Vývoj Počítačov III.A

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Vývoj Počítačov III.A editor – Otto Bisák Vývoj počítačov III.a Vývoj počítačov na konci 60. a začiatkom 70. rokov sa uberal k používaniu integrovaných obvodov. Bola to spočiatku kombinácia tranzistorov a integrovaných obvodov na stavbu počítačov a stolových kalkulačiek. Integrovaný obvod je elektronická súčiastka, ktorá v sebe zlučuje určité množstvo elektronických obvodových prvkov akými sú: tranzistory, diódy, odpory a kondenzátory, neoddeliteľne spojených na povrchu alebo vo vnútri určitého spojitého telesa ( obvykle kremíkovej polovodičovej doštičky, nazývanej čip alebo wafer), aby sa dosiahlo zložitejšej ucelenej funkcie. Integrovaný obvod IO sa uplatnil vo väčšine dnešných elektronických zariadeniach ako sú: televízny prijímač, rádio, mobilné telefóny, diaľkové ovládače, kalkulačky, v autách, lietadlách a ďalších výrobkoch okolo nás. Z technologického hľadiska priniesol IO miniaturizáciu elektronických zariadení, ktorá umožnila zvýšenie výkonu, lebo na rovnakom priestore bolo možné umiestniť viacej súčiastok, zníženie elektrickej spotreby, zvýšenie spoľahlivosti vytváraním určitých celkov bez zbytočného prepojovania pomocou vodivých káblikov. Z pohľadu hromadnej výroby je IO ekonomicky výhodné vyrábať. Korene IO siahajú až do roku 1949, kedy nemecký inžinier Werner Jacobi z firmy Siemens AG zaregistroval patent na polovodičový zosilňovač, vytvorený piatimi tranzistormi a s troma stupňami zosilnenia na spoločnej základni. Ako typické priemyselné využitie patentu uviedol miniatúrne slúchadlá pre osoby s postihnutým sluchom, ale neexistujú ďalšie záznamy o skutočnom komerčnom využití jeho vynálezu. Na obrázku je prvý výrobok s IO pre sluchovo postihnutých vyrobený v roku 1949. Druhým vedcom, ktorý podal patent na IO bol Geoffrey Dummer, vedec pracujúci pre anglické Ministerstvo obrany, ktorý svoje myšlienky publikoval na elektrotechnickom sympóziu v v roku 1952 a v roku 1956 sa pokúsil skonštruovať IO, ale neúspešne. Za skutočného vynálezcu IO sa považujú dvaja ľudia: Jack Kilby a Robert Noyce. Jack Kilby bol mladým inžinierom, ktorý nastúpil v máji 1958 do firmy Texas Instruments a na rozdiel od ostatných svojich kolegov nemal nárok na dovolenku. Vtedy firma TI pracovala na projekte mikro - modulov, ktoré financovala armáda USA, ktorého cieľom bolo zjednotenie rozmerov a tvaru elektronických súčiastok tak, aby ich bolo možné ľahko skladať do modulov bez externých spojovacích drôtov, hlavne pri zložitejších zariadeniach. Riešenie pomocou mikro – modulov však nebol technologicky dostačujúci, ani ekonomicky výhodné, pretože stále bolo potrebné vyrobiť a spojiť mnoho súčiastok pre získanie zložitejších celkov. Kilby prišiel vtedy s revolučnou myšlienkou, pokúsiť sa z polovodičov vyrobiť okrem tranzistorov a diód i ostatné potrebné pasívne prvky ako odpory a kondenzátory, čo by umožnilo ich spojiť na jednej malej polovodičovej doštičke. Tento nápad Kilby behom dvoch týždňov realizoval v roku 1958 a tak vznikol prvý integrovaný obvod, ktorý mal veľkosť 11 x 2 mm a tvoril oscilátor na plátku germánia prilepenému na sklenej doštičke. Na obrázku je prvý integrovaný obvod z roku 1958 od Jacka Kilbyho. Žiadosť o patent bola