Memorial of Costa Rica

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Memorial of Costa Rica INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE DISPUTE CONCERNING NAVIGATIONAL AND RELATED RIGHTS (COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA) MEMORIAL OF COSTA RICA VOLUME 1 29 August 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No Chapter 1 Introduction .................................. 1 Scope of the Dispute ............................ 1 The Court's Jurisdiction .......................... 3 The Structure of this Memorial .................... 4 Chapter 2 Geographical and Historical Background .......... 7 A . The geography of the San Juan basin ............... 7 B . Historical background ........................... 9 (1) The San Juan River under Spanish rule (1492-1821) .............................. 9 (2) The post-independence period (1 82 1. 1 856) ..... 11 (a) The proposed trans-Isthmian canal ....... 12 (b) The British protectorate over the Mosquito Indians .................. 12 (c) Agreements between Great Britain and the United States ............ 14 (d) Conflicts arising from the intervention of the filibusters ............ 14 (3) The conclusion of the Treaty of Limits 1858 ..... 15 (4) Nicaragua's challenge to the Treaty of Limits and the Cleveland Award 1888 ......... 16 (5) Implementation of the Treaty of Limits after 1888: the Alexander Awards ............ 20 (6) The 1916 Judgment of the Central American Court of Justice .................. 21 (7) Later developments ........................ 25 Chapter 3 The Dispute before the Court .................... 27 A . Overview ...................................27 B . Nicaragua's violations of Costa Rica's sights between1980and1998 .......................... 27 Nicaragua's violations from 1998 to the present ....... 33 Attempts by Costa Rica to resolve the dispute ........ 37 (1) Commerce as communication ................1 19 (2) Commerce as transportation of goods and persons (including tourism) ..............123 D . Breaches of Costa Rica's rights of protection of commerce. safeguard. defence and re-supply of police posts .................................124 E . Breaches of other Related Rights .................. 132 (1) The right to land at any part of the Nicaraguan bank of the River where navigation is common . 133 (2) Facilitation of traffic on the River ............133 (3) Customary right to fish in favour of residents of the Costa Rican bank ....................134 F. Conclusions ...................................135 Chapter 6 The Remedies sought by Costa Rica ..............137 A . Introduction ...................................137 B . Declaration of violations of Nicaragua's obligations ... 137 C. Cessation of continuing internationally . wrongful conduct ...............................139 D . Full Reparation ................................140 (1) Restitution ...............................141 (2) Compensation ............................141 E . Assurances and guarantees of non-repetition ......... 143 F. Conclusions ...................................144 Submissions ..............................................147 Appendix A The status of the San Juan River in international law .............................. 149 I . The San Juan is an international river ............... 149 I1 . General international law concerning navigational rights on international waterways and its relation to the dispute ..................................155 111 . Conclusions ...................................157 Appendix B The Revenue Guard: Creation and Development ... 159 List of Annexes Volume 2: Agreements. Awards and Judicial Decisions .... 173 Volume 3: Diplomatic Correspondence ................. 179 Volume 4: AEdavits ................................187 Volume 5: Press Reports .............................191 Volume 6: Other Documents .........................199 Chapter 1 Introduction A. Scope of the Dispute 1.01. The present proceedings were commenced by an Application which was filed with the Registry on 29 September 2005. They concern breaches by Nicaragua of Costa Rica's rights of navigation and related rights in respect of the San Juan River (hereafter "the San Juan"). These rights are set out in a series of treaties and decisions commencing with the Treaty of Limits of 15 I April 1858 ("the Treaty of Limits"),l 1.02. Costa Rica is a Central American Republic bounded on the north by Nicaragua and on the south by Panama. The territorial scope of the present dispute concerns that part of the boundary between Costa Rica and Nicaragua that follows the course of the San Jum. It is shown on Sketch Map 1, opposite. I 1.03. The San Juan is a major river which flows from Lake Nicaragua in a generally easterly direction to the Caribbean Sea, a length of about 205 kilometres. For much of that distance (from below Castillo Viejo until near its mouth) the southern or right bank of the River constitutes the boundary between the two States. 