Is There a Place in the World 9CHAPTER for ?

David Hancocks

e human animals make Preventive medicine and overall logical needs of the inhabitants. Their rapid technological and cul- health care are now usually at very only function, like the old Wtural advancements because competent and professional levels of cages, is secure containment. Every- we have the ability to pass definitive expertise. The animals of today thing in them is fixed and hard, im- information to succeeding genera- receive fresh and wholesome food in movable, never changing, and largely tions. But we also accept too much contrast to their predecessors, and unusable by the animals. from the past without challenge. The their diets are carefully researched The public display areas may be lux- good, the bad, and the indifferent are and evaluated. Zoo education pro- uriantly green in the best of the new muddled together, accumulating in grams reach millions of students each zoos, but behind the scenes the nine- layers that smother each succeeding year. Keeper staffs are highly trained, teenth century still exists. Even age. Cultural mores ranging from the knowledgeable, and dedicated. worse, all too often the supposedly silly to the profane, from charming to When examined from the point of naturalistic display areas of the mod- dangerous, clutter our world. They view of the visitor or the staff, in fact, ern zoo are, as far as the animals are exist only because, as the British are conditions in today’s accredited zoos concerned, of even less functional val- wont to say, “We have always done are far better than those of yester- ue than were iron-barred menagerie things this way.” One very troubling year. But an examination from the cages. At least they had bars to climb example is the public zoological parks animals’ point of view reveals that on and swing from! Today electric found in almost every city: they are many of the problems of nineteenth- wires and hidden moats all too often fundamentally unchanged from the century remain, inexcus- keep the animals away from the lush first public zoo that opened in The ably, in common practice. vegetation of the new habitat exhib- Regent’s Park in London in 1828. If you examine the daily routine of its. Appearances to the contrary, the Although significant modifications a chimpanzee, , tiger, bear, or any animals on display may have nothing have taken place since then, partic- other typical zoo animal, you will not but a small area to sit in all day and ularly recently, for the most part, zoos find it unusual for animals in even the nothing natural with which to inter- continue to do things the way they best zoos to spend the far greater act. Trees and shrubs that appear to have done them for almost two cen- part of each twenty-four-hour day be an integral part of the animals’ turies. An objective reevaluation is locked in holding cages, “off display.” habitat are likely to be untouchable. long overdue. Far too commonly, these cages are To add insult to injury, it is not One improvement that has taken almost exact replicas of the old me- unusual for the “natural habitat” to place is that an accredited, profes- nagerie cages that were viewed by zoo be composed of nothing but concrete sionally operated modern zoo is no visitors, the only difference is that the and plastic. Some zoos and their longer likely to present animals to the cages are out of public sight. Night designers boast of their skill in creat- public in rows of tiny, barred cages. cages for zoo animals are invariably ing scenes that closely mimic the ap- Such zoos now display animals in sim- noisy, harsh, barred cubicles, lit by pearance of natural habitats by using ulated natural habitats. Modern vet- cold fluorescent tubes, with no atten- entirely artificial components and erinary medicine, too, has brought tion given to acoustic comfort, soft materials. This public face of the new enormous benefits to zoo animals. lighting, or any behavioral or psycho- zoo may convince the visitors and

137 their video-camera view of the au- backwater. They had allocated less these days likely to be well educated, thenticity of the scene, but a “tree” than 300 square feet for this tableau well trained, and dedicated to the made of epoxy resin or a “mud wal- and were insistent that not only was well being of the animals in their low” made of concrete is of no more more space not available, but it was care. Many of the younger zoo direc- use to a wild animal than is a plastic also unnecessary. tors, too, bring compassion and pow- beach ball. This type of problem is found in erful intellects to their profession. These shortcomings are especially zoos worldwide. It stems from a lack What is generally lacking within the evident in many of the “rainforest” of awareness that zoo animals are liv- profession, however, is an eagerness exhibits that have mushroomed in ing creatures and an apparent inabili- to look for fundamental changes to American zoos in recent years. Unlike ty to place the animal’s needs—psy- the whole zoo concept. Few recognize real rainforests, which are hushed, chological and behavioral, as well as that a complete reexamination of dark, daunting, and contemplative physiological—at the top of the list of zoos is necessary: there are too few environments, zoo rainforest exhibits design criteria. This myopia is typical- zoo heretics. are invariably bright, colorful, and full ly exacerbated in zoo rainforest ex- The most urgent and fundamental of noise—more like a suburban gar- hibits: their extremely high construc- change needed for the new millenni- den center than the somber splendor tion costs result in minimal space to um is for zoos to recognize that they of the Amazon. They are usually filled the animals. Thus, zoo rainforest ex- do not need to focus exclusively on to overcrowding with the most color- hibits can virtually guarantee that animals, particularly on those species ful and noisy species, since quantity both the quantity and the quality of traditionally kept in zoos. If we com- has always counted when it comes to space allocated to the animals are pare the zoo collections of today with zoo species, and zoos have never been inadequate. Kept in tiny spaces with those of one hundred years ago, we able to resist the flashy and the cute. no access to any natural vegetation, find the same distorted emphasis on The mistaken impression left in zoo animals have to learn to live with plas- big, colorful, and charismatic species. visitors’ minds is that rainforests are tic. In the worst examples, such as The richness and the complexity of crammed with chattering monkeys Omaha Zoo’s Lied Jungle building, nature is completely overshadowed by and boldly colored birds. Botanical many animals spend their entire lives this obsession to an astonishing de- gardens fall prey to the same trap, in cramped, completely artificial envi- gree. About 1,640 of the 30 million preferring to present the grotesque ronments and never have contact species of animals on the planet are and unusual rather than a true pic- with anything natural. The general mammals. The average American zoo ture of nature. design approach is closer to that used contains 53 of these known mam- The sense of awe inspired by the all- in store window displays, with the ani- malian species, a ratio of 1:31. For embracing quietude of the tropical mals perched like jewels in the spot- birds, the ratio is 1:98; for reptiles, forest is