris- tyrants they supported, and Ionia after the tian Theodosius the Great began to perse- Persian conquest did not practice pederasty, cute pagans. Ascetics, calling themselves as Plato's Symposium said. "athletes for Christ," preferred to mortify Gymnasia had three principal the body, condemning not only pederasty subdivisions: (I]the track (dromos),where and nudity but even bathing, and fulmi- athletes practiced for contests of distance-- nating against gymnasia and baths, which running, javelin throwing, and the like; (2) declined especially in the Western prov- the palestra, for physical exercise, wres- inces as cities shrank and became impov- tling, and ball playing, at times with a erished beginningwith the disasters of the library attached; and (3)baths, swimming third century. pools, and rooms for massage. As centers During the Renaissance Italian of recreation and leisure for the Greek theorists like Guido di Montefeltro re- male the gymnasia became the setting for vived the Greek and Latin desideratum of paideia (educational instruction], as re- a sound mind in a sound body and the flected in the Platonic dialogues, several of English public schools established in the which are set in them. Philosophers, soph- sixteenth century reimposed systematic ists, dialecticians and all kinds of other exercise and games as part of the program teachers frequented them, drawing audi- for their students, but no one proposed ences of boys and men to their lectures. nudity. The modem gymnasium thus grew Plato preferred the Academy and Aristotle up as an adjunct to the playing fields of the Lycaeum. Eton and Harrow. American schools and In the Hellenistic period gymna- colleges imitated these English models. In sia and pederasty spread to all the cities the nineteenth century and even more in where Greeks settled or which became the twentieth gymnasia were established Hellenized. The gymnasiarchs appointed in European and American cities for the by the Ptolemies eventually acquired wide rich, often as clubs, and for the general political and administrative powersin their public as the YMCAs. Some became ten- poleis, under the Romans becoming the ters of homosexual cruising and after the chief officials. Even Jerusalem briefly Stonewall Uprising, openly gay gymnasia acquired a gymnasium near the Temple, appeared in most larger American cities. where circumcised Jewish youths with The Westernizing elites of the Third World simulated foreskins performed their exer- also established gymnasia. cises nude in the reign of Antiochus. The See also Bathhouses. scandal helped provoke the Maccabean uprising, which destroyed the gymnasium BIBLIOGRAPHY. JeanDelorme, Gymnosion: Etude sur les monuments in Jerusalem, though Herod the Great (d. 4 consocrds d l'dducation en Grbe, Paris: B.c.] later patronized ones in the Greek Boccard, 1960. cities. Gymnasia also appeared in Rome William A. Percy and some Latin cities in the West, al-