heritage

Article Capri’s Touristification. A Millennial Cultural Landscape Reinvented by Luxury Tourism

Giovanna Russo Krauss Architect at Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio per il Comune di Napoli, 80127 Naples, Italy; [email protected]



Received: 1 March 2019; Accepted: 21 May 2019; Published: 27 May 2019


Abstract: In recent years the issue of touristification has been progressively discussed in relation to its impact on historic towns. In this regard, physical transformations and gentrification consequences are both issues often addressed. In Italy, consciousness on the subject primarily grew in relation to Florence and Venice, both national cases widely discussed also on newspapers. The awareness of a wider range of cases affected by this problem, from big cities to small holiday destinations, is even more recent. The aim of the present paper is to address Capri’s touristification process, which started in the last decades of the nineteenth century and exploded in the second half of the twentieth century, from the point of view of the field of study of history and conservation of cultural heritage and landscape. Therefore, this process and some of its consequences on the island’s cultural landscape and identity are thoroughly analyzed. The paper starts with a brief introduction to the island and its history, which is necessary in order to highlight its rich cultural heritage and the slow pace at which Capri has grown over time as a fishermen island to suddenly transforming into a touristic destination during the last century. Finally, the current touristic vocation and the consequences on Capri’s natural and built environment are discussed, with the aim of individuating if and why there have already been losses and what should be done to prevent this negative process from going on.

Keywords: Capri; tourism; touristification; conservation; cultural landscape; tourism gentrification; Mediterranean; architecture; heritage; urbanism

1. Introduction The present article has been the first paper from an ongoing research that is currently exploring Capri’s touristification phenomenon with the goal of understanding its reasons, individuating the consequences on the island’s cultural landscape and identity, and proposing a new and more sustainable path for its touristic exploitation. When speaking about Italian touristification and overtourism, Florence and Venice immediately come across as national cases that for quite some time have been widely discussed on scientific journals and newspapers. However, recently a new awareness of a wider range of cases affected by this problem, from big cities to small holiday destinations, has grown. In this framework, Capri’s touristification process is particularly interesting because, while similar to other cases in terms of gentrification consequences, unlike them its overtourism is due to “Capri’s myth”, meaning the island’s luxury-celebrity identity, and not its cultural landscape, which is being overlooked and therefore endangered. Tourism exploitation and cultural conservation are, therefore, inextricably linked. It is a process that needs to be studied in order to carefully examine the outcomes, both on Capri’s identity and on its physical embodiment, of the touristic strategies endorsed by the local administrations and study the necessary corrections. The present state of conservation of Capri’s landscape and cultural heritage is a theme of interest that has attracted the attention of many scholars and stakeholders but that has not yet been organically addressed in a multidisciplinary research; therefore, it has currently

Heritage 2019, 2, 1509–1529; doi:10.3390/heritage2020095 www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2019, 2 1510 failed to devise virtuous strategies for its preservation, conservation, and enhancement, developing a more sustainable perspective on Capri’s tourism. Currently, the point of view of the article is not that of tourism studies, but that of history and conservation of cultural heritage and landscape. Therefore, Capri’s touristification process is investigated in order to analyze its consequences on the island’s cultural landscape and identity. In the future, the research will expand to include the points of view of experts of tourism studies and economic and political geography. These contributions will allow the formation of a complete picture of the problem in Capri, necessary for the formulation of the right strategies for the preservation and enhancement of the island from a sustainable tourism perspective. This is the only way to rightly address overtourism [1], which is a global and recent phenomenon that is being progressively discussed both in public debates and in academia. Indeed, the last decades have been marked by a transformation of the touristic phenomenon, in which low-cost flight companies, internet platforms that allow travelers to book their own accommodation and plan their travel without the assistance of travel agencies, as well as home sharing platforms such as Airbnb, have played a significant part. While touristic development is commonly considered desirable for the economy, in recent years a certain awareness has grown on the downside of excessive tourism. The citizens of more and more cities are starting to protest against their hometown’s touristification, and studies are being promoted from a sociologic, geographic, anthropologic and touristic point of view. As István Egresi has stated: «Many locations in Europe have been identified for experiencing overtourism today; however, studies on tourist crowding in high-density destinations are still scarce and most of these studies are approached from the perspective of tourists» [2] (p. 703). In addition to this, it seems that architects have been scarcely interested by the issue and their involvement in the debate is very recent. Among architects, urban planners have been the first ones to address overtourism, although from an operative point of view. Then, the impact of overtourism on historic towns has raised the attention of scholars of urban history and conservation, and now in many conferences the issue of touristification is being discussed in relation to its impact on historic towns. In this regard, physical transformation and gentrification consequences are both issues often addressed. In its future development, the research on Capri’s touristification will not only aim at benefit Capri’s conservation, but will also aim to establish a new multidisciplinary approach to the study of the phenomenon of overtourism, which, to date, academia has addressed in specific and separate studies, with no debates among different disciplines. The research that has led to the present paper—although still ongoing—is the result of both the study of the rich literature regarding Capri and the elaboration of the open data of some institutional websites, such as that of ISTAT (the Italian National Statistic Institute), regarding demographics and building data, of Mibac (Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities), regarding public cultural sites’ visitor data, and of Capritourism, regarding Capri’s port movement over time and its current touristic facilities. The first paragraphs, which address Capri’s history, rely mainly on secondary sources, while the second part of the paper is the main original part of the research, using on site research, analysis of statistical data, recollection and comparisons of historic views, old pictures, and photographs taken by the author over the years. Some informal talks with locals and Neapolitans that have been spending their summer holidays in Capri from the Sixties to the current day are at the base of the research.

2. Capri: A Millennial Cultural Landscape

2.1. Introducing Capri The three islands that complete the Gulf of Naples—Capri, Ischia, and Procida—are located at the far end of both sides of the gulf: Capri is on the southern part, visually continuing the Sorrentine Peninsula, while Ischia and Procida are on the northern end, completing the Gulf of Pozzuoli. Although symmetric, among the three islands, Capri is the one with the best-known panorama from the city and its surroundings. Because of Naples facing south, the characteristic profile of Capri, which resembles a HeritageHeritage 20192018,, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of1511 20

which resembles a sleeping mermaid, is visible from most of the panoramic viewpoints of the city Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20 sleepingand also mermaid,from many is touristic visible from areas most south of from the panoramic it, such as the viewpoints Sorrento of and the the city Amalfi and also Coasts from (Figure many touristic areas south from it, such as the Sorrento and the Amalfi Coasts (Figure1). 1).which resembles a sleeping mermaid, is visible from most of the panoramic viewpoints of the city and also from many touristic areas south from it, such as the Sorrento and the Amalfi Coasts (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Capri from the Sorrento Coast (Russo Krauss).Krauss). Figure 1. Capri from the Sorrento Coast (Russo Krauss). The island is mostly famous for its landscape, made of limestone steep precipices over blue and The island is mostly famous for its landscape, made of limestone steep precipices over blue and green clear waters. Although very small, it is quite articulated. The main municipality, Capri, is in green clearThe island waters. is mostly Although famous very for small, its landscape, it is quite made articulated. of limestone The steep main precipices municipality, over Capri,blue and is in thegreen central clear part waters. of the Although island, avery plain small, between it is quite the slopesarticulated. of Monte The main Solaro, municipality, to the west, Capri, and isMonte in the central part of the island, a plain between the slopes of Monte Solaro, to the west, and Monte Tiberio,the central to the part east. of Betweenthe island, these a plain two between mountains, the slopes the town of Monte descends Solaro, into to the the sea west, in twoand Monteopposite Tiberio, to the east. Between these two mountains, the town descends into the sea in two opposite gulfs:Tiberio, Marina to the Grande east. Between—the location these twoof the mountains, harbor— theand town Marina descends Piccola, into famous the sea for in twothe viewopposite of the gulfs: Marina Grande—the location of the harbor—and Marina Piccola, famous for the view of the Faraglioni.gulfs: Marina Con nectedGrande to— theCapri location by a singleof the panoramicharbor—and drive Marina and Piccola, placed famousabove it, for there the viewis the of second the Faraglioni. Connected to Capri by a single panoramic drive and placed above it, there is the second municipalityFaraglioni. Con of thenected island, to Capri Anacapri by a single (Figure panoramic 2), which, drive being and onplaced the above gentler it, westthere slopeis the second of Monte municipalitySolaro,municipality is entirely of ofthe hidden the island, island, from Anacapri Anacapri Capri (Figure by (Figure the2 ),vertical which, 2), which, east being face being on of the on the gentler the mou gentlerntain west west(Figure slope slope of 3). Monte of Monte Solaro, is entirelySolaro, is hidden entirely from hidden Capri from by Capri the vertical by the vertical east face east of theface mountain of the mou (Figurentain (Figure3). 3).

