Introduction: “Crime There Will Ever Be”
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Notes Introduction: “Crime There Will Ever Be” 1. Times, March 18, 1898. 2. V. A. C. Gatrell, “The Decline of Theft and Violence in Victorian and Edwardian England,” in Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime in Western Europe since 1500, ed. Gatrell, Bruce Lenman, and Geoffrey Parker (London: Europa Publications, 1980), 238–337. 3. Leon Radzinowicz and Roger Hood, A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750, Vol. 5: The Emergence of Penal Policy in Victorian and Edwardian England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 113–24. 4. Times, July 23, 1901. 5. Report of the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis for the Year 1913, [Cd 7671], H.C. 1914–16, xxxii, 111. [Hereafter cited as RCPM.] 6. Sir Robert Anderson, Criminals and Crime: Some Facts and Suggestions (London: James Nisbet and Co., 1907), 62. Anderson first proposed his ideas for a return to harsh sentences in 1901. See also Times, February 12, 1901. 7. M i k e M a g u i r e , “ C r i m e S t a t i s t i c s , P a t t e r n s , a n d Tr e n d s : C h a n g i n g Pe r c e p t i o n s and Their Implications,” in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology ed. Mike Maguire, Rod Morgan, and Robert Reiner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 223, 257. 8. David P. Farrington and Patrick A. Langan, Crime and Justice in the United States and in England and Wales, 1981–1996 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, 1998). 9. Howard Parker, Judith Aldridge, and Roy Egginton, eds., UK Drugs Unlimited: New Research and Policy Lessons on Illicit Drug Use (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 2. 10. Home Office, Prison Statistics, England and Wales, 1995 (London: H.M.S.O., 1995); Richard Kinsey, John Lea, and Jock Young, Losing the Fight against Crime (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986). 11. Clive Norris and Gary Armstrong, The Maximum Surveillance Society: The Rise of CCTV (London: Berg, 1999). 12. Jan van Dijk, Robert Manchin, John van Kesteren, Sami Nevala, and Gergely Hideg, The Burden of Crime in the EU: A Comparative Analysis of the 170 Notes European Crime and Safety Survey (EU ICS), 2005 (Freiburg: Max Planck Institute, 2007). 13. Clive Emsley, Crime and Society in England, 1750–1900 (London: Longman, 1987); Martin Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Emsley himself called for greater attention to twentieth- century criminal justice history in his essay, “Albion’s Felonious Attractions: Reflections upon the History of Crime in England,” in Crime History and Histories of Crime, ed. Clive Emsley and L. A. Knafla (London: Greenwood Press, 1996), 67–85. See also Emsley, “The History of Crime and Crime Control Institutions, c. 1770–1945,” in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, eds. Mike Maguire et al. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 149–82. 14. For an overview of these two criminological traditions, see Paul Rock, “Sociological Theories of Crime,” in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 4th edition, eds. Maguire et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 3–42. See also John Lea, “Social Crime Revisited,” Theoretical Criminology 3 (1999): 307–26; Ian Taylor, “The Political Economy of Crime,” in Oxford Handbook of Criminology 2nd edition, ed. Maguire et al. (1997), 265–303; Ian Taylor, Vincenzo Ruggiero, and Nigel South, eds., The New European Criminology: Crime and Social Order in Europe (London: Routledge, 1998). 15. A recent attempt to establish fruitful dialogue between historians and crimi- nologists is found in Barry Godfrey, Chris Williams, and Paul Lawrence, History & Crime (London: Sage, 1998). See also Eamonn Carrabine et al., Crime in Modern Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), and Terence Morris, Crime and Criminal Justice since 1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989). 16. Louise Jackson, Women Police: Gender, Welfare and Surveillance in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006); eadem, “Care or Control? The Metropolitan Women Police and Child Welfare, 1919–1969,” Historical Journal 46, no. 3 (2003): 623–48; Haia Shpayer- Makov, The Making of a Policeman: A Social History of a Labour Force in Metropolitan London, 1829–1914 (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2002); Clive Emsley, The English Police: A Political and Social History (London: Longman, 1996); Neil Darbyshire and Brian Hilliard, The Flying Squad (London: Headline, 1993); V. A. C. Gatrell, “Crime, Authority, and the Policeman State,” in The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750–1950, Vol. 3: Social Agencies and Institutions ed. F. M. L. Thompson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 243–310; T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales, 900–1966 (London: Constable, 1967). 