podaná až v roku 1959. Jack Kilby okrem IO sa zapísal do histórie ešte viac ako šesťdesiatimi ďalšími patentmi, z ktorých je najviac vyzdvihovaný vynález prenosnej kalkulačky na báze IO, ktorý uskutočnil v roku 1966. Súbežne s Kilbym, nezávislo na sebe pracoval na IO i Robert Noyce vo firme Fairchild Semiconductor. K výsledkom sa dopracoval pól roka po Kilbym a to začiatkom roka 1959, keď skonštruoval prvý kremíkový IO pomocou planárnej technológie, ktorá bola pre hromadnú výrobu omnoho výhodnejšia ako Kilbyho koncept, ktorý jednotlivé prvky svojho obvodu spojil iba ručným spájkovaním. V tom istom roku podal prihlášku na patent, ktorý získal v roku 1961, zatiaľ čo Kilbymu bol udelený až v roku 1964. Nasledovali patentové spory, ktoré boli vyriešené dohodou, v ktorej bolo uznané prvenstvo Kilbymu, ale veľké zásluhy Noycemu. Všeobecne sú tieto dve osobnosti považované za spoluvynálezcov IO. Niektoré zdroje poukazujú, že sa Noyce inšpiroval prácou Kurta Lehovece z Sprague Electronics v oblasti využitia P – N prechodu k elektrickej izolácii obvodových súčiastok a ďalej planárnym procesom pôvodne vyvinutým Jeanom Hoernim z Fairchild Semiconductor. Jack Kilby (8. 11. 1923 – 20. 6. 2005 Narodil sa v Jefferson City v štáte Missouri. Bol synom elektroinžiniera a záujem o elektrotechniku začal prejavovať na strednej škole Kansas Power Company of Great Bend, kde bol jeho otec riaditeľom. Pokračovanie v štúdiu mu zabránila II. sv. vojna a po nástupe do armády pôsobil na rôznych miestach, kde sa zúčastnil na vývoji výzbroje pre armádu. Po skončení vojny sa zapísal na elektrotechniku na univerzite Illinois, kde získal titul bakalára v roku 1947. Po skončení štúdia sa zamestnal v Centrolab pobočke Globe unie inc., ktorá sa nachádzala v Milwaukee v štáte Wisconsin, kde bol pridelený do programu vývoja miniatúrnych elektrických modulov. Našiel si čas k pokračovaniu štúdia na univerzite Wisconsin a v roku 1950 získal titul magistra. V roku 1952 Centralab poslal Kilbyho do Bell Laboratories v Murray Hill, v New Jersey, aby sa lepšie zaujímal o tranzistor, ktorý vyvinuli v Bell v roku 1947 a na ktorý Centralab zakúpil licenciu na výrobu. Pri návrate späť do Centralab, začal Kilby pracovať s germániom pri výrobe tranzistorov, ktoré používali v prístrojoch pre ľudí so zníženou poruchou sluchu. Čoskoro si uvedomil, že potrebuje ísť do väčšej spoločnosti, kde získa lepšie možnosti sledovať vývoj a miniaturizáciu súčiastok. V roku 1958 v máji nastúpil do firmy Texas Instrumentrs Incorporated v Dallase v štáte Texas. Tu začal pracovať na programe miniaturizácie modulov pre armádu USA. V júli väčšina zamestnancov odišla väčšina zamestnancov na dovolenku a Jack Kilby zostal v laboratóriu takmer sám, lebo nemal nárok na dovolenku, ale zato mal dosť času a pokoja na premýšľanie. Uvažoval, čím by sa mohli mikro – moduly nahradiť a uvedomil si, že jediné, čo je možné v polovodičovej firme robiť je tvoriť súčiastky z polovodičov. Miesto zdĺhavého prepojovania drobných súčiastok ešte tenšími drôtikmi, by bolo lepšie ich vyrábať ako kompletné obvody so všetkými pasívnymi i aktívnymi prvkami vodivo prepojenými priamo na povrchu polovodičových doštičiek. Vyriešil by sa tak problém spájania mnohých jednoduchých elektronických