Figure 2. Google earth’s picture of Capri elaborated by the author. Figure 2. Google earth’s picture of Capri elaborated by the author.

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Figure 3. Capri from Monte Solaro (Russo Krauss).

The island is currently one of the best-known Italian holiday destinations in the whole world. The The beautiful island Mediterranean is currently one island, of the best-known praised for Italian its crystal holiday sea, destinations lush vegetation, in the whole and world. marvelous The beautiful Mediterranean island, praised for its crystal sea, lush vegetation, and marvelous orographic orographic features is currently the setting of seasonal tourism that revolves around celebrities, featuresluxury, and is currently nightlife. theDespite setting the of first seasonal settlements tourism dating that back revolves to the around prehistoric celebrities, age, the luxury, island was and nightlife. Despite the first settlements dating back to the prehistoric age, the island was not much not much populated and visited until the Nineteenth Century, when a European elite chose to move populatedin to enjoy and a life visited made until of culture the Nineteenth and beauty Century, in an when extraordinary a European setting. elite chose From to that move moment in to enjoy on, it a life made of culture and beauty in an extraordinary setting. From that moment on, it underwent many underwent many transformations, the main one being its progressive construction. A construction transformations,that has proceeded the at main the same one being pace itsas progressivethe growth of construction. the island’s A touristic construction fortun thate. Especially has proceeded the last at thefifty same years, pace characterized as the growth by of modern the island’s mass touristic-tourism fortune. and luxury Especially tourism, the last have fifty put years, Capri characterized under the bypressure modern of mass-tourismmany physical and transformations, luxury tourism, necessary have put for Capri the adaptation under the of pressure the small of manydelicate physical island transformations,to the needs of the necessary four million for tour the adaptationists per year of registered the small in delicate the last islandtwo decades to the [ needs3]. of the four millionCapri tourists has indeed per year become registered the indestination the last two of decadesboth the [ 3daily]. pilgrimage of thousands of cruise Capri has indeed become the destination of both the daily pilgrimage of thousands of cruise tourists1 and the medium-long stay of rich and famous people, anxious to be part of a legendary and 1 touristsexclusiveand luxury the holiday. medium-long Here, staynight of life, rich five and-star famous hotels people, and rows anxious of renowned to be part designers’ of a legendary boutiques and exclusiveseem to capture luxury all holiday. visitors’ Here, attention, night life, whether five-star they hotels are leaving and rows with of the renowned evening designers’ ship or staying boutiques in a seemmagnificent to capture villa. all What visitors’ most attention, present tourists whether seem they to are ignore leaving is the with unique the evening cultural ship heritage or staying they inare a magnificentvisiting. The villa.island What is in mostfact a presentcultural tourists landscape, seem as to defined ignore isby the the unique World culturalHeritage heritage Convention they [ are4], visiting.that links The together island is inexceptional fact a cultural panoramas, landscape, archaeological as defined by the remains, World Heritage centuries Convention-old handcraft [4], thattraditions, links together vernacular exceptional buildings, panoramas, as well as archaeologicalbeautiful archite remains,cture and centuries-old works of art. handcraft traditions, vernacularFor many buildings, centuries, as wellall these as beautiful features architectureco-existed harmoniously, and works of art.progressively shaping the island and buildingFor many its centuries, identity. all However, these features Capri’s co-existed tourism, harmoniously, grown over progressivelythe last century shaping because the of island this andunique building palimpsest, its identity. has progressively However, Capri’sbecome tourism,independent grown from over the theculture last of century the place, because which of is this no uniquelonger the palimpsest, main attractor. has progressively As the next become section independent explains, the from pristine the culturecharacter of theof the place, island which and is the no longermarvelous the mainlandscape attractor. brought As in the Capri next an section international explains, elite the that pristine chose character Capri as ofa holiday the island des andtination the marvelousin which to landscape embrace a brought culture in that Capri was an very international peculiar to elite the that place. chose Starting Capri from as a holidaythe 1950s destination onward, inpictures which of to celebrities embrace a walking culture that around was verythe narrow peculiar traditional to the place. alleys Starting wearing from dresses the 1950s of the onward, moda picturescaprese and of celebrities tabloids walking reporting around the lives the narrow they were traditional living alleys in the wearing small island dresses contributed of the moda caprese to the andconsolidation tabloids reporting of Capri’s the myth, lives they and were therefore living to in its the progressive small island touristic contributed fortune to the [5]. consolidation The cult of ofcelebriti Capri’ses and myth, social and media, therefore thanks to its to progressivethe indulgence touristic of the fortunelocal administrations, [5]. The cult ofhas celebrities strengthened and this process and, nowadays, Capri’s spontaneous luxury international tourism has become the island’s main attractor. 1 Between 2010 and 2017, the Azienda autonoma di cura soggiorno e turismo of Capri registered an average of daily passengers that ranged between 16,000 and 20,000 during summer [3].

1 Between 2010 and 2017, the Azienda autonoma di cura soggiorno e turismo of Capri registered an average of daily passengers that ranged between 16,000 and 20,000 during summer [3].

Heritage 2019, 2 1513 social media, thanks to the indulgence of the local administrations, has strengthened this process and, Heritagenowadays, 2018, 2 Capri’s, x FOR PEER spontaneous REVIEW luxury international tourism has become the island’s main attractor.5 of 20 Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20 2.2. From From the the First First Settlements Settlements to Italy’s Uni Unificationfication 2.2. From the First Settlements to Italy’s Unification The island of Capri is a millennial culturalcultural landscape;landscape; inin fact,fact, thanks thanks to to its its articulated articulated orography, orography, it The island of Capri is a millennial cultural landscape; in fact, thanks to its articulated orography, ithas has always always been been inhabited, inhabited, as as it hasit has been been demonstrated demonstrated by numerousby numerous prehistoric-age prehistoric- remainsage remains [6]. The[6]. it has always been inhabited, as it has been demonstrated by numerous prehistoric-age remains [6]. TheGreeks Greeks lived lived here here for many for many centuries centuries founding founding both Capriboth Capri and Anacapri and Anacapri (the Greek (the Greek suffice sufficeana means ana The Greeks lived here for many centuries founding both Capri and Anacapri (the Greek suffice ana meansabove) settlementsabove) settlements connected connected by the so-called by the so Phoenician-called Phoenician Steps, still Steps, present still today. present Firstly today. property Firstly of means above) settlements connected by the so-called Phoenician Steps, still present today. Firstly proNeapolisperty andof Neapolis later of the and emperors, later of the island emperors, was particularlythe island was dear particularly to the Roman dear emperor to the Tiberius Roman property of Neapolis and later of the emperors, the island was particularly dear to the Roman emperorwho spent Tiberius the last who ten yearsspent of the his last life ten in Capri, years erectingof his life many in Capri, villas, erecting the most many famous villas, of which the most was emperor Tiberius who spent the last ten years of his life in Capri, erecting many villas, the most famousVilla Jovis of whose which magnificent was Villa Jovis archaeological whose magnificent site can still archaeological be visited today site (Figures can still4 and be5 visited)[ 7]. During today famous of which was Villa Jovis whose magnificent archaeological site can still be visited today (Figuresthe Middle 4–5) Ages, [7]. the During island the was Middle constantly Ages, attacked the island by pirates was constantly who destroyed attacked many by piratesmonuments, who (Figures 4–5) [7]. During the Middle Ages, the island was constantly attacked by pirates who destroyedincluding the many Castello monuments, Barbarossa, including a fortress the Castello dating back Barbarossa, to the 9th a century,fortress dating which wasback never to the fully 9th destroyed many monuments, including the Castello Barbarossa, a fortress dating back to the 9th century,rebuilt [8 which] (pp. 7–22).was never fully rebuilt [8] (pp. 7–22). century, which was never fully rebuilt [8] (pp. 7–22).