17. Pamela Cox, Gender, Justice and Welfare: Bad Girls in Britain, 1900–1950 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Heather Shore, “ ‘Inventing’ the Juvenile Delinquent in Nineteenth- Century Europe,” in Comparative Histories of Crime, ed. Barry Godfrey et al. (Cullompton: Willan Publishing, 2003), 110–24; David Garland, “The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society,” British Journal of Notes 171 Criminology 36, no. 4 (1996): 445–71; Paul Gordon, White Law: Racism in the Police, Courts, and Prisons (London: Pluto Press, 1983). 18. Early studies into the relationship between crime and the business cycle include Hermann Mannheim, Social Aspects of Crime in England between the Wars (London: Allen and Unwin, 1940). While conventional wisdom sug- gests a direct relationship between unemployment and property crime, the post- 1945 experience of relatively stable employment combined with rapidly rising crime has led to reconsiderations of this assumption. Contemporary scholars now tend to focus more specifically on overall data for relative deprivation and inequality, the shift from manufacturing to service- sector employment (which is usually casual and/or insecure), and levels of con- sumption. Chris Hale, “The Labour Market and Post- War Crime Trends in England and Wales,” in Crime Unlimited? Questions for the 21st Century, ed. Pat Carlen and Rod Morgan (London: Macmillan, 1999), 30–56; Chris Hale, “Crime and the Business Cycle,” British Journal of Criminology 38 (1998): 681–98; Simon Field, Trends in Crime and Their Interpretation: A Study of Recorded Crime in Post War England and Wales, Home Office Research Study No. 119 (London: H.M.S.O., 1990). 19. Abigail Wills, “Delinquency, Masculinity and Citizenship in England, 1950–1970,” Past and Present 187 (May 2005): 157–85; Alyson Brown, English Society and the Prison: Time, Culture and Politics in the Development of the Modern Prison, 1850–1920 (Woodbridge, UK: The Boydell Press, 2003); Lucia Zedner, Women, Crime and Custody in Victorian England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991); Victor Bailey, Delinquency and Citizenship: Reclaiming the Young Offender, 1914–1948 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Roger Hood, Borstal Re- Assessed (London: Heinemann, 1965). 20. For a full explanation of the logic of the eighteenth- century system, see Douglas Hay, “Property, Authority, and the Criminal Law,” in Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth- Century England, ed. Hay, Peter Linebaugh, John Rule, E. P. Thompson, and Cal Winslow (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975), 17–64; Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage, 1978); V. A. C. Gatrell, The Hanging Tree: Execution and the English People, 1770–1868 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). 21. Shani D’Cruze and Louise Jackson, Women, Crime and Justice in England since 1660 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Cox, Gender, Justice and Welfare; Shani D’Cruze, ed., Everyday Violence in Britain, 1850–1950: Gender and Class (London: Longman, 2000). 22. On prostitution, see Judith Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980). On domestic violence, see Martin Wiener, Men of Blood: Violence, Manliness, and Criminal Justice in Victorian England (Ca mbridge: Ca mbridge Universit y Press, 2004). The best scholarly works on the significance of Jack the Ripper are Judith Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late- Victorian London (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) and 172 Notes L. Perry Curtis, Jr., Jack the Ripper and the London Press (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001). 23. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal; Wiener<stet>, “The March of Penal Progress?” Journal of British Studies 26, no. 1 (1987): 83–96. 24. Mannheim, Social Aspects, 29–47. 25. Gatrell, “Decline of Theft and Violence.” 26. Mike Maguire, “Crime Statistics: The ‘Data Explosion’ and its Implications,” in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition, ed. Mike Maguire et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 322–75. See also Chris A. Williams, “Counting Crimes or Counting People: Some Implications of Mid- Nineteenth Century British Police Returns,” Crime, History & Societies 4, no. 2 (2000): 77–93; David Philips, Crime and Authority in Victorian England: The Black Country 1835–1860 (London: Croom Helm, 1977). 27. Howard Taylor, “Rationing Crime: The Political Economy of Criminal Statistics since the 1850s,” Economic History Review 51, no. 3 (1998): 569–90. Other skeptics include Rob Sindall, Street Violence in the Nineteenth Century: Media Panic or Real Danger? (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1990), and J. J. Tobias, Crime and Industrial Society in the 19th Century (London: Batsford, 1967). 28. Howard Taylor, “The Politics of the Rising Crime Statistics of England and Wales, 1914–1960,” Crime, History & Societies 2, no. 1 (1998): 5–28. 29. For instance, Taylor notes that the number of recorded murders hovered around 150 per year between 1880 and 1966 and cites this as evidence that police resources could not handle more investigations. But he never cites a single case that demonstrates a “rationing” of the crime figures in this way.