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Home , Fur trade, Gabriel Dumont Institute

Photo by: “Winter on the Ice of the Assynoibain and Red River”, watercolour, 1821” by Peter Rindisbacher

MÉTIS : HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MÉTIS INVOLVEMENT IN THE COMMERCIAL FISHING IN NORTHERN Policy North (North West Saskatchewan Policy Unit) Johnson Shoyama Graduate School of Public Policy of Saskatchewan Kirk Hall , 117 Science Place , SK S7N 5C8

April 2020

Special thanks to: Thea Pearce, Carson Mackonka, Dr. Greg Finnegan (research leader), and Dr. Ken Coates (coordinator).

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ...... 2 2. Discussing the Meaning of Wahkootowin ...... 3 3. A Brief History of the Métis People in Northern Saskatchewan ...... 3 4. Commercial Fishing in Northern Saskatchewan ...... 4 5. Modern Commercial Fishing ...... 11 6. The Coronavirus Pandemic in Northern Saskatchewan ...... 13 7. Conclusion ...... 14 8. References ...... 15 Appendix A: Company Contracts 1823 to 1888 for Fisheries with Métis Genealogy Included ...... 18 Endnotes ...... 27

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1. INTRODUCTION trade dating from the 17th century. They are constitutionally recognized as a The historical precedence for the Métis founding people in Canada under the commercial fishery in western Canada Constitution Act of 1982.5 It is settled law seems to be one that requires little that a person claiming Métis status must thought. Acting as middlemen in the fur self-identify as Métis and be able to trace trade, the Métis established a niche their ancestry to a historical Métis providing the Hudson Bay Company (HBC community. Much like other Métis or the Company) posts with skilled labour, communities across Canada, the Métis , food including and fish1, people of Northern Saskatchewan played and other country supplies that they were an important role in the history of resource dependent upon. They also represented an extraction in the region beyond that interface between the more remote dominant fur trade industry. This is Indigenous communities and the Scottish especially true in the commercial fishing Company servants acting as “Interpreters” industry. However, this extensive history of both language and probably .2 and the ability of the Métis people to fish Canadian governments have historically commercially has not always been accepted that Indigenous people have the recognized by Canadian governments nor right to fish and hunt for substance (for the judicial system.6 food, social, ceremonial purposes), a premise that appears to be solidly This paper discusses the importance of entrenched in the belief that prior to the commercial fishing to the Métis community arrival of the settler society that Indigenous in Northern Saskatchewan, through an people did not participate in a trade-based examination of the overarching history of economy, which of course archaeology the Métis people in the fishery and as from the Canadian Arctic trade to middlemen in general in the larger context the Indigenous empires of the Inca and of the fur trade. The Métis People acted as Aztecs and their predecessors proves independent agents frequently making invalid.3 However, if, in a court of law, it is mercantile decisions regarding trade and necessary to show evidence of the increasingly becoming involved in the commercial activity of the Métis people geopolitics of trade relations. These trade during the past two hundred plus years interactions would emerge between the then the evidence is solidly available. This French (pre- 1760) and the British Hudson research paper presents the historical Bay Company (HBC, and then later with the evidence of the Métis as commercial British HBC and American fur trading agents, under contract, fulfilling a series of companies in the Red River Valley of specific business roles within the ). These findings accompany the western Canada and specifically in the legal review and the analysis of the region of Ile a la Crosse, Saskatchewan. perception of Métis commercial fishery industry participants as well as the general The Métis people of Canada have a long, overview of research on the rights of the and continuing history.4 The Métis are Métis people to commercially fishing in identified as individuals of both Euro- Saskatchewan. American and Indigenous ancestry whose culture is rooted in the French and British

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT)