replaced by a gaudy, oversim- light, dimensions calculated to the 1:104. Amphibians are represented in plified spectacle. Overhead there is inch, than to habitats for living ani- the average American zoo at a ratio of no closed green canopy, only the steel mals. No space is wasted, unless you only 1:2,000. For invertebrates it and concrete slabs of a glass roof. It is take the philosophical position that drops to one in several millions (Boyd a kindergarten view of the natural the entire space is wasted, since these 1997). Zoos present an upside down world: to your right is the café, on multi-million-dollar extravaganzas typ- view of the animal world. More than your left is the public restroom, and ically claim little authenticity and 95 percent of all species are small ahead of you is the gift shop. provide minimal educational value. enough to fit in the cup of your hand The attitude that a zoo animal is and are completely unknown in zoos. merely an object for display is disqui- This is particularly galling, since in- Animals etingly prevalent in many zoos, but vertebrates, especially, typically have fortunately there are some excep- more biological mass than any other as Jewels tions. When Zoo Atlanta built a large species in a natural habitat, and thus Zoos have always had one overriding exhibition habitat for gorillas in the greater biological importance and in- concern—that their animals must al- late 1980s, it included several big fluence. As Harvard biologist E. O. ways be on view and easily seen. The trees in the animal areas. The design- Wilson has suggested, we need to bet- general curator at the Bronx Zoo ers were aghast when the gorillas be- ter demonstrate that in many critical describes a recent instance in which gan to inflict heavy damage on these ways it is often the little critters that he was consulted on the design of a trees and asked the zoo director, run this world. Zoos are missing a new jaguar exhibit at an unspecified Terry Maple, to install electric wires golden opportunity to do so. but “well known zoological park” to protect them. His response was, The persistent dedication of zoos to (Seidensticker and Doherty 1996). “Plant cheaper trees!” (Croke 1997). a very small segment of the animal The designers wanted to create the There are other refreshing signs, par- world raises the question of why zoos effect of a jaguar lying on a log in the ticularly of a new trend in zoo employ- should limit themselves to the field of sun at the edge of a tropical river ees. Zoo keepers, in particular, are zoology. That restriction is after all

138 The State of the Animals: 2001 completely anti-natural. The Victori- ows. This is why we need partnerships zoos to try to change the public’s an zoo visitors were most suitably among zoos, botanical gardens, ar- thinking on both fronts. impressed to see the new scientific boretums, natural history and geolo- If people are to accept responsibility tool of taxonomy made clear to them gy museums, aquariums, science cen- for the enormous damage that hu- through the invention of the public ters, even libraries and art galleries. mankind has inflicted on wildlife, they zoo that put all the primates togeth- With shared programs or connected must learn to act and think like good er in one building, all the parrots in thematic exhibits, our cultural, scien- custodians of the earth. Objective, another, all the hoofed beasts over tific, and natural history institutions carefully considered, and extraordinar- there, the bears over there. That they could collectively engage a public de- ily difficult decisions will have to be could go to the zoo to see wild ani- bate about new ways to look at nature made about the conservation of wild mals, and try to make comparisons and about sound ecological practices, animals and their wild habitats. How between the different orders, was suf- and they could devise many different much? Where? When? At what cost? ficiently edifying for the day. But ways to promote conservation. People For the specific benefit of which nature does not function in tidy pack- are hungry for this information. species or ecosystems? Such judg- ages of separated scientific disci- Most of all, we need to rekindle a ments will tax new generations for plines, and although it is of value to love for all wildlife, and a respect that decades, even centuries, to come. Zoos study the natural world in distinct goes beyond the aesthetics of the tele- can, if they will accept the challenge, related components, there is no vision documentary or the IMAX spec- be an effective medium for helping virtue in presenting it to the general tacular. To this end we also need zoos people to consider such questions. public in such a manner. We need nat- to desist from perpetuating the image The western mind learned to make ural history institutions that can re- that only the cute and the cuddly ani- sense of the apparent chaos of nature veal the connectedness, not the sepa- mals are worthy of our concern. Furry by dissecting it and sorting its com- rateness, of the natural world. Zoos mammals elicit far more support for ponent parts into degrees of related- must metamorphose (Hancocks our affections than “slimy” snakes or ness. In doing so we lost the holistic 1996). Instead of restricting them- “warty” toads, and we seem to be view, in which, in the words of John selves to displaying wild animals, they instinctively fascinated with what we Muir, “everything is hitched to every- must become places that celebrate perceive as the bizarre and the pecu- thing else.” nature in its entirety. For this, zoos liar, such as albino tigers or oversized must first appreciate that it is impos- specimens. Zoos have the ability and sible to tell the critically important the opportunity to dispel myths and to Hediger’s stories of nature with exhibits that help people realise that “ugliness” in represent only a very small fragment the animal world is nothing more than Philosophies of the cast of characters. Complex a product of our cultural bias. Our urgent need for institutions that interdependencies between plants We have an innate affinity for and a reveal the complexities and the con- and animals that have evolved over deeply embedded fascination with nections within nature in no way millions of years, for example, are animals. E. O. Wilson has coined the diminishes zoos’ responsibilities to becoming increasingly vulnerable, term “biophilia” to describe this phe- the animals in their care. The stan- because of pesticide use, habitat loss, nomenon (Kellert and Wilson 1993). dards of a zoo’s animal care should be and decreasing diversity. Zoology This attachment reveals itself in both above reproach. It’s as simple as that. exhibits alone cannot reveal the rea- beneficial and harmful ways. Animals Ironically, if the typical zoo would sons for and the ramifications of this that reflect human infantile features, shift away from big mammals and story, nor can solely botanical dis- such as large heads and big eyes, are focus instead on smaller species, it plays. We need “zoos” that focus on especially popular for zoo displays. could find that its abilities to meet its biology, on ecology, and on nature. (The giant panda is the classic exam- inmates’ requirements would be Our general level of understanding ple.) Appeals to the public to help greatly enhanced. It is easier to satis- of nature is declining precipitously as save the tiger, or the