1.04. The present boundary between Costa Rica and Nicaragua was first established by the Treaty of Limits. It left the waters of the Sari Juan within Nicaragua, but at the same time the Parties expressly recognised important Costa Rican rights of use of the River, in particular perpetual rights of free navigation of boats and passengers sailing to or from Costa Rica for commercial purposes. The validity of the Treaty of Limits was subsequently challenged by Nicaragua and was upheld in an arbitral award issued by the Costa R~CRand Nicaragua, Trcaty of Lirnlts, San lose, 15 April 1858 (sometimes referred to ac the CsAas-Jcrkz Treaty). In this Memonal, unless otherwise ind~cated,the English translation of the Treaty of Llmits which will be used is the one submitted by Costa K~cato Presrdent Cleveland: sec Annexes, Vol 2, Annex 7(b). Thc authoritative Spanish text is st Annexes, Vol 2, Annex 7(a) Also annexed arc the translat~on aubmltted to President Cleveland by N~caragua:Annexes, Vol2, Annex 7(c), and a tnnslationpublishcd In British and Fore~gn State Papers Annexes, Vol2, Annex 7(d). President of the United States of America, Grover Cleveland, on 22 March 1888 ("the Cleveland Awardm).2 At the same time the Cleveland Award confirmed and authoritatively interpreted the extent of Costa Rican rights of use of the River. These rights were further specified (with the force of res judicata) by the Central American Court of Justice in its judgment of 13 September 19 16 in the case Costa Rica v. Nicaragua rthe 1916 Judgmentm)3 and they were supplemented in the Agreement pursuant to Article TV of the Pact of Amity, Washington, D.C., 9 January 1 956 ("the 1956 Agreement"), in particular articles 1 and 2.4 1.05. Costa Rica's rights of navigation on the River were and remain of considerable significance. The area contains national parks and forest reserves on both sides of the River. There are few roads, and none which proceed to the Caribbean coast in an east-west direction. The normal method of transport is by boat; this includes public transport, local traffic by riparians going to market or to school, and transport for the growing tourist industry. In short, the San Juan is for many purposes the only road. 1.06. Since the 1990s Nicaragua has imposed and maintained important restrictions on the navigation of Costa Rican boats and their passengers on the San Juan, restrictions tending to deny the substance of Costa Rica's rights entirely. These include the following: (a) the imposition of charges on Costa Rican boats and their passengers; (b) the obligation to stop successively at each Nicaraguan military post on the Nicaraguan bank of the River to report the names of the passengers and to obtain authorisation to navigate or, as the case may be, to continue to navigate, on the River; (c) the prohibition imposed by Nicaraguan authorities on Costa Rican police personnel and their boats to navigate the San Juan River, with or without their service weapons (armas de reglamento); 2 The Award was givcn in Engl~hh:see Papers rclating to the Foreign Rclatlons orthe United Statcs, 18891I: 456-9: Annexes, Vol 2, Annex 16. 3 English translation published in (1917) 1 1 AJIL 181. Annexes. Vol 2, Annex 2 1 4 1465 Untted Natlons Treaty Series 233: Annexes. Vol 2, Annex 24. (d) the imposition of timetables for navigation on the River; (ej the obligation to use the Nicaraguan flag as a precondition for navigating on the River; (f) limitations to free moorage along the banks of the River; and (g) other limitations to expeditious transit on the River. 1.07. Since the Application was filed, Nicaragua has tightened existing restrictions on the use of the River and imposed new ones, in particular requiring a passport and (for Costa Ricans) a visa, and prohibiting Costa Rican riparians from fishing in the River. 1.08. In these proceedings Costa Rica seeks, in particular, the cessation of all Nicaraguan conduct which prevents the free and full exercise and enjoyment of the rights that Costa Rica possesses on the San Juan, and which also prevents Costa Rica from fulfilling its responsibilities to guard and protect the River under article 1V of the Treaty of Limits and article 2 of the 1 956 Agreement and otherwise, B. The Court's Jurisdiction 1.09. The Court has jurisdiction over the present dispute in accordance with the provisions of article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute, by virtue of the operation of the following: (a) the declarations of acceptance made respectively by the Republic of Costa Rica dated 29 February 1973, and by the Republic of Nicaragua dated 24 September 1929; (b) the Tovar-Caldera Agreement, Alajuela, 26 September 2002.5 1.10. The Court also has jurisdiction over the present dispute in accordance with the
Recommended publications
  • Costa Rica, Haiti and Panama 99 the Cases of Costa Rica, Haiti and Panama
    Cha p ter 9: The cases of Costa Rica, Haiti and Panama 99 The cases of Costa Rica, Haiti and Panama MATION FOR IN Costa Rica C SI A B Population 4,870,000 Comparative increase (percentage variation 2008-2015) Territorial Extension 51,000 km2 Security State GDP Budget Budget GDP (US$) 56,908,000,000 Public Force Personnel 14,497* Security Budget (US$) 949,094,945 159% 126% 91% *Dependents of the Ministry of Security Principal Actors Security Budget as a Percentage of GDP, 2004-2015 1,000,000,000 Institutions Dependents 900,000,000 800,000,000 - Public Force (Civil Guard, Rural Guard, Coast 700,000,000 Guard, Aerial Surveilance, Drugs Control). 600,000,000 Ministry of Public -Police School. 500,000,000 Security - Directorate of Private Security Services. 400,000,000 300,000,000 - General Directorate of Armaments. 200,000,000 100,000,000 0 Ministry of - Directorate of Migration and Foreign Persons. 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Interior and Police - Communal Development. Security Budget (current US$), 2004-2015 4.0% 3.5% - General Directorate of Social Adaption. Ministry of - General Directorate for the Promotion of 3.0% Justice and Peace and Citizen Coexistence. 2.5% Peace - National Youth Network for the prevention of violence. 2.0% - Violence Observatory. 1.5% - National Directorate of Alternative Confl ict Resolution. 1.0% - Commission for Regulating and Rating Public 0.5% Events. - Technical Secretariat of the National 0.0% 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Commission for the Prevention of Violence and Promotion of Social Peace.