2. DISCUSSING THE MEANING OF relationships with the Indigenous people WAHKOOTOWIN than their British counterparts.12 This may be attributed to the fact that they sought To discuss the history of Métis commercial both trading relationships and female fishing, it is prudent to examine how the companionship in contrast to favouring identity of the Métis people in Northern territorial expansion.13 Shortly after Saskatchewan has been defined by the establishing a trading network, many importance of the Cree term, European traders engaged in intimate Wahkootowin. Brenda Macdougall asserts relationships with the Cree and Dene that this term, also recognized as Tiypspaye women residing in the area. Their offspring in Sioux and Nkonegaana in Anishnaabe, are regarded as some of the first Métis emphasizes the significance of family in the people in Saskatchewan.14 Many of their Sakitawak way of life.7 Wahkoootowin is, children had predominantly French and “predicated upon a specific Aboriginal sometimes English surnames to reflect the notion and definition of family as a broadly ancestry of their fathers.15 A large number conceived sense of relatedness with all of the Métis families in Saskatchewan were beings, human and non-human, living and of French descent while a few were dead, physical and spiritual”.8 In other established by “English Halfbreed” men words, this concept illustrates that all who originated from Selkirk or Red River.16 aspects of Aboriginal life are Some of the first recorded instances of interconnected and bound together by the contact between the Indigenous people of centrality of family.9 This lifeway is Saskatchewan and European settlers in the emulated by the Métis people and northwest took place in Sakitawak.17 By represents the intangibility of culture.10 The 1793, a small number of Cree people Métis people are thus inextricably linked by remained in the île à La Crosse region as family values that are central to their the majority of the Cree population was cultural identity. decimated by several smallpox epidemics.18 Hence, the Dene people were encouraged to migrate north to engage in the fur trade. 3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MÉTIS PEOPLE They dominated the and IN NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN Moostoos-sipi regions for the majority of the 19th and 20th centuries.19 The history of the Métis people in Northern Saskatchewan is rooted in colonial In the 1800s and into the early 1900s, the interactions. Beginning in the late 17th Métis people of Northern Saskatchewan century, French travelers Thomas and lived in a region of economic prosperity Joseph Frobisher, from the based and geographic advantage.20 Located south St. Lawrence trade network, along with of the Canadian Shield, Sakitawak, more several other traders, arrived in île à La commonly known as île à La Crosse, was a Crosse in search of economic major center of trade frequently traversed opportunities.11 In 1776, fur traders by the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) and established the first trading post in île à La Northwest Company (NWC).21 By 1821, Crosse. As the French were more tolerant Sakitawak became the HBC’s largest of intermarriages and country relations, administrative centre for the English River they maintained more amicable District.22 The fur trade dominated

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Canada’s economy and the success of many System, yielded a successful fishing participants depended on their ability to industry.32 connect meaningfully with the Indigenous Figure 1: Hudson’s Bay Trading Posts in people of the region.23 La Loche Northern Saskatchewan 33 and Green Lake emerged as some of the more stable trading outposts in Northern Saskatchewan at this time.24 The Métis people worked at many of these economic centers and were paid as employees for their as hunters, freeman and fishermen.25 Throughout the 19th century the Cree and Dene people developed roots in the HBC’s mercantile economy. They had formed their own unique working class and served as some of the primary producers for the Hudson’s Bay Company.26 Some, Métis historians perceive the Métis to have been an integral component of the working class who were exploited by their European counterparts.27 By the late 19th century, company officials regarded Métis employees as too numerous and too highly compensated.28 Despite these reservations, the, Métis people continued to provide The Hudson Bay Company (HBC, the provisions for the Hudson's Bay Company Company) contractor records clearly and other companies and individuals.29 This indicate that Métis fishermen were relationship lasted for over 200 years.30 compensated for their workers on contract, just as were other contractors from eastern 4. COMMERCIAL FISHING IN and the British Isles. However, the SASKATCHEWAN HBC records do not differentiate contractors based on ethnicity nor race, The history of Métis people of Northern but they do provide information on place Saskatchewan and their involvement in the of hire and place of work (Figure 2). commercial is well- Fortunately, the HBC biographies as well as documented. Métis elder Ed Theriau holds the Gabriel Dumont Institute and the that it was common practice for Métis Glenbow Museum, among others, have people in Saskatchewan to learn to fish undertaken extensive genealogies of the commercially.31 It was a way of life Métis in western Canada and these sources sustained by the north’s ecological richness have been used to build for the first time a and geographic positioning. The English probable list of Métis involvement in the River System was at the heart of this commercial fishery. industry. Comprised of Buffalo Lake, Sakitawak and Clear Lake, the English River System, now identified as the Churchill

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As an aside, this is perhaps some of the earliest journey-to-work data available to western Canadian labour historians, with dates in our sample ranging from 1823 to 1888, a span of 65 years covering most of seven decades. Métis participation can be definitively found throughout the pre- and post- confederation eras. The full HBC fishery database is appended.