koala, or some fy the needs of a group of meerkats people become ever more separated other charismatic creature fall easily than a herd of or of a beetle from the natural world and more reli- upon sympathetic ears. Zoos can than an orangutan. ant upon a technological and domes- quite easily find people to champion Large, social, strong, intelligent ticated environment. Children speed their pretty, or cute, or spectacular animals with a high level of awareness along the information superhighway animals. Conversely, they can always place very great demands upon their instead of walking along country draw a crowd with spiders and snakes caregivers. This is not to suggest that lanes. They browse the World Wide because the public finds these species the husbandry for small animals or Web rather than observe a spider repulsive. The fascination does not for creatures such as reptiles and spin. They are exposed more to rap seem to extend to concerns about amphibians is in any way facile, nor than to bird song and spend more their welfare or survival, however. It does it imply that such animals do time in shopping malls than in mead- would be a most useful challenge for not have their own very specific and

Is There a Place in the World for Zoos? 139 sometimes elaborate psychological tween the standard zoo enclosures of one day to another. and social requirements. But there is the time and the cabinet displays of a Big cats, Hediger implored, should a more acute sense of failure in not natural history museum: “The death be given whole carcasses to tear up meeting the needs of a more highly chambers of the menagerie were, in a and thus exercise their muscles and perceptive animal. One is not making way, the ante-rooms of the museums… clean their teeth. When Seattle’s value judgments when one acknowl- the animal in its narrow cage was pro- Woodland Park Zoo began offering edges that a dog or an or a vided with food, the stuffed one with uncut sheep carcasses to in the baboon demands more work than preservative.” early 1970s, there were vitriolic let- does a beetle or a starfish. Zoo managers were offered much ters of complaint from visitors re- These complex needs have too practical advice in Hediger’s writings, pelled by such a sight. “In the good rarely been considered in zoos. There all based upon the principle of using old days,” complained one letter to are far too many instances of misery nature as the norm. He described ev- the local newspaper, “the lions were and deprivation in these public insti- erything from types of flooring sub- fed nice chunks of meat.” It seems tutions. Seldom are these the product strates and the quality of the ambient that visitors have always been ready to of any deliberate callousness or sad- environment to the different foods— participate in the old zoo game of de- ism. Much more likely is a situation and methods of food presentation— lusion, preferring not to see the zoo like that of the gorillas at Zoo Atlan- for captive animals. Much of what animals as real, “wild” animals with ta, who were going to be deprived of Hediger advocated was labor inten- real needs. It shouldn’t be all that sur- contact with live trees because they sive and sometimes a bit difficult. It prising. If zoo environments place wild were inflicting damage upon them. did not appeal to managers looking animals in completely artificial en- When Maple called for “cheaper only at the bottom line. His attention vironments then it is inevitable that trees” he may simply have been to the needs of the animals was easily visitors will see zoo animals as some- espousing a natural affinity for the shoved aside by promoters who want- how different. They may look like wild needs of these apes, but it is probably ed only baby animals for the Spring bears and tigers but, see, they pose for not coincidental that he is also a dis- Break and bean counters who wanted our cameras! The monkeys bring their ciple of Heini Hediger. a minimal labor force. Ever since the babies to the front of the cage to show In 1950 Hediger, director of the first huckster put a lion in a cage and them off to us! They listen to what we Basel Zoo in Switzerland, published charged a penny to see it and the first say!! The distortions in the zoo mirror Wild Animals in Captivity. If more zoo public menageries opened their can be disturbingly profound. professionals had embraced Hediger’s doors, the click of the turnstile and teachings and philosophies, much of the chink of a coin in the cash box the suffering and inadequacies of care have drowned out the cries of those Of Cages endured by thousands of zoo animals that need wallows to roll in, trees to over the past fifty years could have climb, and thick grass to sleep in. and Habitats been avoided. Hediger believed that Hediger argued that zoo enclosures Zoos have traditionally served as zoo environments should be managed should be planted with shrubs and places for human recreation. Whereas in such a way that critical aspects of bushes left untrimmed and land- some people have traditionally at- the animals’ lives mirror as closely as scaped with boulders and fallen trees, tended zoos to gaze in wonder at big possible those of their wild con- because the animals need such wild animals or to marvel at the col- specifics. He advocated an ethological things. They provide cover for individ- ors and patterns of exotic creatures, approach to zoo management. Hedi- uals that may wish to get out of view others have wanted only to laugh at ger was not particularly concerned and hours of entertainment for those the animals and see in their dumb with how a zoo exhibit looked to the that prefer to peel the bark off a fall- captivity a reassurance that here, at public, at least in terms of whether or en tree. Rubbing his way past shrubs least, were beings that fell below a not it looked “natural,” but he was or scraping against tree branches man. Zoos historically have reinforced adamant that it should duplicate the combs and freshens an animal’s coat. this amusement-park attitude, offer- animal’s spatial, social, and environ- Such natural components of the envi- ing camels and elephants to ride in mental needs and challenges. He ronment provide opportunities to circles. Animals could be made to beg argued the need for recognizing ani- interact. He has places to scent mark, for nothing but peanuts, and until mal territories, and flight distances, for example. Natural components recently, feeding the animals was an in the zoo, and he strongly advocated change and decompose with time. An integral part of going to the zoo. No occupational therapy, based upon na- object as simple as a big root ball, wonder that after any summer week- tural behaviors, to relieve the omni- with clods of mud and dirt sticking to end zoo inmates suffered abundant present boredom of zoo animals. He it, offers ever-changing opportunities diarrhea, vomiting, and nausea. spoke eloquently of the need for con- for investigation as it slowly rots and If the principle reason for going to sidering the animal as a whole being, falls apart. Concrete and plastic ob- the zoo was entertainment, then it a living being, drawing a parallel be- jects, by contrast, never change from was essential for zoo managers to

