INFORMATION 105 TECHNOLOGY Press FOR

DEVELOPMENT ,.c-;~··· ·-~ ··-:-;-~~·'~- .~ ·--=-.--:-:::~ .. ::~,.1 'ARCSER

lnfomldon tedh"lOlogy Md the Internet lhe Singapore experience Lr. Chia. as. L• lllJd c.1<. *° Foetering civil mocillliOi1s In Africa through GOVERNET: an administratiw retonn network s. Qureshi

1998 Volume 8, No. 2 ISSN 0268-1102 Editor-in-Chief S. Ramani National Centre for Software Technology INFORMATION Gulmohar Cross Road No. g Juhu, Bombay, 400 049 India Tel.: +91 22 620 0590/620 1606 TECHNOLOGY Fax: +91 22 621 0139 E-mail: [email protected] Associate Editors FOR Odedra-Straub, M., Koramangala, Bangalore, India Heeks, R., University of Manchester, Manchester, UK DEVELOPMENT Editorial Associate Sasikumar, M., NCST, Bombay, India Korpela, M., University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland E-mail: [email protected] Kraemer, K.L., University of California, Irvine, USA La Rovere, R.L., Universitat Rostock, Rostock, Germany Editorial Board Aiyepeku, W.O., University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Lee, C.-J., Research, Development, and Evaluation Avgerou, C., London School of Economics, London, UK Commission, Taiwan, Republic of China Baeza-Yates, R., Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile Lind, P., INMADE, Satsjo-Duvnas, Sweden Balson, D., Intern. Development Centre, Ottawa, Canada Menezes, C., UNESCO, Paris, France Correa, C.M., Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Molino, E., FAMI, Mexico Argentina Okot-Uma, R. W'O, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, UK El-Sherif, H., IDSC, Cairo, Egypt Raman, K.S., National University of Singapore, Singapore Faye, M., United Nations Economic Commission for Sage, A.P., George Mason University, Fairfax, USA America, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Forster, D., Wellcome Trust, Nairobi, Kenya Schware, R., The World Bank, Washington, USA Gudza, L.D., Speciss Computers, Harare, Zimbabwe Sosa, M., European Commission, Brussels, Belgium Hafkin, N., United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Valantin, R., IDRC, Ottawa, Canada Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Waema, T., University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya Kamoun, F., Ecole Nationale des Sciences de l'lnformatique, Werner, M., TFA, Nairobi, Kenya Tunisia Yap, C.S., National University of Singapore, Singapore

Aims and Scope . The main aim of the journal is to encourage a critical debate on the role of information technology (IT) in the development process and to contribute to more informed decision making concerning IT development, adaptation, transfer and utilization. The journal will be used as a vehicle for information exchange and sensitization on the growing gap between the developed and the developing world, the role of IT in this process, and its impact on the excluded and included sectors of society, especially with reference to current globalization trends. One issue which will be addressed, among others, is the question of whether IT can be used to bridge this gap, and if so, what are the conditions which may be required for such technology to help narrow the gap between the haves and have-nots. The journal will contain material of a practical, applied nature, more than a theoretical one, and will contribute to an exchange of lessons learned. The journal will provide a forum in which writers from developing nations can publish their material in a globally available medium; an opportunity not always available in other international journals. In doing so, writers will be able to sensitize readers, especially senior management, not only in their own countries, but also of donors, governments, universities, private sector, and NGOs in the developed world, who often influence the use of IT in these countries, either directly or indirectly. The distribution of the journal will be in both the developed and the developing world. The content of the journal will be such that it is accessible to non-technical people, in both the public and private sector.

© 1998 /OS Press. All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, !OS Press, Van Diemenstraat 94, 1013 CN Amsterdam, the Netherlands. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Although all advertising material is expected to conform to ethical standards, inclusion in this publication does not constitute a guarantee or endorsement of the quality or value of such product or of the claims made of it by its manufacturer. Special regulations for readers in the USA. This journal has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. Consent is given for copying of articles for personal or internal use, or for the personal use of specific clients. This consent is given on the condition that the copier pays through the Center the per-copy fee stated in the code on the first page of each article for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law. The appropriate fee should be forwarded with a copy of the first page of the article to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. If no code appears in an article, the author has not given broad consent to copy and permission to copy must be obtained directly from the author. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, such as for general distribution, resale, advertising and promotion purposes, or for creating new collective works. Special written permission must be obtained from the publisher for such copying.

Published quarterly 0268-1102/98/$8.00 Printed in the Netherlands Information Technology for Development 8 (1998) 69 69 IOS Press

Editorial

In this issue

Analytical studies on the various issues of introducing IT into organisations are essential to improve the effectiveness of this process. Mere introduction of Information Technology does not yield an increase in efficiency or productivity of an organisation. Stories of failures and bad investments are not difficult to find. In "IT planning in India: implications for IT effectiveness", S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy report on a study among Indian organisations, to analyse how Indian IT organisations are responding to the challenge of IT. Analysis of responses to questionnaires from a number of Indian organisations was carried out to understand how effectively IT is being used, the factors affecting IT use, and the relation between IT planning and attributes of an organisation such as its size, turnover, and mission. Among the many factors affecting the ease of adoption of technology in an environment, perhaps the factor studied least is the impact of cultural factors. Impact of cultural factors, specifically the mismatch between the culture assumed by the system and the culture of the recipient users, is a significant aspect in the field of software localisation. R.D. Galliers, S. Madon and R. Rashid report a case study of IT introduction into the Karachi Development Authority in Pakistan from the perspective of understanding the effect of cultural factors. The paper reviews the Stages of Growth model for evaluation of IT develop­ ment in organisations and pinpoints some of its weaknesses. The authors conclude that factors such as the presence of only one individual interested and accountable for the task, the rampant corruption in· areas such as land management, and the organisational changes that use of IT would bring about, invalidated the use of the stages of growth model in this case. Initiatives and strategic plans by National Governments to facilitate growth of Information and Com­ munication Technologies have been the topic of many papers we have carried before. Chia, Lee and Yeo from the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, describe the Singapore Goverment initiatives in this direction. The National IT Plan of 1986 has been succeeded by a broader, more ambitious plan named IT2000, meant to transform Singapore into an intelligent island by the coming century. Articles of this nature concerning other countries would be welcome. Sajda Qureshi, in her paper on GOVERNET, discusses the impact of electronic communications on civil administration in Africa. The issues fostering and hindering the development of electronic network among civil administration staff are discussed. Providing a communication network, in which the key officials involved in administrative reforms in the country can exchange views and experiences, would allow them to consider more options in a greater depth, and thereby improve the governance in general.

The Editorial Team

0268-1102/98/$8.00 © 1998 - IOS Press. All rights reserved

Information Technology for Development 8 (1998) 71-87 71 IOS Press

IT planning in India: implications for IT effectiveness

Shivraj Kanungo* Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 1 JO 016, India Tel.: +91 11 656389; Fax: +91 11 6862 37

Madan Chouthoy Woodward Governor (India) Limited, NO/DA, UP, India

Abstract. Organizational context plays an important role in how organizations develop and implement IT strategies and plans. Since, in developing nations like India where, in the presence of highly skilled based of technical manpower, embedded organizational and cultural issues exert a strong impact on strategies adopted by organizations, it becomes important to identify organizational attributes that determine IT effectiveness. In. this paper we investigate the critical nexus between IT planning and IT effectiveness in the Indian corporate milieu l,Vith the aim of identifying strategies and practices that could result in effective IT usage in spite of organizational and cultural constraints. Empirical support was provided for this study by in-depth interviews conducted with systems managers and, in some instances, CEOs. Results indicate that the majority of the organizations do not use IT effectively. Moreover, some of these deficiencies can be linked to planning and strategic aspects of IT management. Results are discussed in the light of existing conditions and the main outcome that emerges is that if organizations in India do not develop and implement strategies to use IT for both incremental as well as radical organizational improvements, they are not likely to experience significant IT-related benefits.

1. Introduction·

Information technology (IT) has been used extensively by organizations to improve operational efficiencies leading to improved performance. However, the concept of using information as a strate­ gic resource emerged. when IT significantly started altering the way businesses competed and when substantial investments in IT became long-term and recurring. Effective implementation and exploitation of IT systems to meet strategic objectives is a challenging task and organizations in India have not yet exercised their strategic IT options. Strategic technology choices in IT, like those in other technologies, emerge from a confluence of multiple influences includ­ ing infrastructural, cultural and organizational. It is the interplay of these factors that determines the nature of IT planning and use in different organizational or geographical settings. Empirical evidence suggests that a lack of planned IT strategy, which results in ad hoc IT processes, is a major impediment to IT effectiveness in Indian organizations [11]. It is therefore imperative to study and understand the determinants of IT strategy and level of IT effectiveness in Indian organizations. The objective of this study was to evolve a better understanding of ,the relationship between select organizational variables such as size, age, mission and the elaborateness of their IT planning and IT effectiveness.

*Corresponding author.

0268-1102/98/$8.00 © 1998 - !OS Press. All rights reserved 72 S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India

2. IT planning and strategy

A survey of the literature on the subject reveals that numerous approaches and research perspectives have been used to conceptualize strategic IT benefits. While there exists a high degree of consensus in the view that IT can help a firm improve its operational efficiency, Gorry and Scott Morton [8] emphasize that IT is best applied to solve unstructured decisions and consequently hold great value for strategic planning. Parsons [19] and Porter and Millar [20] have developed the concept of using IT as a competitive weapon, and as a strategic tool. Parsons highlights that senior management involvement is essential · in understanding how IT affects the fundamental competitive environment of a firm. IT affects the environment at three levels. At the industry level, it changes the products and services offered, the markets and economics of production through fundamental changes in processes. At the firm level, IT affects buyer-seller relationships, affect substitution and can act as a barrier to new entrants. At the strategy level, IT can help a firm become a low cost leader, to create niche markets by customizing products or to differentiate products by incorporating technology into them. Porter successfully drives home the idea that it is information provided by the technology rather than the technology itself, which is important for management decision making. Effectiveness of information systems can be thought of as a special case of information systems effectiveness. Several articles deal with the latter. Most of the articles use user satisfaction as a proxy for information system effectiveness [3,26]. Ives et al. [10] say that user information satisfaction is a subjective or perceptual measure of system success and that system usage can be used as a surrogate measure for system success under certain conditions. Bailey and Pearson [3] and Ives et al. [10] have provided an extensive discussion and an integrating framework for user satisfaction. Miller and Doyle [15] provide an effectiveness measure for information systems in the financial sector. Preliminary studies by Jain [11] and Duda [5] reveal that most of the organizations in India consider IT to be a high expense "overhead". Yet, at the same time, they view IT as an important determinant of organizational success. These studies also reveal that a large number of information systems in India either fail or are not used effectively - a finding validated by research in other countries. Studies by OECD [17] and Lubbe et al. [14] also report that IT is not linked to overall productivity increases. In the European context, 70% of the users declared that their systems were not returning their company's investment [12]. Only 31 % of companies report that the introduction of IT has been very successful [1]. Only 24% of firms claim an above average return on capital from their IT investments [9]. 20% of what is spent on IT is wasted and 30-40% of information systems projects realize no net benefit whatsoever, however, measured [24]. Therefore, the challenge for organizations in India lies in planning effectively for, and utilizing, IT by avoiding the pitfalls associated with its implementation and use. With this background, it is reasonable to assume that any investment in IT for organizations in India is strategic in nature because of its potential for high impact and the significant financial commitments required.

3. Research questions

Given the resource crunch most organizations in India confront in the face of imminent "comput­ erization", the question then is to plan for successful IT conceptualization, implementation, use and maintenance. Given the paucity of literature available in India in the area of information systems the broad research question that emerged for this study was S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India 73

How are organizations in India responding to the IT challenge and what are the predilections and imperatives for them in the coming years? Stated differently, what is the profile of IT planning across companies that share a specific set of characteristics? To answer this question the following issues need to be addressed: 1. How effectively are organizations in India using IT? 2. What are the factors that affect IT use? 3. What is the relationship between IT planning and selected organizational attributes (explained in the next section)?

4. Methodology

This research was designed to be a multiple-group-post-test-only research design which is an ex­ tension of the one-group-post-test-only model [2]. In this case, multiple organizations were identified. All the organizations were post-tested for the outcome variables - IT planning and IT use .. The variables considered were organizational mission, organizational size, organizational age, and product or service orientation. Organizational mission was taken from the organization's published data (e.g., annual reports or promotional literature). Organizational size was measured in terms of number of employees as well as sales turnover. Organizational age was measured by the number of years since the organization was founded. The dependent variables were IT planning, IT portfolio, applications portfolio, and perception of IT effectiveness. IT planning was measured on various dimensions like alignment with business plans, organizational participants in IT planning, whether formal planning methods are used, and the time horizon. The application portfolio comprised of all the computer­ based applications in the organization. The IT portfolio was the set of all the technologies (e.g., database, networks, expert systems, etc.) being used by the organization. Effectiveness was measured by explaining to the respondent the notions of IT potential (what IT can do for the organization) and IT possibilities (what technologies are available). Having done that the respondent was requested to rate the IT performance in different application areas based on the impact made by the IT application. The unit of analysis was taken to be the organization. The study started with the design of a ques­ tionnaire followed by a pifot test of the questionnaire. The pilot test sample contained practitioners from the industry who represented various levels and functional areas in organizations. Following the pilot test and any ensuing modifications, the survey instrument was administered to top manage­ ment from 340 organizations that use information technology. The questionnaires were filled by the individual(s) responsible for managing information systems in the organization. One hundred and sixty seven sets of questionnaire responses were received out of which. seventy­ eight sets were useable. Those that contained less that 10% of the information elicited were not selected for the final sample. Of the 78 sets of useable questionnaires, 50% of the responses were from the manufacturing sector, while 31 % were from the service sector. The remaining responses, i.e., .~9%, were from organizations that felt that they did not fit either manufacturing or service sect9r entirely. The final list of useable questionnaires represents a list of heterogeneous organizations characterized by a mix of public limited and privately held organizations, as well as a mix of manufacturing and service organizations. 74 S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India

Table 1 Sequence of implementing computer-based systems and their effectiveness Area of department Rank of sequence Rank of benefits of implementation (*) of information system (+) Accounts 1 1 Finance 2 2 Marketing 4 4 Production 3 3 Personnel 5 5 * A score of 1 means first to be implemented. + Rank based on benefits derived from IT (1 = most useful). Note: respondents were required to provide the order in which information systems were implemented in their organizations. The numerical values of the responses were summed for each functional area. The final quantities determined the overall ranking which is shown in the second column. The procedure for ranking the "perceived benefits" is identical and the results are shown in the third column.

Table 2 . Applicability of IT (entries indicate number of responses) IT Customer Inter- Pro.duct/ New Market Cost applicability serviCe institutional service products segmentation competitiveness relations differentiation planning Yes 60 14 35 45 35 53 No 10 28 12 9 9 6 Maybe 5 30 ·10 10 10 12 Don't know 4 7 10 5 8 5

5. Findings and analysis

5.1. General findings

Based. on the rankings provided by the respondents, accounting seems to be the application area that is most likely to. be computerized first in any organization (Table 1). This is reasonable as there is a well-defined need coupled with well-defined solutions (e.g ... packaged software). Benefits derived from incorporating IT. seem to be highest in areas where it was introduced first and decrease with the chronological order of implementation. This pattern could be accounted for the fact that IT is introduced earlier in areas where it is needed most. Secondly, since IT-related failure or succes's is dependent on the functional area of application, those areas that lend themselves to more definitive IT-enabled improvements will tend to be the ones where IT is implemented earlier. Since accounting is a well-established and "standard" function that lends itself to "closed" solutions, it is regatded as tlie ideal place to start computerization. Respondents were asked to indicate broad areas where they felt IT is more applicable than others. It comes ·as ·no surprise that customer service is one area where organizations felt the IT could be elaborately used. As shown in Table 2, the majority responded by saying that IT is more applicable in the area of customer service than others. "Inter-institutional relation" was not considered an area where IT could be used effectively by a significant proportion of respondents. An equal number responded by saying that they were unsure of IT's utility in this area. It appears that this response is influenced by the lack of wide area networking infrastructure and by the ineffectiveness of the present telecommunications network in the country. It is also possible that in the absence of intense competition, organizational linkages are not a prerequisite for organizational success and survival.. S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India 75

Table 3 IT Portfolio (by functional area and technology) Area or department Technologies being used PCs Minicomputers Mainframes Database LANs WANs Others Accounts 150 20 7 136 124 10 12 Finance 140 25 6 120 123 4 4 Marketing 91 23 5 86 40 6 6 Production 92 19 6 90 36 2 6 HRM 46 11 3 12 12 2 2

Table 4 State of IT planning Nature of planning Tot.al Technical Incorporates orientation business issues· Formal 105 24 129 Not Formal 33 7 40 Total 138 31 169

Nearly a quarter of the respondents believed IT as contributing positively to the products/service differentiation. One third of the respondents felt that IT could be used extensively for new prod­ uct planning. An equal proportion felt that market segmentation could be influenced by IT. Cost competitiveness was rated as second in importance. An analysis of the overall IT application portfolio shows that personal computer (PC) technology is pervasive across all functional areas, i.e., accounting, finance, marketing, production and human resource management (HRM). The second most popular technology is databases followed by local area networks (LAN). It should be evident from Table 3 that the accounting and finance functions utilize a variety of information technologies and they are the most common users of networking technology. The rich technology profile of financial and accounting can be explained by the relative importance these functions enjoy in organizations and immediate payoffs that IT delivers in these areas. Additionally, most IT managers report to the head of the finance or accounting function directly or indirectly [5,11]. .. The production function on the other hand does not display great variety in its usage of different technologies. Most organizations indicated usage of personal computers for the production function. These are typically standalone configurations running applications related to productio11 planning and control (PPC). Over 25% of the organizations using PCs for production report using database tech­ nology and local area networking which is a positive indication of the natural linkages between the production function, materials management and sales and distribution. However, it appears that a majority of the manufacturing based organizations still do not have a coordinated strategy to link the above functional areas. This is also understandable due to the increased customized software require­ ments that an organization will have in order to achieve the objective of a network linkage between these functions. Customized software, as evident in few responses, is an inhibitor to organizations who wish to go beyond the first threshold of IT usage since this necessitates investment in trained support staff or on external agencies. A majority of organizations reported that they engage in formal IT planning, as shown in Table 4. Out of 129 organizations, 105 organizations have reported IT planning to be heavily biased toward "technical aspects". Technical aspects include items such as hardware choices, procurement stan­ dards, choice of a database environment, and selecting and justifying a programming language as 76 S. Kw1u11go and M. Choutltoy I IT pla1111i11g in India

80

'25 t? c .Q -ro 20 ~ c: ro ei 0 0 15 °'Ol 19 c a> 10 ,_(.) a> 0.. 5

0 1 2 1.3 1 .4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1 .8 1 .9 2 Effectiveness rating (Min= O; Max= 3)

Fig. I. Distribution of organizations based on effective IT uti lization. an organizational standard. In other words, this type of planning tends to be techno-centric - where technology aspects dominate over organizational or business aspects. Only 2 1 organizations reported using corporate plans as input fo r IT plans. Most respondents were candid enough to state that their organizations did not have plans - instead they had budgets.

5.2. Analysis

Research Question No. I. How effectively a.re organizations in India using IT?

Figure 1 shows that organizations scored between 1 and 2 on a scale of 0 to 3 effectiveness scale. While exceptionally effective or ineffective performances are absent, the high proportion of orga­ nizations (25%) toward the lower end of the effectiveness continuum and the low proportion (3%) toward the higher end of the effectiveness continuum is indicative of the modest IT-related perfor­ mances in our sample. Such a finding is cons istent with Nolan's [16] stage model. According to Nolan's model. organizations pass through six distinct phases - initiation, contagion, control, inte­ gration, data administration. and maturity. As TT expenditures keep increasing with each stage, the value added by such IT to the organization also goes up. An alternative explanation of this result is that many organizations in India adopt a "wait and watch" stance toward lT before making any major commitments hoping to ride the technology crest. In doing so, they also bring upon themselves the onerous task of automating, "infonnating" [26), and transformating processes in parallel. While organizations in industrialized countries started off automating operational systems before proceeding on to "informate" and transformate. many organizations in lndia have attempted to skip the learning curve (or leapfrog technology) and are faced with the ramifications of having skipped the experience curves. S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India 77

Table 5 Facilitators Facilitator Mean facilitation Rank ( +) score (*) Extensive computer facilities within the firm 2.79 4 Existing information technology of the firm 2.44 9 Need for uniqueness or innovation 2.79 5 Pressure from competition 2.60 8 Strong technical support/expertise within the firm 2.76 6 Strong organizational/top management support 3.26 1 Strong market position of the firm 2.62 7 Strong planning capacity of the firm 2.82 2 Strong financial position of the firm 2.79 3 * 0 = does not facilitate; 1 = weakly facilitates; 2 = moderately facilitates; 3 = facilitates; 4 = strongly facilitates; 5 = greatly facilitates. + 1 = leading facilitator. N = 169. User provided facilitators and their scores include: cost consciousness (4), manage­ ment style (4), customer-oriented culture (3), need for quality assurance (3), user training (4), awareness of new technological developments (3), CEO's personal inter­ est (5), strong procedures and processes in the department (4).

Research Question No. 2. What are the factors that affect IT use?