The database which can be accessed online at the Manitoba Archives at was searched in both English and French for common labour activity terms related to fishing (See Figure 2).

Figure 2: Name Index – Hudson’s Bay Company records – Servants Contracts (1780-ca.1926)

WORK MISCELLANEOUS LOCATION NAME DATE AGE ORIGIN OCCUPATION LOCATION (Value/Years) CODE34 Sylvestre, HB [SK] Île- £20 pa. (1) his A.32/55 Jean 1852 No Data Can Fisherman à-la-Crosse mark fo.283 Baptiste £30 pa. (3) his mark to receive sterling for Beaudrie, Can Indian animals given to A.32/21 1855 No Data No Data Interpreter Joseph Country company + ½ 8- fo.211-212 gall keg crash sugar 1 bag 4 lbs Source: https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html

The results tallied 166 contracts by name and born after the contract was signed.37 Could this profession with dates, value of contract and be his son? term as well as location of work and a code for the HBC post or territory. We have less Figure 3: HBC Fishing Contracts, By Ancestry as complete data on age and origin. “Origin” a Percentage, 1823-1888 (N=126) creates a challenge for the researchers, as in many cases of Métis hires an origin is not provided, only the place of work as per the contract. In most cases of non-Métis hires, especially those coming from the British Isles or place of origin (hire) and place of work are regularly provided. The single example provided in Figure 2 of Jean Baptiste Sylvestre 39% in 1852 happens to be of Métis origin headed to Ile a la Crosse, and listed as originating in Canada, perhaps meaning locally.35 But this 61% does not appear to be the case with possible Métis workers such as Baptiste Ducharme (dit) McKay in 1860 who has neither origin nor place of work listed but who received payment at Fort à la Corne east of Prince Albert.36 Although this appears to be a classic Métis name combining French and Scottish heritage, the records Metis European accessed to date do not confirm his Métis heritage as we found that the only Baptiste was

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Figure 4: HBC Fishing Contracts, By Origin, The place of origin of (?) “North West America” 1823-1888 (N=171) and the location of work within certainly speaks to the far-ranging nature of the Domestic International Unknown Métis contractors being hire. For example, Antoine Tourangeau who in 1854 was paid £23 per annum on a 3-year term,and who made his mark and promised to remain inland for one of 14% the three years in North West America. He was paid out of , Manitoba and was listed as a fisherman middleman. Another, example is perhaps indicative of the barter 51% system still being essential to Indigenous 35% workers, with Alphonse Lieucheux in 1885 signing a contract as a fiherman and sawyer (?) for 30MB (Made ), per month and tea and tobacco. A contract he resigned in 1886. In 1843-44 at 30 MB would have

bought you 90lbs of tobacco or 30 blankets.38 As shown in Figure 3, about 61% of HBC However, by the 1880 a MB was actually a value workers employed from the period 1823 to of currency, not an actual beaver pelt, as per 1888 were of Métis ancestry based on our image of the MB token illustrated here. preliminary cross referencing of names to genealogical records. This accounts for more Figure 5: Average Contract Payment Based almost two-thirds of the HBC’s fishery on Origin of HBC Fishing Contractor, 1823- workforce throughout this 65-year period. 1888 (N=168) However, it is important to consider that the ancestry of several workers could not be traced, £29.00 and thus, this number could be higher. Figure 3 £28.00 shows the breakdown of the known origins of 27.97 the 126 listed fishery contracts signed by the £27.00 HBC with 61% being defined as Métis, and 39% £26.00 being contracted having European ethnicity. We £25.00 can also breakout the fishery contracts by 25.09 Domestic-hires compared to International-hires £24.00 and again an unknown category. The HBC £23.00 23.54 throughout the 65 years in question appear to have had a strong investment in local hires with £22.00 51% of their fishery labour force coming from £21.00 within what is today Canada. But their roots in Domestic International Unknown the Scottish Highlands and Isles is well Origin Origin Origin documented by the 35% of their fishery labour force that originated in the British Isles from The data also speaks to the question of places such as Ullapool in Lochbroom, wage equality within the commercial Stromness, and Sandwick in Linklater, Orkney fishering industry (Figure 5). Given the appearing along with Canadian places of origin inequality in the wage economy today such as “Rupert’s Land”, Trois Rivières and between the Indigenous and settler Yamaska St. Michel, “North West America”, Iles societies one would expect that it has an a la Crosse and English River.