140 The State of the Animals: 2001 ensure that the cages were full and corn-strewn sidewalks; clipped hedges local zoos. Booster clubs raise vast the animals clearly visible, typically in and chain-link fences. Do Not Walk On sums of money to build new zoo ex- barren concrete cages elevated to The Grass. A shackled elephant sway- hibits. Much has also improved for human eye level. Traders became ing trance-like to some internal the zoo inhabitants, since zookeepers wealthy obtaining animals from the rhythm. Glass-fronted boxes in the are now selected for qualities beyond wild to restock zoos each season. If Reptile House containing snakes that their dexterity with a hose and a shov- changes were to be made they were to never uncoiled. Completely immobile el. Many of them now dedicate much be only technical. Zoo managers crocodiles. Slimy pools edged by tidily of their time to finding ways to keep wanted progress, not philosophies. laid stones. A chimpanzee that the animals in their care more active They looked for technological solu- screamed incessantly. Birds perched and alert. tions and called it science. Thus, the on bare branches greasy from overuse. Children visiting an accredited zoo antithesis of Hediger’s thinking pre- Spilled seed from food dishes scat- today are much more likely to find vailed throughout the zoo world, tered across the sour earth. themselves exploring trails through especially during the 1950s and The media at this time occasionally densely planted jungles, seeing ani- 1960s. It was the age of B. F. Skinner, railed against the unsightly iron bars mals in more natural-sized groupings, the psychologist who invented the Air- that were still a common feature in absorbing images of replicated habi- crib, a soundproof, air-conditioned zoos, but only because they reminded tats that sometimes look surprisingly box for raising babies in during the them of prisons. Sentimentality and realistic. The old shabby wardrobe still first critical years of their life. Vita- aesthetics were of greatest concern, pokes through in places, but for the min pills were going to meet all our with virtually no public debate about most part modern zoos have dressed dietary needs. Formica was modern the physical spaces in which the ani- themselves in new finery, wearing and wood was unhygienic. From mals were maintained and the repeti- green coats with a veneer of wildness. Frankfurt to Philadelphia, zoos pro- tive regimes that controlled their The changes began in the late moted the concept of reducing ani- days. It seemed to be accepted that 1970s, with the adoption of a new zoo mal diets to a selection of formulated zoo animals had to live empty lives in design ethic, called “landscape im- biscuits, full of proteins and vitamins bare spaces that provided nothing of mersion.” The term was coined by but devoid of any sensual or thera- value. They were there only to satisfy landscape architect Grant Jones, peutic value. Iron bars were replaced our curiosity. whose design firm developed the first with even more restrictive glass pan- In the late 1960s, Desmond Morris, such exhibits at Seattle’s Woodland els. Modernity was manifest in tiled ex-curator at the London Zoo, wrote a Park Zoo (Jones et al. 1976). It has cages. For zoos, it was the Disinfec- scathing public attack on the “naked since become the catchphrase for all tant Age. Designers concentrated on cage” (Morris 1968). Just as Hediger modern zoo design, even as at the meeting the needs of the hose and before him, Morris argued the need same time the purpose behind the the mop and ignored the needs of the for more elaborate and intricate en- nomenclature has been forgotten. animal inhabitants. vironments for zoo animals to match Landscape immersion was a philoso- Zoo managers not only ignored the their behavioral and psychological phy by which animals were to be given behavioral and biological needs of the requirements. Hediger’s writings had living spaces that as closely as possi- animals in their care, but they also been confined to specialist and rela- ble replicated their natural habitat. It provided equally sterile and miserable tively obscure scientific publishers, was Hediger’s philosophy of practical environments for their visitors. Zoo but Morris had become a household biology expanded into naturalistic food service was awful. (Indeed, it name with his book The Naked Ape, aesthetics. The landscape was intend- often still is. Fresh fruit, healthy pro- and suddenly he was able to use the ed not only to meet the animals’ psy- duce, or vegetarian alternatives is powerful pulpit of Life magazine to chological, behavioral, and physiolog- rarely available, but hot dogs remain promote these ideas. The public ical needs but also to convincingly ubiquitous.) Clean restrooms were a began to take notice of the inherent relate to zoo visitors the visual power novelty (though they are a little less inadequacies of zoos. A steadily grow- and drama of wild places. The “im- so now), but useful gift shops and ing dissatisfaction began to swell in mersion experience” came from the worthy bookstores have always been the 1970s. Attendance, especially in notion that the animals’ replicated in the minority. Contemplative spaces Britain and northern Europe, started habitat was to be extended beyond and edifying experiences are as elu- to slide. the barriers and engulf the human vis- sive as ever. Over the next thirty years, zoos itors in the very same landscape. The Visits to public zoos in the 1950s completely turned the game around. hope and intent was that by engaging and 1960s left strange memories: More visits are made now to profes- all their senses within a naturalistic over-heated, stuffy, and vaguely grub- sionally run zoos in North America habitat, zoo visitors would—at least by buildings; forlorn animals isolated than to all professional sports events subconsciously—come to a greater on concrete slabs, the smell of hay and combined. Newspapers and television awareness of the connections between feces the only evidence of life; pop- stations pay lavish attention to their the animals they were seeing and the

Is There a Place in the World for Zoos? 141 habitat they were experiencing. Land- ty, a call could be made to an animal births, deaths, transfers, and family scape immersion was to bond the im- trader to find out what new speci- lineage so as to develop breeding pro- ages of wild animals and wild places in mens were available for trade or for grams based on genetics and demo- the visitors’ experiential memory. sale. These animals came from other graphics was instantly understand- Initially rejected, and quite savage- zoos’ surplus stock or from the wild. able to them. ly, by other zoos, which saw so much In either case the source was fairly The ardor with which these man- space and money dedicated to land- arbitrary and with little thought to aged breeding programs was adopted scaping as wasteful and unnecessary, provenance. If standard museum pro- made itself evident in one unpleasant and which chafed at the idea that ani- cedures were not considered, neither manner. Some zoo directors, wedded mals could not now be so easily was much sleep lost over ethics. to their new role as the savior of en- exposed to public view, this new de- Killing several adult wild gorillas to dangered species, began euthanizing sign technique also took time to be obtain an infant, for example, and the animals that were not considered pure accepted by traditional zoo visitors. subsequent high mortality rates in- or that occupied space that could be Used to concrete sidewalks and neat volved in shipping such young ani- devoted