Figure 4. Karl Weichardt, ideal and fictional reconstruction of Tiberius Palace in Capri, 1899. FigureFigure 4. 4. KarlKarl Weichardt, Weichardt, id idealeal and fictional fictional reconstruction of Tiberius Palace inin Capri,Capri, 1899.1899.

Figure 5. The archaeological remains of Villa Jovis (Russo Krauss). Figure 5. TheThe archaeological archaeological remains of Villa Jovis (Russo Krauss). After a relatively peaceful time, first the Parthenopean Revolution (1799) and then the After a relatively peaceful time, first the Parthenopean Revolution (1799) and then the NapoleonicAfter a reign relatively negatively peaceful af time,fected first Capri’s the Parthenopean already fragile Revolution economy, (1799)and at and the thenbeginning the Napoleonic of Italy’s Napoleonic reign negatively affected Capri’s already fragile economy, and at the beginning of Italy’s unification,reign negatively the aislandffected was Capri’s extremely already poor fragile [9 economy,] (pp. 3–7). and There at the were beginning no facilitie of Italy’ss such unification, as sewers, the unification, the island was extremely poor [9] (pp. 3–7). There were no facilities such as sewers, hospitals, graveyards, nor, as strange as it may seem, was there a harbor, a fact that often cut off the hospitals, graveyards, nor, as strange as it may seem, was there a harbor, a fact that often cut off the island from the continent. However, its early visitors came here attracted by its very peculiar and island from the continent. However, its early visitors came here attracted by its very peculiar and fascinating, wild and pristine character [9] (pp. 3–7) (Figure 6). fascinating, wild and pristine character [9] (pp. 3–7) (Figure 6).

Heritage 2019, 2 1514 island was extremely poor [9] (pp. 3–7). There were no facilities such as sewers, hospitals, graveyards, nor, as strange as it may seem, was there a harbor, a fact that often cut off the island from the continent. However, its early visitors came here attracted by its very peculiar and fascinating, wild and pristine characterHeritage 2018 [,9 2], (pp.x FOR 3–7) PEER (Figure REVIEW6 ). 6 of 20

Figure 6. Jakob Philipp Philipp Hackert, Il monte Solaro , 1792.

2.3. Capri’s First Urban Transformations 2.3. Capri’s First Urban Transformations Italy’s unification set the beginning of a new phase, which started with the construction of Italy’s unification set the beginning of a new phase, which started with the construction of Marina Marina Grande’s harbor (which began in 1869 and lasted many years) and the subsequent Grande’s harbor (which began in 1869 and lasted many years) and the subsequent implementation of implementation of the connections to Naples and Sorrento [8] (p. 23). In 1883, it went on with the re- the connections to Naples and Sorrento [8] (p. 23). In 1883, it went on with the re-paving and fitting of paving and fitting of the roads—most of them were repaved with quadrangular pavers made of the roads—most of them were repaved with quadrangular pavers made of volcanic stone, while the volcanic stone, while the main ones were also widened—and finally, in 1891, the sewer was built [9] main ones were also widened—and finally, in 1891, the sewer was built [9] (pp. 19–24). (pp. 19–24). As for the main roads connecting the most important parts of the island, today there are still three As for the main roads connecting the most important parts of the island, today there are still of them, providing a connection among Capri, Anacapri, Marina Grande and Marina Piccola. The three of them, providing a connection among Capri, Anacapri, Marina Grande and Marina Piccola. road that connects Capri to Anacapri was built between 1873 and 1874. Although it finally meant the The road that connects Capri to Anacapri was built between 1873 and 1874. Although it finally meant overcoming of the difficult ascent of the Phoenician Steps, the road also cut through the obsolete town the overcoming of the difficult ascent of the Phoenician Steps, the road also cut through the obsolete walls and provided a direct connection between Anacapri and Capri’s square [9] (pp. 49–53), resulting town walls and provided a direct connection between Anacapri and Capri’s square [9] (pp. 49–53), in the irretrievable alteration of the entrenched character of Capri’s old town, which is visible in many resulting in the irretrievable alteration of the entrenched character of Capri’s old town, which is historic views, such as the ones by Giacinto Gigante, who depicted the small town behind high walls up visible in many historic views, such as the ones by Giacinto Gigante, who depicted the small town on the plain [10–12][13] (unnumbered pages Disegni capresi di Giacinto Gigante (1806–1876)) (Figures7 behind high walls up on the plain [10–12] [13] (unnumbered pages Disegni capresi di Giacinto Gigante and8). As for the roads to Marina Grande and Marina Piccola, the first one was built between 1872 (1806–1876)) (Figures 7–8). As for the roads to Marina Grande and Marina Piccola, the first one was and 1877 and the second one between 1897 and 1913, both thanks to Emilio Mayer, an engineer of the built between 1872 and 1877 and the second one between 1897 and 1913, both thanks to Emilio Mayer, Municipality responsible for many of the island’s new infrastructures [9] (pp. 53–58). an engineer of the Municipality responsible for many of the island’s new infrastructures [9] (pp. 53– 58).

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Heritage 2019, 2 1515 Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

Figure 7. Giacinto Gigante, Capri da occidente, the middle of the 19th century.

The funicular that, since 1907, has provided a direct connection between the port and the Piazzetta, Capri’s main square, also represents a very famous and picturesque island facility. After the necessary works carried out by the municipality in the second half of the nineteenth century, this cable car—as stated by Valentina Russo—inaugurated the entry of modernity in Capri and its progressive leaning on tourism as a resource. In fact, the funicular constituted the first transformation of the historic landscape that, far from being a necessity for the islanders, facilitated tourists during their stay. Very soon, in fact, the funicular became an indispensable means of transport for a new kind of visitors,Figure that 7.of Giacinto modern Gigante mass tourism,, Capri da most occidente of which, the middle comes of to the the 19th island century. for a day trip [14] (73–75). Figure 7. Giacinto Gigante, Capri da occidente, the middle of the 19th century. The funicular that, since 1907, has provided a direct connection between the port and the Piazzetta, Capri’s main square, also represents a very famous and picturesque island facility. After the necessary works carried out by the municipality in the second half of the nineteenth century, this cable car—as stated by Valentina Russo—inaugurated the entry of modernity in Capri and its progressive leaning on tourism as a resource. In fact, the funicular constituted the first transformation of the historic landscape that, far from being a necessity for the islanders, facilitated tourists during their stay. Very soon, in fact, the funicular became an indispensable means of transport for a new kind of visitors, that of modern mass tourism, most of which comes to the island for a day trip [14] (73–75).

Figure 8. Giacinto Gigante, Veduta del borgo di Capri con il campanile e le mura di piazza, 1842. Figure 8. Giacinto Gigante, Veduta del borgo di Capri con il campanile e le mura di piazza, 1842. 3. The Golden Age of the Enlightened Elite The funicular that, since 1907, has provided a direct connection between the port and the Piazzetta, Capri’s3.1. The main Foreigners square, also represents a very famous and picturesque island facility. After the necessary works carried out by the municipality in the second half of the nineteenth century, this cable car—as It was only in the 19th century that the island started to become an object of tourism, as it is statedshown by Valentinaby the progressive Russo—inaugurated multiplying of the hotels, entry from of modernity the first three in Capri—the and Hotel its progressivePagano (currently leaning la on tourismPalma) as [15 a resource.] (pp. 31–84), In fact, Villa the di funicularTiberio, and constituted Villa di Londra the first— transformationrecorded in 1857 of [9 the] (pp. historic 25–27), landscape to the that,current far from over being a hundred a necessity hotels for and the B&Bs islanders, [16], facilitatedsome of which tourists, such during as the their Quisisana stay. Very and soon, Tragara in fact, thehotels, funicular have became become an famous indispensable landmarks. means This ofdestiny transport also forawaited a new many kind villas of visitors, that foreigners that of modern who mass tourism, most of which comes to the island for a day trip [14] (73–75). Figure 8. Giacinto Gigante, Veduta del borgo di Capri con il campanile e le mura di piazza, 1842. 3. The Golden Age of the Enlightened Elite 3. The Golden Age of the Enlightened Elite 3.1. The Foreigners 3.1. TheIt was Foreigners only in the 19th century that the island started to become an object of tourism, as it is shown by the progressive multiplying of hotels, from the first three—the Hotel Pagano (currently la It was only in the 19th century that the island started to become an object of tourism, as it is Palma) [15] (pp. 31–84), Villa di Tiberio, and Villa di Londra—recorded in 1857 [9] (pp. 25–27), to shown by the progressive multiplying of hotels, from the first three—the Hotel Pagano (currently la the current over a hundred hotels and B&Bs [16], some of which, such as the Quisisana and Tragara Palma) [15] (pp. 31–84), Villa di Tiberio, and Villa di Londra—recorded in 1857 [9] (pp. 25–27), to the current over a hundred hotels and B&Bs [16], some of which, such as the Quisisana and Tragara hotels, have become famous landmarks. This destiny also awaited many villas that foreigners who