The literature presents influences that have been empirically determined to facilitate the use of IT in organizations. To obtain a profile of top management's perception of IT facilitators we used nine IT facilitators (shown in Table 5) given by King et al. [13]. None of the facilitators emerged as "strongly" or "greatly" facilitating IT use within any organization. As evident from Table 5, most of the average facilitation scores range between moderately facilitating and facilitating. The only facilitator in the list, which received an average score of over 3, was 'strong organizational/top management support'. Items not on the list, but supplied by the respondent with a score of 3 or more (see Table 5) included the following: cost consciousness, management style, CEO s personal interest, customer oriented culture, need for quality assurance, user training and awareness of new technological developments. It seems to be evident from this picture that only one single factor (strong top management support) emerges as a dominant facilitator of IT use. Moreover, there does not seem to be any other factor from King et al.'s list that encourages IT use very strongly. We had expected facilitators such as pressure from competition and strong market position of the firm to emerge as major facilitators of IT use in India. The belief emerged primarily due to the liberalized business environment (which is generally believed to foster competitive business practices) and secondly, because of a perception that large organizations, by virtue of their strong market position, are more likely to use IT more elaborately. Data from our sample do not support this market-related contention. It is quite possible that the effects of liberalization on Indian organizations are yet to manifest themselves as facilitators of IT planning. The inhibitors of IT usage in organizations seem to be clustered much more variedly than the facilitators of IT usage. Results from Table 6 show 3 clusters of inhibitors. The leading cluster consists of other priorities being more important, budgetary constraints and lack of appropriate planning. The next two clusters of inhibitors are comprised of low perceived importance of the concept, difficulty in assessing tangible contribution and lack of organizational/top management support, complexity of the concept, high potential start-up difficulties, ill defined man­ agement objectives and lack of appropriate technical support staff The least important inhibitors are nature of external environment or industry and power and politics in the firm. 78 S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India

Table 6 Inhibitors Inhibitors Mean inhibition(*) Rank(+) score Budgetary constraints 2.37 2 Complexity of the concept 1.68 11 Difficulty in assessing tangible benefits 2.05 6 High potential start-up 1.76 10 Ill-defined management objectives 1.92 8 Lack of organizational/top management support 2.13 5 Lack of appropriate planning 2.35 3 Lack of appropriate technical support staff 1.89 9 Low perceived importance of the concept 2.16 4 Nature of external environment or industry 1.16 13 Other priorities (are more important) 2.5 1 Power and politics in the firm 1.30 12 * 0 = does not inhibit; 1 = weakly inhibits; 2 = moderately inhibits; 3 = inhibits; 4 = strongly inhibits; 5 = greatly inhibits. + 1 = leading inhibitor. User provided inhibitors and their scores include: lack of trained manpower (4), lack of qualified vendors (3), need for quality assurance (2), user training (4), lack of awareness of new technological developments (3).

The group of leading inhibitors is indicative of the financial squeeze most Indian organizations find themselves in. Other priorities being more important is symptomatic of the organizational fire fighting that consumes the time and energies of several top management staff. Examples of these other priorities over effective IT planning are organizational restructuring, cost cutting programs, marketing and distribution and for many other, the pressures of day-to-day business. The lack of appropriate planning for IT naturally derives from the inhibitors discussed above. On the one hand there is a definite lack of resources and on the others, there is a genuine lack of time due to competing priorities (e.g., investments in plant and machinery and restructuring). Moreover, a lack of implementation expertise compounds the inhibiting effect. None of the inhibitors, except the ones provided by the users, more than moderately inhibit IT usage. It is instructive to note that top management support and planning capacity of the firm can be used to cross-validate the facilitator's inhibitive component. This means that their presence is very helpful while their absence is equally inhibitive. On the whole it is clear that the facilitators of effective IT users outweigh the inhibitors of IT usage, This is an encouraging sign because from an IT strategy standpoint, IT facilitators must outweigh IT inhibitors. Although the overall results seem to be positive, the facilitators of IT do not outweigh the inhibitors. by a big margin - which is what should be the case ideally. The threat to effective IT usage lies· in the over all low intensity of IT facilitator scores. To obtain a clearer picture of what these inhibitive and encouraging components mean, we conducted a factor analysis. The principal factor method was used to extract the factors, and this was followed by a promax (oblique) rotation. A scree test suggested two meaningful factors (for the set of facilitators as well as inhibitors), so only these factors were retained for rotation. In interpreting the rotated factor pattern, an item was said to load on a given factor if the factor loading was 0.40 or greater for that factor, and was less than 0.40 for the other factor. Using these criteria, for the facilitators, five items were found to load on the first factor, which was subsequently named the infrastructure-culture factor (Factor lF). Similarly, four items were found to load on the second factor, which was subsequently named the competitive external environment and strategy .factor (Factor 2F). In the case of inhibitors, S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India 79

Table 7 Facilitator factor Factor lF (Infrastructure-culture) Factor 2F (Competitive external environment and strategy) A Extensive computer facilities within the firm D Pressure form competition B Existing information technology of the firm F Strong organizational/top management c Need for uniqueness or innovation G Strong market position of the firm E Strong technical supporUexpertise within firm H Strong planning capacity of the firm I Strong financial position of the firm

Table 8 Inhibitor factors Factor 11 (Operational inhibitors) Factor 21 (Strategic and leadership inhibitors) A Budgetary constraints E Ill-defined management objectives B Complexity of the concept F Lack of organizational/top management support C Difficulty in assessing tangible contribution G Lack of appropriate planning D High potential start-up difficulties H Lack of appropriate technical support staff J Nature of external environment or industry I Low perceived importance of concept K Other priorities (are more important) I Power and politics in the firm seven items loaded on the first factor. This was named operational-inhibitors. Five factors loaded on the second factor, which we named as the strategic-leadership inhibitor factor. Factors of both IT inhibitors and facilitators are shown in Tables 7 and 8. Their corresponding rotated factor loadings ai:e shown in Figs 2 and 3, respectively. For the set of facilitators shown in Table 7, the first factor spans the technology-finance-creativity dimensions while the second factor spans the planning-organization-competence dimensions. Factor lF helps realize the potential represented by factor 2F. These two factors complement each other with Factor 2 representing strategic aspects of the firm and Factor 1 representing the tactical and operational aspects. Factor 1I spans the myopia-culture-priorities dimensions while Factor 2I encompasses the management-HR-mis-perception dimensions. Shortsightedness, unsupportive culture, conflicting pri­ orities, management weaknesses, inadequate human resources, and misplaced notions relating to IT account for the influences that deter the effective use of IT in organizations. This factor analysis helps to bring out the interplay between the infrastructural, cultural, and organi­ zational factors and their influences on organizational IT use. Factor lF is composed of infrastuctural variables and the creative dimension of organizational culture. Factor 2F is made up of environmental variables (competitive forces) and the organizational leadership's ability to respond to competitive forces. There are two inhibitors with the first inhibitor being made up of operational organizational aspects. The second inhibitor consists of strategic variables and the inability of the top management to provide direction. . These data reveal that an organization can look to internal and external sources of facilitation for IT-related issues. On the other hand, almost all variables that make up inhibitors (barring "nature of external environment or industry") are internal to the organization. Inhibitors can be thought of as those variables, which, if present, will not allow effective management and use of IT. On the other hand, facilitators are those variables which, when present, will encourage the effective management and use of IT. In other words, the absence of inhibitors is necessary but not sufficient while the presence of facilitators is sufficient but not necessary for successful IT use and management. Our sample reveals that all inhibitors tend to be organizational while facilitators tend to be infrastructural, 80 S. Ka111111go am/ M. Clw11thoy I IT planning i11 !11dia

+I :a

b

F A '. •;_a.•• c h .. :. ·. ·: .. · T 0 R 0

- I 0 +I

FACTOR Fig. 2. Factor loadings for IT inhibitors. Factors correspond en lell crs shown in Table 7.

culruraJ, and environmental jn nature. In particular, two variables - nature of industry and leadership - demonstrate a facilitative as well as an inhibitive component. While organizations are rarely capable of influencing the industries they are in, leadership is an internal organizational variable which emerges a. pivotal to the success or fa ilure of TT u e in organizations in India.

Research Question No. 3. What is lhe relationship between IT planning and organizational attributes?

[n order to an wer this question we tested the following proposition .

Proposition 3.1. Organizations with more challe11ging busi11ess missio11s te11d tu plan for IT mure elaborately.

Proposition 3.2. larger organizations tend to pla11 for IT more clahurarely.

Proposition 3.3. Service organizations tend to show a greater prope11siry for elaborate IT planning. S. Kammgo and M. Cho11tho.1 ! IT plan11i11g in India 81

+I b c d k j

r F A c T h 0 R 0

2

- 1 0 + l

FACTOR

Fig. 3. Factor loadings for IT inhibitors. Factors corrcsponu to lcners shown m Tahte 8.

Analysis of Proposition 3.1. Business mission is a multi-dimensional construct. For the purposes of this analysis the mission construct included the time horizon of the mission (if any), mission scope. degree of difficulty, attainability. stance (leader. follower, drifter), and clarity of the mission statement. The common dimensions of the mission variable were chosen for categori zing organizational mission. Appendix A contains an example for a "challenging" as well as a "not challenging" business mission. When business mission was related to the extent of IT planning, a Chi-square of 15.25 was obtained which is significant al the 0.05 level. This re ult supports the contention that there is a relationship between organizational mission and the extent of IT planning. It is worthwhile to under tand the reasons why this may be so. Tn one in ·tance, a joint government sector communication organization was forced to face an erratic demand and order schedule due to its dependence on a single government buyer. To produce the highest quality items al the lowest cost and meet erratic and. often. unreasonable demand schedules was quite a challenge. Yet the main reason for the lack of an elaborate plan was the lack of competitive force. Consequently, the 82 S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India

Table 9 Chi-square tests for independence for Proposition 3 Variable 1 Variable 2 C (d.f.) (p-value) G (ASE) Organizational mission Extent of IT planning 15.25(1) (0.0) 1.00 (0.00) Not challenging Formal n = 160 Challenging Not formal Sales turnover Extent of IT planning 0.64(2) (0.73) 0.23 (0.29) Small Formal n = 154 Medium Not formal Large Number of employees Extent of IT planning 4.38(1) (0.04) 0.80 (0.21) Less than 100 Formal n = 161 More than 100 Not formal Sector Extent of IT planning 0.83(1) (0.36) 0.33 (0.34) Manufacturing Formal n = 80 Service Not formal usual competitive advantages that derive out of effective IT planning did not appear attractive to this organization. The other organizations which did not have elaborate IT planning frame works were characterized by a generally weak overall business plan as mentioned by the respondents themselves. This usually manifests itself in haphazard growth, inability to capitalize on new technologies and a myopic attitude that affect IT planning. A clear implication arises out of this research finding. For organizations to plan formally for IT, the organizational mission should embody a sense of purpose concisely, which can be translated into meaningful actions. This findings is supported by the associated gamma statistic which has a value of 1.0 (in Table 9) and means that the degree of challenge associated with organizational mission is strongly associated with degree of formalism of IT planning.

Analysis of Proposition 3.2. This proposition states that larger organizations tend to plan for IT more elaborately. Size of organization was quantified in two ways, annual turnover and number of employees. Based on our proposition, it would be expected that organizations having large turnovers as well as those with a large number of employees would show an increased tendency toward elaborate IT planning. The turnover was codified as being small, medium or large. A turnover less that Rs 50 crore per annum was considered small, between Rs 50 and Rs 200 crore per annum was medium and above Rs 200 crores per annum was considered as large. Similarly, the size of the organization in terms of the number of employees was considered as small if the organization had less than 100 employees and large otherwise. Table 9 .summarizes the results obtained. The results do not suggest any relationship between annual turnover and nature of IT planning. Most organizations in India are in the automating stage [21], i.e., their focus is on implementing and utilizing cost cutting information technologies. Therefore, those organizations with large number of employees have elaborate IT planning frameworks because they have been involved primarily with automating their accounting and payroll functions (i.e., they are faced with the problem of scope).

Analysis of Proposition 3.3. Proposition 3.3 stated that service based organizations tend to show greater propensity for IT planning. Results shown in Table 9 show that our proposition is not supported by the sample data. On the other hand, these data suggest that organizations in the manufacturing sector tend to plan for IT more elaborately than those in the service sector. These findings imply that information technology in India has been used primarily in the manufacturing segment. This is S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India 83 indirectly borne out of the fact that the service sector in India has been traditionally weak in adopting leading-edge technologies including IT. IT used in the manufacturing sectors in IIidia is predominantly concentrated in the automating phase. IT in the service sector has a lot more to do with informating than simply automating. The high level of consumer expectation and entitlement to services that is so common in western - industrialized nations is nearly absent (barring a minority) in India because of the inability of the consumers to pay for the services. On the other hand, the tangible benefits of the automation on the factory floors is too obvious to ignore in the form of improved quality of products, greater production flexibility and lower operating cost.

6. Discussion

One of the main findings of this study is that organizations in India demonstrate an average profile in terms of IT effectiveness - a profile that is consistent with findings elsewhere. Leading factors that influence IT perception and use (enablers and inhibitors) are somewhat distinct from those in the US context. Lastly, the level of IT planning in most organizations is inadequate. In this section we present our recommendations to improve IT planning and, hence, eventual IT use by organizations in India.

6.1. Top management

In the Indian context, since most organizations find themselves in the automation phase of IT implementation, the CEO's role becomes very crucial. In the automation phase the IT infrastructure is built and most of the pains associated with growth and change are encountered. Most organizations are also top-driven because managers have traditionally not been empowered to take independent decisions. Top management must, therefore lead by example by not only using IT but also by taking active interest in issues associated with IT use and planning. This will not only accord a high priority toward the IT function but will also endorse, approbate, and encourage the use of IT across 'the organization.

6.2. Planning competence

The IT industry is dominated by a few hardware vendors who have initiated sbftware development ventures to meet the demands of the client organizations. The market is characterized by the near­ total absence of value-added resellers. IT vendors often push their technologies which clients, in their eagerness to join the bandwagon, accept. Needless to say buying technology is a far cry from buying solutions. Qualitative analysis of data also revealed that most organizations reported ad hoc purchas­ ing/procurement procedures. Such a lack of procedure points to weak IT plans. The weaknesses in IT planning arise mainly due to three reasons: quite often, top management is not involved in IT planning, MIS personnel are not part of top management, and the immensity of the task at hand overwhelms planners who end up juggling priorities and providing piece-meal solutions. Only 10 or­ ganizations in our research sample had an MIS representative on the board of directors. Given such lack of IT visibility at the top management levels, corporate plans and IT efforts are out of kil­ ter. Moreover, IT benefits are realized slowly over time - after organizational processes, human capabilities, and the technological possibilities are synchronized. Most organizations in India have 84 S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India concentrated on automating manual systems. This approach holds the potential to yield payoffs in terms of increased efficiencies and not effectiveness. But most information systems in India have been used to automate manual systems without re-engineering because of the time and resource crunch and in order to avoid the controversies accompanying process re-engineering. Most IT planning takes the form of operational planning, concerned with implementing systems and meeting project deadlines. The IT function needs to be formalized and organizations must have the IT function head reporting to the CEO. The formalization of the IT departments will need to be done so as to provide a balance between planning capacity and action-orientation. Quite often IT departments concentrate on providing in-house IT solutions and outsource IT strategy formulation and planning to consultants. This can prove to be a long-term management disability as it prevents organizational learning.

6.3. Creating the need for IT planning

King et al. [13] have reported pressure from competition to be a leading facilitator of IT use. Our sample results show that pressure from competition, along with a desire for IT leadership position, are among the least facilitating factors for IT use. Based on the qualitative analysis, we found that such a feeling arises in organizations because most organizations in India perceive a low level of competitive threat from other organizations. Consequently, tactical and strategic systems have not been developed and conceptualized (planned for). Managers still feel that the IT concept is still too premature to be applied effectively in the corporate milieu (see Table 6). Yet, at the same time, organizations find them­ selves having to gear up for competition from multinationals and other domestic organizations. From an IT standpoint this translates into concurrent development of operational as well as strategic systems.

7. Conclusions

What does all this mean for CEOs and MIS managers? There, obviously, are no clear-cut directives that can be provided. Two courses are possible. Firstly, if an organization does not develop an IT strategy over time, it's IT effort will fail. Secondly, and more importantly, insights gained in industrialized countries can not be used or applied directly in Indian organizations. This is so because most organizations in industrialized countries are in the process of transforming, or have already transformed, their business using IT. In addition, their cultural attributes are significantly different [6]. The automation phase began in earnest around 1960s. Organizations in India started automating in the early eighties and most of them have not completed the automation phase, while a few have not even started it. Yet we are faced with the reality of having to become global players where the use of IT is a critical factor for success. It is also evident that if we have to "catch-up" with the world leaders in the use and application of IT, we would have to utilize and assimilate IT at a faster rate with greater overlaps between the three phases - something that calls for concurrent learning and innovation. Needless to say, the cost of failure in such cases is extremely high. Therefore it is imperative for IT managers in India to respond to the need to absorb, integrate, and assimilate IT in ways that will allow sustained increases in productivity while at the same time ensuring that technology does not become an end in and of itself. Drawing up plans can ensure this so that development of the user, as well as system takes place simultaneously. In many instances user development (that includes training, user preparation, and user involvement) should precede technical systems development. This ensures that both individual and organizational perspectives are accommodated. S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy /IT planning in India 85

Development of effective and appropriate organization structures inside the organization to manage organization-wide information processing capabilities is a must for organizations that are serious about using IT effectively. This will reduce dependence on external agencies and consultants but will also increase organizational compf(tence to utilize such ser\fices when needed. This implies tpat capabilities to. conceptualize, develop and maintain IT systems are developed within an organization. The use of IT has traditionally been seen as that of providing competitive advantages for organi~ zations which can use these technologies to reduce costs and differentiate products. But given the high cost structure of IT components in India, the benefits of IT should not be limited to competitive advantages. Benefits also accrue from sharing the benefits of IT across different departm.ents, orga­ nizations, and institutions. Since internal "resistance to change" is a legitimate concern, care should be given to users' ~spirations. 1)lat can be dqne by asking the question "what can the system do for users at the individual, professional, and aesthetic levels?" This means that the organization shoµld aim for both collective as well as competitive advantage. Organizational leaders must ~eek to understand the underlying inhibitors and facilitators ()f IT use in their organizations. These factors (especially facilitators) can be used as leverage points for IT-enabled organizational effectiveness. The identification of inhibitors is most valuable for identifying "causes" of resistance to change. F9r example, "budgetary constraints" and "lack of appropriate planning" are two common inhibitors. Budgetary problems may not go away bbt a concerted effort at planning for IT infrastructure,. implementation schedules, and matching organizational and individual needs. with respect to information systems will heighten the. chances of information system success~

Appendix A: How organizational mission was analyzed

Sample business missions and their · . Scope (geographical, · Degree of difficulty Realism' (makes sure, ratings by a focus group of academics, product, (the extent of ' that it is not confused students, an.d managers (n = 11) organizational) achievability) . with visi~n) . Large tyre div'ision To be pioneers Low Lqw Low · · To keep growing Low Low Moderate . Newspaper company Be the largest selling engblish daily High High Moderate Be the first to provide news High High Low

An example of how IT planning was analyzed: ' l ' '

Degree of in­ Who all are Formal methods used Time horizon tegration with involved. in IT business plan planning The director of IS division No evidence Users, IS depart­ , .No formal. planning Semi annual to an­ forms strategies annually af­ of proactive . ment find Manage­ , method or strategy. So n.ual._ So LOW ter evaluating the information , integration. ment. ~o HIGH .· · LOW needs ·of various groups in the So LOW . ,-company. ·It ~s a se.rvice pro-.. · viding function and hence each user group also has a say.

IT planning is done to make sure that information systems are maximally utilized in achieving organizational objectives. There is a technical dimension as well as an organizational dimension to IT 86 S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India planning. Successful IT planning makes managers aware of the computers that can have significant effects on their organization's competitive position and more importantly that information system planning needs to be coupled more closely with the goals of the organization. The factors which dictate how elaborate information systems planning is .in an organization depend on individuals who are involved in the planning process. How often it is done, the mechanics of the planning process and the level at which it is discussed.

References

[l] Amdahl Research Report, Clues to success: information technology, strategies for tomorrow, Amdahl, 1988. [2] E. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont, CA, 1989. [3] J.E. Bailey and S. Pearson, Development of a tool for measuring and analyzing computer user satisfaction, Management Science 29 (1983), 530-545. [4] G.V. Barret, C.L. Thornton and P.A. Cabe, Human factors evaluation of computer-based information storage and retroeva; system, Human Factors 29 (1968), 431-436. [5] S. Duda, Perceptions of IT effectiveness across organizational levels: implications for organizational effectiveness, Working Paper, Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, 1994. [6] J.K. Fukuda, Transferability of computer technology across Asian cultures, Asia Pacific Journal of Management (September 1984), 54-61. [7] C.A. Galagher, Perception of the value of management information system, Academy of Management Journal 17(1) (1974), 46-55. [8] G.A. Garry and M.A.S. Morton, A framework for management information systems, Sloan Management Review 13(1) (1971). [9] B. Hochstrasser and C. Giffiths, Regarding Control of IT Investments, Kobler Unit, 1990. [10] B. Ives, M.H. Olson and J.J. Baroudi, The measurement of user information satisfaction, Communication of the ACM 26 (1983), 785-793. [ 11] V. Jain, A Comparison of information systems strategies and usage of private and public sector banks, Working Paper, Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, 1994. [12] A.T. Kearney, Corporate Organizations and Overhead Effectiveness Survey, A.T. Kearney, 1987. [13] W.R. King, V. Grover and E. Hugnagel, Seeking competitive advantage using information-intensive strategies, in: Information Technology and Management Strategy, C. Laudon and J. Turner, eds, Prentice-Hall, Englewood-Cliffs, 1989, pp. 50-63. [14] S. Lubbe, R. Egget and N. Hawkes, Determining the significance of decision criteria in the selection of IT investments in South Africa, Information Technology for Development 6 (1995), 125-138. [15] J. Miller and B.A. Doyle, Measuring effectiveness of computer-based information systems in the financial services sector, MIS Quarterly 11(1) (1987), 107-121. [16] R. Nolan, Managing the crises in data processing, Harvard Business Review (March-April, 1979), 115-126. [17] OECD, A report on management of marketing information, OASIS, 1988. [18] A. Pacey, The Culture of Technology, Cambridge, The MIT Press, 1983. [19] G.L. Parsons, Information technology: a new competitive weapon, Sloan Management Review 25(1) (1983). [20] M.E. Porter and V.E. Millar, How information gives you a competitive advantage, Harvard Business Review (July­ August, 1985). [21] D. Remenyi, A. Money and A. Twite, A Guide to Measuring and Managing IT Benefits, NCC Blackwell, Manchester, 1991. [22] Romtech Report, Computing opinion survey, Romtech, 1989. [23] E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1985. [24] L. Willcocks, Unpublished chairman's introduction to a conference on managing IT benefits, Conducted by Business Intelligence, 1991. · [25] R.W. Zmud, An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the concept of information, Decision Sciences 9(2) (1978), 187-196. [26] S. Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine, New York, Basic Books, 1988. S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy I IT planning in India 87

About the authors

Dr. Shivraj Kanungo is the Dalmia Assistant Professor of Management of Information Technology at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. Prior to joining UT, Dr. Kanungo taught at the George Washington University. Dr. Kanungo is presently involved with enabling organizations in India to plan and develop strate­ gies for effective information systems use. He is particularly interested in the relationship between organizational culture and IT use. His other research interests include seamless integration of infor­ mation and decision technologies to enhance managerial effectiveness, measurement of organizational IT effectiveness, and productivity measures in the software development process. Dr. Kanungo has studied management and information systems at the Birla Institute of Technology and Science at Pilani, India; Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, IL; and the George Wash­ ington University at Washington, DC. He teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in management of information technology, software engineering, and management decision making. Mr. Madan Chouthoy is Business Manager with Woodward Governer (India) Ltd. He graduated from Bangalore University with an engineering degree and holds an M.Tech. in management and Systems from the Indian Institute of Technology (Delhi). He worked with Allen Bradley (India) for over ten years before joining Woodward Governer. He has been with Woodward Governer for five years. His professional interest lie in the area of strategic technology management.