to rare sub-species. The howls flowerbeds, several complained vocif- mals, meant that each new ape intro- of protest in the animal welfare com- erously about the new style. Few zoos duced into a zoo carried a hidden munity were dismissed as mere senti- of the time even kept animals on toll—the deaths of many other apes. mentality. The spurious defense was grass, and those that did, such as San Breeding failures among captive that only the purest-bred individuals, Diego’s, regularly mowed the grass in stock compounded the problem. those with the most perfect blood- their animal enclosures, keeping it In 1979 Katherine Ralls, a res- lines, could have space in the Ark. short and tidy. earcher at the National Zoo, in Wash- Even today, many zoo professionals The wild appearance of landscape ington, D.C., examined juvenile mor- will brook no criticism of their immersion exhibits has now gained tality rates correlated with inbreeding actions, cloaking themselves in the wide favor. A new specialty, zoo horti- for sixteen species of animals at the holy mantle of Conservation, protect- culture, has emerged from the con- zoo. The death rate for inbred animals ed from censure by the purity of their cept, and skilled practitioners devote was markedly higher than for those mission to save wild animals from their budgets and energies to creat- born from unrelated parents. Ralls . ing scenes that mimic the wilderness. made a follow-up study on forty-four The pursuit of this role as guardian The public likes it. species. This study reinforced her ini- of the world’s rare and endangered It might seem that with the green- tial findings. It became apparent that species sometimes brings to mind the ing of our zoos, especially in North a management program was needed. horrible fervor of the American eu- America, all is now well. But zoos still Intensive Population Management genics movement of the 1920s and its have enormous progress to make if became the new catchphrase, and the misconceptions about preserving the the animals in their care are to find American Association of Zoological “purity of races.” Although the preva- themselves the beneficiaries of this Parks and Aquariums (now known as lence of this element of zoo fanati- trend. A typical zoo animal’s day re- the AZA) began to strenuously pro- cism has declined, some zoos contin- mains as devoid of contact with any- mote the breeding of animals in ge- ue to euthanize animals almost thing from nature as it did in the old netically regulated programs. routinely, because they do not have menageries. The deception is simply The Species Survival Plan (SSP) of room or to avoid financial inconve- more subtle than the painted scenes the AZA was founded in 1981. Its pur- nience. Responsible zookeepers today of desert and forest on the old zoo pose was to ensure cooperative breed- try hard to prevent unwanted births, exhibit walls. ing programs for selected rare species but even they typically fall back on in North America’s zoos. The intent euthanasia as a management tool. was to maintain healthy and self-sus- The gift of life should not be treated Species Survival taining populations of rare and en- casually. For the individual animal, its At about the same time that Seattle’s dangered species. life is precious. To take that away be- zoo was pioneering new concepts in Although landscape immersion, cause it imposes upon the zoo’s re- exhibit design, the zoo world was be- with its emphasis on strange expendi- sources is not a justifiable action. We ginning to pay more attention to its tures like plantings for the sake of will have made significant progress breeding programs. For their entire public perceptions, had first received when zoos come to realize that there history, zoos had succeeded in breed- a hostile reaction from zoo curators, should be no such thing as a “sur- ing animals only accidentally and the idea of controlled and managed plus” animal. with no projected outcomes. The breeding programs was enthusiasti- Zoos are not farms, where animals main objective had always been to cally adopted. This, after all, was an are produced specifically for consump- have baby animals available for the activity dear to the hearts of zoo spe- tion. They should be places that in- first flush of visitors in the spring. If cialists and one that they understood. spire and encourage sympathy for and animals died and cages became emp- Maintaining studbooks and tracking awareness of wildlife. On one level, 142 The State of the Animals: 2001 zoos accept this premise: zoo mar- endangered animals of the planet. lions of hours of study have failed to keters and promoters have no trouble Today, thankfully, more zoos are ac- generate in the general public even slipping into sentimentality when they knowledging the depth and the the most rudimentary understanding talk about individual zoo animals. At breadth of the problem of species of the realities of nature. We maintain the same time, curators are expected extinction and no longer claim to be attitudes of dominance, believing pragmatically to discuss how to man- providing a (self-serving) quick fix to that everything on the planet is here age “collections” of animals. the loss of wild species. Claims that for our unbridled use. In a survey That said, the SSP program has zoos are breeding animals for future (Louis Harris Associates 1994) on proven to be a success in many prac- reintroduction to the wild are also biodiversity and the reasons for its tical ways. Animals in accredited zoos being muted: the success rates in collapse, only 8 percent of Americans are now bred sensibly and wisely, with such endeavours are minuscule. were aware that destruction of wild a great reduction in capricious or er- When they do happen, such as in the habitats caused reduction in biologi- ratic breeding of unwanted babies. unique example of the golden ta- cal diversity. Genetically viable collections of spe- marin (in a long-term program led by cies have been established in zoos the National Zoo’s Devra Kleiman), around the world. This is a significant we all have reason to rejoice, but ex- The New mark of progress in zoos, and it re- pectations that zoo-bred animals will flects particularly well on the two in- repopulate the earth have sadly come Institutions dividuals who championed it—Wil- to roost on a rather barren tree. Zoos are not likely to go away. It liam Conway, at New York’s Bronx Present-day hopes that we can would take an enormous effort and Zoo, and George Rabb, at Chicago’s clone endangered animals will surely too much time to get rid of them, Brookfield Zoo. arrive at a similar destination. Some even if it were possible. Better, in- SSP is essentially a sound business zoos have been promoting themselves stead, that we should encourage zoos strategy: zoos must breed and main- as frozen Arks, with cryogenic reposi- to recognize that it is time for them tain their captive populations if they tories of flash-frozen sperm or the to accept a new role. They may con- are to have animals to display. SSP eggs of rare animal species. Once the tinue to call themselves “zoos” but could more accurately stand for Self cloning of animals became a viable they will have a new purpose, a new Sustaining Program than for Species tool and debate over replicating dino- look, a new goal. Survival Plan. But in the 1980s the saurs from preserved tissue hit the More than any other kind of natur- notion grew (probably