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Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20 hotels, have become famous landmarks. This destiny also awaited many villas that foreigners who had chosen to move to the island built for themselves. Among these, it is worth worth mentioning Villa San Michele—builtMichele—built at the endend of the 19th century by the Swedish physician and author Axel Munthe on an archaeological site in Anacapri [ 17]]—and—and Villa Lysis (Figure9 9),), builtbuilt byby thethe FrenchFrench writerwriter JacquesJacques d’Adelswärd-Fersend'Adelswärd-Fersen in 1905 near the archaeological remains of villa Jovis [[1818].].

Figure 9. VillaVilla Lysis, the terrace overlooking Marina Grande (Russo Krauss).

At first, Capri was the beloved destination of artists and grand tourers; men that, fascinated by At first, Capri was the beloved destination of artists and grand tourers; men that, fascinated by its pristine character, left us numerous paintings and drawings of a landscape now deeply altered. its pristine character, left us numerous paintings and drawings of a landscape now deeply altered. Giacinto Gigante, Achille Vianelli, Consalvo Carelli, and Karl Diefenbach all painted the great beauty Giacinto Gigante, Achille Vianelli, Consalvo Carelli, and Karl Diefenbach all painted the great beauty of the vernacular vaulted architectures side by side in small aggregates, immersed in vegetation at of the vernacular vaulted architectures side by side in small aggregates, immersed in vegetation at the foot of stupendous cliffs [19] (Figure 10). Then, before the Italians, curious as it may seem, a the foot of stupendous cliffs [19] (Figure 10). Then, before the Italians, curious as it may seem, a European elite, made of noble men, entrepreneurs, and artists “discovered” the island, enriching it, European elite, made of noble men, entrepreneurs, and artists “discovered” the island, enriching it, promoting it, and turning it into one of the most international centres of Italy. This was a rapid promoting it, and turning it into one of the most international centres of Italy. This was a rapid change, change, as is indicated by the fact that in 1876 the island had a Protestant church while still lacking as is indicated by the fact that in 1876 the island had a Protestant church while still lacking in many in many necessary facilities [9] (p. 28). necessary facilities [9] (p. 28).

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had chosen to move to the island built for themselves. Among these, it is worth mentioning Villa San Michele—built at the end of the 19th century by the Swedish physician and author Axel Munthe on an archaeological site in Anacapri [17]—and Villa Lysis (Figure 9), built by the French writer Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen in 1905 near the archaeological remains of villa Jovis [18].

Figure 9. Villa Lysis, the terrace overlooking Marina Grande (Russo Krauss).

At first, Capri was the beloved destination of artists and grand tourers; men that, fascinated by its pristine character, left us numerous paintings and drawings of a landscape now deeply altered. Giacinto Gigante, Achille Vianelli, Consalvo Carelli, and Karl Diefenbach all painted the great beauty of the vernacular vaulted architectures side by side in small aggregates, immersed in vegetation at the foot of stupendous cliffs [19] (Figure 10). Then, before the Italians, curious as it may seem, a European elite, made of noble men, entrepreneurs, and artists “discovered” the island, enriching it, promoting it, and turning it into one of the most international centres of Italy. This was a rapid Heritagechange,2019 ,as2 is indicated by the fact that in 1876 the island had a Protestant church while still lacking1517 in many necessary facilities [9] (p. 28).

Figure 10. Giacinto Gigante, Casa rustica ai piedi del Monte Solaro, 1842.

This golden age between the last decades of the 19th century and the first ones of the 20th century has been the object of study by many scholars, and it is now detailed in many books, among which, since there is not enough space here to mention them all, we recommend Capri. Immagini e protagonisti by Francesco Caravita di Sirignano and Capri. Frammenti postumi by Lea Vergine [20,21]. However, it is not possible to trace Capri’s history of early “tourism” without mentioning the names of some of the people from all over Europe that chose to move to the island: Emil von Behring, recipient of the Nobel prize; lady Blanche Gordon Lennox, who between 1904 and 1945 owned a large portion of San Michele’s hill [22] (pp. 22–27); the German painter Karl Diefenbach, who spent the last ten years of his life here; the Russian writer Maxim Gorky, who lived here from 1906 to 1913, hosting Lenin and creating a large Russian community [23]; the German portraitist Allan Willie Allers; the French writer André Gide; and the British writer Norman Douglas, who wrote many pages about the island and was celebrated with the honorary residence [24]. These foreigners deeply cared for Capri, and whether just by living here or by actually promoting architecture for the community or other humanitarian activities, they had a deep impact on the island that today still remembers many of them as illustrious citizens. For example, this relationship of mutual respect is testified by the case of Henry William Gardiner Wreford, correspondent of the Times magazine, to whom a commemorative plaque in the Town hall expresses gratitude for the publicity he gave to the island, that had learnt to count on foreign tourism as an important resource [25]. George Sidney Clark, the British doctor and creator of Hotel Quisisana, and Friedrich Alfred Krupp both received honorary residence, the latter, owner of the well-known German steel company Krupp, due to his promotion of the construction, between 1900 and 1902, by the municipal engineer Emilio Mayer of the famous via Krupp, a scenic road that connects the area of Capri near hotel Quisisana to Marina Piccola (Figure 11). This pedestrian road, a harmonious switchback paved footpath zigzagging in the steep cliff under the Castiglione, has since been widely praised for its beauty, and Roberto Pane—who for many years fought for the protection of Capri’s landscape, also writing many articles in the journal Napoli Nobilissma—in his second edition of the book Capri, defined it “an artwork itself” [13] (Unnumbered pages Una strada come opera d’arte), [26] (pp. 491–497), [27] (312–319). Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Figure 10. Giacinto Gigante, Casa rustica ai piedi del Monte Solaro, 1842.

This golden age between the last decades of the 19th century and the first ones of the 20th century has been the object of study by many scholars, and it is now detailed in many books, among which, since there is not enough space here to mention them all, we recommend Capri. Immagini e protagonisti by Francesco Caravita di Sirignano and Capri. Frammenti postumi by Lea Vergine [20–21]. However, it is not possible to trace Capri’s history of early “tourism” without mentioning the names of some of the people from all over Europe that chose to move to the island: Emil von Behring, recipient of the Nobel prize; lady Blanche Gordon Lennox, who between 1904 and 1945 owned a large portion of San Michele’s hill [22] (pp. 22–27); the German painter Karl Diefenbach, who spent the last ten years of his life here; the Russian writer Maxim Gorky, who lived here from 1906 to 1913, hosting Lenin and creating a large Russian community [23]; the German portraitist Allan Willie Allers; the French writer André Gide; and the British writer Norman Douglas, who wrote many pages about the island and was celebrated with the honorary residence [24]. These foreigners deeply cared for Capri, and whether just by living here or by actually promoting architecture for the community or other humanitarian activities, they had a deep impact on the island that today still remembers many of them as illustrious citizens. For example, this relationship of mutual respect is testified by the case of Henry William Gardiner Wreford, correspondent of the Times magazine, to whom a commemorative plaque in the Town hall expresses gratitude for the publicity he gave to the island, that had learnt to count on foreign tourism as an important resource [25]. George Sidney Clark, the British doctor and creator of Hotel Quisisana, and Friedrich Alfred Krupp both received honorary residence, the latter, owner of the well-known German steel company Krupp, due to his promotion of the construction, between 1900 and 1902, by the municipal engineer Emilio Mayer of the famous via Krupp, a scenic road that connects the area of Capri near hotel Quisisana to Marina Piccola (Figure 11). This pedestrian road, a harmonious switchback paved footpath zigzagging in the steep cliff under the Castiglione, has since been widely praised for its beauty, and Roberto Pane—who for many years fought for the protection of Capri’s landscape, also writing many articles in the journal Napoli Nobilissma—in his second edition of the Heritagebook Capri2019,,2 defined it “an artwork itself” [13] (Unnumbered pages Una strada come opera d’arte), [151826] (pp. 491–497), [27] (312–319).