Information Technology for Development 8 (1998) 89-100 '89 IOS Press . :......

Information systenis and ~ulture·: applying 'stages of growth' concepts· t.o developme.nt administration

'',

Robert D. Gailiers a, Shirin Madon,b·* and Rizwan Rashid c "•,' a:warwick Business School, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK Tel.: +44 1203 524262; Fax: +44 1203 5237I9; E-mail: [email protected] ,. b Department of Information Systems, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK Tel.: +4417I 955 7627; Fax: +4417I 955 7385; E-mail: [email protected] c United Nations Development Programme, P. 0. Box I 05 I, Islamabad, Pakistan · E-mail: [email protected]

Abstrad. This paper examines how cultural factors influence the rate at which individuals adopt technology to assist them in their duties. In .order to acpieve this; we review usage of the stages of growth model of information systems development in organisations which has been applied in the context of western and non-western organisations in various parts of the world .. We then apply the model to the context of development administration where information technology interventions are becoming pervasive but where the inherent traditional cultilral characteristics are fundamentally at variance with those of information technology practitioners. The case study we present is. that of the implementation of information systems in the Karachi De­ velopment Authq~ity (KDA): The findings highlight the utility and limitations of the stages of growth model in terms of its ability to accommodate the inherent cultural characteristics of KDA While such knowledge will have vaiue for inform.ation technology practitioners ·within their own societies, we contend that it will become even rriore valuable for practitioners from western cultures in applying technology solutions to development administration.

1. Introduction

Among.the ·various issues that affect the implementation of information technology' projeets, cultural faCtors are often cited as being important: For example, the results of a study by Thomp.sori et al. [28] of 212 managers cind professionals in the US who used PCs within their jobs revealed' that socio-'cultural factors relating to the behaviour of peers and management within the organisation had positive and sig- nificant effects' on l.ndividuals' ·utilisation of technology. , The significance of cultural factors becomes an even more critical issue in developing countries where many systems fail as a result of cultural mismatch between the systems and the recipient"culttire [21)5]. These concerns are equally vital for western organisations as information systems depfiltmenfs expand ' beyond the confines of national boundaries to support the global operations of tlieir' parent organisations . . Several studies· have been conducted to improve our understanding· of how technology can be applied successfully' in different cultures [18,27]. For example, Tan et al. [27] document a joint research project ' ' ~

•Please address all correspondence to: Dr. Shirin Madon at the above address.

0268-1102/98/$8.00 © 1998 - IOS Press. All rights reserved 90 R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture established between three universities in the USA, Singapore and Finland in order to understand how group decision support systems can be applied successfully in different cultures. The majority of cross-cultural studies of technology diffusion have concentrated on identifying and classifying the various cultural factors that influence the implementation of technology in different set­ tings. For example, the study by Tan et al. referred to above examines how each of the three locations score on certain dimensions of national culture according to the type of decision-making task, and the group size. While these studies offer useful frameworks within which to organise cultural factors, they are nonetheless static in nature and do not expose the dynamics of cultural persistence and transforma­ tion within organisations. Another approach to the study of information systems and culture has been to adopt a processual approach in order to understand how culture shapes and is shaped by the process of technology diffusion in a particular organisational setting. One model which has been applied recently to expose the dynamic interaction between information systems implementation and organisational culture is the revised stages of growth model [9] which focuses on identifying the culture of an organisation and describing how it fits with technology. The particular organisational setting we investigate here is that of development administration. Despite trends towards increasing reliance on free market regimes, the importance of public administration in de­ veloping countries cannot be over-emphasised. Contemporary government institutions need to carry out planning and administration tasks for development, as well as to build a modem state infrastructure and to regulate an effective market economy. Exciting new partnerships are being forged between state, private enterprises, and non-government organisations. Yet, in most developing countries, public administration is particularly dysfunctional and as a result, information technology is becoming increasingly pervasive in all aspects of western-funded initiatives diiected at modernising the public sector in developing coun­ tries. The. scope of this paper is to apply the stages model to the context of development administration by presenting a case study of information technology implementation in the Karachi Development Au­ thority. This description is based on primary data collected by one of the authors. The objective of the exercise is to 'improve understanding of the cultural values that guide individual behaviour and influence ways of working within development administration and to identify areas of conflict and compatibility between the demands of technology and the prevailing value systems.

2. Utility of the stages of growth model

The original stages of growth model [23] represented a useful and influential framework for evaluating the process of information systems development in organisations. The model was based on the premise that organisations pass through a number of identifiable growth phases in utilising and managing infor­ mation technology. It was postulated that these stages could then be used to identify the organisation's level of maturity with regard to information technology implementation and to guide further develop­ ment [24,26,29]. Many variants of the stages model have appeared dealing with aspects of information systems implementation such as information systems planning [3,6], and overall information systems management [13]. The major weakness of the early Nolan models related to their static nature. They all focused on identifying an organisation's degree of maturity with respect to information technology rather than on the process through which an organisation progresses in order to achieve mature stages of growth. The earlier models also assumed that organisational culture was a homogeneous entity, rather than something that was multifarious and dynamically interacting with its environment. R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture 91

The revised stages model by Galliers and Sutherland [9] expresses growth in information technology maturity in an organisation in terms of six stages, each associated with a particular set of organisational and management structures and values. The model encapsulates a more pluralistic perspective on culture which accommodates subgroups within a single organisation and assumes a more processual approach to gaining understanding about how an organisation evolves with information technology. According to the model, an organisation passes from uncontrolled initial usage of information technology in the first stage, to the use of information technology for gaining strategic advantage in the final stage. The revised model has been used in the context of organisations in advanced industrialised countries to study· the dynamic interaction between various growth stages of computing and its management in an organisation. Within these organisations, the process of information technology adoption has exhibited a certain order. For example, the development of the early stages of technology and of skills within the organisation has been a necessary precondition for the development of later stages [10]. An alternative setting in which the model has been applied is in public and private sector organisa­ tions in Russia. These organisations have not followed the same development path as western-oriented organisations due to various inherent cultural characteristics [4,5]. For example, according to western experience, the revised stages model suggests that people should be encouraged by the prospects of in­ creased efficiency from information technology usage. However, in the Russian context, this does not hold since other traditional values related to decision-making and passive acceptance of central authority override the efficiency concern. In the Russian public sector organisation, the lack of understanding by local administrators of the importance of collecting comprehensive data and of storing it in a unified system, and the fear of revealing information were two key reasons for slow progress through the phases of information technology maturity. The result of applying the model in the Russian context was that a gap was revealed between the rapid installation of sophisticated technology in Russian enterprises, and various cultural elements relating to the organisation such as its style of functioning, its management skills and the shared values of personnel within the organisation and within society at large. While the stages model has proved useful for identifying cultural elements which interact with tech­ nology diffusion, we can also draw on concepts from other literature in order to probe deeper into why a particular culture exists. For example, theoretical ideas from social psychology can assist us in under­ standing how shared values come to exist between groups of people. According to the theory of reasoned action drawn from social psychology [l], human beings are rational and make systematic use of infor­ mation available to them. Hence, an immediate determinant of behaviour is a person's intentions in order to pursue some purposeful activity. Intentions, in tum, are governed by a person's attitudes which are eventually conditioned by societal norms and beliefs. Several studies have recently aimed at using con­ cepts from social psychology to examine how behavioural patterns of information technology usage are formed within individuals and groups (e.g., [8,11,16]). Literature on analysing societal norms gained popularity in the cross-cultural management literature of the 1960s when differences among cultures were charted and similarities clustered together to draw some implications for management practices. More recently, research on national culture and informa­ tion technology has been triggered by Hofstede's seminal study of the impact of national culture on organisational types [14,15]. His research, which was conducted in 67 countries involved over 50,000 employees from IBM, identified some key dimensions of culture along which countries could be clas­ sified. These included individualism referring to the degree of interdependence amongst members of a society; power distance referring to the degree to which a society accepts uneven distribution of power amongst its members; uncertainty avoidance referring to the degree to which members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity; and masculinity referring to the preference of a society 92 R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture

for .result achievement, heroism, assertiveness· and material success in life. Using these four dimensions, Hofstede was able to carry out analyses on certain dimensions of interest. The majority of literature on information technology and culture stemming from both behavioural studies and from cro~s-cultural management literature, has tended to focus on information technology as a yehicle for cultural persistence in organisations. For example, the use of information. technology has been linked to the persistence of power bases and domination within organisations [19,31]. This comes across .in Kraemer's [19] study in which it is argued that information may be appropriated and used to serve the interests of various parties in conflict. Cultural approaches which depict information technology as a vehicle for cultural ·persistence. in organisations can be criticised for being too static arid not accommodating the reality of subsystems in permanent conflict. For example, a wide range of emergent uses of information technology ·quite apart from the designer's original intentions have been quoted [21,22]. This has resulted in new cultural practices being formed as actors depart from accepted ways in order to rectify structural contradictions. We have thus far attempted to demonstrate the application and utility- of the stages model in both a western and a non-western context. In general, the revised stages model has proved useful in improving understanding 'of the dynamic irtteracticin between an organisation's culture and information technology diffusion. However, the model tells us little about how culture is formed and manifested in different societies, and how it is transformed over' time. The remainder of this paper is dedicated to demonstrat­ ing the utility of the stages· model iri explaining the process of information systems implementation in :development administration. Before·we embark on the case, we briefly identify the broad nature and characteristics of development administration.

·3. The nature and characteristics of development administration

The concept of development administration derives from the notion of bureaucracy after the work of the German social scientist Max Weber. Writing towards the end of the 19th century, .Weber observed the trend in Europe and North American towards a new form of organisation he called bureaucracy. He linked this to the development of western capitalism in which the days of rule by kings and chiefs and religious leaders was fading away· to be replaced by a system of office. According to Weber, bureaucracy was · based on legal rational authority in which a set of rules and administrative structures closely controlled the actions of employees in organisations [12]. Weber assumed that the following conditions prevailed in the bureaucratic organisation: - Rule~ were acc~pted by ~embers of the organisation . . - Although governments may change, bureaucracy was relatively continuous in operation. ~ The spheres of competenc,e of bure.aucratic administration were well-specified. ' - Office.consisted of a hierarchy with each levels under control of higher levels arid bureaucrats knew · th~ir: place within this system. . . . · · . . · .-: Bureaucracts were only subject to legal rational authority with respect .to their impersonal official obligations...... - Offjcials were subject to control 'and discipline in the conduct of their work. .. , - The success arid contilluing operation of bureaucracy depended to a large extent on written records. According to the Weberian model of bureaucracy, we can say that administrative culture is constituted by what is found in the organisational structure of rules, policies, goals, missions, job descriptions and R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture 93 standardised procedures which act as points of reference for how people think and make sense of the con­ text in which they work. However, there is more to administrative culture than mere rule-following. 'The ability to apply a rule calls for much more knowledge than mere knowledge of the rule. The application of the rule calls upon background knowledge on the part of the administrator that goes well beyond what is stated in the rule. A series of subjective decisions are thus made on the nature of an administrative case before any formal rule is applied, Many of these decisions will be made quite unconsciously as a result of previous socialisation and taken-for-granted tacit knowledge. Hence, it can be argued that administra­ tive culture rests as much in the heads and minds of bureaucrats as it does in concrete sets of rules and relations. Several studies have, therefore, set out to explore administrative culture by examining in detail not only the kinds of activities bureaucrats perform when they fulfil their administrative tasks, but also what they think about aspects of their work and how this is manifested in their behaviour [17 ,20]. Many writers have described the main characteristics of development administration which influ­ ence its functioning as follows [12,30]. First is the characteristic of non-accountability. Development administration according. to Weber assumed that once administrators are assigned their tasks, the sys­ tem would automatically generate its own chain of accountability. Development objectives which were usually sketched in long-range plans and administrative guidelines were assumed to be fulfilled once the field administrators were given the authority ·and resources to implement them, However, no seri­ ous effort was made to determine accountability of programme objectives to monitor whether resources had been used efficiently and effectively. For example, in many cases, mismanagement or the blatant iritervention of politicians meant that resources had to be diverted. Second, one of the basic assumptions in the Weberian model of bureaucracy is the belief that value­ laden decisions were the domain of politicians while public servants merely implemented those decisions , with no· room to influence policy. While such a belief may have worked in the west where. there has been a tradition of separation between politicians and administrators, in developing· countries, administrators have never been free·from value-decisions. In fact, this stems from colonial days where expatriate ex­ ecutives had a vested interest in policy-making within developing countries. Among the misapplications of the ·Weberian concept of bureaucracy in developing countries, the value-free administrative system ·appears to be the most counter-productive because it has created an environment in which administrators hesitate to openly express their views on policy under the pretext of neutrality in the:civil service. Third;· development administration is characterised by orientations other than production-directed. The values of industrial society have only superficially substituted those of traditional societies. For example, in many developing countries, we still find deviances from the bureaucratic model because of traditional values of respect for elders, .of kinship, etc. Status is often based on ascription rather than achievement; ·recruitment and promotion based on loyalty rather than on merit. There is also an acute social and. moral obligation for administrators to help family and friends. The final major characteristic of development administration is that of corruption. This entails the improper use of powers: derived from the· occupancy of office to generate private gains - improper as measured against a set of rules of the organisation.· The potential for this to happen :exists in any society in which discretionary powers are given. However, in developing countries, the potential is further fertilised by excessive formalism and adherence to rules and regulations which are often inappropriate for modem operations [2]. To overcome these rules and to expedite work, they are abandoned. This type of activity is often labelled corruption but often it simply humanises what would be intolerable formal processes. ·Such type of activity,has become almost endemic in developing countries and trying to behave incorruptly in a corrupt system is often impossible. 94 R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture

To summarise, we have described the basic nature and main characteristics of development administra­ tion. While these characteristics are not necessarily dysfunctional, they can lead to fragmentation within the administration so that concepts like integration, cooperation, and co-ordination which are essential for the development of an efficient and effective information system become impossible to achieve be­ cause of the predominance of short, personalised patterns of authority and obedience. The next section looks at the interaction between the process of technology diffusion and the context of development ad­ ministration by describing information systems implementation at the Karachi Development Authority.

4. Information systems implementation at the Karachi Development Authority

Pakistan is a poor country which has a per capita income of US$236 pa, of which 61 % is spent on external debt servicing and defence. As a result, there is very little emphasis on education and health. This is a major concern for policy-makers given the explosive population growth rate of 3% [7]. The country has had a history of military dictatorships and is governed by a bureaucracy that follows rules and procedures that date back to colonial times. However, this formal system is but a cover for an informal system reputed to be based on rampant corruption and nepotism. The dramatic rise in population has resulted in rapid growth of large urban areas such as Karachi and Lahore. Since developed land has consistently been in short supply, prices have grown accordingly. The basic task of the Karachi Development Authority (KDA) is to envisage and plan housing schemes. This entails, among other tasks, buying the land, developing the land in terms of infrastructure, selling the land to individuals, and monitoring the payment and subsequent transactions pertaining to these plots. KDA is a large public sector organisation with over 9,000 employees. The main policy making organ is called the governing body whose Chairman is the Commissioner of Karachi {a very senior bureau­ cratic functionary). It consists of 12 members including the Director General of KDA who is generally an external appointee from the Pakistan Civil Service. It has to be appreciated that land is a valuable commodity in sprawling urban areas and being able to lay hands on valuable tracts of land at throw-away prices or even to award plots of land to selected individuals is a privilege that politicians have enjoyed over the years - legally or otherwise. In order to smooth the process, politicians require the presence of a 'cooperative~ Chief Executive at KDA. The appointee of Director General of KDA has, therefore, been ·heavily influenced by the politicians. While some of the departments within KDA had been provided with computer equipment as part of foreign aid or consultancy projects, until 1987 no conscious decision had been taken by the KDA man­ agement to use information technology. All this seemed to change in 1987 when a Computer Committee was formed to look into the prospects of introducing information technology in KDA. The Committee consisted of the Director General and heads of the various departments within KDA. A number of rea­ sons prompted this decision. First, computerisation was the 'in thing', and KDA wanted to join the trend. Second, KDA wanted to control the selling of land which had so far been carried out using the computing facilities of certain banks. It was hoped that these in-house control procedures would reduce .corruption. Third, the creation of large databases would enable KDA to respond quickly to various queries that came from the government. Despite the setting up of the Committee which was based primarily on the whims of certain individuals such as the Director General, there was no demand from within the organisation to computerise. Some of the senior officials who had been asked to join the Committee were not committed to computerisation. R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture 95

Moreover, the more junior staff were unaware of the importance or utility of computers. The only indi­ vidual in KDA who had any knowledge of computers was a relatively inexperienced programmer who had recently come back from the United States with a degree in computer science. The three software packages to be developed were a land management system; a building control system; and a finance and accounts system. Three committees, each responsible for one of the appli­ cations, were formed. They were to interact with the team of programmers assigned by the vendor and come up with the specifications for the software package. The in-house consultant at KDA was promoted to Computer Manager and was given the task of being the key co-ordinator. However, there were two problems with this. First, the key co-ordinator was not powerful enough to take critical decisions and to get things done at KDA. Second, the Director General who had initiated the whole exercise retired shortly after signing the contract. The new Director General came in at a time of political uncertainty and was never sure of the duration of his term in office. This created an air of uncertainty which meant that decision-making was often delayed. Amongst the three applications, the land management system was the most critical and its successful implementation was essential for achieving the goals of the com­ puterisation effort. For this reason, in this case study we focus primarily on describing developments for this application. In order to understand the land management system, we first need to look at the functioning of the land management department within KDA. This department is responsible for the purchase, development and disposal of land for residential and commercial purposes. First of all, tracts of land are identified for developing a new housing scheme and steps are taken to get the scheme approved. The land is purchased and town planners determine the layout of commercial and residential plots, roads and other facilities. The scheme is then formally launched and applications are invited. All applicants have to deposit 25% of the value of the plot as the first instalment. Since the number of applicants exceeds the total number of available plots, computer balloting takes place. Unsuccessful applicants get their money back. Successful applicants are asked to pay for the plot in three instalments, each constituting 25% of the value of the plot. Each time an instalment is paid, the owner fills a form (called a challan form) in quadruplicate. All the copies are taken to a bank and payment is made. One of the copies is then duly stamped and returned to the payee as a receipt. The bank subsequently sends one of the copies to the Department for filing, one to the Finance Department, and retains one for its records. After the submission of the second instalment, the individual receives an allotment letter for the plot from the Department. In reality, however, the process for filing forms is quite erratic and if the form is not easy to read it is not filed anywhere and simply stored in a stack. There are many such stacks lying in the record room of KDA. As a result, incorrect reminders are often sent to owners and irate customers visit KDA waving their copy of the form. Sometimes, such errors are made for less innocent reasons. The formal procedures for various transactions pertaining to plots is similar insofar as the payment procedures are concerned. After payment, the parties involved in the transaction return to the department and present their copy of the form to the officer responsible for the relevant scheme. The officer is then responsible for issuing the relevant certificate. The manual system that existed had problems: the functionaries had great discretionary powers while accountability and control procedures were seriously lacking, opening the door to corrupt practices. Corruption had become institutionalised at KDA in that practically whole departments, with employees belonging to different hierarchical levels, had been involved. The most common problem had to do with the integrity of records. Sometimes, the original file just disappeared from the KDA records. A number of plots were resold on the basis of forged files. The files were, more often than not, forged within KDA, 96 R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture

by KDA employees. Sometimes, even the KDA staff found it difficult to distinguish the forged files from the genuine ones! In October 1988, a new ·political government took charge and a new Director General was nominated to manage the computer project. By this time, a prototype for the land management system had been de­ veloped but users did not feel that it met their needs. There was the distinct danger of the computerisation project collapsing completely because of lack of top management commitment, poor hardware, inappro­ priate software, and lack of an established computer department within KDA It was at this stage that an Assistant Director (a fairly senior officer) of the land management department was deputed to head the computerisation efforts. This person appeared to be committed to making the project a success. In order to achieve that, he gave priority to getting the.land management system off the ground. By mid-1989, the land management system was designed and ready for installation. The system was designed to perform the following tasks: 1. Keep com'prehensive information about the owners of the plot. 2. Maintain plot transfers/transactions history.·· 3. Maintain teccird of dues against land/plot. 4. Generate defaulters list. 5. Support the balloting process for 'new schemes. I'. . In order to test.the new system, data for 10,000 plots belonging to a new scheme was entered into the system: After the initial success, it was decided to expand the scope of work by entering data belonging to one of the older .schemes. This was done by transferring original files of the older schemes to the computer center fordata entry. TJ;ie list, of computerised records was cJ;iecked for data authenticity by the relevant officer and the land management department was instructed to inforin the computer department of all subsequent transactions on the plot in order to update records. . However, data collection. for this e~ercise pi:oved to be. V~fy difficult. There were a number of rea­ sons for this. First, officers were hesitant to verify. the authenticity 'of data because they could riot ~asily distinguis.h betwe~n geniiine and forged files. Second, a centralised databank thr~~tened to e~pose mis­ ~ari~gement and corruption in terms of the duplication of files. Third, the increased visibility of data threatened to erode the po~er base of officers. Despite efforts made by the Assistant Director tb extract data from offi".ers by cajoling anq even threatening them, the inflow of data was still very unsatisfactory. The computer .department also learnt that they were not being updated about transactions carried out on plots which had been computerised. ·. · . In 1990, ·there was ahcither change of political government in Pakistan. A new Director General was ap­ pointed to KDA now, who appeared to be committed to computerisation. The computer team at KDA re- . alised that the land management system would not make any impact until soine vital procedural changes were made within the organisation. One such change was that the certificates for all transactions would henceforth be generated by the computer system. This change was enforced by the Director General despite resentment by the officials concerned. Ill one swoop, the inflow of data to the computer centre improved dramatically, since all data relating to plots on which transactions were occurring was captured in the system. During the whole process of computerisation, KDAhad made no conscious effort towards human res'ource development. In 1990, the Assistant Director realised that KDA needed a computer de­ . partinent with trained· manpower to manage the system.' A department was formed· at KDA and three computer programmers took up jobs within it. · · · · As· of early 1994, the land management system contained complete information ·on approximately 150,000 records. The database is continuously· growing and moving towards the 700,000 matk. The R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture 97