with the help of headlines, the public, as in the past, al-history institution, zoos have the someone in the marketing division of heaved yet another sigh of relief. It capacity to modify themselves to a some zoo) that the SSP was to be the seemed that we had been saved from remarkable degree and to become sanctuary for rare and endangered ecological disaster by the skin of our places that champion and celebrate animals, and zoos launched them- teeth, or at least some bit of it with a the natural world. The move of hu- selves as the new Noah’s Ark. The DNA component. mans into urban areas, and the even media loved this simple imagery. Zoo People are much more willing to more insidious suburban sprawl, is publicists pushed the idea strongly, accept the Pandora’s box of cloning accelerating around the world. Our and the public quite eagerly devoured than the possibility that they may demands on the natural resources of it. The plight of wild animals was have to change lifestyle and values in this planet are increasing. And the becoming more evident, and the vol- order to slow the massive levels of decimation of wild animals and plants ume of news about the destruction of predation we are currently inflicting is reaching proportions that beggar wilderness was increasing. Any indica- on the natural world. We seem unable belief. Twenty-five percent of all birds tion that zoos could solve or amelio- to conceive that the problem is not have been driven to extinction in the rate this horrific dilemma was wel- loss of species but loss of entire habi- past two hundred years. Almost all comed. Up until that time, the only tats and the eradication of complete, the big mammal species are in seri- contact most people had had with functioning, balanced ecosystems. In ous trouble. Ninety percent of the exotic wild animals was through zoo this regard, zoos—and indeed all of black rhinos have been eradicated in visits. Zoos had for generations per- our natural-history institutions— the past eighteen years. One-third of petuated the myth that they were dis- have failed utterly. The western world the world’s 226 turtle species are playing the abundance and diversity of has several hundred years’ worth of threatened with imminent extinction. animal life, so it is not surprising that public zoological parks, botanical It is not just the animals that are dis- the public could be bamboozled into gardens and arboretums, public appearing—their habitats are evapo- believing that zoos could save the aquariums, and natural history muse- rating. Terborgh (1999) calculates world’s wildlife. Each time a member that if the clearing of tropical forests of a rare species gave birth, zoo publi- ums. Yet all of their accumulated scholarship, massive plundering of were to continue at the 1979–1989 cists proudly proclaimed it another rate, the last tree in those forests example of America’s zoos saving the the planet for their displays, and bil-

Is There a Place in the World for Zoos? 143 would fall in 2045. The rate of defor- multi-media to reveal behaviors and Kellert, S.R., and E.O. Wilson, eds. estation is increasing, however, not explain natural processes as well as 1993. The biophilia hypothesis. holding steady. the majestic splendor of wildlife spec- Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Bill Conway, retired president of tacles, and it incorporates live-animal Morris, D. 1968. Must we have zoos? the Wildlife Conservation Society and exhibits that focus on small life yes, but….In Life magazine, De- director of New York’s Bronx Zoo, has forms. It also has a very sound con- cember 9, 78–86. said, “Wildlife conservation is des- servation philosophy. It dramatically Seidensticker, J., and J.G. Doherty. tined to be among the main adven- illustrates how the benefits of such an 1996. Integrating animal behavior tures, as well as challenges, of the approach are immeasurably greater and exhibit design. In Wild mam- twenty-first century” (Conway 1999). than those derived from any bored mals in captivity: Principles and Many of the new adventurers are zoo ape, listless lion, or pacing bear. techniques, eds. D. Kleiman et al. already aboard ship, on vessels bear- Zoos need to boldly broaden their Chicago: University of Chicago ing names like the Audubon Society, focus, sharpen their mission, and Press. Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, form new partnerships with other cul- Terborgh, J. 1999. Requiem for nature. Earthwatch, and Nature Conservancy. tural, scientific, and arts and human- Washington, D.C.: Island Press. It is imperative, however, that the ities institutions. Then all of them public join this great expedition. For can tell the story that wild places and this purpose zoos are admirably suit- wild animals are essential as well as ed. They reach vast numbers of peo- wonderful and that we must learn to ple who come to them each year share the world with them. eager for contact with the world of nature. With imagination, creativity, and most of all commitment, zoos Literature Cited can fashion a strong and public voice American Zoo and Aquarium Associa- for conservation. Instead of directing tion (AZA). 1994. Species survival their educational programs to school- plan. Bethesda, Md.: AZA. children, they can educate the voters Boyd, L. 1997. Zoological parks and and decision-makers in our society. aquariums in the Americas. Bethes- They can bring the beauty and fragili- da, Md.: American Zoo and Aquari- ty of wild places directly into our city um Association. centers, reaching and energizing an Conway, W. 1999. The changing role urban audience that needs to become of zoos in the twenty-first century. more aware of the real need for wild- Keynote address, Annual Confer- life conservation. ence of the World Zoo Organisa- Ironically, zoos can achieve this tion, Pretoria, South Africa. with less dependence upon animal Croke, V. 1997. The modern ark. New displays. New technologies, new tech- York: Scribner. niques, and an acknowledgement of Hancocks, D. 1996. Gardens of ecolo- their true mission can transform zoos gy. In Keepers of the kingdom: The into champions of conservation. The new American zoo, ed. N. Richard- wonder that is inherent in very small son. Charlottesville, Va.: Thomas- life forms can be magical, when pre- son-Grant Lickle. sented in the right way. It is certainly Harris, L. and Associates. 1994. Sci- more edifying and uplifting than ence and nature survey. N.Y: Amer- watching the aimless shuffling of a ican Museum of Natural History. captive elephant. Interactive zoo ex- Hediger, H. 1950. Wild animals in hibits that reveal the connections in captivity: An outline of the biology of nature can benefit and inspire us zoological gardens. London: Butter- intellectually, spiritually, and aesthet- worth. ically. New types of zoo displays can Jones, G., J.C. Coe, and D.R. Paulson. help us to understand the interdepen- 1976. Woodland Park Zoo: Long dencies of flowers and bats, elephants range plan, development guidelines and savannas, mushrooms and trees, and exhibit scenarios. Seattle, ants and butterflies, minerals and Wash.: Department of Parks and bones. An example of this new ap- Recreation. proach, called Wildscreen, has recent- ly opened in Bristol, England. It uses