Figure 11. Via Krupp (Russo Krauss).

3.2. The Local Clans In addition to this international intelligentsia, there were also local clans, such as the Paganos or the Cerios, who owned large portions of territory and built hotels, villas, and facilities, contributing to the transformation of the island from a wild and pristine Mediterranean island into a cosmopolitan centre and an international touristic destination. Among these families, it is necessary to mention the names of Ignazio Cerio (1840–1921) and Edwin Cerio (1875–1960), from one of the oldest families of the island, owners of the homonymous palace near the Piazzetta, which dates back to the fourteenth century and currently houses a museum and the library dedicated to Ignazio Cerio [21] (pp. 23–35), [28] (pp. 99–128). Being the medical doctor of Capri, Ignazio promoted many scientific studies regarding the island’s history, archaeology, flora and climatic conditions, therefore attracting many scholars, that went to the island to see the outcomes of the excavations and promoting Capri’s culture and landscape. His son Edwin was also a man of great culture with many interests. He was an engineer but also a writer, a historian and a botanist [29]. He too deeply loved the island and in 1920 became its mayor, endorsing, in 1922, the well-known Landscape conference for the promotion and safeguarding of the island: a meeting of scholars of the highest repute that, at a time when Capri had been scarcely built (Figure 12), foreseeing what was about to come, had the goal of stimulating the defense of both the Mediterranean landscape and the old town, not only because of its historic architecture but also because of its vernacular buildings [30–32], [33] (pp. 171–178). Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

3.2. The Local Clans In addition to this international intelligentsia, there were also local clans, such as the Paganos or the Cerios, who owned large portions of territory and built hotels, villas, and facilities, contributing to the transformation of the island from a wild and pristine Mediterranean island into a cosmopolitan centre and an international touristic destination. Among these families, it is necessary to mention the names of Ignazio Cerio (1840–1921) and Edwin Cerio (1875–1960), from one of the oldest families of the island, owners of the homonymous palace near the Piazzetta, which dates back to the fourteenth century and currently houses a museum and the library dedicated to Ignazio Cerio [21] (pp. 23–35), [28] (pp. 99–128). Being the medical doctor of Capri, Ignazio promoted many scientific studies regarding the island’s history, archaeology, flora and climatic conditions, therefore attracting many scholars, that went to the island to see the outcomes of the excavations and promoting Capri’s culture and landscape. His son Edwin was also a man of great culture with many interests. He was an engineer but also a writer, a historian and a botanist [29]. He too deeply loved the island and in 1920 became its mayor, endorsing, in 1922, the well-known Landscape conference for the promotion and safeguarding of the island: a meeting of scholars of the highest repute that, at a time when Capri had been scarcely built (Figure 12), foreseeing what was about to come, had the goal of stimulating the Heritagedefense2019 of, 2 both the Mediterranean landscape and the old town, not only because of its historic1519 architecture but also because of its vernacular buildings [30–32], [33] (pp. 171–178).

Figure 12.12. MapMap ofof CapriCapri published published in in the the 1938 1938 edition edition of of the theNapoli Napoli e dintorni e dintorniTouring Touring Club’s Club’s guide guide [34] (p.[34] 449). (p. 449).

Together with the foreigners—Russian, German, French and English noblemen and dandies— Together with the foreigners—Russian, German, French and English noblemen and dandies—these these families, that Lea Vergine calls “the Italian dynasties”, constituted the upper class of the island, families, that Lea Vergine calls “the Italian dynasties”, constituted the upper class of the island, an an intellectual caste which, however, did not improve the general condition of the local population intellectual caste which, however, did not improve the general condition of the local population [21] [21] (pp. 10–21). The growing presence of foreigners did benefit many islanders, who started to live (pp. 10–21). The growing presence of foreigners did benefit many islanders, who started to live on on tourism, but still left out many others who continued to live on farming and culture. At the time, tourism, but still left out many others who continued to live on farming and culture. At the time, the the island had no water sources and lived on cisterns; therefore, drought was a serious issue that island had no water sources and lived on cisterns; therefore, drought was a serious issue that affected affected house life as well as farming activities, and many who struggled to live under the heavy house life as well as farming activities, and many who struggled to live under the heavy taxes of the taxes of the new Italian state emigrated in great numbers to America [9] (pp. 35–36). new Italian state emigrated in great numbers to America [9] (pp. 35–36). 4. Capri’s Touristification and Its Consequences 4. Capri’s Touristification and Its Consequences

4.1. Capri’s Attractors It is in the second second half half of of the the twentieth twentieth century century that that Capri Capri has has become become a a mass mass tourism tourism destination, destination, globally praisedpraised andand desired, desired, certainly certainly one one of theof the best-known best-known tourist tourist destinations destinations in the in world. the world. In 1955, In although Capri’s touristification was just beginning, Roberto Pane wrote in his homonymous book that the island had the unfortunate destiny of being too loved. Therefore, it was in danger of becoming «irretrievably conventional and prissy» [13] (p. 5), progressively losing its historic and natural features in order to adapt itself to tourism demand. Sadly, the forewords added in the 1965’s edition of the volume [13] (p. 8) confirm the progressive fulfilling of Pane’s prophecy, a prophecy still in the making and particularly relevant in today’s mass-tourism society. From the noble men of the end of the 19th century to the artists and politicians between the two wars, it is mainly in the second half of the 20th century that Capri’s tourism has definitively changed. Between the 1960s and the 1970s, many international celebrities, such as Liz Taylor and Jacqueline Kennedy (Figure 13), chose the island as a holiday destination in which to embrace a culture that was different from the one they were used to and very peculiar to the island (it is enough to mention the custom of dressing in the typical moda caprese [5]). In the following years, their growing presence was accompanied by the diffusion of the mass tourism phenomenon. In spite of the local artistic and natural heritage, mass tourism was more the result of the presence, and the, although remote, chance to see these public faces [35,36]. Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

1955, although Capri’s touristification was just beginning, Roberto Pane wrote in his homonymous book that the island had the unfortunate destiny of being too loved. Therefore, it was in danger of becoming «irretrievably conventional and prissy» [13] (p. 5), progressively losing its historic and natural features in order to adapt itself to tourism demand. Sadly, the forewords added in the 1965’s edition of the volume [13] (p. 8) confirm the progressive fulfilling of Pane’s prophecy, a prophecy still in the making and particularly relevant in today’s mass-tourism society. From the noble men of the end of the 19th century to the artists and politicians between the two wars, it is mainly in the second half of the 20th century that Capri’s tourism has definitively changed. Between the 1960s and the 1970s, many international celebrities, such as Liz Taylor and Jacqueline Kennedy (Figure 13), chose the island as a holiday destination in which to embrace a culture that was different from the one they were used to and very peculiar to the island (it is enough to mention the custom of dressing in the typical moda caprese [5]). In the following years, their growing presence was accompanied by the diffusion of the mass tourism phenomenon. In spite of the local artistic and Heritagenatural2019 heritage,, 2 mass tourism was more the result of the presence, and the, although remote, chance1520 to see these public faces [355–366].

Figure 13. JacquelineJacqueline Kennedy Kennedy with with Valentino Valentino in Capri, 1970.