Computer Department is trying to implement a second procedural change by generating the challan forms through the computer and linking the main system to ,terminals in the Bank and Finance Department in or.der to eliminate the issuance of incorrect reminders and certain kinds 9f fraud. However, this change is. being resisted and has not yet been institutionalised. As for the two other systems that needed to be developed: the building control. software is not fully functional or effective, and the accounting software is functioning after an integrated chart of accounts :was prepared. The Computer. Department is now trying to convince .management to approve an upgrade of existing hardware in order to improve the. performance of the system_. On the surface it seems that computerisation has been a success at KDA. For once, reliable and timely information about plots is readily available such that KDA is now. in a position to respond to some of the. queries generated by government.. Moreover, information technology has been used to contrql malpractices, although its.success in doing so is difficult to measure. Two major concerns, however, are as follows. First, the whole initiative .has revolved around the commitment o( one individual. Second, there are many factors relating to the con.text surrounding the information system whi,ch may impede the successful implementation of the system. ·

5. l)iscussion and conclusion

One of the criticisms we mentioned earlier in applying the stages model is that it does not emphasise the importance· of various national and organisational cultural characteristic.s sufficiently. In the model, the early stages of irifonnation technology growth describe how the organisation 'moves from a brief phase of ad hoc usage of technology towards laying the foundations for future usage through identi-· fication of user needs. However, the initial adoption and diffusion of information technology at KDA was heavily influenced by the highly politicised nature of development administration rather than due to any indigenous felt need for change. Eyen after the technology had been.implemented afKDA for: some time,. the organisation failed to reach maturity because information systems did not figure high on the list. of priorities of the Chief Executive .whose appointment' had, after all, been influenced by the political government. Another dimension of Pakistani culture is that it displays charactenstics of iow uncertainty avoidance where management in most public sector organisations is not overly concerned with the accuracy of information available to them [15]. This is particularly true of all large public sector organisations in de­ veloping countries. The development administration culture at KDA is characterised by general disregard for the integrity of written records, as shown by the disdain with which challan forms are stored; or the corruption-related forging of files. This lack of culture of information use for decision-making promotes non-accountability amongst officers. At KDA, one of the reasons for computerisation was the anticipated ability to generate reports that, would answer queries raised by the government or the assemblies rather than a felt need by end users for the accuracy of reports or to. become accountable for their atdons. It is therefore quite unrealistic to exp~ct that even at later stage~ of growth computers will be used for strate­ gic planning, forecasting, or decision support in low uncertainty avoidance cultures. The· experience at KDA supports this in t~at the management has not shown any interest in the development of m~agement applications. Appreciation of this cultural factor is essential in order to have reali.stic expectations about the impact of technology in development administration. A second concern in our critique' of the stages· model was that it assumes that organisational cul­ ture is somewhat static in nature and does. not describe the dynamic nature of social systems. The case 98 R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture study supports the notion that information technology may be associated with both organisational per­ sistence and change. In terms of cultural persistence, the issuance of transaction certificates through the computer system has just served to replace the issuance of certificates from the concerned official at the functionary's office. The basic procedure has not changed at all, information technology has just been used to perpetuate the same system. However, at the same time, it must be appreciated that infor­ mation technology has brought about some transformation. The fact that control procedures instituted through information technology have eliminated certain kinds of fraud means that the system may have succeeded in transforming the modes of corruption. Since computerisation led to centralisation of data, certain corrupt practices could not be carried out. The computer department, therefore, found it very difficult to gather data for the land management system. Some other applications, like the challan gener­ ation software, have been resisted precisely because they are likely to stop corrupt practices. A second transformation that has taken place is in the use of data for processing applications. It was only through information technology that KDA has developed standard reporting formats that are now being used. This trend may now encourage the use of computers for planning and analysis. Perhaps the most radical cultural transformation that has occurred at KDA is in the recognition amongst officers that effective information technology implementation requires organisational changes. The growing synergy between organisational and technology is represented in the stages model as the third stage of maturity and is accompanied by a growing concern to develop information systems skills. However, in the case of KDA, no effort was directed at developing human resources. Finally, it must be appreciated that the development administration culture within KDA is characterised by rampant, and institutionalised corruption. In an organisation that has rampant corruption, there is little or no accountability and information systems can, at best, act as temporary irritants before new modes of corruption are discovered; or the information systems are, somehow, made ineffective. In such an environment, there is little opportunity for the computerisation project to be integrated and accepted by senior management as a strategic asset. In this paper, our aim has been to comment on the utility of the stages model for describing the in­ terplay between the process of information technology implementation and development administration culture. While the description of an isolated case study as empirical evidence can be criticised for its lack of generalisability, our approach has been to provide this case study in order to support our theoretical claims.

References

[ l] I. Ajzen and M. Fishbein, Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980. [2] C. Avgerou, Computer-based information systems and the modernisation of public administration in developing countries, in: Information Systems for Development, S.C. Bhatnagar and N. Bjorn-Anderson, eds, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1990. [3] L. Bhabuta, Sustaining productivity and competitiveness by marshalling IT, in: Information Technology Management for Productivity and Strategic Advantage, IFIP TC8 Open Conference, Singapore, March, 1988. [4] T.Y. Chameeva and R.D. Galliers, The applicability of western information management and strategy formulation concepts in Russia: The Stages of Growth model as an example, Warwick Business School Research Paper, no 126, August 1994. [5] T.Y. Chameeva, R.D. Galliers and D.C. Watson, The transferability of western information technology and information systems management concepts to Russian organisations, in: Proceedings: 13th EGOS Colloquium, Budapest, Hungary, 3-5 July, 1997 (in press). [6] M.J. Earl, Information Management: The Strategic Dimension, The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988. [7] ES, Economic Survey 1992-93, Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing, Islamabad, 1993. [8] J. Etezadi-Amoli and A.F. Farhoomand, On end-user computing satisfaction, MIS Quarterly 15(1) (1991), 1-4. R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture 99

[9] R.D. Galliers and A.R. Sutherland, Information systems management and strategy formulation: the 'stages of growth' model revisited, J. Inform. Syst. 1 (1991), 89-114. [IO] R.D. Galliers and A.R. Sutherland, Organisational learning and information technology: steps towards managing and planning strategic information systems, Warwick Business School Working Paper, University of Warwick, January, 1991. [11] R. Harris, Success with end-user computing: a behavioural perspective for development, Working paper, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, 1995. [12] F. Heady, Public Administration: a Comparative Perspective, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1979. [13] R. Hirschheim, M. Earl, D. Feeny and M. Lockett, An exploration into the management of the information systems function: key issues and an evolutionary model, in: Information Technology Management for Productivity and Strategic Advantage, IFIP TC8 Open Conference, Singapore, March 1988. [14] G. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values, Sage Publications, 1980. [15] G. Hofstede, National cultures in four dimensions, Int. St. Manag. Org. 12 (1983). [16] M. lgbaria and M. Zviran, End-user effectiveness: a cross-cultural examination, Omega 19(5) (1991), 369-379. [17] R.B. Jain and 0.P. Dwivedi, Administrative culture and bureaucractic values in India, The Indian J. Puhl. Administ. 35(3) (July-September 1990). [18] E. Jordan, National and organisational culture: their use in information systems design, Working paper WP94/08, City University of Hong Kong, 1994. [19] K.L. Kraemer, Strategic computing and administrative reform, in: Computerisation and Controversy: Value Conflicts and Social Choices, Academic Press, Boston, 1991, pp. 167-180. [20] C.P. Maduabum, Conflict between bureaucracy and innovation in Nigerian public service, The Indian J. Puhl. Administ. 35(2) (April-June 1990). [21] Madon, S. Computer-based information systems for development planning: the significance of cultural factors, J. Strateg. Inform. Syst. 1(5) (1992), 250-257. [22] D.L. Nelson, Individual adjustment to information-driven technologies: a critical review, MIS Quarterly 14 (1990), 79-98. [23] R. Nolan, Managing the crises in data processing, Harvard Business Rev. 57(2) (March-April 1979). [24] R. Nolan, Managing the advanced stages of computer technology: key research issues, in: The Information Systems Re­ search Challenge, F.W. McFarlan, ed., Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1984, pp. 195-214. [25] S.O. Ojo, Socio-cultural and organisational issues in IT applications in Nigeria, in: Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, S.C. Bhatnagar and M. Odedra, eds, Tat McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992, pp. 99-109. [26] C.H. Sullivan, Systems planning in the information age, Sloan Managm. Rev. (Winter 1985). [27] B.C.Y. Tan, R.T. Watson and Wei Kwok-Kee, National culture and group support systems: filtering communication to dampen power differentials, Eur. J. Inform. Syst. 4 (1995), 82-92. [28] R.L. Thompson, C.A. Higgins and J.M. Howell, Personal computing: towards a conceptual model of utilisation, MIS Quarterly (March 1991). [29] J. Ward, P. Griffiths and P. Whitmore, Strategic Planning for Information Systems, Wiley, Chichester, 1990. [30] M. Wallis, Bureaucracy, Macmillan Publishers, London, 1989. [31] S. Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine, Basic Bpoks, New York, 1988.

About the authors

Dr. Bob Galliers is Professor of Information Management at Warwick Business School. He has con­ sulted widely in such areas as the role of information technology in business strategy and change, or­ ganisational arrangements for information systems services, and executive information requirements de­ termination. His current research interests include IS and business strategy alignment, IS management issues and IT and organisational transformation, including the impact of the Internet. He has authored many publications in the field of information systems management and on research approaches. Dr. Shirin Madon is a lecturer in Information Systems at the London School of Economics and Politi­ cal Science. Her research interests include studying the impact of information systems for rural and urban development planning, and the impact of IT-led globalisation on socio-economic development focusing on Bangalore in South India. Dr. Madon is currently Secretary of Working Group 9.4 of the International Federation of Information Processing on the Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries. 100 R.D. Galliers et al. I Information systems and culture

Mr. Rizwan Rashid is presently serving as Sub-regional Information Manager with the United Na­ tions Development Programme in Pakistan. Mr. Rashid has a Bachelors degree in Electrical Engineering, ~d a Masters degree' ir{ Computer Engineering and an MBA. His research interests include the impact of culture on information systems implementation and web-based information systems development. Information Technology for Development 8 (1998) 101-120 101 IOS Press

Information technology and the Internet: the Singapore experience

Liang Tien Chia, Bu Sung Lee and ·Chai Kiat Yeo School of Applied Science, Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue S 639798, Republic of Singapore

Abstract. Singapore, a small nation with limited resources, has in three decades transformed itself from a British colony to one of the seven Asian economic tigers registering high economic growth. The borderless world of cyberspace has spawn a new digital global economy. To spur Singapore on to new economic growth, the government has identified information technology (IT) as the strategic tool. This paper presents the IT experience of Singapore in the 1980s and the latest IT plan (IT2000) for the 1990s and beyond to build a national information infrastructure (NII) to ensure Singapore's continuous growth in the future. The initiatives and incentives taken by the government to promote the use of the NII and snapshots of the progress of the NII deployment to date are discussed. In particular, the paper focuses on the evolution of Internet in Singapore; it highlights its phenomenal growth and how this growth has spurred the development of an Internet infrastructure, Internet services and applications, and Internet-related policies. Internet has become an integral part and a key component of the NII and is hailed as the de facto mechanism for making the services of the NII available to the masses. It has accelerated the Nil's development and deployment, despite the fact that it was never in the blueprint of IT2000. The paper concludes by examining the challenges faced in fulfilling the IT2000 vision and how Singapore can overcome the obstacles. With the strong IT infrastructure laid and the government's continuous support and commitment to IT development, it is well poised to harness existing and new technologies and effectively deploy them for economic growth and realisation of the IT2000 vision.

1. Introduction

Singapore is a small island nation located at the South China Sea with a population of around 3 million. After gaining independence from Great Britain in 1959, the government's infrastructure policy focused on building facilities to attract multinational corporations and create capital, technology and jobs. Priority was given to the building of national telecommunications systems, public housing, schools, roads, and air- and seaports. Computer services received detailed attention only in the late · 1970s, with few computers being interconnected until then. 1980 heralded the formation of the first formal information technology (IT) policy with the establishment of a Committee on National Computerisation. The aim of this committee was to harness the power of IT as part of Singapore's economic strategy to increase productivity. This committee led the successful computerisation of the civil service during the 1980-1992 period. In 1986, the National IT Plan was formulated to shift the role of IT from a productivity tool to a competitive weapon. The primary aim of the National IT Plan was to boost the republic~s technology prowess. Vast improvements in the information communication infrastructure were made to enable · greater connectivity among various computer systems. This era saw the 1989 implementatio,n of an island-wide Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and value-added applications such

0268-1102/98/$8.00 © 1998 - IOS Press. All rights reserved 102 L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet

as the TradeNet trade documentation system [13]. TradeNet links 8500 companies and 20 government agencies using an Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) network for import and export documentation. In 1990, the National Computer Board (NCB) initiated the Singapore IT2000 [11] plan and it was adopted by, the Cabinet in 1992. IT2000 initiates an era in which telecommunication, broadcasting and computer policies will converge. The IT2000 vision rates Singapore as among the first in the world with an advanced nation-wide information infrastructure to transform Singapore into an intelligent island where IT is used pervasively to enhance economic competitiveness and quality of life. To date, more than US$ 714 million has been invested by the government to install more than 900 computer­ based systems and US$ 143 million is spent every year~ upgrading and buying new systems [9]. The information infrastructure will appear as a seamless Web of interconnected and interoperable information networks, computers and consumer electronics linking together homes, workplaces, public institutions and· people on the move. Text, sound, pictures, videos, documents and many other forms of media will be transferred and shared through the infrastructure. This information highway is called the National Information Infrastructure (NII).

·:t:. Committee on National Computerisation plan (1980) I~.. ·_: l I ! ; ••

..,,,"The late 1970s saw the restructuring of Singapore's economy from the traditional labour-intensive ·se'tfois to high value-added products and services. Auto.ination and IT were identified as the key enablers for, the. restructuring. This paved the ~ay for the set-up of a high-level ministerial Committee 'on National Computerisation (CNC) in March 1980 to study how IT can be. fully exploited for :e¢ononiic gains. The ensuing report [12] can be considered the first formal IT Plan for Singapore. :'fre iT Plan called for acdon-oriented objectives rather than a mere declaration that IT will be used as :a, tool for economic growth. This resulted in the formation of the National Computer Board (NCB) to 't'bordinate the implementation of Singapore's first IT policy. The most impressive result of this policy was the successful computerisation of the civil service. This massive effort has certainly improved the efficiency and productivity of the civil service and provided the much needed showcase for the private sector to emulate. It has resulted in the development of the computer software industry and has increased the pool of IT professionals, both also objectives of the IT plan.

3. The national IT plan (1986)

The 1980 IT plan by the CNC has successfully developed the necessary components of the IT infrastructure and industry, but was fragmented in the absence of a national integrated IT plan. When Singapore experienced its most' severe recession in the· mid-l 980s, the government recognised that a national IT policy is required to provide a strategic framework to harness the full spectrum of IT potential to ensure the future economic and social well-being of the country. The National IT Plan working committee was thus formed in 1985 to map out a new strategic IT framework with seven building blocks [12] to: - · Dyvelop IT manpower. . ~ I~culcate IT culture in all Singaporeans. ·~ D~~e1op and promote us~ of telecommunication and information. - Promote IT applications in all economic sectors. L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 103

- Encourage and promote the development of the IT industry. - Nurture local creativity and entrepreneurship in applied IT research and development. · - Coordinate the IT development efforts of all parties. ·The success of the National IT Plan is demonstrated by the following [12]: - The number of IT professionals grew from 850 in 1980 to 8300 in 1988 and 14,000 in 1991. - Computer use among businesses grew from 13% in 1982 to 68% in 1989 and to 84% in 1992. The Computer Industry Almanac ranked Singapore among the top 10 countries in the world in terms of the number of computers per capita. - The World Competitiveness Report rated Singapore's telecommunications· infrastructure as the best in the world and among the top few countries for the effective use of IT and IT literacy. - The IT industry grew at a compounded rate of 30% between 1982 and 1990 to reach $2.15 billion. - The responsiveness of government services has, on average, increased eight-fold after computer- isation. - An audit of the Civil Service Computerisation Programme (CSCP) in 1988 indicated that it had cut 1500 jobs and saved another 3500 jobs for the government. - A study conducted in 1988 showed that every $1 spent on computerisation in the CSCP generated $2.71 in return. It was estimated that there was an annual benefit of $198.3 million for the corresponding CSCP investments of 73.3 million.

4. IT2000: The National Information Infrastructure (1992)

A review of Singapore's first decade, of IT progress from 1980 to 1990 proved to be more than satisfactory. However, in response to n~w national challenges and technological opportunities, _the government saw the need to conceive a strategic long-term plan for the next decade. IT is deemed as the strategic tool to transform Singapore into an intelligent island in 15 years time and to a developed country status by the year 2000. Planning for IT2000 started in 1990 and in April 1992 it was announced to the public. N. Boo Siong [12] provides a detailed write-up of the planning process. · The IT2000 report described the building of a National Information Infrastructure (NII) that would provide the basis for a nationwide information, communications and transaction system. It is aimed at spurring Singapore on to new economic growth· so· that it can overcome its ·smallness by plugging into global networks, delivering new competitive advantages and creating new business opportunities. Five strategic thrusts were outlined in the IT2000 report that represented capabilities that the NII seeks to deliver over the next decade [12]: . - Developing a global hub for goods, services, capital, information and people . . - Boosting the economic engine in all sectors. of the economy, in.particular, those which increasingly rely on information as a key factor of production. - Enhancing the potential of individuals through lifelong learning, more efficient performance of tasks and spending more time on cultural and creative pursuits. - Linking communities locally and globally by extendjng the personal reach of Singaporeans. · - Improving the .quality of life. · The NII is thus conceived as an infrastructure consisting of an efficient transport mechanism, information processing and service facilities that combine both computer and comrriunicatibn tech­ nologies [38]. From the NII, as seen in Fig. 1, anyone, from anywhere and at any time, could easily, 104 LT Chi" 1'/ ul. I l11(1J1111a111111 tl'cl111ology a11tl the /11 /l'nll'f quickly and inexpensi vely obtain the infonnation services that they want. At pre t!nl, there is no fixed defin ition fo r the NIT. Its fin a l form shall be driven by the needs of the business community and lhe people with the goal of bringing about elecrronic services to the masse in a vendor-neutral manner. The philosophy of deploying the Nil is defined in the fo llowing main tasks identified by the government [7): - Rapidly exploit current technology for immediate benefit!>. - Experiment and protorype emerging technologies fo r future deployment. - Evolve the NH architecture to take advantage of new technologies and standards. and at the same time leverage on past investments. - Establish strategic a ll iances with local and international R&D institutions a n<.l technology o rgan­ isations. - Foster local and international collaboration and cooperation wirh businesses, gov1:: mment agenc ies and IT indu try.

Thus the approach adopted is that of public-private collaborative partnership bet ween the government and the industry. The government will work c losely with the private sector in te lecommunication networks. common networl.. ervices, technical standards. national IT applications, po licy, and legaJ framework [7]. As the Nfl integrates numerous technologies. it can be perceived in many dime nsions, i.e., compu­ tation behaviour, physical network and access, a!> well as the se rvice~ and functionality it provides. Elements which constitute the dimensions inc lude computers, networks, content. system software. management, development envi ronment, services and applications, and the u ers. The technical de­ velopments of these components are detailed in [ 18]. When the IT2000 initiative was first moored. Internet was deemed to be just an academic network and was u ed only for providmg infonnation [7]. The extensive growth of Internet in the last 5 years,

Home

Transportation Publishing/ Media 'JIB_ e! •'·... · ~ 'ks Entertainmentc

Fig. I. Nil - ubit.juitous computing euvironment. L. T. Ciiia et al. I lnjomwtio11 teclt110/ogy and the /111eme1 105 however, has thrust the relatively obscure academic net of the past into the single most promjnent globaJ resource today. Now the Inte rnet is recognised as the de facto mechanism for deploying services to the mas e . The benefits brought about by Internet transcend all social, economic and national borders. The Internet together with the telecommunication infrastructure. the cable television network and the ever growing number of applications and user services therefore, serve to provide the basic building blocks for creating Singapore's information highway envisaged in the IT2000 vision for the next century.