    [Show full text]
  • 2020 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report
    United States Department of State Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs International Narcotics Control Strategy Report Volume I Drug and Chemical Control March 2020 INCSR 2020 Volume 1 Table of Contents Table of Contents Common Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................... iii International Agreements.................................................................................................................................... v INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Legislative Basis for the INCSR ......................................................................................................................... 2 Presidential Determination ................................................................................................................................. 7 Policy and Program Developments .................................................................................................... 12 Overview ......................................................................................................................................................... 13 Methodology for U.S. Government Estimates of Illegal Drug Production .......................................................... 18 Parties to UN Conventions ..............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Nicaragua and El Salvador
    UNIDIR/97/1 UNIDIR United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research Geneva Disarmament and Conflict Resolution Project Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Nicaragua and El Salvador Papers: Paulo S. Wrobel Questionnaire Analysis: Lt Col Guilherme Theophilo Gaspar de Oliverra Project funded by: the Ford Foundation, the United States Institute of Peace, the Winston Foundation, the Ploughshares Fund, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and the governments of Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Finland, France, Germany, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, South Africa, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. UNITED NATIONS New York and Geneva, 1997 NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. * * * The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat. UNIDIR/97/1 UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Sales No. GV.E.97.0.1 ISBN 92-9045-121-1 Table of Contents Page Previous DCR Project Publications............................... v Preface - Sverre Lodgaard ..................................... vii Acknowledgements ...........................................ix Project Introduction - Virginia Gamba ............................xi List of Acronyms........................................... xvii Maps.................................................... xviii Part I: Case Study: Nicaragua .......................... 1 I. Introduction ....................................... 3 II. National Disputes and Regional Crisis .................. 3 III. The Peace Agreement, the Evolution of the Conflicts and the UN Role.................................... 8 1. The Evolution of the Conflict in Nicaragua............ 10 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Extensions of Remarks 25527 Extensions of Remarks
    September 24, 1990 EXTENSIONS OF REMARKS 25527 EXTENSIONS OF REMARKS MICHIGAN FAMILIES OF THE tion. This person will be responsible for intelli­ were manifestations of the CIA or the Contras, VICTIMS OF PAN AM 103 DE­ gence information, security policy, and plan­ and most influential human rights groups ig­ TERMINED TO HAVE BETTER ning. In addition, the act establishes in the nored our evidence. AVIATION SECURITY Federal Aviation Administration an Assistant We now know that our concerns were justi­ Administrator for Civil Aviation Security who fied. Mass graves of Nicaraguan peasants, HON. WM. S. BROOMFIELD will be responsible for the daily management churchworkers, and farmers are even now OF MICHIGAN and oversight of field security resources and being uncovered throughout the country, and IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES the enforcement of security-related require­ Nicaraguan citizens are lining up to tell similar ments. stories of detention, torture, and execution at Monday, September 24, 1990 The bill also creates the positions of Feder­ the hands of the Sandinista police. I would Mr. BROOMFIELD. Mr. Speaker, a number al Security Manager at domestic high-risk air­ like to submit for the record an article that ap­ of Michigan families of the victims of Pan Am ports and the Foreign Security Liaison Officer peared recently in the Wall Street Journal 103 recently visited Capitol Hill, including Mrs. at foreign high-threat airports. The legislation which details the difficulty that one particular Susan Bennett from Chelsa, and Mrs. Geor­ sets new standards and procedures for the group, the Puebla Institute, had in uncovering gann Fuller and Mrs.