Capri is still famous for its marvelous natural features, laden with extraordinary rock formations Capri is still famous for its marvelous natural features, laden with extraordinary rock formations such as the Faraglioni and the Grotta azzurra, but it also has archaeological sites and numerous such as the Faraglioni and the Grotta azzurra, but it also has archaeological sites and numerous monuments and works of art, which, however, do not receive the attention they deserve. Among monuments and works of art, which, however, do not receive the attention they deserve. Among them, there is certainly the Certosa di San Giacomo (Figure 14), a fourteenth century splendid piece them, there is certainly the Certosa di San Giacomo (Figure 14), a fourteenth century splendid piece of architecture on top of a cliff facing the Faraglioni, which, together with the ones of Padula and of architecture on top of a cliff facing the Faraglioni, which, together with the ones of Padula and Naples, is one of the only three in Campania [37]. There is also the Chiesa di San Michele Arcangelo Naples, is one of the only three in Campania [37]. There is also the Chiesa di San Michele Arcangelo in in Anacapri, which is entirely paved with maiolica tiles depicting the expulsion of Adam and Eve Anacapri, which is entirely paved with maiolica tiles depicting the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the from the Garden of Eden. These are cultural sites safeguarded by the Italian State that, through the Garden of Eden. These are cultural sites safeguarded by the Italian State that, through the Neapolitan Neapolitan Superintendence, is in charge of their conservation and in most cases manages their Superintendence, is in charge of their conservation and in most cases manages their promotion and promotion and public access. publicHeritage access.2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

Figure 14. The Certosa di San Giacomo (Russo Krauss).

Despite this rich cultural heritage, the statistical data collected by the Minister of Cultural Heritage and Activities regarding the island’s public cultural sites confirm the discrepancy between the high number of annual tourists and the visitors of the cultural sites. Capri’s municipality has an archaeological site of great importance (Palazzo di Tiberio-Villa Jovis) as well as a beautiful monument (the Certosa di San Giacomo) and a museum (Museo del Centro Caprense Ignazio Cerio); however, of the 4,319,157 tourists registered in Capri in 2015, these three sites were visited only by 60,446 people [38]. Despite this cultural heritage, it is clear that a significant part of Capri’s tourism relies on the international presence of important names, today mostly celebrities from sports and entertainment, and once artists and cultural elites [35]. Although Capri’s natural and artistic identity still constitutes a base for the touristic image of the island, the tourism that it generates and fosters has progressively grown apart from it. Indeed, what were once exclusive touristic facilities that economically exploited the island’s beautiful scenery are now often themselves attractors. This phenomenon, in the present society of the cult of celebrities, has become even stronger. In the new millennium it is fostered by social media that have changed the rules of the game, making the paparazzi unnecessary because both tourists and celebrities constantly communicate their stay on the island to a wider public (Figure 15). This way all visitors— celebrities, holidaymakers and daily visitors from Naples’ bay or from traffic cruise—visit the island because of its self-referential luxury industry of tourism, and because they are fascinated by the chance to walk side by side with the celebrities they usually consider out of reach. This is a phenomenon depicted as early as in 1949 in a well-known Italian film, Totò re di Capri, by the Neapolitan comedian Totò.

Heritage 2019, 2 1521

Despite this rich cultural heritage, the statistical data collected by the Minister of Cultural Heritage and Activities regarding the island’s public cultural sites confirm the discrepancy between the high number of annual tourists and the visitors of the cultural sites. Capri’s municipality has an archaeological site of great importance (Palazzo di Tiberio-Villa Jovis) as well as a beautiful monument (the Certosa di San Giacomo) and a museum (Museo del Centro Caprense Ignazio Cerio); however, of the 4,319,157 tourists registered in Capri in 2015, these three sites were visited only by 60,446 people [38]. Despite this cultural heritage, it is clear that a significant part of Capri’s tourism relies on the international presence of important names, today mostly celebrities from sports and entertainment, and once artists and cultural elites [35]. Although Capri’s natural and artistic identity still constitutes a base for the touristic image of the island, the tourism that it generates and fosters has progressively grown apart from it. Indeed, what were once exclusive touristic facilities that economically exploited the island’s beautiful scenery are now often themselves attractors. This phenomenon, in the present society of the cult of celebrities, has become even stronger. In the new millennium it is fostered by social media that have changed the rules of the game, making the paparazzi unnecessary because both tourists and celebrities constantly communicate their stay on the island to a wider public (Figure 15). This way all visitors—celebrities, holidaymakers and daily visitors from Naples’ bay or from traffic cruise—visit the island because of its self-referential luxury industry of tourism, and because they are fascinated by the chance to walk side by side with the celebrities they usually consider out of reach. This is a phenomenon depicted as early as in 1949 in a well-known ItalianHeritage 2018 film,, 2Tot, x FORò re PEER di Capri, REVIEWby the Neapolitan comedian Totò. 13 of 20

Figure 15. Magic Johnson in via Camerelle in Capri in 2018, Instagram post. Figure 15. Magic Johnson in via Camerelle in Capri in 2018, Instagram post.

Moreover, the local and national press constantly show people how Capri is the VIP’s island, duringMoreover, summer thenever local failing and nationalto update press people constantly on the showlatest peoplecelebrity how stay Capri on the is theisland, VIP’s showing island, duringcelebrities summer hanging never out failingin the usual to update places: people Via Camerelle, on the latest that celebrity is now staythe high on the fashion island, boutiques’ showing celebritiesstreet, the hangingPiazzetta out and in the the famous usual places: Anema Via e core Camerelle, night club. that The is now easiness the high with fashion which boutiques’ the “common” street, thetourist Piazzetta can visit and the the very famous sameAnema places e corein whichnight club.its favorite The easiness celebrity with has which been thephotographed “common” touristby the canpaparazzi visit the has very guaranteed same places Capri in which its success, its favorite but celebrity also its has highly been photographedimpacting touristification by the paparazzi and hasgentrification. guaranteed In Capri fact, itsthe success, very few but roads also itswhere highly celebrities impacting walk touristification are the ones andpacked gentrification. with tourists In fact,every the summer very few day, roads the ones where in celebrities which the walkhigh arerental the values ones packed have drawn with tourists away traditional every summer shops day, to themake ones room in whichfor high the fashion high rental franchising values havestores, drawn and in away which traditional very expensive shops to restaurants, make room eager for high to fashionexploit the franchising myth of stores,celebrity and-Capri, in which display very countless expensive photogra restaurants,phs of eagercelebrities to exploit near the the entrance myth of dining in that very place or hugging the owner.

4.2. The Transformation of Capri’s Cultural Landscape In the century after Italy’s unification (1860), Capri and Anacapri’s population has constantly grown, and while Capri’s population has now been stationary for about 30 years, Anacapri is still growing (Figure 16) [39]. While the population has grown from 1196 people in 1861 to 14,204 in 2016, the island’s construction has proceeded independently—the island has 5509 families, but 7108 houses [40]—and at a much faster pace. Therefore, the sporadic villas and hotels built by the enlightened elites of the 19th century, the landmarks and modern monuments with an identity both local and international, timeless and avant-garde, have been obfuscated by the progressive construction of the island [41–44]. As it is indicated in the graphic below (Figure 17), between the 1940s and the 1970s, according to a same trend but at different times, Capri and Anacapri saw the construction of hundreds of new buildings, a phenomenon that has ceased only in recent years [40]. This was because in 1984 the General urban development plans of Capri and Anacapri were finally approved and in 1995 the Superintendence of Naples produced the Piano territoriale paesistico dell’isola di Capri [42], which has guaranteed a better, but not complete, defense of Capri’s landscape.

Heritage 2019, 2 1522 celebrity-Capri, display countless photographs of celebrities near the entrance dining in that very place or hugging the owner.

4.2. The Transformation of Capri’s Cultural Landscape In the century after Italy’s unification (1860), Capri and Anacapri’s population has constantly grown, and while Capri’s population has now been stationary for about 30 years, Anacapri is still growing (Figure 16)[39]. While the population has grown from 1196 people in 1861 to 14,204 in 2016, the island’s construction has proceeded independently—the island has 5509 families, but 7108 houses [40]—and at a much faster pace. Therefore, the sporadic villas and hotels built by the enlightened elites of the 19th century, the landmarks and modern monuments with an identity both local and international, timeless and avant-garde, have been obfuscated by the progressive construction of the island [41–44]. As it is indicated in the graphic below (Figure 17), between the 1940s and the 1970s, according to a same trend but at different times, Capri and Anacapri saw the construction of hundreds of new buildings, a phenomenon that has ceased only in recent years [40]. This was because in 1984 the General urban development plans of Capri and Anacapri were finally approved and in 1995 the Superintendence of Naples produced the Piano territoriale paesistico dell’isola di Capri [42], which has guaranteedHeritage 2018, 2 a, x better, FOR PEER but REVIEW not complete, defense of Capri’s landscape. 14 of 20

9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1861 1871 1881 1901 1911 1921 1931 1936 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2016

Capri Anacapri

Figure 16. Capri’s and Anacapri’s population from 1861. Data from http://www.comuni-italiani.it Figure 16. Capri’s and Anacapri’s population from 1861. Data from http://www.comuni-italiani.it elaborated by the author [40]. elaborated by the author [40].