5. Evolution of Internet in Singapore

Internet was first introduced to Singapore in 1991 via a R&D network called Technet. It was initially set up at the National Uni versity of Singapore and was financed by the National Science and Technology Board (NSTB). Initially, it was only opened to R&D organi sations and academic institutions. The initial infrastructure of Technet is shown in Fig. 2. There was a single 512 Kbps sate l1itc link to the USA. Most of the links to the Technet were 64 Kbps links. The Ethernet network was used as the backbone network. With the ballistic growth of the internet, the government recognise the need to extensively develop the Internet infra lructure as an integral part of the Nil development. Internet infrastructure develop­ ment takes on a two-pronged approach. i.e. . development of the physical infrastructure as well as of the information infrastructure.

Small Users Mac PC

--''--~-'--~-'-~~~~...._~~--_...~~~_....__, memet CJ Internet Gawway Gateway Remote Roub!rs NUS TECH NET c::::J• Olalup Server A DEC 6000/200 Backbone * Kindly dorwMd by Oig1911Eq...... nt~ + ~8WlldledT~~

Fig. 2. Technet infrastructure. 106 L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet

Table 1 ISPs in Singapore ISP Parent company Website Date of operation Singnet Singapore Telecom www.singnet.com.sg July '94 Pacific Internet Sembawang Media, www.pacific.net.sg June '95 Singapore International Media, ST Computers Cyberway Singapore Press Holdings, www.cyberway.com.sg March '96 Singapore Technologies

5.1. Internet physical infrastructure development

In order to achieve the IT2000 goal of bringing IT to the masses using Internet, a proper phys­ ical infrastructure is required to speed up the response of the system for mass usage. An efficient, innovative and modem information infrastructure is vital to Singapore's position as a business hub. To create an environment in which service providers have the incentives to provide the best service level at the best prices to individual, business and institutional users, the government has liberalised Singapore's telecommunication industry which saw the emergence of more Internet service providers (ISPs). The increased number of ISPs and the healthy competition among them is instrumental in popularising Internet and provide the perfect vehicles for the public to access the Internet.

5JL Internet Service Providers (ISP) The rapid evolution of Internet in Singapore has led to the emergence of three Internet Service Providers (ISPs). They are Pacific Internet, Singnet and Cyberway as shown in Table 1. The watchdog body for the ISPs is the Singapore Broadcasting Authority (SBA). Setting up an ISP in Singapore requires a license from the SBA and any changes· in the rates charged to the customers are subject to approval by the Telecom Authority of Singapore (TAS).

Singnet. Singnet is the first ISP in Singapore to open to the public. Initially it only allowed e-mail facilities and possessed very limited disk space, but has since emerged to be the largest Internet hub in the Asia Pacific region with more than 20 regional customers providing Internet access to subscribers via its exchange. Figure 3 shows Singnet's links to the Asian neighbours. The exchange is called Singapore Telecom Internet Exchange (STIX). Thus, traffic to the Asia Pacific region is routed within the STIX instead of having to channel to the United States of America (USA) [36]. Its many links to other ISPs in the Asian region, e.g., KDD in Japan and Hong R;ong Telecom, provides a backup mechanism in the event that specific lines go down. As traffic to/from USA sites constitutes the highest volume, Singnet presently has a total of 8 Mbps core bandwidth connection to the USA comprising an El line to American Network Services Inc. (ANSnet), 2 El lines to MCI and an El link to UUNet. The multiple links to the USA provide mutual backup links for each other. To further improve its service, Singnet is in the process of purchasing an additional US$ 13 million worth of bandwidth on the 45 Mbps Internet backbone using the Asia Pacific and trans-Pacific cable system from Teleglobe and Globeintemet. ·

Pacific Internet. In 1995, Sembawang Media took over the operation of Technet and renamed it Pacific Internet. It is the second ISP in Singapore after Singnet. The external links of Pacific Internet have, since its inception, doubled its link capacity to the external world. It is linked to the Asian Internet Backbone (ABONE) via an El line from Singapore to Japan. L. T. C/110 ('/ al. I /11fon11utw11 ter/1110/ogy aJU/ 1/te /111eme1 107

...... ! '" Mongol;&-.

Fig. 3. Singner's STI X links.

Japan, which i a major hub in the Asian region. has a T3 line [14] to the USA. The other lin k to the USA is the upgraded link to the John von Neumann Computer Network (JVNnet) consisting of a 768 Kbps link and a Tl line. The 768 Kbps line is used by the academics and the National Computer Board.

Cybe11my. Cyberway is the latest lSP in Singapore. It has fi ve major links out of Singapore, namely, a 64 Kbps link to Japan Dream Train Internet. two 64 Kbps linh to Hong Kong and two E I lines to the Sprint network in the USA.

5. 1.2. Singapore Internet backbone As part of its efforts to develop an efficient Internet physical infrastructure, the Singapore gov­ ernment has strongly encouraged the th ree ISPs to set up a high-speed domestic Internet highway, known as the Singapore Internet backbone. The purpose is to promote faster domestic [nternet access, thereby encouraging more people to u e the Internet with the ultimate aim of establishing Singapore as a premier lntemet hub in the region. Prior to the set-up of the Singapore Internet backbone, all three ISPs in Singapore were not linked directly to each other. Internet communication between Pacific Internet and Singnet was through a 128 Kbps link, whereas traffic between them and Cyberway had to be routed via a hub in the USA. This causes delay in the de li very of the info rmation packets as well as unnecessary usage of bandwidth. Singapore Internet backbone the refore allows direct Internet communication among the ISPs, hence freeing up precious bandwidth in the trans-Pacific links. The three ISPs signed a me morandum of understanding [ 15] to direct domeslic Singapore traffic among them via the Singapore Inlernet backbone. The Singapore lnternet backbone basicall y com­ prises three E 1 links, linking the three ISPs together, the cost of which is shared equally by the Lhree ISPs. Figure 4 shows the Singapore Inte rnet backbone. 108 L. T. CJ1i11 et al. / /11for111atio11 ff'c/1110/ogy r111d tire /11tl•mc1

: ~ ~--~ ( Singnet )

Fig. 4. Singapore lntcroel backbone.

5. 1.3. Fast lmemel access High-speed Internet access i made possible via the Singapore Cable Vision (SCV) cable TV necwork (see Section 6.1.4 ). The SCV\ network of hybrid fib re coaxial c~b l es which can carry more data faster than ordinary twisted pair copper telephone lines looks set to propel Internet access speed to a new height. Presently, the majority of users uses 28.8 Kbps modems. This takes a long time when traffic includes Web pages containing large graphic fil es. Preliminary discussion is underway with the 3 ISPs to use 1he SCV necwork to service their subscribers through I0 Mbps cable modems which are capable of downloading Web pages LOOO limes faster than is possible with ordinary modems and celephone lines [28,30). Both Singapore Telecom and Pacific Internet have recently launched the ADSL (asymmetrical digital subsc1iber line) technology in June 1997 [30]. It is 200 times fa ter thim ordinary modems and thus is an alternative to the use of the SCV cable network for high-speed Internet access.

5.2. Information i11frasm1c:ture deve/op111e111

Jn tandem with the development of the physical Internet infrastructure, a vast infonnacion repettoire as well as services should be set up to attract people to use the lnle rnet. Towards this end, the ISPs have provided Internet subscribers with a myriad of services and the government has also been extremely active on che Internet.

5.2. 1. ISP services The types of services provided by all the three lSPs are almost the same. They provide users with the following types of access: - Dial-up access; - Leased line access; - ISDN access. Depending on the needs of the user/organisation, one or more of the three methods of access can be subscribed to. The three ISPs also provide their users with roaming service. Roaming service al lows the local ISP users 10 access his account when he is out of Lhe coun try by dialling a local number L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 109

Table 2 Countries where roaming services are supported ISP Countries where roaming services are supported Singnet To be launched soon Pacific Internet Hong Kong, Japan, USA (seleded regions), South Korea Cyberway Global Reach Internet Consortium (USA, Japan, Australia, China, Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand), Nepal, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland and several other Latin American countries of the country he is visiting. Thus, the user only needs to pay for his access at the local call rate. Table 2 shows the countries where roaming services are supported. Other services include Internet mail alert paging service to show the sender's name and address on the subscriber's alphanumeric and numeric pagers. Future services with include wireless Internet access for people on the move. To further speed up Internet access, the ISPs make use of a performance enhancement technique called hierarchical caching [1,37]. This means that the users have to connect to a proxy server, who will then forward the request to the intended server, read the response, and send it back to the user. Since all requests are made through the proxy server, it can cache the responses. If many of the requests are found in the cache, the network traffic is reduced.

52.2. Government Websites The Singapore Government has created a "virtual civil service" that never sleeps - Websites that provide up-to-date information round the clock on the Internet. The Government Website is. an exhaustive library of 60 sites with more than 10,000 Web pages on-line and enc.ounters no 1ess than 15,000 hits every month [9]. All the ministries are on the Internet [20] and provide services, e.g., work permit applications, applications for public housing, driving and TV licence renewals, etc. to the users of the Internet. This is more than just providing information, it also supports transactions which serve to increase the productivity of both the civil service and the masses, and brings IT closer to the public. Examples of such sites are:

Business directory. The Ministry of Trade and Industry has provided a one-stop information service on local companies online. The business directory of more than 80,000 Singapore companies will eventually be linked to other similar networks initiated by the G7 countries, namely, the USA, Japan, Germany, Canada, Britain, France, Italy and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries.

Network of library and information providers. The TIARA (Timely Information for All, Relevant and Affordable) is a new network of library and information providers. The government has paid to obtain national licences from information providers such as Knight Ridder Information, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, Elsevier Science and Reuters Business Alert. More than 200 databases for information on recipes, financial news and scientific reports are available on line. 20 other libraries including those from the tertiary institutions will also be linked to the TIARA. Surfers can request, renew or reserve books from the National Library and any of its branches.

Education Service for Public (ESP). The Ministry of Education has provided, on the Internet, in­ formation on the school's admission services, extra curricular activities, mother tongues offered in different schools and careers in teaching. Job applications for teaching posts can also be submitted on line. 110 L. T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Intemet

Electronic identity cards. The Ministry of Home Affairs has conducted a nationwide trial using electronic identity cards, for transactions on the Internet involving 50,000 people. The card is meant to be used for transactions on the Internet with the government and can take the form of a smart card with an embedded computer chip or a common floppy disk. Each will have a unique electronic identification number, which is encrypted with an advanced 1024-bit encryption system. It will be used to confirm the owner's identity when he.makes a transaction on the Internet. Singapore is among the first countries to pioneer the use of such an identification system on such a large scale. The ultimate aim is to replace the existing plastic· identity cards for all citizens and permanent citizens with the electronic identity card.

5.3. Internet censorship

Internet has. posed a dilemma to the Si~gapore government in the sense that Singapore wa~ts to harness new technologies for development, but its government' and citizenry also want censorship control in place to minimise the negative effects of this new medium of communication and information dissemination .. The Singapore Broadcasting Authority (SBA) is the statutory board responsible for the regulation of.Internet information. The mai~ means of censorship .is to control access [17]. This is achieved through the use of the proxy server which took effect on 15 September. 1996 [24]. Besides speeding up Internet access, as described in Section 5 .2.1 above, the use of the proxy server: facilitates some form of Internet information regulation by barring the users from visiting certain banned sites. This is made possible as all user requests are forced to go through the proxy servers of the ISPs. The list of ·banned sites are drawn up based on the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Information and the Arts (Mita). The government also encourages "community gatekeeping'', where users who notice undesirable materials on the Internet can alert the SBA. .

5.4. National Internet Advisory Committee

The government is well aware that Internet censorship can impact the workings of the Internet and disturb the faith of users in the system [17]. Nevertheless, Singapore is trying and in· October 1996 the Ministry of Information and the Arts (Mita) has appointed the 19-member National Internet Advisory Committee (NIAC) [26]: to look into information provided on the Internet and electronic bulletin boards. The NIAC ·will advise the SBA on Internet rules aimed at keeping out objectionable content such as pornography and politically inflammatory material. It will look into ways Internet usage is affected by the rules and whether there is a need to fine-tune them. Three subcommittees have been formed, namely the legal subcommittee, the industry subcommittee and the public education subcommittee.to. gather feedback on users' .concerns an.d come up with ways to educate the public on the Internet. Immediate issues at hand qre the effect of proxy servers on Internet access in Si~gapore, and pro~oting. tile wider use of Internet services, in particular electronic mail, among. the population. The committee will also work to increase public awareness about the Internet and its potential.

5.5. Growth in Internet subscribers

All. the governmental efforts to promote the use of Internet do pay off as the Singapore Internet subscriber growth has been phenomenal, growing from 3,100 in March 1995 to more than 230,000 public dial-up s.ubscribers in September 1997 [33]. Figure 5 shows the number of Internet subscribers L.'f. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 111

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

oj::.:;1::.-':i+-;;.;,.;;,..:;..;;,,;;,,;;;;;,;,~::::::::::z_.i::.22:+:i..i:~~_:..c.~~~~2d.~~~~S2:'...=.si:-±c~ #Public Dial-up Subscribers

Jun-94 Sep-94 Dec-94 Mar-95 Jun-95 Sep-95 Dec-95 Mar-96 Jun-96 Sep-96 Dec-96:. Mar-97 Jun-97 Sep-97

Fig. ·s. Internet subscribers numbers [27,33]. in Singapore from July 1994 to September 1997. These figures exclude the thousands that are in the universities and other academic institutions [27]. Singapore was reported to have the largest number of chat groups and the heaviest e-inail traffic of any connected country [3].

6. Development and deployment of NII

The government is pro-business and pro-IT [25]. Singapore stands to benefit tremendously from the successful deployment of the NII. The creation of new businesses and new jobs as the digital economy takes off will accelerate a new IT industry and attract investors as well as leading-edge companies to invest in the country. To date the evolution of Internet in Singapore has triggered the building of an evolving NII and fueled the deployment of useful technologies, services and applications. To continue the momentum spurred by the Internet, the government has initiated a host of incentive programmes to attract, encourage and stimulate industry participation in accelerating the development and deployment of the NIL

6.1. Investments in the physical information infrastructure

To set the foundation for an efficient physical information infrastructure which will evolve as Singapore progresses towards the IT2000 vision, the government has invested and is still committing huge capital sums to help. build up an efficient and high-speed information infrastructure network.

6.1.1. Singapore ONE To lay more groundwork for the physical infrastructure and the research and development of en­ abling technologies for various applications and services on the NII, the Singapore ONE network was launched in June 1996. Singapore ONE (One Network for Everyone) [35] is a national high-capacity broadband network infrastructure that will link businesses, schools and homes [19]. It is an US$ 58- million project spearheaded by the Telecommunications Authority of Singapore (TAS), the National Computer Board (NCB) and the National Science and Technology Board (NSTB). It is a key com­ ponent of the IT2000 vision and aims to deliver a wide range of services, e.g.; video-conferencing, high-speed Internet, teleshopping, entertainment on demand and an electronic library to the home [19]. 112 L. T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the /111emet

ServicH Providers '-4----+----.1----~--.,..<.------> (SPs)

Core Network

lli~11.it O(JflU1I f 11... ~ .. ~ .'f\\ ""h SIJll r .-.o,mh\lort tn1 h1dJ11~ nn; & l>~tt'""' •

Fig. 6. Singapore ONE infrastructure and services development.

ISS LAN switch ITI LAN switch (Fore ASX-200) 11111111~1: '------11111111111: (NEC Model 5) ' ,.,. ·•·•U••'""" ~--- ...... , ...... , ~: · N&SMS of High.Speed Network

11111111~1! ...... 11111111~1~ -

Fig. 7. ATM test-bed (6).

On top of this, it will allow users to access and perform transaction · with government agencies and statutory boards through the network. See Fig. 6. The infrastructure will have a core multimedia broadband network based on Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switching and optical fibre technologies connecting several local access networks. L. T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 113

6.1.2. ATM test-bed As ATM has been envisaged as the enabling technology for the future high-speed information infrastructure, an ATM test-bed based on an OC-3 ATM connection (i.e., 155 Mbps link) [6] was set up in 1994 to evaluate its performance. The ATM test-bed trial involves both the industries and the academic institutions. The initial set-up of the test-bed is shown in Fig. 7.

6.1.3. Island-wide connectivity: cable network The infrastructure for island-wide connectivity is being undertaken by another service provider, Singapore Cable Vision (SCV) [28], which is yet another incentive programme from the government. SCV is investing US$ 354 million for an island-wide cable TV network and is currently wiring. up the local loops to the home. It targets to connect all high-rise residential homes by 1998. SCV services include video-conferencing, karaoke on demand, and traffic on demand. The latter is a system which allows people to see what the actual flow of traffic along the routes they want to take is like. The cable network is also used in conjunction with the cable modem for high-speed Internet access.

6.1.4. Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) Singapore Telecom has launched the ADSL (asymmetrical digital subscriber line) technology in June 1997 [30]. It can send arid retrieve information 200 times faster than an ordinary modem. The advantage of the ADSL lies in that it uses the existing pairs of telephone lines going into households and offices. Hence all of Singapore is already wired up and ready for ADSL technology. However, some existing telephone exchanges are not ready for it and it takes a while for Singapore Telecom to upgrade these exchanges. When used with ADSL modems, it can provide subscribers with high-speed Internet access.

6.2. Initiatives towards an IT MegaHub

IT2000 is actually all about making information contents available and accessible. Hence the strategic intent is to make Singapore the IT MegaHub of the Asia-Pacific region.

6.2.1. I-Hub The I-Hub project [25] serves as a narrowband gateway to the Singapore ONE. The implementation of the I-Hub will provide benefits at the national level as well as to service providers and the public. It aims to interconnect all network centres of all the ISPs, commercial network service providers, government networks and other access· networks like wireless devices, cable TV and public kiosks. This initiative will jump-start the building of an evolving National Information Infrastructure (NII) as well as fuel the deployment of useful services and applications. When ready, the I-Hub will be so user-friendly that it will be possible to check e-mail or renew library books on a public kiosk which might be located at a bus stop or shopping centre. · TV and driving licence renewals, passports applications, public housing applications, and the of taxes and fines can be done on-line via the Internet. At the national level, the I-Hub optimises efficiency through the simplification and speeding up of projects by providing the access networks, common services and standards, consolidating network bandwidth requirements, enabling cost sharing of network infrastructure and gateways, and by bringing critical masses of providers and users together. Benefits for service providers range from the availability of a single point to reach all networks, a one-point access to reach all types of users, a reliable and secure network backbon~ to support 114 L. T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet

commercial transactions, and competitive charges for local Internet access. As for the public, the benefits consist of more· electronic services for users, speeding up of the delivery of government services through the use of extensive connectivity to users, bringing the electronic world to the home through multiple appliances (e.g., telephone, TV, pocket organiser). Users with an account in any of the networks, including corrimercial network services, government networks and the estimated 230,000 subscribers to the existing ISPs will benefit from the hub.

6.2.2. Content-Hosting Programme To position Singapore as an infomiation hub:for the region, a new incentive programme called the Content-Hosting Programme [28] has been set-up. Companies are encouraged to set up mirror sites. These sites should bring along with them value-added activities such as advertising, localisation, billing 'and repackaging of content. A one~stop service centre has been set up by the government through the National Computer Board (NCB) to manage and coordinate such efforts. The centre will provide the necessary infrastructure support (such as adequate local and overseas bandwidth) and technical environment to ensure the quality of host sites and the quick update of contents in these sites. A mirror site directory will be maintained and the use of mirror sites by ISPs will be coordinated so that there is no dupiicatiori of mirrored content. End-users will be made aware of the availability of such sites and can access the sites easily. The NCB is actively promoting this initiative at sites such as Yahoo, Netscape, 'Simtel; Disney and Discovery Channel, and Alta Vista.

6.2.3: Electronic Commerce Hotbed (ECH) The Electronic Commerce Hotbed (ECH) is a programme launched in August 1996 aimed at posi­ tioning Singapore as a regional, or possibly, a global electronic commerce hub. It aims to speed up the realisation of electronic commerce in Singapore. Individual projects will be set up to develop specific electronic commerce applications and test new technology. So far, 38 organisations have indicated their intention to join the programme. The ECH platform will reduce the risks of high capital invest­ ment and market uncertainty; create a test-bed and showcase for new technology and applications; pool resources to solve c·ommon problems such as security issues; and create a significant number of electronic commerce applications and users. The Monetary Authority of Singapore is in charge of the policy governing electronic commerce. ' ' . 6.3. Government incentives ·

To promote· the incentive programmes detailed above, the government has launched a host of ·initiatives with' attractive 'financial and fiscal incentives to encourage and stimulate participation from the private sector. Examples of incentives are preferential tariffs for broadband connectivity, support under the Innovation Development Scheme (IDS) which subsidises up to 70% of qualifying costs, additional ,fax incentives like· Pioneer Service Status, Investment Allowance and Double Deduction, and a joint publicity programme. · For example, financial incentives are given to the tailoring' of contents to specific sectors such as healthcare ·and' education. A connectivity incentive is given to network and service providers. The NCB will double the link bandwidth of network providers that are connected to the I-Hub at no cost for two years: Service providers will enjoy similar incentives if they can propose· innovative applications for the I-Hub. Apart from financial and fiscal incentives, the government is also focusing on the development of a state-of-the-art infrastructure, as was detailed in Section 6.1, as well as on the guaranteed Quality L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 115

of Service (QoS) to attract investors. The Telecommunication Authority of Singapore (TAS) is the governmental body which ensures that the ISPs maintain a high QoS, with respect to uptime, network access, and service activation times. The ISPs will be fined if they fail to meet the prevailing QoS parameters as was the case with Singnet [22]. In summary, the government seeks to attract investors by sharing the risks. The various initiatives and the range of attractive incentive packages help in reducing the business and technology risks of high capital investment and market uncertainty for companies and provide a test-bed and showcase for new technology and applications. Moreover,- resources can be pooled to solve common problems. In the process, a critical mass of applications and users can.be built up. The government is thus co-funding a varied spectrum of research and development and innovation projects to help share the.risks with the private companies who have committed themselves to deploy applications on the NIL Besides the NCB, under the National Science and Technology Board (NSTB) Plan, an additional US$ 2.82 billion will be pumped into R&D over the next five years, further manifesting the commitment of the Singapore government towards the IT2000 goal.