    [Show full text]
  • Role of the Police in Costa Rica (MILITARY OR POLICE) the • REALITY a Paper Presented to the Western Society of Criminology Meetings: Las Vegas, Nevada Feb
    If you have issues viewing or accessing this file contact us at NCJRS.gov. Role of the Police In Costa Rica (MILITARY OR POLICE) THE • REALITY A paper presented to the Western Society of Criminology Meetings: Las Vegas, Nevada Feb. 1990 International Session on Crl~inal Justice Dr. Peter Kassebaum College of Marin ABSTRACT: Costa Rica i& at the crossroads, the nation must decide whether it will expand the limited military capability of its police. The police have been given military training of a limited nature, and various types of military equipment. The country which has supplied most of the support has been the United States; with the help of a handful of interested countries. Costa Rica has been able to expand its ability to deal with threats both internal and external. The nature of the changes have been detailed in this paper, covering both the influences of foreign aid, and the reality of Costa Rica's Military capabilities as they exist today, against the backdrop of Costa Rica's democratic traditions. A variety of international geopolitical forces have created a climate where Costa Rica has been fo~ced to accept a small Military capability including; coast guard forces, air wing, and equipment to expand the role of some police into ground or infantry troops. The police are going to be challenged by the force of narco dollars, and the uncertain econOMic future in • the heMisphere and the accompanying unrest which breeds a greater probability of social conflict spilling over into peaceful Costa Rica. BACKGROUND: This paper will explore the role of the police in contemporary Costa Rica.
    [Show full text]
  • A Nicaraguan Exceptionalism? Debating the Legacy of the Sandinista Revolution
    A Nicaraguan Exceptionalism? Debating the Legacy of the Sandinista Revolution edited by Hilary Francis INSTITUTE OF LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES A Nicaraguan Exceptionalism? Debating the Legacy of the Sandinista Revolution edited by Hilary Francis Institute of Latin American Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London, 2020 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. More information regarding CC licenses is available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/. This book is also available online at http://humanities-digital-library.org. ISBN: 978-1-908857-57-6 (paperback edition) 978-1-908857-78-1 (.epub edition) 978-1-908857-79-8 (.mobi edition) 978-1-908857-77-4 (PDF edition) DOI: 10.14296/220.9781908857774 (PDF edition) Institute of Latin American Studies School of Advanced Study University of London Senate House London WC1E 7HU Telephone: 020 7862 8844 Email: [email protected] Web: http://ilas.sas.ac.uk Typesetting by Thomas Bohm, User Design, Illustration and Typesetting. Cover image © Franklin Villavicencio. Contents List of illustrations v Notes on contributors vii Introduction: exceptionalism and agency in Nicaragua’s revolutionary heritage 1 Hilary Francis 1. ‘We didn’t want to be like Somoza’s Guardia’: policing, crime and Nicaraguan exceptionalism 21 Robert Sierakowski 2. ‘The revolution was so many things’ 45 Fernanda Soto 3. Nicaraguan food policy: between self-sufficiency and dependency 61 Christiane Berth 4. On Sandinista ideas of past connections to the Soviet Union and Nicaraguan exceptionalism 87 Johannes Wilm 5.