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Capri Anacapri

Figure 17. Number of buildings in Capri and Anacapri from 1919. Data from http://italia.indettaglio.it elaborated by the author [42].

Over time, whether legally or in spite of the law, buildings of great dimensions and no artistic value have spread on the island, as in the cases of Hotel Weber Ambassador and Hotel Luna (Figure 18), both in a position that deeply affects the landscape, while the old villas have been progressively enlarged and fragmented, becoming condominiums, such as Villa Discopoli [45] or Villa Torre Saracena.

Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1861 1871 1881 1901 1911 1921 1931 1936 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2016

Capri Anacapri

HeritageFigure2019, 2 16. Capri’s and Anacapri’s population from 1861. Data from http://www.comuni-italiani.it 1523 elaborated by the author [40].

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Capri Anacapri

Figure 17. NumberNumber of of buildings buildings in in Capri Capri and and Anacapri Anacapri from from 1919. 1919. Data Data from from http://italia.indettaglio.ithttp://italia.indettaglio.it elaborated by the author [42].].

Over time, whether legally or in spite of the law, buildings of great dimensions and no artistic Over time, whether legally or in spite of the law, buildings of great dimensions and no artistic value value have spread on the island, as in the cases of Hotel Weber Ambassador and Hotel Luna (Figure have spread on the island, as in the cases of Hotel Weber Ambassador and Hotel Luna (Figure 18), both 18), both in a position that deeply affects the landscape, while the old villas have been progressively in a position that deeply affects the landscape, while the old villas have been progressively enlarged enlarged and fragmented, becoming condominiums, such as Villa Discopoli [45] or Villa Torre and fragmented, becoming condominiums, such as Villa Discopoli [45] or Villa Torre Saracena. Saracena.Heritage 2018 , 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

Figure 18. The architecture of Hotel Luna near Certosa di San Giacomo has negatively affected affected the view from the island andand withinwithin itit (Russo(Russo Krauss).Krauss).

The coastline, which had to change in order to be adapted to the demands of the bathers, has The coastline, which had to change in order to be adapted to the demands of the bathers, has however, suffered the worst alteration. The island, in fact, has almost no beaches, being mainly made however, suffered the worst alteration. The island, in fact, has almost no beaches, being mainly made of high cliffs, and bathing establishments had to be terraced pieces of architecture; therefore, local entrepreneurs cut the cliff or cemented fragmented rocks. This happened in the cases of Scoglio delle Sirene (Figure 19), la Fontelina and Luigi ai Faraglioni (the last two positioned on both sides of the Faraglioni), all of which have altered unique rock formations extended over the sea.

Figure 19. The Scoglio delle Sirene beach service in Marina Piccola has covered the unique rocks of the coastline with concrete (Russo Krauss).

As for other islands deriving profit from tourism (such as the other island of the Gulf of Naples, Ischia), it is sad to point out that many of these transformations were carried out with the connivance of the local administration, and that thanks to tourism it has become rapidly rich, in deep contrast with the poverty and the loans the same municipality had to take out after Italy’s unification [9] (pp. 37–44).

Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

Figure 18. The architecture of Hotel Luna near Certosa di San Giacomo has negatively affected the view from the island and within it (Russo Krauss). Heritage 2019, 2 1524 The coastline, which had to change in order to be adapted to the demands of the bathers, has however, suffered the worst alteration. The island, in fact, has almost no beaches, being mainly made of high cliffs, cliffs, and bathing establishmentsestablishments had to be terraced pieces of architecture; therefore, local entrepreneurs cut the cliff cliff or cemented fragmented rocks. This happened in the cases of Scoglio delle Sirene (Figure 19),19), la Fontelina and Luigi ai Faraglioni (the last two positioned o onn both sides of the Faraglioni), all of which have altered unique rock formations extended over the sea.

Figure 19. TheThe ScoglioScoglio delle delle Sirene Sirene beach service in Marina Piccola has has covered the unique rocks of the coastline with concrete (Russo Krauss).

As for other islands deriving profit from tourism (such as the other island of the Gulf of Naples, As for other islands deriving profit from tourism (such as the other island of the Gulf of Naples, Ischia), it is sad to point out that many of these transformations were carried out with the connivance Ischia), it is sad to point out that many of these transformations were carried out with the connivance of the local administration, and that thanks to tourism it has become rapidly rich, in deep contrast of the local administration, and that thanks to tourism it has become rapidly rich, in deep contrast with with the poverty and the loans the same municipality had to take out after Italy’s unification [9] (pp. the poverty and the loans the same municipality had to take out after Italy’s unification [9] (pp. 37–44). 37–44). Over the last fifty years, many lawsuits were opened to inspect and persecute the violation of building licenses. One of the most recent and famous ones was over the bathing service Nettuno, which is in one of the most famous areas and near one of the most important natural monuments of the island, the Grotta azzurra. It was indeed only in 2018 that an enquiry brought its preventive seizure, after, however, many years of progressive enlargement from a bathing establishment to a hotel had meant the alteration of the coastline through the cutting of the ridge [46].

5. Capri’s Current Identity: Luxury Tourism and Gentrification As Capri’s touristic image moved from unique Mediterranean cultural heritage and landscape to must-see luxury and nightlife summer destination, so did the island. The high economic interests on the island have led the local administration to not interfere with private initiatives- and sometimes to foster it even if it damages the island’s material and immaterial heritage -, and privates, of course, prefer to lean on Capri’s luxury, rather that cultural, identity. This has endangered part of the heritage and has led to the flattening of Capri’s image. Just consider the progressive substitution of small diners and traditional workshops, both in wider streets and narrow alleyways, by elegant restaurants and big serial flagship stores, with no connection to the location, all closed at the end of the tourist season. A mass tourism globalization process indulged by the local administration, pursuing increasingly touristic incomes with no regard for the fact that they are limited to the summer season (Figure 20). Heritage 2019, 2 1525 Heritage 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20

Figure 20. Capri from Monte Solaro (Russo Krauss). Figure 20. Capri from Monte Solaro (Russo Krauss).