7. Status of NII initiatives·

As many of the programmes on the NII are still underway at the point of writing of this paper, we can only capture a snapshot of their progress to date.

7.1. Singapore ONE

Within the span of less than a year, 57 multi-national corporations (MNCs) including well-known names like IBM, Microsoft, Hewlett Packard, and Yahoo, as well as local companies and research organisations will invest more than US$ 143 million in the next two years to develop key technologies to ensure security, speed, remote access and reliability of the Singapore ONE network, lJlS well_ as a host of multimedia applications and services via Singapore ONE. A pilot network for Singapore ONE is currently being developed and is scheduled to be opera­ tional by 1998 [35]. This trial shall involve 5000 households lJllld offices which will be equipped with modems and _other accessories for high-speed access to more than 100 applications offering . information, business, entertainment and education. They will be able to access: · · - School curriculum materials from home; - A digital library from home; - Internet from home at high speed (up to 30 times faster); · - Commercial services from home; - On-line government services in public sites, each offering a variety of transactions and services. Trial participants will be connected to the new service either through their television set lillked to an Internet device, or through their home computer connected to ADSL modems-which· enable normal telephone lines to handle video pictures, or to a cable modem if fibre optics cables ate already laid in place by SCV. In June 1997, a survey conducted by the Straits Ti:ines indicated that 400 househcill:is participating in the trial are enjoying high-speed Internet access and more than: 50 interactive niill­ timedia applications in education, business, entertainment and government. Participating households are spending more than triple the time they would have u·sually. spent, prior to the trial, on the com­ puter. Commercial trials will begin in 1998. The number of participating households·will be increased monthly until it reaches the target of 5000 by the end of the year. 116 L. T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet

So far, the government has been successful in raising public awareness of the Internet and IT. This is manifested in the number of households applying to participate in the trials. The number of applicants is seven times higher than the target number for the trial.

7.2. ATM test-bed

Some of the projects that are carried out on the test-bed are multipoint- multimedia ·conferencing, video on demand, and distance learning. As ATM technology is identified as the backbone digital transport network for Singapore in the Singapore ONE multimedia network, the test-bed proves to be a cost.:effective means for service and applications providers to try out their products prior to a full-scale commercial launch.

7.3. I-Hub

Singapore has received a boost in her effort to become an I-Hub of the region: the UN Escap (Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific) will be using Singapore as the central warehouse for its Internet information databank meant to help channel investments into and within the Asia-Pacific countries. Modelled and linked to the Ipanet Website run by the World Bank, Insap (Information Network Service for Asia Pacific) is pitched as a databank in the region for country, industry and company specific information [32]. Data updated on the Insap will be mirrored immediately on the Wor!d Bank's lpanet site as well.

7.4. Electronic Commerce Hotbed (ECH)

As part of the ECH programme, credit card issuer Visa International and Mastercard International have joined their member banks and arange of technology partners to launch a pilot project to facilitate the secure use of credit cards for Internet shopping. The project was launched on 24 September 1996 [34] and uses the Secure Electronic Transactions (SET) specification, developed jointly and endorsed as a common global industry standard by leading electronic commerce players including Visa, Mastercard, Netscape, IBM; Microsoft and GTE [5]: Visa cardholders will be provided with the encryption and identification software required to safely use their Visa card account details to purchase goods and services over the Internet. The Singapore banks together with the National University of Singapore have come with a proposal for electronic commerce on the Internet in the local context [27]. It relies on a trusted 3-party system in which the merchant verifies the authenticity and spending power of the customer as well as deducts electronic cash transactions from the customer's account. In other words, it acts as an electronic bank on the Internet. This will complement the global project undertaken by Visa and Mastercard International to ensure security in the use of credit cards for electronic commerce. Another participant of the ECH is Sembawang·Media which manages Pacific Internet. It has set up the Cybermall, a virtual mall with more than 100 merchants which include well-known departmental stores in Singapore. Would-be surfers first register with a certification authority to get a personalised code, which is downloaded by the surfer onto a normal floppy disk. When paying at the virtual mall site, the shopper inserts the disk with the code and key in the credit card number. The codes are verified by the central authority, which is Sembawang Media in this case, before approving the transactions. L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 117

A milestone in electronic commerce in Singapore has been set with the set-up of Netrust [31], a joint venture between the National Computer Board and the Network for Electronic Transfers of Singapore in August 1997. The firm issues electronic identification tags to individuals and organisations for use in cyberspace to ensure that shopping and other transactions on the Internet are secure; The syst~m will be linked to other certification authorities abroad to provide more international channels of secure Internet transactions. , AsiaOne Commerce, a subsidiary of Singapore Press Holdings (SPH) has la~nched it_s electronic commerce services in October 97 [34]. Netsurfers can donate to charities and relief effort~ locally and worldwide as well as get information from electronic libraries and newspapers from around Asia. It also offers electronic mail and fax services. Prospects look good as AsiaOne, SPH's Website, already attracts over 45 million hits a month.

8. Challenges

The challenges faced by Singapore in its path towards IT2000 are no different from other c.ountries. They are:

Technology barrier. Issues such as the ability to fuse and accommodate th~ existence of current diverse systems, the search for possible common interoperable services and technology interfaces, the robustness of the NII to withstand modular expansion and upgrading and to evolve. with new technologies, and the development of innovative and user-friendly applications have to be.ironed out. Closer to home, the ability to ensure the security, confidentiality, authenticity and data integrity of conducting transactions over cyberspace [2,16], which is the main concern of the mall'in the street, is the immediate issue to be resolved before the masses can embrace IT with pea~e of mind. By tapping the resources of companies all over the world through aggressive collaborative efforts, the technology barrier will be surmounted in time to come.

Competitors. Another challenge faced is the keen competition as countries all over the world are heading towards exploiting IT to edge out their competitors in the global economy. Singapore is being squeezed by both developed and developing countries as competition today is borderless. The Internet has brought competitors close to home just as it has brought Singapore closer to her markets· and customers. The Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) projeet of-Malaysia,· Singapore nearest neighbour, is certainly going to give the NII of Singapore a run for Its money. Singapore needs to ·keep itself abreast of its competitors through greater R&D efforts, a good infrastructure, attractive incentives, creativity, ingenuity and a skilled work force.

Limited manpower resources. Singapore, however, faces another challenge which is unique to itself in that it is greatly constrained by its physical size and liriiited population. Its most valuable resource is its people. To stay competitive, the computer literacy level of Singaporeans will have to· be raised. Towards this end, the government has buqgeted a total of US$ 1.43 billion for the next six· years to harness IT to revolutionise learning in schools. Subsequently, an additional US$ 429 million .·per year has been budgeted for maintenance, upgrading and training [29]. Basic computer training to all primary schools has been intrbduced in 1997 and by the year 2002, 'every two pupils will share a coinpui:er. The Ministry of Education will ensµre that every primary school child gets to u~e the_ Internet [27]. Every student will be given a free e-mail account. To introduce children to computers and IT in' a 118 L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet novel and interesting way, the government, through the NCB, has set up computer playgrounds jointly with IBM Singapore and other local partners in housing estates and shopping malls. The government has also lent its support to the junior colleges and secondary schools to have Internet accounts and community centres are equipped with personal computer rooms with Internet access. IT roadshows [21] are organised to acquaint the public with IT. The aim is to encourage the use of computers in every household by the year 2000 and to have all of the workforce computer­ literate by 2006 and·. to make the next generation more IT and Internet aware. More students will be encouraged to enrol in science and engineering courses and to do postgraduate work. All these measures will serve to prepare the people to meet the challenges of making Singapore the IT-MegaHub of the region.

9. Conclusion

Singapore has come a long way: from automating routine data management, the civil service has moved to computer networking, allowing one-stop processing of documents and cutting the need for the public to travel. More than US$ 714 million has been spent to install over 900 computer-based systems since 1981. Every year, US$ 143 million is spent to upgrade and buy new systems [9]. The Singapore Government has been instrumental in the promotion of IT and the Internet. Its participation is· not only confined to encouraging more users of Internet through creating an-efficient computerised civil service and enabling everybody to learn to operate computers and networks, but also to provide both the infrastructure support as well as financial commitments to building and deploying a state­ of-the-art national information infrastructure. The Internet is viewed as an important .application deployment vehicle to bring information technology to the home and is a key component of the NII. With its sheer size and well-designed network, its IT literate workforce and the firm commitment of the government, Singapore is well poised to realise the IT2000 vision and meet the challenges of the next millennium.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their sincere gratitude and appreciat10n to the Singapore Na­ tional Information Infrastructure (Singapore ONE) Network Working Committee for their invaluable contributions to the NII and Singapore ONE during the preparation of this paper.

References

[l] A. Chankhunthod, M.F. Schwartz et al., A hierarchical Internet object cache, 1996, http://www.netcache.com. [2] A. Bhimani, Securing the comm.ercial Internet, Communication of the ACM 39(6) (June 1996), 29-35. [3] Internet: Global Communication, Asia Magazine (1-3 September 1995), 8-13. [4] Computer Technology Research Corporation, The Internet: A global business opportunity, CTRC Report, 1994. [5] Singapore Press Holdings, Net security, The Business Times (6 March 1996). [6] B. Voeten, Singapore's national high-speed ATM'rietwork testbed, in: Proceedings of the Joint Workshop on Broadband Multimedia Communications Services arid Applications, Singapore, 19-20 June 1995. [7] E. Lim, Major National Information Initiatives, Information Technology, Journal of the Singapore Computer Society 6(1) (September 1994), 21-30. [8] F. Fluckiger, From World-Wide Web to information superhighway, Computer Networks and ISDN Systems 28 (1996), 525-534. L.T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet 119

[9] A virtual government that never sleeps, ff Times (7-20 August 1996), 1. . [10] L. Cheow Hai, An overview of Singapore's Telecom digital infrastructure - SDH & FITL, in: Proceedings of the Joint Workshop on Broadband Multimedia Communications Services and Applications, Singapore, 19-20 June '1995. [11] National Computer Board, The IT2000 report: A vision of an intelligent island, SNP Publishers Pte Ltd., 'Singapore, March 1992. [12] N. Boon Siong, Exploiting Information Technology for Business Competitiveness, Addison-Wesley Publishing Com­ pany, 1996. [13] N. Boon Siong, Harvard Case N9193-136 on Singapore Tradenet. [14] Pacific Internet, Pacific Internet doubles Internet capacity, March 1996, http://www.smedia.com.sg/smedia/pr/ 140396-9 .html. [15] Pacific Internet, Singapore ISPs sign MOU to promote faster local Internet' access, 1996, http://www.smedia.com.sg/ smedia/pr/090595-17 .html. [16] P. Panurach, Money in electronic commerce: digital cash, electronic fund transfer, and E-cash,· Communication of the ACM 39(6) (June 1996), 45-50. [17] P. Hwa Ang and B. Nadarajan, Censorship' and the Internet: A Singapore perspective, Communication of the ACM 39(6) (June 1996), 72-78. [18] Singapore Computer Society, Feature section: Building the NII, Information Technology 6(1) (September 1994). [19] Singapore Press Holdings, 5 to 10 firms keen to join Singapore ONE consortium, The Straits Times (10 June 1996), 40. [20] Singapore Press Holdings, New on-line system offering more government services launched, The Straits Times (29 June 1996). [21] Singapore Press Holdings, Open-first void-deck computer playground, The Straits Times (12 August 1996), 34. [22] Singapore Press Holdings, SingNet fined for not meeting, The Straits Times (16 August 1996), 26. [23] Singapore Press Holdings, Internet to link key services, The Straits Times (4 September 1996), 17. [24] Singapore Press Holdings, Unrestricted Net access to continue for businesses, The Straits Times (5 September 96), 2. [25] Singapore Press Holdings, I-Hub will spur S'pore business, The Straits Times (26 September 1996), 2. [26] Singapore Press Holdings, Internet advisory panel to help fine-tune rules, The Straits Times (8 October 1996). [27] Singapore Press Holdings, Men in the Net: from zero to 45,000 in two years, The Sunday Times (13 October 1996), 2. [28] Singapore Press Holdings, SCV to test use of cable TV for fast Internet access, The Straits Times (10 November 1996), 2. [29] Singapore Press Holdings, $2b IT plan to revolutionise learning unveiled, The Straits Times (29 April 1997), I. [30] Singapore Press Holdings, Greased lightning on Internet highway, The Straits Times (28 June 1997), 6. [31] Singapore Press Holdings, New joint venture promises safer shopping on Net, The Straits Times (2 August 1997), 37. [32] Singapore Press Holdings, Singapore has new role as centre for Internet databank, The Straits Times (18 September 1997), 60. [33] Singapore Press Holdings, Internet Subscribers more than double to 230,000, The Sunday Times (21 September 1997), 37. [34] Singapore Press Holdings, You can shop and give to charity, The Straits Times (17 October 1997), 6. [35] TAS, NCB, NSTB, Singapore ONE: One Network for Everyone, IT2000 Masterplan, June 1996. [36] Singnet, Singnet paints Asia backbone vision, 1996, http://www.stix.net/news.html. [37] Singnet, Hierarchical caching effort for Singnet customers, 1996, http://www.singnet.com.sg. [38] M. Yap, Singapore NII: Beyond the information highway, Information Technology, Journal of the Singapore Computer Society 6(1) (September 1994), 11-19.

About the authors

Liang Tien Chia (Clement) is a Lecturer with the Division of Computing Systems, School of Applied Science at Nanyang Technological University. He obtained a first degree in Electrical En­ gineering and a PhD from Loughborough University of Technology in 1990 and 1994, respectively. While at Loughborough University, he undertook research on desktop conferencing using ATM net­ works. His current research interests are in video communication, bandwidth management and error concealment techniques. He has been actively involved in the Web scene for the last couple of years. 120 L. T. Chia et al. I Information technology and the Internet

Bu Sung Lee (Francis) is a Senior Lecturer with the School of Applied Science at Nanyang Technological University (NTU). He obtained his first degree in Electrical Engineering and a PhD from Loughborough University of Technology. in 1982 and 1986, respectively. He is the Deputy Director of the Network Technology Resource Centre, NTU and a member of the National Information Infrastructure (Singapore ONE) Network Working Committee. His current research interests are in computer networks, parallel processing, distributed systems and Internet. Chai Kiat Yeo is a Senior Lecturer with the School of Applied Science at Nanyang Technological University. She obtained her BEng and MSc degrees in Electrical Engineering from the National University of Singapore in 1987 and 1991, respectively. She was a Principal Engineer with Singapore Electronics & Engineering Limited prior to joining NTU. Her current research interests are in digital signal processing, rpicroprocessors-based applications and Internet applications. Information Technology for Development 8 (1998) 121-136 121 IOS Press

Fostering civil associations in Africa, through GOVERNET: an administrative reform network

Sajqa Qureshi Department of Decision and Information Sciences, Faculty of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The use of electronic communications technology in the developing world context brings forth challenges that may potentially unleash the power of civil society by fostering networking among civil servants involved in public administration reform. This paper highlights the key considerations that drive the need for building civil associations through networks and explores the development of GOVERNET, an administrative reform network and concludes with some insight into the salient issues driving thisform of networking.

1. Introduction

There is a growing awareness that the developing world needs to build up its resources of skills and experience as they relate to information technology. This provides an important research agenda to ad­ dress the fundamental question of what electronic communication technology means within the political and economic context of two-thirds of the world's population. There is a growing body of literature and research experience that explores these topics, and an increasingly sophisticated debate is taking place about the relevance of information technology to development objectives and the real issues that con­ strain its impact [3,4, 16, 18, 19]. In part this debate has been facilitated by the rapid growth of electronic networks across all the world and the contacts that have developed as a result. For example, in Africa, the growth of small scale, low cost electronic networks has been influential in building an academic and research community across the continent that discusses and shares topics of concern, while at the same time the IFIP 9.4 Group has developed around electronic media and e-mail.connections. So far these are examples of (overlapping) communities of enthusiasts, but it is a natural ambition that this medium and this technology should be extended so as to provide a general resource and a means to exploit informa­ tion, skill and expertise which are so greatly lacking in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa [27]. The transfer of technology from the North to the South has been the. main concern of development experts .. Increasingly the transfer of technology is seen as the transfer of knowledge and information. According to Cees Hamelink [11, p. 28]: Technology is information represented by models, diagrams, plans, and formulae, embodied in stud­ ies, training programmes and equipment, and transferred through sales and licensif!.g of patents via technical experts. At heart, technology transfer is transmission of information and as such it is de­ pendent upon the technology that provides the mechanisms for this: information technology. .

0268-1102/98/$8.00 © 1998 - IOS Press. All rights reserved 122 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET

It is believed by advocates of information technology for development that there are certain very real benefits to be gained from using the technology. There is a sense among the UN and other international organisations, that the diffusion, dissemination and transfer of information must be a very real objective for a developing society. However, there is a slow and vulnerable growth in the technologies permitting this increased communication and there is concern whether these will be adequate to ensure appropriate and efficient communication. In addition, the communication gap between the countries of the southern hemisphere is still very large. Although efforts are being made to overcome this problem [2], often the ability of people within a single region to communicate with each other is worse than their ability to communicate with people in the north. Judging from communications with those involved in funding networking projects in Africa, it appears that a decisive and definitive outcome of the use of electronic communications technology is intended to be an enhanced ability to communicate among the countries of the South. The use of electronic messaging is gradually being seen by national governments and aid agencies to enable trade and greater economic stability [21]. For better or for worse, this technology is representing a range of interests. This paper describes the forces driving the development of interpersonal and inter-organisational net­ working supported by electronic communication networks. It highlights the need for networking between civil associations in Africa which is very much an experimental activity and one fraught with logistical, political and technical problems within the developing world. We use the evolution of an administra­ tive reform network, called GOVERNET, to illustrate these developments. The paper concludes with salient issues that need to be considered when using electronic communications technology to build civil associations in Africa.

2. Need to build civil associations in Africa

2.1. Structural inefficiencies in public administrations

A major problem affecting public administrations throughout Africa are the structural inefficiencies that render the bureaucracies incapable of carrying out their functions [15]. In his work on the economic recovery of Africa, Richard Sandbrook [23, p. 46] provides evidence to support the view that adminis­ trative capacity in public administrations is affected by two processes: One is the politicisation of the bureaucracy attendant upon a growing resort to patrimonial mecha­ nisms of rule. The other is the squeeze placed on salaries, perquisites, and facilities of civil servants as revenues shrink and external agencies press governments to reduce budget deficits. Both processes, unless carefully managed, vitiate administrative effectiveness . .sandbrook [23] paints a picture of the 'presidential-monarch' who treats the administration as his per­ somi.l property, where he or his lieutenants select the top administrators on the basis of personal loyalties and assign tasks as they see fit. Corruption and arbitrary behaviour of officials is permitted provided that this does not breed rebellion. An acute dilemma is identified: in as much as patronage is wasteful and fosters incompetence and unpredictability, if patronage is severely reduced, governance would rest more heavily on repression, bringing about greater human suffering and undermining an already tenuous national integration. The balance between political stability and corruption in public administration is the precarious condition in which most African countries find themselves and indeed cannot break away from. This situation has been aggravated by the shrinking of the salaries and amenities of public servants since the 1970s. In most sub-Saharan countries, middle level officials cannot even feed, house, clothe or S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET 123 educate their families on their salaries. This brings about a decline in staff morale, honesty, and efficiency and a tum to bribes, embezzlement of public funds, etc. in order to supplement their meagre salaries. In addition to salaries, top civil servants also need an appropriate intellectual and political environment that is conducive to open discussion of policy alternatives and even-handed implementation.

2.2. Concerted effort

In view of the above, reforming public administrations in Africa has become a major concern of most African governments and particularly of donor agencies seeking returns on their investments and of in­ ternational agencies such as the World Bank and the Commonwealth Secretariat. At a Commonwealth roundtable held in London in June 1991, on The Changing Role of Government, there was considerable debate on the World Bank and IJ\.1F policies of structural adjustment, and the politics of privatisation of state-owned enterprises and the restructuring of public services [24]. This took place in a new spirit concerned with the changing role of government and need for reforming public administrations through­ out the Commonwealth countries. There were even suggestions that Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO's) could act as a substitute for government in most areas of public policy. Although these sugges­ tions met with considerable opposition, it is clear from the proceedings, that if governments in Africa are to receive assistance from international organisations, they will have to develop a constitutional and legal framework that is conducive to good governance and within which independent initiatives (i.e., via NGO's) are able to take place [8]. In the wake of new perceptions on good governance and good administration, a wave of administra­ tive reforms are taking place in Africa. These include sweeping changes in the structures of government involving massive decentralisation and layoffs combined with programmes for training civil servants for improving administrative performance. A significant criticism put forward by Mutahaba [15] of ap­ proaches to administrative reform is that they place too much emphasis on developing the administrative system at the cost of neglecting other elements of the social system. Although the administrative system may have been improved with better qualified personnel and tidier organisational structures, the envi­ ronment remains comparatively underdeveloped and brings about dissonance between the administrative system and other components of society.

2.3. Shared responsibility

In order to achieve effective administrative reform, Sandbrook [23] proposes dramatic changes in the political capacity at two levels. First is the ascendancy of a reforffiist regime which inspires trust because it breaks with the corrupt and despotic practices of the past. The second, a shift from mercenary payoffs and force as a primary basis of government. This remains consistent with the new principle for reform proposed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the World Bank. Known as people-centred development, this concept is about making Africa rely more on its own resources and the ingenuity and energy of its people to produce goods mainly for the consumption of lts own people in expanded common markets [28,29]. However, Sandbrook [23] suggests that with the lack of a politics of transition, this option may be­ come utopian. He states that empowering people challenges power structures. This has been illustrated by the suspicion of governments against Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) that claim to work towards the goals of alleviating poverty, and engineering collective self-reliance in technology amongst the other objectives that have been agreed by the agencies and governments as part of the structural 124 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET adjustment policies for the 'bottom-up' development of Africa. In 1991, the Kenyan government felt suf­ ficiently concerned about the activities of non-governmental organisations to establish a statutory board to monitor and regulate them. In short, governments will not adopt a participatory needs-oriented ap­ proach simply because it appears to have altruistic motives with respect to the long term interests of their poor majorities. This is not to say that participatory needs-orientated policies necessarily translate into projects that alleviate poverty and foster self reliance.