súčiastok, ktoré spoločne tvoria elektrický obvod vykonávajúci nejakú zložitejšiu funkciu. Nemohli by sa teda vyrobiť z polovodiča všetky súčiastky obvodu? To bola hlavná myšlienka Jacka Kilbyho. Polovodičové diódy i tranzistory sa už vyrábali, ale pasívne prvky, ako odpory a kondenzátory ešte nie, lebo bolo výhodnejšie používať lacné diskrétne súčiastky. Za dva týždne držal Kilby v ruke integrovaný obvod: sklenenú doštičku s prilepeným plátkom germánia, na ktorom sa nachádzal jednoduchý oscilátor. Keď sa Kilbyho vedúci vrátil z dovolenky, myšlienku kolegu podporil a už 12. septembra mohli vedeniu firmy spoločne predstaviť tri funkčné integrované obvody s funkciou oscilátora. Každý mal veľkosť 11 x 2 mm. Vyrobené boli z kusa germánia s kontaktmi preletovanými tenkými drôtikmi. Kilby prišiel s revolučnou myšlienkou a použil technológiu, ktorá nebola na výrobu vhodná. Až keď Kilby s použitím svojich švábov vyrobil vreckovú kalkulačku, ktorá predtým zaberala polovicu stola, týmto presvedčil vedenie firmy, že je čas konať. Na obrázku je kalkulačka z integrovaných obvodov z roku 1967, ktorú vytvoril Jack Kilby. Firma podala patentovú prihlášku 6. 2. 1959 a potom vynález predviedla verejnosti. Prvý integrovaný obvod bol vyrobený s bežnými postupmi, ako sú pece, leptacie zariadenie, masky z kusov filmu a pod. Na obrázku sú jednoduché integrované obvody. Prvé integrované obvody z firmy Texas Instruments boli použité v roku 1962 pre navádzací systém a použitie v balestických raketách Minuteman. V roku 1965 Kilby vynašiel tlačiareň na polovodičovej báze. V roku 1967 navrhol prvé IC – based elektronickú kalkulačku, Packetronic, na ktorú získal patent, ktorý je vo vnútri všetkých vreckových kalkulátoroch. V roku 1970 si vzal voľno z Texas Instruments a pracoval na využití technológie kremíka na výrobu elektrickej energie zo slnečného svetla. Od roku 1978 do 1984 pôsobil aj ako profesor elektrotechniky na univerzite Texas A & M. Oficiálne odišiel z TI v roku 1980, ale v činnosti bol ešte niekoľko rokov. Kilby ma viac ako 50 amerických patentov a bol zvedený v Národnej sieni slávy vynálezcov. Dostal i Nobelovu cenu za fyziku v roku 2000 pre jeho vynález integrovaného obvodu. Kilby mal dve dcéry a päť vnúčat. Zomrel 20. 6. 2005 vo veku 81 rokov v Dallase po krátkom boji s rakovinou. Robert Noyce (12. 12. 1927 – 3. 6. 1990) Narodil sa v Burlington v štáte Iowa. Bol tretí zo štyroch synov. Jeho otec bol v roku 1915 absolventom Diamond College a v roku 1920 absolventom Oberlin College a v roku 1923 absolvent na teologickom seminári v Chicagu. Reverend Noyce bol farárom a spolupracovníkom konferencie cirkví Congregational v rokoch 1930 až 1940. Jeho matka Harriet Maria Norton v roku 1921 absolvovala Oberlin College a bola dcérou Turona Milton J. Nortona a snívala o misionárskom živote. Bola považovaná za inteligentnú ženu, ktorá si ide za svojím cieľom. Bob mal troch bratov Donald Sterling Noyce, Gaylord Brewster Noyce a Ralph Harold Noyce. V detstve porazil otca v ping – pongu ako päťročný a matka mu dohovárala, prečo nenechal vyhrať otca, ale on sa cítil urazený, lebo ak chcete hrať, tak sa snažíte vyhrať inak to nie je hra. V roku 1940 ako dvanásť ročný si
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