The research carried out to this moment demonstrates that in less than 150 years Capri has undergoneTrying to a dramatickeep up with transformation. the rapid evolution After ofbeing society’s a typical, customs although and touristic extraordinarily standards, thebeautiful, island hasMediterranean changed much island more for in many the last centuries, seventy it years has become than it did a beloved in the previous destination centuries. for Grand Indeed, Tourers the local and administrationartists, a new home has allowed for intellectuals the progressive and entrepreneurs occupation ofwho green moved areas, to theCapri fragmentation because of its of historicart and villas,landscape. the replacement The spark of of tourism traditional initially shops benefited with international the island, boutiques, allowing andthe building the building of necessary of out of scaleinfrastructure, hotels, a phenomenon but also enriched that has it with raised new the beautiful opposition architecture. of environmental The Landscape associations conference that, however, held on havethe island failed in to 1922 curb demonstrates the phenomenon that [ 47the]. dangers Today, on of a the relatively uncontrolled small area progress (Capri of is the 400 phenomenon hectares and Anacapriwere foreseen is 636 by hectares) some intellectuals. there are 59 hotels These (three dangers *****L, were seven emphasized *****, twenty-four by Roberto ****, Pane sixteen in his ***, book three **,Capri. six *),He 3 wrote residences, in both 30 1955 furnished and 1965’s rooms, forewords 104 rental how vacation high houses,economic 93 interests B&Bs, and were one progressively holiday farm. Thisbuilding means the thatgreen on island 1036 hectaresand altering there its are cultural 209 accommodation heritage. In the facilities,1965’s forewords almost 5 he accommodation lamented how facilitiesthe touristic per hectare industry [16 kept]. If we on consider cementing that green there areasare also without 124 restaurants, realizing 15 that bathing tourists establishments, would stop 14coming nightclubs to Capri and if 9its Spa natural and Beauty, beauty itwas becomes irretrievably clear how altered much [13 Capri] (p. 9). has This devoted prediction itself toturned tourism, out especiallyto be wrong luxury because tourism, what regardless Pane could of not the impactforesee onwas its the landscape self-referential and identity. luxury-tourism industry that inOn the top following of this, it fifty has toyears be pointedwould grow out that in Capri. a huge gentrification process has invested the island and thatCapri’s the touristification estate values are shows so high some that similarities locals are slowlywith other prompted cases, such to leave. as the The ones average of Dubrovnik price of 2 2 houseand Venice, sales (9850both small€/m )historic is approximately towns affected 435% by higher the increasing than the fortune regional of average cruise ships listing and (1800 day€-/tripsm ), 2 andby coaches, it is also which approximately led to a high 338% concentration higher than theof touris provincialts in small average areas listing and (2250 in specific€/m )[ periods48]. It is of clear the thatyear theand local hours population of the day. is However, paying the if highboth pricecities’ of tourism Capri’s heavily touristic relies fortune. on their Even cultural if many identity families of getartistic a job historic in the tourismtowns, Capri’s industry, one in has the coldchanged season over they the must years, live and with in thebecoming money independent they make during from summer,Capri’s cultural but in landscape a town that it ishas nowadays consequently designed endangered for tourists its preservation and not citizens. even more. Shops of essential goods are difficult to find, because they have been replaced by expensive boutiques and restaurants which,6. Conclusion as mentioned, are all closed during winter. The high number of tourists that during summer take over Capri, flooding few small places, demonstratesThe present that research most people shows visiting how thetourism island initially in search benefited of luxurious Capri eccentricities, and its cultural panoramic landscape, pools, highprogressively fashion flagship shaping storesit and andenriching nightlife it with seem art to and be completelyculture. Then, unaware tourism of itself the true,became or maybea threat the to deeper,the conservation identity of of Capri: this cultural that of alandscape. Mediterranean Precursors island, of with this itsare typical to be found vernacular in the architecture 1922 Landscape and traditions;conference, when that of the a part necessity of the of Gulf a regimentation of Naples, with of the which touristic it shares exploitation history and of the art; island that of was a cultural firstly center,addressed. fully The recognized turning betweenpoint, however, the 19th was and after 20th War centuries, World when II, when it became luxury a placetourism in which grew and the highestbecame minds the attractor went to itself. rest and From gather, this exchanging moment on, opinions Capri underwent and ideas and a physical experimenting and immaterial with art. Numerousimpoverishment. scholars On and the enthusiasts one hand, have its recently landscape dedicated and built studies heritage to these were identities, altered publishing by the bookstransformations and articles carried on Capri’s out by nature, the tourism ancient industry; and modern on history,the other, but its also historic on its identity iconography, was obfuscated traditional architecture,by that of “Capri myths, the citizens, VIP-island”. handcraft, It and has typical therefore tailoring. become However, much more the copious important literature to satisfy is just the as growing demands of the present global luxury tourism (through the progressive construction of out

Heritage 2019, 2 1526 ignored by most people as the plaques that should signal to tourists the events that occurred or the old roots of places that are instead overlooked by passers-by. The research carried out to this moment demonstrates that in less than 150 years Capri has undergone a dramatic transformation. After being a typical, although extraordinarily beautiful, Mediterranean island for many centuries, it has become a beloved destination for Grand Tourers and artists, a new home for intellectuals and entrepreneurs who moved to Capri because of its art and landscape. The spark of tourism initially benefited the island, allowing the building of necessary infrastructure, but also enriched it with new beautiful architecture. The Landscape conference held on the island in 1922 demonstrates that the dangers of the uncontrolled progress of the phenomenon were foreseen by some intellectuals. These dangers were emphasized by Roberto Pane in his book Capri. He wrote in both 1955 and 1965’s forewords how high economic interests were progressively building the green island and altering its cultural heritage. In the 1965’s forewords he lamented how the touristic industry kept on cementing green areas without realizing that tourists would stop coming to Capri if its natural beauty was irretrievably altered [13] (p. 9). This prediction turned out to be wrong because what Pane could not foresee was the self-referential luxury-tourism industry that in the following fifty years would grow in Capri. Capri’s touristification shows some similarities with other cases, such as the ones of Dubrovnik and Venice, both small historic towns affected by the increasing fortune of cruise ships and day-trips by coaches, which led to a high concentration of tourists in small areas and in specific periods of the year and hours of the day. However, if both cities’ tourism heavily relies on their cultural identity of artistic historic towns, Capri’s one has changed over the years, and in becoming independent from Capri’s cultural landscape it has consequently endangered its preservation even more.

6. Conclusions The present research shows how tourism initially benefited Capri and its cultural landscape, progressively shaping it and enriching it with art and culture. Then, tourism itself became a threat to the conservation of this cultural landscape. Precursors of this are to be found in the 1922 Landscape conference, when the necessity of a regimentation of the touristic exploitation of the island was firstly addressed. The turning point, however, was after War World II, when luxury tourism grew and became the attractor itself. From this moment on, Capri underwent a physical and immaterial impoverishment. On the one hand, its landscape and built heritage were altered by the transformations carried out by the tourism industry; on the other, its historic identity was obfuscated by that of “Capri the VIP-island”. It has therefore become much more important to satisfy the growing demands of the present global luxury tourism (through the progressive construction of out of scale hotels, the fragmentation of historic villas, the spreading of franchising boutiques and concrete bathing services) than to preserve a unique landscape and cultural heritage. Despite the current rich scientific literature, constantly widening the knowledge on Capri’s history and culture with specific research, the image of Capri has progressively transformed into that of a luxurious leisure destination, and it appears that this spontaneous process, due to enormous economic interests and thanks to a complex legislation difficult to implement, has not been regulated or controlled by the administration, which, on the contrary, has grown dependent on the huge incomes of the celebrity-Capri commercial product. Many intellectuals and environmental associations such as Italia Nostra and WWF have raised consciousness on Capri’s transformation, and over the years many times the national press discussed the phenomenon. Public institutions, such as the local Superintendence, Capri’s and Anacapri’s administrations, entrepreneurs, private companies, citizens and tourists are all stakeholders of this phenomenon in which acts and laws create a picture of great complexity that will be further investigated in future research. The research will deepen the reasons behind the lack of protection of Capri’s cultural heritage within the process investigated in the present study. The author’s point of view of history and conservation of cultural heritage and landscape will be integrated with the contributions of scholars of Heritage 2019, 2 1527 sociology, geography, and tourism studies, placing the research in a wider, multidisciplinary frame. This new approach will guarantee a deeper understanding of the complex phenomenon, a condition indispensable to performing the actions necessary to prevent its negative consequences to continue. Although peculiar, Capri might constitute a case study that, once compared with other similar cases, could benefit other overtourism destinations such as the historic towns of Venice and Florence, but also Cortina d’Ampezzo in the Unesco’s Dolomites, which is also a cultural landscape suffering the consequences of seasonal luxury tourism. In conclusion, although it is already clear that it is necessary to work toward the protection of Capri’s cultural heritage and the recovery of its old identity, we should accept that nowadays Capri is both a Mediterranean historic island and a capital of global luxury tourism. While currently the latter is prevailing and slowly destroying the former, both identities, if embraced as equal and regulated as they should, paying greater attention to tourism sustainability, can live together, mutually enriching each other.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: I am thankful to everyone who has supported the creation of this work. Special thanks to my mentor Andrea Pane, Associate Professor of Architectural Conservation, who shares with me a great love for Capri and encouraged me to start this research. I was strongly inspired by his studies and his ability to keep together so many fields of research, I hope to continue it with his collaboration. I also thank Dionisia Russo Krauss, Associate Professor of Economic-Political Geography, who provided insight and expertise that benefited the research and who will contribute to its future progress. My gratitude goes to Katerina Chatzikonstantinou (Aristotle University), Castro Brunetto Carlos Javier (Spain-Universidad de La Laguna) and David Martín López (Universidad de Granada) for chairing a very interesting session at the 2018 EAUH international conference and for proposing this special issue of Heritage. Katerina Chatzikonstantinou has been very supportive of my work and for this I am grateful. I also thank my editor Josh Gu for the patience and availability he has shown to me during the long process of refinement of the manuscript. Finally, all my gratitude goes to the four anonymous reviewers for their comments, their useful suggestions helped me improve the article and the future of the research. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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