2.4. National sovereignty and fostering regional collaboration

Fears of losing national sovereignty are not ill founded. Hamelink [10] defines national sovereignty as the ability to influence decisions regarding national resources. Although Hamelink writes of transnational data flows within the context of multinational corporations, his insights also apply to the pervasive use of electronic networks. He claims that transnational data flows tend to export data and decision making that is relevant to the allocation of national resources beyond the jurisdiction of national governments. The indigenous use of electronic networks by small groups of experts can be seen to diminish the threat to national sovereignty and bring about new ways of approaching the long standing issues of develop­ ment. The transfer of expertise and technology to the less developed countries of the world can be said to have been facilitated by the advent of electronic user groups and their ability to exchange knowledge and skill all over the world [14]. There is a sense among those who examine these issues, that the disparities between infrastructures of wealthy and poor countries bring up the need for developing an infrastriicture supporting electronic networks [25]. Yet some governments fearing the loss of their national sovereignty bring about a tighter regulatory environment hindering the development and use of electronic communi­ cation technologies [2]. Regional collaboration is seen to be another way to support the development and use of resources by those governments who want to break away from the hegemony of the transnational corporations and excessive reliance on foreign experts. The notion of electronic communication bears the promise of connecting the remotest individuals to those who are part of the hustle and bustle of modem life. The promise that electronic communication networks bear, is not entirely a prevarication based on misplaced trust in a new technology. There are certain opportunities to be gained with the use of electronic com­ munication networks. Networks for regional collaboration, among other forms, bear the promise of a more stable albeit healthy economic future for a continent plagued with war, famine and intrigue. Parts of Africa are abundant with natural resources whereas in others the very lack of these leads to the most precarious of human disasters. Systems of trade, and distribution cannot be put into place without the basic mechanisms of communication between parts of the continent [20].

3. Information technology in public administrations in Africa

3.1. ·Use of information technology

There are certain barriers affecting the effective utilisation of the information resource by the use of electronic communication technologies. A major part of the costs entailed in the use of electronic communications technology arise from government license fees and charges by the national government owned PDNs (Packet Data Networks). Several African countries have made direct dialling illegal so that users are forced to use their national PDNs for data transmission [2]. The security and privacy of information exchange, and the confidentiality of the information being exchanged is a major criterion for S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET 125 the effective use of such a network. It is important for members .to know that what transpires within a group is kept confidential especially in the face of some authoritarian governments who want to keep an eye on their more free thinking citizens. There is also considerable resistance to the use of information technology, in particular to the 'hands on' use by senior officials. According to Wesley-Tanaskovic [26], administrators in government and other top managerial positions are a category of potential users that do not access the available information services. The leaders do not bother to utilise the formal information services of the national system that they have decided to· set up and have invested public funds in. In most cases, they prefer to rely on the long standing tradition of interpersonal exchanges and direct oral or written information transfer, undoubtedly, she claims, the most effective way of obtaining the latest appropriate information (of the requisite quality and quantity) which can be applied with a minimum of delay and expense. She states that [26, p. 48]: It appears that when setting up information systems in most countries, the emphasis has been placed on the supply of information services rather than on mobilising anticipated demand. This difficult task involves teaching the basic skills of finding and handling information; acquainting users with the sources of information that they require in their professional tasks and daily occupations; up- . dating researchers, educators and practitioners as well as generally s.ti~ulating the habit of seeking information and using it effective.Ly. At the same time, public administration has been one of the first areas to have begun using computers. In particular, some of the earliest installations in Africa date back to the 1960s. Africa has had a diversity of donors that often insist that equipment produced in their respective countries or regions are used by the recipient countries. As a result, the African Public Service has found itself burdened with a ·great deal of incompatible, inconsistent equipment. It was reported by a senior official at the Pan African Development Information System, Herbert Girkes [9], that in a particular African country, the Ministry of Agriculture works with FAQ databases complying with that technology, while the Planning Ministry that is supported by the European Community, uses European equipment and the ministry of Health has a bilateral project with USAID and follows the rules decreed by the American Government. These observations are supported by country surveys of information technology in government [6]. Most of the government organisations in Kenya use ICL equipment and very few IBM computers whereas in Tanzania the picture is rather more of a mixture of equipment consistin·g 'of mainly Apple, Wang, Olivetti and IBM machines and a smattering of different types of personal computers. This picture of islands of incompatible automation is familiar to the public sectors of many western countries as well. The differences in equipment and operating standards governing the separate ministries are only a part of the many issues surrounding the co-ordination of the different government mihisfries. The mass of information produced by each ministry is often also required by another especially during the planning periods when budgets and future courses of action are being decided. However, due to the lack of aware­ ness of the potential of this technology especially in the public sector which also happens to have the largest proportion of information technology in the country, the equipment remains despairingly under utilised and largely inaccessible. Studies in Africa [17] suggest that information technology that has been put in the office of a top civil servant is often under utilised. And yet, unlike the machines that lodge the electronic communications technology, it is increasingly becoming the case that there is a status symbol attached to the use of electronic 'networks. With the mountain of funds being poured into electronic net­ working projects by international agencies, and tbe increasing threat of responsive, yet at times rynegade activities of NGO's, the public sector has to join the bandwagon for fear of losing its power and position. 126 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET

3.2. Emerging use of networking technologies

Optimism and determinism has in the past contributed to the imposition of information technology upon societies that have no use for it. The dumping of computers in developing countries by aid agencies and multinational corporations alike have brought about an illusion of development where in fact people for whom this technology is intended. have done no better and have often resisted attempts .. to make any use of it [19]. The eagerness of the top officials in some institutions to use electronic networks for communication means that it may not be entirely difficult to implement the technology. Its use may well be ,hindered by indifferent employees or restricted to the top. officials. However, there are cases when the existing social structures are enhanced or reinforced as a result of the implementation of information technology. Hamelink [11] states that information technology is designed and applied to meet those needs that are defined as important by the existing social structure. Just as technology at large is a response to the hierarchy of social needs, it is also determined by the existing social order. It is this order, he claims, that will integrate and guide development of the technology. Against this backdrop a number of initiatives have taken place that attempt to harness the resources and potential of Africa using electronic communications technology; this is highlighted by the large number of electronic communication service providers outlined in Appendix B. A notable example of such a networking initiative was the NGONET Africa project based at the Environmental Liaison Centre Inter­ national (ELCI) in Nairobi. Another example is the Eastern and Southern African Network (ESANET), a pilot project based at the Nairobi Institute of Computer Science, set up to link researchers at the univer­ sities of Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Kenya with each other and with researchers world­ wide by installing electronic mail facilities at the computer centres of the universities of these countries. A more controversial project, the HealthNet project, the first initiative in Africa to use satellite links, \YaS established at a time when it was very difficult to obtain government permission to install a satellite ground station as many African governments were threatened by the loss of control over their commu­ nications infrastructure. HealthNet's traffic was initially limited to health related issues and it was up to the indiyidual participating institutions to obtain clearance from the authorities for a wider interpretation of what they considered to be a health related issue. In remaining cqnsistent with this trend towards using electronic networks to support communities of interest and inter-organisational linkages, the following section focuses on the development of GOVER­ NET, an inter-organisational networking initiative launched by the Commonwealth Secretariat to foster tighter linkages between Management Development Institutions (MDis) in eastern and southern Africa involved in administrative refo~. Fostering civil associations in Africa through electronic networking was seen by the Commonwealth Secretariat to have the potential of spawning similar netwqrking initia­ tives in other parts of Africa and the Caribbean where demand for this form of qetworking appeared to be taking on impetus.

4. GOVERNET, an administrative reform network

'4.1. Requirement for networking

In its work with governments of the Commonwealth, the Secretariat observed that the pace of adminis­ trative and managerial reform within governments was quickening in response to the increasing pressure on governments to scale down the scope and size of the public sector, while strengthening the core struc­ tures of government. It was believed by those at the Commonwealth Secretariat that experience in the S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET 127 design of core elements of reform programmes and application of the techniques and approaches for implementing sustainable programmes was growing. Despite this increasing body of knowledge, many senior officials found it difficult to gain access to useable information to support the design and imple­ mentation of their reform programmes. The Secretariat's experience within Africa suggested that many countries were seeking information urgently on aspects of public sector reform which other countries of the region had pursued, or assessed and rejected. In addition, the limited strategic planning capacity within many governments restricted the ability of senior officials to explore the full range of policy op­ tions available [8]. There was a sense among those who explored these issues, that a part of the route out of this dilemma was through better communications and fostering the exchange of information at all levels in civil society. As Sandbrook [23, p. 146] states: A dense Web of independent associations changes the political equation by easing the apathy and acquiescence on which authoritarian regimes thrive. Networking on a national, regional and global scale among civil associations sharing common objectives is a potent means of building the focial power of civil society. Networking allows organisations to share information, build solidarity on issues, promote joint or simultaneous action, and bring external publicity to bear on abuses ofpower or wrong-headed government policies in any member country ... networks have the advantage of resiliency - the cooptation of one or more members does not destroy the network. There appeared to be a glimmer of hope in networking among civil associations sharing common objectives. In as much as networking may have been an answer to the apathy and acquiescence of the authoritarian regimes in Africa, it also brought with it the promise of additional funding from donor agencies. 1 The provision of an electronic network to the key officials responsible for developing or im­ plementing such programmes could facilitate professional collaboration, and even provide access to state of the art databases concerning regional and broader developments in administrative reform. In view of this, the Commonwealth Secretariat wanted public sector officials to take part in communicating through electronic networks. Accessing information through colleagues in other parts of the world and exchang­ ing views and ideas regarding administration was at the time a primary concern of the Commonwealth S~cretariat. The need to communicate with appropriate, motivated officials in Africa was seen to be imperative for the proper functioning of its programmes (i.e., reform and training). In addition, the Sec­ retariat needed to revamp its own image in the Commonwealth, to be seen as a working, productive organisation and not just a bureaucracy. Furthermore it was hoped that the dialogue and debate generated in the Commonwealth Secretariat's workshops and training programmes would continue as a result of computer conferencing enabled by electronic network technology. The Commonwealth Secretariat be­ lieved that co-ordinating the activities of interdependent institutions was a necessary factor in bringing about effective government in Africa. The view that administrative reform in public administrations was necessary in order to achieve a more healthy political and economic future for Africa prevailed. The position taken by the Commonwealth Secretariat was that key officials involved in administrative reform should be able to exchange experiences, opinions and ideas .with their counterparts and associates in other countries. Networks in which opinion formers could discuss their views with others involved in administrative reform should bring about better government.

1The structurai adjustment policies initiated by the World Bank in the 1980s failed -to work for a number or-reasons not the least of which have to do with the structural inefficiencies of the public sector bureaucracies. Economic hardships that have plagued many wel\tem economies to date had made it impossible to continue to provide high levels of aid to developing countrie.s. The main advantage of funding networking projects was that they could be implemen~ed on a collaborative basis arid became sdf-sustaining as soon as a user base becomes established. It made possible joint-funding aiangements between a number of donor agencies and often involved many recipient institutions. 128 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa throiigh GOVERNET

Inremaining consistent with its mandate as outlined in the "Information Technology Policies" work­ shop in London in November 1990, the Commonwealth Network of Information Technology for Devel­ opment (COMNET-IT) was given the responsibility to develop a network in the area of administrative reform to extend the potential of the network technology to a new group of users who had until recently been unaware of the potential of this form of communication [7]. The intention was to provide e-mail and conferencing services between key Management Development Institutions (MDis) and, ultimately, between key agencies of government, where there was a leading responsibility for management improve­ ment in government: The GOVERNET project began with the development of a network of Management Development Institutions (MDis) in eastern and southern Africa, gradually progressing into wesfAfrica as demand for membership by institutions involved in administrative reform would increase. Although, in principle, GOVERNETwas, in 1993, spearheaded by COMNET-IT's co-ordinating centre at the Com­ monwealth Secretariat, its implementation depended upon the combined initiative and efforts of .a wider group of people. The electronic networking concerns of the project were initially the responsibility of a freelance consultant well known for hi.s hands-on implementation,work for a number of development agencies and the administration was the responsibility of COMNET-IT' s co-ordinator. Although, funding and direction for GOVERNET was initiaUy the responsibility of the Commonwealth Secretariat, further development of the network and its administration was to be handed over to a more appropriate local institution.

5. Implementing GOVERNET

The objective of GOVERNET was to "utilise and add value to the existing electronic networks oper­ ating within the Commonwealth countries in Africa" (GOVERNET Project Document, 1993). By pro­ viding access to electronic communication technology to a group of people who had not previously been exposed to it (civil servants involved in administrative reform programmes), GOVER1'.'ET would be able to serve as. a catalyst.to bring about greater communic~ticin and collaboration. In achieving its core objective, GOVERNET was to develop lines of professional collaboratiOn and provide access to infor­ mation c~ncerning admi.nistrative and managerial reforms. The guidelines with which it was to function (GOVERNET, draft 1 working-document, March 1993), involved: - The introduction of electronic messaging between members of a tightly defined group of officials and experts. - The development of electronic mail directories grouped by interest and expertise. - The provision offile transfer facilities allowing rapid sharing of draft policy proposals and discus- sion documents. - The provision of access to moderated bulletin boards serving as clearing houses for information requests and for the posting of notices concerning work in progress. - The provision of access to databases offering practical information concerning good practice in specific reform areas.

There was at the time, considerable activity to advance the development of electronic networks, partic~ ularly, in the eastern and southern regions of Africa. There were a number of electronic communication networks in .various stages. of development, operating largely for a ·particular community of profession­ als, most of which belonged to the IT community. The available networks were primarily small and not very well connected, operating largely on a regional basis. The connectivity between the various regional S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET 129 networks was very difficult to ascertain as many had developed autonomously. Low cost electronic net­ working in Africa had been remarkably successful with the rapid development of FIDO technology and Association for Progressive Communications (APC) networks. The number of nodes operating in Africa had more than doubled over two years [13]. The rise of the APC networks operating on a strictly non­ governmental basis had been significant in stimulating the rise in low cost electronic networking. Most APC networks operated gateways on PCs and modems connected to telephone lines. The purpose of these networks was to allow communication among people active in environment, human rights, devel­ opment .and peace initiatives. In 1993, there were 16,000 users in 94 countries of the world on APC networks. These networks were built upon a mixture of FIDO, Unix and packet switching technologies to link up to the academic networks such as Internet and Bitnet [5, 12,22]. Future development oflnternet (IP) connec~ions was rapidly taking place as is illustrated in the map in Appendix A. Key public sector Management Development Institutions (MDis) to be included in GOVERNET had to be identified and prepared for the challenge. These institutions had com~ into existence as a means of training public servants in good practice of administrative reform. They have had historic links with the Commonwealth Secretariat in terms of the funding and development of training programmes. Typically these institutions were heavily involved in developing training pr9grammes and providing training in areas ranging from management practice to computer skills. Although these institutions operated inde­ pendently of each other, the Commonwealth Secretariat was of the opinion that these institutions needed to· communicate more frequently amongst themselves. This opinion was supported by the Secretary Gen­ eral of the Association of Management Training Institutes of Eastern and Southern Africa (AMTIESA) in· Nairobi who was championing the cause of networking in Africa. The remaining MDis that were to be linked up through GOVERNET were: Kenya Institute of Administration (KIA), Kenya Institute of Management (KIM) and Association of Public Administration· and Management (APAM) in Kenya, Eastern and Southern African Management Institute (ESAMI) in Tanzania, Institute of Public Adminis­ tration (IPA) in Uganda, Malawi Institute of Management (MIM) in Malawi, Institute for Development Management (IDM) in Botswana, Lesotho Institute of Public Administration (LIPA) in Lesotho, Sey­ chelles Institute of Management (SIM) in Seychelles, Swaziland Institute for Public Administration and Management (SIMPA) in Swaziland, National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) in z;ambia and Zimbabwe Institute of Public Administration and Management (ZIPAM) in Zimbabwe. The initial struc­ ture proposed for linking up MDis in eastern and southern Africa Within GOVERNET is illustrated in Fig. 1. The capacity of these institutions to use electronic mail and benefit froin. it was contingent upon .a number of factors: if the technology was seen as being imposed upon the institlitions its use would have been prejudiced from the outset; if, on the other hand, the technology was seen as a motivating factor for certai11 experts to communicate with like mind.ed experts in other parts of Africa and the world, then this form of communication may have been taken up with added impetus. This simple reasoning .formed the. basis for selecting institutions which were to be at the core of GOV~RNET. However, the task of ensuring that there was an environment within the institutions that was conducive to the use of electronic communications was not simple. In addition to factors that brought about resistance to the use of information technology in general, were those that limited the use of electronic communications. Such use had to be demand led in order to be successful. Often it was the initiative of a single person in an iqstitution that pushed the use and development of electronic communications. And yet, there ~as concern that the institution may have been in danger of having yet anothe:r; obsolete piece of equipment if the individual in question decided to leave. 130 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET

------NIPA ZIPAM Zambia SIMPA ,/'_,- .. ···· Zimbabwe ------­Swaziland / APAM K.enya Seychelles I KIA AMTIESA LIPA\ Kenya Kenya Le~otho

IDMI Botswana MIM Tanzania IPA ----~·Malawi Uganda Fig. 1.-- Initial structure of GOVERNET (1992-1994). Developing, strengthening and supplementing existing electronic networks built upon the available low cost networks·using locally developed public domain software to encourage the use of local networks, and then linked the local networks to the Internet through leased lines and/or FIDO links. It was hoped that existing low-cost electronic network links r:;ould be· enhanced with user friendly front~end software developed locally. The software was then piloted in training programmes and at certain specified sites. Linking. the local networks to the Internet further on in the implementation process, provided a means of ensuring connectivity with the major academic networks and direct electronic communication with the rest of the world. Installing a leased line required technical expertise to be available locally. For an overview of network connectivity in Africa, please refer to Appendix A. Linking the MDis electronically and installing equipment (PCs and modems) within the institutions was not enough. Training .had to be provided in order to develop skills in the use of the electronic mailing system. The sustainability of a network connection, in particular of the leased line, required a certain number of users. One-off training workshops were not sufficient to ensure that the nodes would continue to be utilised, they had to be supported on an ongoing basis. It was important that the requisite technical ability was present and that there was a mechanism for maintaining and upgrading the network hosts. E~mail messages had been known to be stuck at hosts for weeks before a.system operator got around to servicing the host. This was because in addition to being system operators, the people with the technical skills were also employed elsewhere in order to maintain a reasonable income. The development of local expertise for the maintenance and support of the electronic communications ·links was a necessary component of GOVERNET. The network required the support of institutions that were capable of housing the electronic media as well as a core of experts who were able to provide immediate and ongoing support to an increasing body of varied users. This task lent itself to a collab­ orative arrangement with other network hosts as the long term scope of the GOVERNET project went beyond implementing electronic linkages. Following the setting up of electronic linkages between the MDis involved in training programmes in administrative reform, the project was to expand to include · policy making units within government. Key officials within government were to be linked· up electron­ ically on a strictly confidential basis allowing them to communicate on matters regarding administrative reform. The implementation of this part of GOVERNET was seen as requiring extensive professional S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET 131

collaboration and a programme of in-country regional seminars. While the initial scope of GOVERNET was to provide access to existing databases, negotiations were being undertaken for the development of a specialised administrative reform database.

6. The promise and potential of GOVERNET

In the first instance, GOVERNET was introduced through a series of workshops. These included spe­ cific training workshops in Bombay, India at the National Centre for Science and Technology (NCST) and at the Association of Management Training Institutes of Eastern and Southern Africa (AMTIESA) in Kenya. This direction was taken further in subsequent COMNET-IT workshops and specific assistance to MDis provided in the form of communications hardware, software and technical support. For example, at the first workshop held at the National Centre for Science and Technology (NCST) in Bombay, India in April 1994 as a COMNET-IT Workshop, participants were chosen through a seledive set of guide­ lines and procedures involving nominations from point of contacts in all of the Commonwealth countries from which a group was 'hand picked' and sponsored by the Commonwealth Secretariatto attend. This group of participants comprised a mixture of high level officials involved in planning and policy making in government institutions, in the MDis and information technology professionals following careers ill government ·and related institutions. The countries represented in the selected group ·were: West Indies, St Lucia, St Vincent, the Bahamas, Malta, Tonga, Malawi, the Gambia, Namibia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia, Sri Lanka, Ghana, Maldives and Seychelles. In addition to building· a level of tech­ nical skill, a 'how to join the network' starter pack was given to the participants. The starter pack was the product of the combined expertise of the NCST and the GOVERNET project. The participants had gained enough working knowledge on Waffle and FIDONet software during the workshop to be able to use the pack to set up their own e-mail connections. These general training sessions were then followed by parallel sessions of more specialised training in electronic networks, and by more abstract sessions on the nature of IT policy and strategies for implementation of IT policies. · · / A significant concern which transpired from discussions with the participants of workshops such as the above, information technology professionals working in government departments, MDI officials and top civil service officials not only from Commonwealth countries in Africa but also in the Caribbean, was about foreign consultants sent in by international agencies. Whifo the foreign consultants brought with them technical expertise and equipment, they were often incapabl~ of dealing with the issues ,of devel­ oping information systems in these countries. As a result local practitioners would end up implementing the project, writing the relevant documentation and providing the training, while the foreign consultants would receive the credit and high salaries paid by the. local governments. This cpncern over foreign consultants appeared to have been the primary factor motivating the participants of the COMNET-IT workshop at NCST in Bombay and. the training sessions at AMTIESA in. Kenya. For the inforniation technology professionals knowledge of ·electronic networking meant that they could claim a certain de­ gree of independence from foreign consultants. For the government officials an understanding of the technicalities of electronic networking appeared to be necessary in order to be able to draft appropriate policies in their respective countries. . ' While the MDI officials in particular were keen on receiving training and technical assistance, and were quite happy to participate in GOVERNET for this reason, they were not keen on sharing th~ir knowledge with each other as there was competition for funding (~ational govern,ment and internationai), access to civil service reform programmes and expertise. Thus sharing of course material and experiences 132 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET was not the primary motivating factor that had been initially intended in GOVERNET.There was demand however for sharing of experiences in information technology use from high level civil servants involved in policy making and planning; this perhaps could have been the real force driving GOVERNET.