144 The State of the Animals: 2001 understand how the sale or loan of USDA doesn’t categorize its exhib- Another endangered tigers and orangutans itors by size, number of animals dis- to birthday-party entertainers “en- played, or any other criterion. It sim- hances the survival” of their species. ply requires that they display or View of No one seems eager to explain that exhibit animals to the public. USDA- when the spring crop of baby animals licensed exhibitors therefore can featured in the local newspaper’s range from a gas station owner dis- Zoos “What’s New at the Zoo” article dis- playing a single moth-eaten tiger in places last year’s crop, last year’s a cage to the world-renowned San babies sit unnoticed in bleak “off Diego Zoo. Richard Farinato exhibit” holding areas. Yet it should For the purposes of discussion, let be impossible for everyone but the us arbitrarily cut the number of li- oos have engendered strong perky, positive, vocal pro-zoo few to censed exhibitors in half to eliminate feelings in people ever since ignore reality—that the vast majority the gas station tigers, mobile petting Zemperors and kings began as- of public-display facilities are not cut- zoos, and birthday party monkeys for sembling private menageries for ting-edge conservation societies un- hire. Even so, the remaining thousand themselves. derwriting conservation research in would still be enough to allocate Although zoos have some ardent remote rainforests. twenty wild-animal display attractions supporters, zoo critics have often suc- Zoos exist primarily to entertain to every state in the Union. Such ceeded in disseminating their view of people. They are businesses. The first operations may call themselves pre- zoos as little more than animal jails, concern of any business is the satis- serves, reserves, sanctuaries, rescue concrete warehouses in which blame- faction of the customer, and a zoo, centers, wildlife parks, or nature cen- less inmates live out lives of desperate whether public or private, depends on ters, but since they all exhibit wild misery. In an effort to combat that repeat business from satisfied cus- animals to the public on a predictable negative image, during the past de- tomers. Whatever the zoo has identi- basis, they function for all intents and cade a small minority of zoos has fied as necessary to visitor satisfac- purposes as traditional zoos. Of this gone out of its way to create the myth tion will determine the zoo’s arbitrarily assigned thousand, less of the “good zoo.” This visible, vocal priorities. It shares with all other ani- than 20 percent—185—are accredit- minority declares that gone are the mal-based industries the same build- ed by the American Zoo and Aquari- days when zoo animals existed only to ing blocks of business: produce or um Association (AZA) (formerly provide a family’s afternoon enter- acquire animals; display and other- AAZPA, the American Association of tainment. Conservation and educa- wise market those animals; and dis- Zoological Parks and Aquariums), the tion are now the avowed purposes of pose of surplus, excess, or otherwise professional membership association zoos, they say. Endangered species unwanted animals. In the course of for zoos in this country. Within even are micromanaged down to the gene conducting their business, zoos say, this small subset, the quality of the level for the enhancement of their the public is educated, conservation facilities, staff, and animal care varies survival. The zoo is an ark with a pre- is fostered, and visitors are enter- widely. In general, however, it is only a cious cargo to save. As animals disap- tained through the use or mere pres- relative handful of these AZA-accred- pear in the wild, zoos offer a last hope ence of captive wild animals. ited institutions that has led the zoo for such species’ survival and a last For the most part, the public seems field in innovative animal care and chance for visitors to learn about to believe them, judging from the display, in situ conservation pro- them. So they say. popularity of zoos in general. Some grams, and animal welfare. The re- Such cheerful pronouncements, ten thousand zoos are estimated to maining uber-majority are by-and- however, haven’t changed what the exist worldwide. Annual attendance is large silent and far, far behind. average American zoo is or what the estimated at 700 million (IUDZG Whenever the public reads that average American zoo does. The truth 1993). No one knows exactly how zoos are dedicated to the conserva- isn’t easily reconcilable with the new many zoos exist in the United States. tion of endangered species or are image. It is difficult to argue the mer- In order to exhibit wild animals to the working to teach the public about the its of concepts like “precious cargo” public, however, U.S. law does re- natural world, the story is likely to and “education” when bears still end- quires that an exhibitor be licensed have originated with the comment of lessly pace the cement floors of zoo by the U.S. Department of Agricul- an AZA spokesperson or facility. It cages all over the country and ture (USDA). Currently, approximate- typically does not include the num- chained elephants rock the decades ly 2,300 USDA-licensed exhibitors are bers of zoos actually involved in these away in dusty, barren enclosures bet- in operation. Since 1996 USDA fig- laudable endeavors. Instead, the im- ter suited to the pony ride concession ures show that exhibitor numbers pression is left that all zoos are doing than to habitat for natives of the have increased by an average of a hun- all these things all the time, and that African savanna. It remains hard to dred licensees each fiscal year. The the specific facility mentioned is sim-

Another View of Zoos 145 ply a shining example of a pervasive respond on a basic, emotional level to living with stainless steel, rope ham- state of affairs. Indeed, the zoo com- seeing a live animal on display and mocks, and cardboard boxes. Still munity is a unified and consistent that such observation can create a others will experience highly detailed entity, vastly changed for the better bond with an individual animal. But re-creations of tropical rainforests. from what it used to be. the bond between zoo animal and vis- With little consensus and/or regula- This is very different from the reali- itor is more likely to have been man- tion within either the AZA or non-AZA ty The HSUS and other animal pro- ufactured by the facility through zoo communities on the design and tection organizations deal with annu- sophisticated signage, favorable pub- execution of exhibits, there is little ally: the shabby reality of outdated licity (such as baby-animal “naming” consistency in the educational mes- facilities, miserable animals, unen- contests and charity outings), and sages being delivered by zoos. What is lightened and misguided manage- gift-shop novelties than through any being taught? What message does the ment, and suspect sales practices of spontaneous or genuine interaction. visitor get? What has he or she zoos receiving public and/or private For that reason the quality of the learned about the animal? Should it support. From 1996–1998, the USDA interactions varies wildly, from nega- vary according to each zoo’s display received more than eighty thousand tive to positive, depending on staff so- budget, geographical location, and inquiries from citizens, groups, and phistication, physical resources, and educational mission? legislators concerned about animal institutional goals. The issue of education aside, vocal, welfare in regulated facilities in gen- According