    [Show full text]
  • English Miles Below Castillo Viejo
    INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE DISPUTE CONCERNING NAVIGATIONAL AND RELATED RIGHTS (COSTA RICA v NICARAGUA) COUNTER - MEMORIAL OF THE REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA VOLUME I 29 May 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......................~.................................................................................... 1 SECTION1 THE PROCEDUREAND THE JURISDICTIONOF THE COURT........................................................... 1 SECTION2 THEHISTORY AND THE BACKGROUNDOF THE CASE.................................................................. 2 SECTION3 THESCOPE AND THE NATUREOF THE DISPUTE............... ................. .............................................6 SECTION4 THE STRUCTUREOF NICARAGUA'S &X!NI'ER-MEMORIAL .............................................................7 CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND TO THE DISPUTE .......................................................................................9 SECTION1.1 GEOGRAPHYOF THE SANJUAN UE NICARAGUARIVER ................................................................. 9 RESERVES................................................................................................................................ 14 SECTION1.2 THETREATY OF LIMITSOF 1858: HISTORICALBACKGROUND .................................................... 16 A . THESA NJUAN RIVER UNDER SPANISH RULE (1 52 7- 1821).................................................... 18 B . THEPOST-INDEPENDENCE AND FEDERAL PERIOD (1821- 1838) ...................................... 20 C. THEPOST-FEDERAL PERIOD (1838- 1848)...........................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Reason the Reagan Administration Overthrew the Sandinista Government
    The Reason the Reagan Administration Overthrew the Sandinista Government A thesis presented to the faculty of the Center for International Studies of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Kevin Santos Flores June 2010 © 2010 Kevin Santos Flores. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled The Reason the Reagan Administration Overthrew the Sandinista Government by KEVIN SANTOS FLORES has been approved for the Center for International Studies by Patricia Weitsman Professor of Political Science Jose' A. Delgado Director, Latin American Studies Daniel Weiner Executive Director, Center for International Studies 3 ABSTRACT SANTOS FLORES, KEVIN A., M.A., June 2010, Latin American Studies The Reason the Reagan Administration Overthrew the Sandinista Government (86 pp.) Director of Thesis: Patricia Weitsman The purpose of my study is to understand why the United States intervened in Nicaragua in the early 1980s to overthrow the Sandinista government. I will be looking at declassified documents, radio transcripts, campaign papers, and presidential speeches to determine why officials in the Reagan administration believed that American involvement in Central America was crucial to U.S. national security. This thesis argues that the Reagan administration’s decision to overthrow the Sandinista government was shaped by the preconceived notion of Ronald Reagan, the administration’s inability to distinguish from perception and reality of the events occurring in Nicaragua, and to undermine the Nicaraguan revolution as a model for other guerrilla organizations in Central America that could have potentially challenged American hegemony in the region. Approved: _____________________________________________________________ Patricia Weitsman Professor of Political Science 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank God for everything.
    [Show full text]
  • Proceedings 4.Pdf
    WILLIAM J. PERRY CENTER FOR HEMISPHERIC DEFENSE STUDIES Proceedings 2018 EDITION, NO.4 (JULY) Central America Regional Seminar on Countering Transnational Threat Seminar, Group Photo, Panama City, Panama Central America Regional Seminar on Countering Transnational Threat Networks Panama City, Panama, 5 – 7 June 2018 Summary Proceedings1 By William Godnick, Celina Realuyo and Boris Saavedra The nations of Central America face increasingly formidable security challenges from transnational threat networks that have regional and global reach without boundaries. Military and security forces must recognize and confront these threats, with interagency frameworks and the understanding that it takes a network to neutralize a network. The William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies (WJPC) provides a space for academics and practitioners to address these issues affecting the Western Hemisphere in a constructive and enriching environment. To that end, and as a follow up to the May 2018 Central American Defense Conference 1 These summary proceedings reflect the discussions conducted under Chatham House Rules (no attribution) of the 5 – 7 June 2018 William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies Central American Regional Seminar on Countering Transnational Threat Networks in Panama City, Panama. In specific cases where provided authorization their names and institutions are included in the report. Proceedings is a publication of the William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies. The views represented are those of the author
    [Show full text]
  • Dissenting Opinion of Judge Schwebel
    DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SCHWEBEL Paragraphs 1-5 II. SUMMARYOF SALIENTLEGAL CONCLUSIONS 6-16 III. FACTUALPREMISES 17-41 A. The Nicaraguan Government came to power on the back of some of the very forms of foreign intervention of which it now complains (Appendix, paras. 2-7) 17-18 B. The new Nicaraguan Government achieved foreign recogni- tion in exchange for international commitments concerning its interna1 and external policies, commitments which it deliber- ately has violated (~p~endix,paras. 8-13) 19 C. The new Nicaraguan Government received unprecedented aid from the international community, including the United States (Appendix, paras. 14-15) 20 D. The Carter Administration suspended aid to Nicaragua in January 1981 because of its support of insurgency in El Sal- vador, support evidenced, inter alia, by documents captured from the Salvadoran guerrillas (Appendix, paras. 16-22) 21 E. The Reagan Administration terminated aid to the Nicaraguan Government while waiving the latter's obligation to return aid already extended in the hope that its support of foreign insur- gencies would cease ; subsequently, it twice officially offered to resume aid if Nicaragua would stop supporting insurgency in El Salvador, offers which were not accepted (Appendix, paras. 23-24) 22 F. The Reagan Administration made clear to the Nicaraguan Government in 1981 that it regarded the Sandinista revolution "as irreversible" ; its condition for CO-existencewas stopping the flow of arms to El Salvador (Appendix, paras. 25-26) 23 G. Before this Court, representatives of the Government of Nica- ragua have falsely maintained that the Nicaraguan Govern- ment has "never" supplied arms or other material assistance to insurgents in El Salvador, has "never" maintained Salvadoran command and control facilities on Nicaraguan territory and "never" permitted its territory to be used for training of Sal- vadoran insurgents (Appendix.
    [Show full text]
  • Conflict Beyond Borders: the International Dimensions Of
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, History, Department of Department of History Spring 5-2016 Conflict Beyond Borders: The nI ternational Dimensions of Nicaragua's Violent Twentieth- Century, 1909-1990 Andrew William Wilson University of Nebraska-Lincoln Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historydiss Part of the Diplomatic History Commons, Latin American History Commons, Other History Commons, and the United States History Commons Wilson, Andrew William, "Conflict Beyond Borders: The nI ternational Dimensions of Nicaragua's Violent Twentieth-Century, 1909-1990" (2016). Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History. 87. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historydiss/87 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the History, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. CONFLICT BEYOND BORDERS: THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF NICARAGUA’S VIOLENT TWENTIETH-CENTURY, 1909-1990 by Andrew W. Wilson A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Major: History Under the Supervision of Professor Thomas Borstelmann Lincoln, Nebraska May, 2016 CONFLICT BEYOND BORDERS: THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF NICARAGUA’S VIOLENT TWENTIETH CENTURY, 1909-1990 Andrew William Wilson, Ph.D. University of Nebraska, 2016 Advisor: Thomas Borstelmann The purpose of this research is to identify the importance of Nicaraguan political contests in the global twentieth century. The goal is to demonstrate that, despite its relatively small size, Nicaragua significantly influenced the course of modern history.
    [Show full text]
  • Nicaragua (25 October 2001) Page 1 of 7
    RIC Query - Nicaragua (25 October 2001) Page 1 of 7 Nicaragua Response to NIC02001.RIC Information Request Number: Date: October 25, 2001 Subject: Nicaragua: Information on the November 2001 Presidential and Legislative Elections From: INS Resource Information Center Keywords: Elections / Political parties Query: What is the background of the current political situation in Nicaragua? What are the circumstances surrounding the November 2001 elections? What are the political parties and movements that are involved directly or indirectly in the election? Who are the primary representatives of the parties? Response: On 4 November 2001, Nicaragua will hold presidential and legislative elections. The following is a summary of the historical background, of the current electoral campaign, and of the political parties and leaders involved. Nicaragua is situated in the heart of Central America, between Costa Rica (to the south) and Honduras (to the north). It is slightly smaller than New York State, and had an estimated population of just over 4.9 million in July 2001. Half the population was below the poverty line in 2000 (CIA 2001). Nicaragua’s president is Arnoldo Alemán Lacayo, who took office on 10 January 1997. There is a unicameral legislature, the National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional). Of 93 seats, 36 are currently held by President Alemán’s right-wing Liberal Alliance. Another 35 are held by the left-wing Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN, Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional), and the remainder by numerous smaller parties (CIA 2001). HISTORICAL BACKGROUND US Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, fighting a guerrilla war against irregular forces led by Augusto César Sandino.
    [Show full text]