7. Emerging issues and conclusions

The role of the GOVERNET project in providing a group of civil servants access to electronic com­ munications technology exposes the potential of this technology to a group who have been previously unaccustomed to it. The immediate lessons learnt from what has been achieved thus far in the GOV­ ERNET project is that at the time of writing this paper, (1) much of the gains lay in inter-personal· networking and the potential of electronic communications technology remained to be maximised by individuals users, (2) the promise that one of the keys towards the recovery of Africa lies in building civil associations must be realised by first enabling access and sharing of information and expertise and (3) a culture of communication and sharing of information needs to develop before this form of networking can have its true effect. In the context of Administrative reform in sub-Saharan Africa, the issue remains one of empowerment. Angell [1] claims that the end of the nation state through global commerce which will force through the construction of the (information) highways, and anyone bypassed by the highways faces ruin. Indeed, linking up key people in management development institutions may potentially enable greater commu­ nication and collaboration, the consequences of which are yet to be seen. The question is not whether electronic communications technology will be u~ed, but whether the consequences of its use will be as Sandbrook suggests "of building the social power of civil society" or in fact increasing the likelihood of abuses of power.

References

[1] I. Angell, A brave new world, in: Information Technology for Globalisation: Implications for Developing Countries, M.·Odedra-Straub, R. W'O Okot-Uma and G. Cyranek, eds, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1995. [2] B. Bellman, A. Tindimubona and A. Arias, Technology transfer in global networking: capacity building in Africa and Latin America, in: Global Networks, Computers and International Communication, L. Harasim, ed., MIT Press, C;:imbridge, 1993. [3] S.C. Bhatnagar and N. Bjorn-Andersen, Information Technology in Developing Countries, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1990. . [4] S.C. Bhatnagar and M. Odedra, Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992. [5] R. Bush, Fidonet: technology, tools and history, Communications of the ACM 36(8) (1993), 31-35. [6] Commonwealth Secretariat, Information Technology in Government, the African Experiences, 1988. [7] Commonwealth Secretariat, Information Technology Workshop, London, 1990. [8] Commonwealth Secretariat, The Changing Role of Government: Management of Social and Economic Activities, London, 1991. [9] H.E. Girkes, The Challenges and Opportunities of Information Technology in Public Management. Development Manage­ ment in Africa: Thirty Years of Experience, Emerging Challenges and Future Priorities. Report. of the PADIS, UNECA, 1993. . [10] C.J. Hamelink, International Data Flows in the Information Age, Chartwell-Bratt, Sweden, 1984. [11] C. Hamelink, High-tech transfer, selling the canoe without the paddle, Development (Journal of the Society for Interna­ tional Development) 1 (1985), 28-37. [12] M. Jensen and G. Sears, Low Cost. Global Electronic Communications Networks for Africa, 34th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, St Louis, Missouri, 1991. [13] ¥.Jensen, African Electronic Networking Initiatives, A Brief Description, Worknet Report, 1993. S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through.GOVERNET 133

[14] M.G.K. Menon, D. Ali, M.N.B. Ayiku, I. Barron, S. Carr, D. Gachuki, L. Lim, B. Williamsand.C. Wright, Technological Change, Enhancing the Benefits, Published Report, Vol. 2, 1985, p. 13. [15] G. Mutahaba, Reforming Public Administration for Development, Experiences from Eastern Africa, Kumarian Press, Connecticut, 1989. . . [16] S. Nidumolu, S. Goodman, D. Vogel and A. Danowitz, Information technology for Local Admlnistr~tion Sµpport: the Governorates Project in Egypt, MIS Quarterly 20(2) (1996), 197-224. . . [17] M. Odedra, The Transfer of Technology to Developing Countries, PhD Thesis, London School of Economics, 1990. [18] M. Odedra, M. Lawrie, M. Bennett and S. Goodman, Sub-Saharan Africa: a technological desert, Con;imunications of the ACM 36(2) (1993), 25-29. . [19] M. Odedra and S. Madon, Information Technology Policies and Applications in the Commonwealth Developing Countries, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1993. · · · [20] S. Qureshi, Networks, people and nations, in: The Impact of Informatics on Society: Key Issues fo'r Developing Countries, S. Lanfranco and R.L. Santana, eds, York University, Havana, 1994. [21] S. Qureshi, Organisations and networks: theoretical considerations and a case study of netwqrking across organisations. PhD Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London, 1994. . [22] G. Sadowsky, Network connectivity for developing countries, Communications of the ACM 36{8) (1993), 42-47. [23] R. Sandbrook, The Politics ofAfrica's Economic Recovery, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993. · [24] B. Smith, The changing role of government: management of social and economic. activities, in: Commonwealth Roundtable, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1991. · [25] M. Strong, The information revolution and.developing countries, Development (Journal of the Society for International Development) 1(1985),49-50. , . , . [26] I. Wesley-Tanaskovic, Information systems, Development ( Jo'urnal 9f the Society for International Development) 1 (1985), 48-49. '' [27] B. Woods, Communication, Technology and the Development of People, Routledge, London, 1993. [28] World Bank, Africa's Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s, Washington, DC, 1989. [~9] World Bank, A ·Framework for Capacity Building in Policy Analysis and Economic Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, DC, 1990. · ·

About the author

Sajda Qureshi is an assistant professor at the Department of Decision and Information Sciences at the Faculty of Management at Erasmus University Rotterdam in the Netherlands. She holds a PhD in Information Systems from the London School of Economics and Political Science at the University of London in the United Kingdom. She been co-ordinator of the Commonwealth Network of Information Technology for Development (COMNET-IT) from 1992-1994 and has been involved in the develop­ ment and implementation of a distributed electronic communication system which was used to conduct meetings. She has also been involved in various consultancy projects in Italy and the UK. Her research interests include the use of electronic communication technologies to support co-ordination and decision making processes within international networks and network organisations and has produced various publications in this area. 134 S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associa1io11s i11Africa1/irot1Rh GOVERNh7

Appendix A. Africa connectivity map

Jan '97 International links: MiddfeEm 'L e MOJe than 64Kbps ~~

_,l· Sen

e 9.6Kbps

Full lnternet Sho1tly

Liberia Sierra Leone Guinea-Bl$8au The Gambia •St. Helena Oialup/email hems

. r Reu nion

Mauritiu3 [email protected]

Source: Mike Jensen, 1997. S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET 135

AppendixB

Table 1 Levels of development Network Technology Use for work Key organisation Association AFRIKANET Packet switched No indication of use University of Yaounde, FrenchWest Africa Cameroon AFRINET Decnet for X25 No indication of use African Academy of Sciences, Lillking US academic Kenya, Zimbabwe networks to AAS ARSONET FIDO ARSO Secretariat, Nairobi Linking regional and national standards organisations ' EARN TCP/IP On-line conferences, Cairo University, Egypt Regional academic remote access, file and links message transfer ENDA- Front Door store E-mail ENDA Inter-Arabe Tunis, Communication with ARABE & forward Tunisia ENDA Tiers Monde ES ANET FIDO Front E-mail and University of Nairobi, Institute Shares resources with Door asynchronous of Computer Science, Kenya; ELCI; Links to conferencing UHCC, HealthNet, UNICS, ESAURP, UZCC MU KL A HEALTHNET Packet radio E-mail on health issues Satelife, Boston, USA. Kenya, Administered by FIDO Mozambique, Tanzania, ES ANET Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe GHASTINET FIDO No indication of use Centre for Scientific & Supported by Industrial Res. Accra, Ghana PADISNET & ELCI GOVERNET FIDO, TCP/IP E-mail and AMTIESA, Kenya; Linking MDis in Eastern asynchronous Commonwealth Secretariat, Eastern and Southern conferencing on London, UK Africa using local Admin. Reform in nodes Government KCI-NET FIDO ·No indication of use Kenya Computer Academics, NGOs, Aids Institute Information, Nairobi MANGO FIDO E-mail & Bulletin EMBISA, EDICESA, SARDC; FAO, WHO, UNICEF, Board Harare, Zimbabwe IUCN MUKLA FIDO E-mail and Makerere University, Kampala, A host for the asynchronous Uganda ESANET project conferencing NGO NET FIDO E-mail and bulletin ELCI, Nairobi, Kenya MANGO, ENDA, board ENDA-Arabe PADISNET FIDO E-mail PADIS at UNECA, Addis GHASTINET, Ababa ESAURP RECSICX- CD-ROM Marine database RDC Mombassa, Kenya Marine scientists WHO RINAF FIDO, TCP/IP, No indication of use CENUCE, Pisa, Italy Attempt to network in UUCPandX25 Africa RIO- X25, TCP/IP, E-mail and file ORSTOM, Paris, France Operates in 10 African ORSTOM UUCP transfer countries 136 -S. Qureshi I Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET

Table 1 (Continued) Network Technology Use for work Key organisation Association UNINET-ZA TCP/IP E-mail and Rhodes University, South Universities: Portland, synchronous Africa USA, and Africa communication WED NET FIDO E-mail ELCI, Nairobi: Kenya Researchers in Africa WORKNET/ FIDO, TCP/IP E-mail, database access Johannesburg Link with Mango and SANGONET and conferencing host for NGOs ZANGO NET/ FIDO - proposal E-mail, University of Zambia Lusaka, NGOs, Church ZAMNET for leased line Zambia missions and Hospitals Sources: African Academy of Science/American Association for the Advancement of Science, Electronic Networking in Africa, Nairobi, 1992 .. S. Trumpy, Status of Networking Initiatives in Africa, Rinaf report, April 1992. Mike Jensen, personal communication, 1993-1995. ACTSLINE News item

Pre;inting the results of . . Europe's major research . programme iii Advanced Communications Technologies and Services

Achievements and challenges (n advanced communications in Europe The ACTs (Advanced Conu:nunications Technologies & Services) Programme of the European Commission hasrecently be'en subject to a broad sets ofreviews. The statement below reflects the views of the senior officials who have been responsible for advanced communications in RTDinDG XIII since 1988, but not necessarily ofthe'Co'mmission as a whole.' ' }

Leadership in Key Communications Infrastructure Developments Through Consensus and Standardisation

With JSDN and Europe is· noir reaping the benefits of collaboration in GSM, Europe now common technology and standards developments in has the best digital the 1980s and early 1990s. By 2000,. full .digitisation of communications Europe's. Communications . infrastructure will be infrastructures in the · · achieved: GSM and.Euro-ISDN are now the two most world; interoperable · widely deployed standards for end-to-end digital and affordable ... communications in the world. They ensure a highly · · cost-efficient, seamlessly . interoperable, high- performance and versatile infrastructure for .voice and . multi-media communications, ·including INTERNET access. And because of their wide deployment and the resulting economies of scale, they are· affordable for most businesses and.individuals . . : ... because of The key to these successes was co:..oper~tion betwe.en collaboration in .. Europe's telecommunications equipment developers in RTDand ETSI ·a~d ··other standards. fora,· and in collaborative standardisatiOn .. research in th~ COST framework and . in EU RTD fraineworls: programmes. For EURO-iSDN a"single­ .option set" of protocols, mandated by the. European Council and . negotiated in. ETSI . has enabled TransEuropean , iotetoperation; a larger and . faster market growth, and fast tmit cost-reduction as ·mass- . market applications have emerged - again stimulated by piiot and demonstration projects supported in the EU RTD programmes. · · This gives Europe For GSM, the set of coherent digital standards for world dominance in cellular mobile communications is now taken up in mobile systems... over 100 countries and is by far the largest installed backbone on which 3rd generation mobile systems can be built.

... and digital The third set of European digital communications television standards. standards for broadcast video services is also now in wide deployment. The Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) standard again ensures coherence and 'interoperability , between· satellite, cable and atmospheric radio. broadcasting. It builds on .the world­ wide standards for digital video coding. (MPEG), to which European industry was a major contribution . . Digital broadcasting is already available to over 10 million European households in 1998, and a full choice of services will be opened in all EU Member States by 2000.

Mobile Communicatiorns

The requirement for R&D in advanced mobile and personal communications services and networks, in the framework of the European Community programmes, has beenwidely recognised for many years, and the ACTS Programme has played an essential role as a catalyser of know-how and as a vehicle for early consensus building. The specific objectives that are addressed by the current ACTS mobile projects include the development of third generation platforms for the cost effective transport of broadband services and applications, aiming at responding to the needs of seamless services provision across various radio environments and under different operational conditions. Since the scope of future mobile communications encompasses multimedia, far beyond the capabilities of current mobile/wireless communication systems, the objective is to progressively extend mobile communications to include multimedia and high performance services, and enable their integration and inter-working with. future wired networks.

Third generation mobile communication systems aim also at integrating all the different services of second generation systems~ They will provide a unique· opportunity for competitive service provision to an expected 85% of the population, and co':'er a much wid~r range of broadband services (voice, data, video,' multimedia) that remain consistent and compatible with the technology developments taking place within the fixed telecommunications networks. The progressive migration from second to third generation systems, expected to start in 2002, will therefore encourage new CtJsfoiners .while ensuring that existing customers perceive a service evolution that is relatively seamless, beneficial, attractive and natural. UMTS, from the ACTS Programme perspective, is conceived as a multi-function, rriulti-service, multi-application digital mobile system that will provide personal· communications at rates ranging from 144 kBit/s up to 2 Mbit/s according tq the specific environment, will support universal roaming, and will provide for broadband multimedia services. UMTS is designed to have a terrestrial and a satellite component with a suitable degree of commonality between them, extending to the radio interface. Europe's R&D effort concentrates on the development of technical guidelines regarding, in particu.Iar, interworking between UMTS and ATM technology deployed in fixed networks not ignoring the growing importance ofIP, the compatibility ofUMTS and fixed-networkarchitecture, the allocation of intelligent functionality (UPT -,-.Universal Personal Telecommunications, and IN - Intelligent Network), the level of integration ofthe satellite component of UMTS, and the multi-service convergence philosophy ofthe UMTS radio interface. On the other hand, MBS (Mobile 1;3roadband Systems), including their W-LAN (Wireless Local Area Network) dimension, are an extension to the wired B-ISDN, with the ability to provide radio coverage restricted. to a small area (e.g., sports arenas, factories, television studios, etc.) allowing communication between MBS mobile terminals and terminals directly connected to the B-ISDN at rates up to 155 Mbit/s. Their integration to UMTS is also being addressed by the current work.

Enhanced satellite systems to support mobile multimedia communications Joint trials by a number of ACTS projects have been set up to validate innovations in S-UMTS equipment and services on real mobile satellite channels provided by a GEO space segment. These: • provide world wide connectivity and higher data rates to communications containers developed for construction sites; • test CDMA wideband over a real satellite link; • test MPEG4 video/audio coders over a real satellite link.

These successful trails, conducted by the MOMUSYS and TOMAS projects, were a world first.in using MPEG4 via satellite. In addition, a telemedicine application has been .demonstrated in partnership with the Red Cross using 64 kb/s bearers and H263 video standard. Of particular importance are the achievements towards the definition of S-UMTS concepts and terrestrial/satellite UMTS integration. Preliminary 'results achieved by project SINUS are pushing the state of the art in topics like UMTS intra-satellite segment handover, inter-segment handover and reference models for satellite integration into the UMTS. · · The system demonstrator allows full characterisation of system performance for a variety of mobile environments (suburban, rural, etc.) and supports multimedia applications on an integrated UMTS network. The demonstrator also enables a range of satellite orbits to be investigated. At higher frequencies, the Ka band satellite concepts recently proposed for FSS applications (by Teledesic, Spaceway, Cyberstar. .. ) have been successfully extended to mobile applications. Both terrestrial and aeronautical applications are considered. Full scale trials cover integration of the terminals, applications and use of the Italsat Ka band spacecraft. Broadband wireless Local Area Networks brought closer Work performed by ACTS projects span the full range of spectral band allocations, 5.2 GHz (Hiperlan 2), 17.2 GHz (Hiperlink), 40 GHz (MBS) and 60 GHz (Ultra High Speed LAN's). ACTS has pioneered various WLAN's concepts, which have advanced the technology and demonstrated some novel applications that will ease of integration of wireless ATM·and public B-ISDN networks. An example is the groundbreaking wide-band network application being developed as part of the ACTS SAMBA project, This application enables a high-definition television camera to operate untethered. It can transmit coverage in a fully wireless mode directly from the scene to a: mobile TV studio. Related achievements of ACTS projects include: • Demonstration of a wireless access system for the A TM network, able to offer · service characteristics and benefits of wired ATM transmission. In particular the MAGIC WAND project demonstrates systems that support user bit-rates up to 34Mb/s with an ATM interface to low mobility terminals with radio transmission ranges of up to lOOm. Following the evolution of wireless high­ speed IP technologies, the system work was extended to address also "IP over ATM" • Significant impact on emerging A TM wireless standards, made by project AWACS, in particular the new Hiperlan type 4 or Hiperlink specification. • Demonstration and development of a broadband cellular radio extension to B­ ISDN, giving mobile users access to broadband multimedia services. Project SAMBA focuses on a trial providing transparent A TM connections and supporting bearer services at up to 34 Mbit/s in a cellular radio environment • Demonstration of very high speed-wireless systems delivering user rates up to J.55 Mbit/s and operating at the 60 GHz frequency band by the project MEDIAN. Cell size is limited by the available 60 GHz output power and a maximum delay spread of mobiles operating in the same cell. Given the latter constraint, a cell radius of up to 50 meters has already been demonstrated at those speeds.

Network Server

Wireless ATM 5 G.Hz 20 Mblt/s ~.fif~ ATM switch

Mobile Terminal Access Point

WAND demonstrator system platform

For further information on ACTS consult the ACTSLINE homepage at http://www.actsline.org INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT

Subscription information 4. Each table should be provided on a separate sheet. Information Technology for Development (ISSN 0268- Tables should not be included in the text. 1102) is published in one volume of four issues a year. 5. Figure captions should be provided all together on The subscription price for 1998 (Volume 8) is NLG a separate sheet. 270 + NLG 40 p.h. = NLG 310 (US$ 184). The Dutch 6. Each illustration should be provided on a separate guilder price is definitive. The US dollar price is subject sheet. Illustrations should not be included in the to exchange-rate fluctuations and is given only as a text. The original drawings (no photocopies) are re­ guide. 6% VAT is applicable for certain customers in quired. Electronic files of illustrations should prefer­ the EC Countries. Subscriptions are accepted on a ably be formatted in Encapsulated Postscript For­ prepaid basis only, unless different terms have been mat. previously agreed upon. Personal subscription rates 7. Footnotes should be kept to a minimum, and they and conditions, if applicable, are available upon request should be provided all together on a separate sheet. from the Publisher. Subscription orders can be entered 8. References should be listed alphabetically in the only by calendar year (Jan.-Dec.) and should be sent following style: to the Subscription Department of IOS Press, or to [1] S.G. Hadden, Democracy on the electronic frontier, in: your usual subscription agent. Postage and handling Beyond the Endless Frontier, G. Chapman, ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996. charges include printed airmail delivery to countries [2] D. Morales-Gomez and M. Melessa, Utilizing informa­ outside Europe. Claims for missing issues must be tion and communication technologies for development: made within six months of our publication (mailing) the social dimensions, Information Technology for De­ date, otherwise such claims cannot be honoured free velopment 8(1) {1998), 3-13. of charge .. [3] C. Ringstaff, L. Kelley and D.C. Dwyer, Breaking the mold of instruction with technology: formative case Instructions to authors studies of the unit of study process. Unpublished Re­ For detailed instructions please refer to the Information port prepared for the National Center on Education and for authors published in Information Technology for De­ the Economy, Washington, DC, 1993. velopment 6(3,4) (1995), 191-197. You may also refer Proofs: The corresponding author is asked to check to our Website on the Internet, www.iospress.nl. the galley proofs. Corrections other than printer's er­ rors, however, should be avoided. Costs arising from Submission of manuscripts: Authors are requested to such corrections will be charged to the authors. submit 3 copies of their manuscript as well as a floppy disk containing the electronic files of the paper to the Offprints: For each contribution the corresponding au­ Editor-in-Chief or to one of the Associate Editors. It is thor will receive 25 offprints and one copy of the issue important that the file on disk and the printout are free of charge. An order form for additional offprints identical. will be provided along with the galley proofs. Preparation of manuscripts: Copyright: Authors submitting a manuscript do so on 1. Manuscripts must be written in English. Authors the understanding that if their paper is accepted for whose native language is not English are re­ publication, copyright in the article, including the right commended to seek the advice of a native En­ to reproduce the article in all forms and media, shall be glish speaker, if possible, before submitting their assigned exclusively to the Publisher. manuscripts. 2. Manuscripts should be typed on one side of the Publisher paper only, with wide margins and double spacing IOS Press throughout. For the electronic file of the text you Van Diemenstraat 94 may use any standard word processor. Do not use 1013 CN Amsterdam page layout software and do not send Postscript The Netherlands Tel.: +31 20 638 21 89 files of the text. Fax: +31 20 620 34 19 3. The title page should contain (i} a title, (ii) author's name(s), (iii) affiliation(s}, (iv) an abstract, (v) a E-mail: complete correspondence address, including a tele­ Subscription Department: [email protected] phone number, a fax number, and an e-mail ad­ Advertising Department: [email protected] Desk Editorial Department: [email protected] dress. Internet: www.iospress.nl IDRC I CRDI Illllll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll llll 1111 296668 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT Volume 8, Number 2, 1998

Abstracted/ Indexed in: EBSCO's database, Information Science Abstracts, LISA, MasterFILE, UMI

CONTENTS

Editorial In this issue 69

S. Kanungo and M. Chouthoy IT planning in India: implications for IT effectiveness 71

R.D. Galliers, S. Madon and R. Rashid Information systems and culture: applying 'stages of growth' concepts to development administration 89

L. T. Chia, B.S. Lee and C.K Yeo Information technology and the Internet: the Singapore experience 101

S. Qureshi Fostering civil associations in Africa through GOVERNET: an administrative reform network 121

ACTSLINE News item