to traditional zoo philos- visible zoos have increasingly promot- eral (out of a total of 7,800 facilities ophy, people must see live animals in ed themselves as conservation cen- regulated by USDA) (USDA APHIS order to learn about a species (and ters, in some cases even changing 1998). Over that same time period consequently to care about the spe- their names to reinforce this image. and to the present, The HSUS rou- cies and its habitat). To prove their Through skillful marketing and public tinely has received letters, e-mails, educational effectiveness, zoos fre- relations, they miss no opportunity to and phone calls of concern about zoo quently cite their annual attendance emphasize their role as modern arks, facilities on an average of three to five figures, as though visitors learn about hedges against the extinction of times a week. Green (1999) followed animals simply by walking through a endangered species in the wild. The “de-accessioned” zoo animals via a turnstile. But does mere exposure to majority of zoos, however, do no more paper trail from roadside menageries captive animals translate directly into than produce multiple generations of to exotic animal auctions to exotic- practical action—or even heightened common—as well as endangered— animal dealers back to zoos in a per- ecological awareness—as zoos claim? species. They label this breeding suasive account that makes zoos’ af- One could argue that it does exactly “conservation,” when the most that firmations of ethical treatment of the opposite. Instead of sensitizing can be claimed for it is that it replen- animals disingenuous at best. the visitor to animals and their (un- ishes available zoo stock to minimize The AZA zoos that dominate the portrayed) natural habitats, such ex- capture from the wild. Facilities with media present themselves as dedicat- posure may plant the notion that wild the financial resources, staff exper- ed to educating the public and to con- animals belong in confinement and tise, and commitment to engage in or serving wildlife. Some zoos have made that artificial, visitor-friendly sur- support real conservation programs great strides in both areas, but rela- roundings are natural or at the least have always been few in number. Per- tively few AZA zoos, and virtually none representative of the animal’s native haps 10 percent of AZA zoos are of the non-AZA member facilities, are habitat. Viewing an orangutan sitting involved in such substantial conserva- involved or effective in either conser- in a grassy, moated outdoor yard or a tion programs, either in or ex situ, so vation or education. Those that have concrete enclosure teaches nothing to call conservation a purpose of zoos anything tangible to show for such about the nature of the animal or its in general is misleading. efforts rely on intuition, anecdotes, role in the non-zoo environment. It Yet there is no doubt that claims of projections, and hypotheses built on encourages people to consider wild conservation by a few zoos insulate all hypotheses to imply that the whole animals as isolated objects rather zoos from criticism and wrap them in zoo community shares in any success- than as integral elements of an eco- a mantle of noble endeavor. Certainly, es. Studies (Kellert and Dunlap 1989; system with their own intrinsic value. as the capture and import of wild ani- World Society for the Protection of If the basic educational tool in the mals have become more controver- Animals and the Born Free Founda- zoo’s classroom is the living animal sial, zoos have made captive breeding tion 1994) found little evidence of and its surroundings, we must look a central project, if only to provide any substantive education taking closely at what a zoo exhibit tells a themselves with a steady supply of place among zoogoers; although the visitor. Some zoos teach that gorillas, replacement animals, but the captive potential for it was and may be pre- orangutans, and chimpanzees are birth of an animal does not necessar- sent, education has not replaced en- found in nature on grassy lawns at the ily enhance its species’ prospects for tertainment during a zoo visit. bases of sheer cliffs. Visitors of other survival. Most captive-breeding pro- It is accurate to say that people zoos may learn that these apes prefer grams ensure a supply of animals for

146 The State of the Animals: 2001 display or trade, and often create a world. Then they must do something growing number of surplus animals of to ensure that the ideals of the small questionable genetic backgrounds. percentage of “good” zoos becomes Neither these animals nor their prog- the standard by which all zoos are eny can be considered as hedges judged. against a species’ extinction. All face uncertain futures at best. Zoos claim that they foster not only Literature Cited education and conservation, but also Green, A. 1999. Animal underworld: research and scientific study of ani- Inside America’s black market for mals that benefits conservation. How- rare and exotic species. New York: ever, much of what can be learned Public Affairs. from captive animals has limited ap- IUDZG—The World Zoo Organization plication to the conservation of free- and the Captive Breeding Specialist living populations. The majority of Group of IUCN/SSC. 1993. The zoo-based research addresses hus- world zoo conservation strategy: bandry techniques or other issues The role of the zoos and aquaria of specifically aimed at the management the world in global conservation. of animals in captivity, and has little if Brookfield, Ill.: Chicago Zoological anything to do with issues involving Society. wild animals or populations. Conser- Kellert, S.R., and J. Dunlap. 1989. vation funding from various sources Learning at the zoo: A study of atti- administered by AZA has been award- tude and knowledge impact. ed to 130 projects from 1991 through Philadelphia: Philadelphia Zoologi- 1999; 70 percent of these projects cal Society. were dedicated to captive animal U.S. Department of Agriculture Ani- management or in-house education mal and Plant Health Inspection activities as opposed to conservation Service (USDA APHIS). 1998. Ani- of species in the wild (www.AZA.org). mal welfare report: Fiscal year Zoos have a better reputation than 1998. APHIS 41-35-059. Washing- they deserve. The same four to eight ton, D.C. prominent zoos are trotted out over World Society for the Protection of and over again so the media can pay Animals (WSPA) and The Born Free homage to a handful of people or ex- Foundation. 1994. The zoo inquiry. hibits. The institutions that engage in London and Surrey, U.K.: WSPA and meaningful programs for conserva- The Born Free Foundation. tion and education and place a high priority on animal welfare are not typ- ical zoos. They do not represent what commonly exists in so many munici- palities, in city parks, on scenic routes in rural tourist areas, or in the multitude of other locations that have animals in cages on display. They ignore or deny or forget the squalid facilities that make up the large majority of zoos in this country. It is a disservice to the public and to the an- imals for the zoo community to act otherwise. Zoo professionals need to accept that the welfare of any animal in any captive situation is ultimately their responsibility. They must engage in honest acknowledgement of condi- tions that are prevalent—rather than those that are desirable—in the zoo

Another View of Zoos 147