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT) historic precedence. This is not the case. traded income for as we in Figure Métis fishermen were actually paid higher 7. Throughout the period HBC fishery contractual rates than Europeans and the contracts averaged just over £28 for “Other” or unlisted contractors at £28 for contracts of between one and two years, the Métis contractors versus £25 for the but dropped to £23 plus for three and five mainly Scottish Europeans and £23.5 for year contracts suggesting that contractors the small other category. Corporations, traded income for longer term security, not especially monopolists like the HBC usually unlike professional atheletes in free market paid higher wages to their most efficient agency negotiations. workers, assuming this is the case, then Figure 7: Average HBC Payment Based on HBC saw the Métis as an important part of Length of Contract Signed by Fishing their business. Contractees, 1823-1888 Figure 6: Number of HBC Contracts Per Length of Fishing Employee Contract, £30.00 £28.… £28.24 1823-1888 £25.00 £23.33 £23.42 70

£20.00 60 63 50 £15.00 48 40

30 36 £10.00

20 £5.00 19 10 0 £0.00 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year Average Payment

Working in the fishery created long- term However, cash payments were not the only employment opportunities for the Métis payments made to the contractors as their and others contractors signed out of contracts could include other gratuites Quebec and the Highlands who held such as “a large, dressed Moose skin at contracts from one to three years for Peel River”39 for Harvey Magnus, from domestic hires with the longer five years Sandwick, Orkeny Isles or 2 large dressed contracts (19/166) being signed by the moose skin & reindeer skins 20lbs grease in British Isles contractees. In total, 166 1870 for Alexander C. McLeod, a Métis, contracts in the database between 1823 paid of out of Fort ChipewyanGratuities and 1888 provided term limitations for the though were not the norm. workers with a two-year term contract The contracts also provide a unique time- being most common with 63 occurences or series on t the value of over time contracts. 38% of all contracts. Longer term, three- (Figure 8), which reports the rise in the year contracts were also recorded, but one average fishery contract between 1823 and

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1888 from 19.65 to about 29 by the end of of the extensive research completed into the 1880s. the genealogies of hundreds of HBC employees. For example, Michel Bouvier of Two data points have been pulled out, Ile a la Crosse is recorded as holding a from a low of of £17 during the world-wide contract in 1842 for 1 year and again in recession, which especially hit western 1857 again for a single year. In 1857 the North America in 1876, and the high of 34 contract included: allowances of food per annum a decade later. when labour supplies for his services during the winter would have been scarce in the west due to as carpenter and coureur.45 Did he only the Riel Rebellion. One of the highest work on contract these two years, it seems contracts awarded was to , a unlikely given that he was seen as a Scot as a Fisherman, Teamaker, and for valuable carpenter and coureur “de bois” General in leaving us to question the completeness of Athanasca for two the HBC online contracts. Perhaps Michel years at £40 per was employed each year on annual annum. contracts, and they have just not survived. Across western Another example is that of Laliberté, Pierre Canada, Métis people (dit Lachouette) of Île á La Crosse, a family harvested fish at HBC name of considerable history in the trading posts. They especially did so in NW community to this day. Pierre is listed Saskatchewan.40 They were both valued twice, as per the Manitoba Archives/HBC labourers and skilled fishermen. Several records system, as he went Métis fishermen were employed by the by two names and both are recorded as Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) to provide separate entries. In our research this fish to feed sled dogs in the region.41 This is second name would have been removed because traveling by sled was a common from the baseline record. Pierre also mode of transportation at this time, appears in two entries 1842 and 1851 especially during the harsh winter signing up for first a two-year contract and months.42 then a three-year term – as noted by his Records from the HBC also document mark, indicating that he was illiterate. By paying several employees referred to as 1851, he had moved up to be a Gouvernail possessing a “Native mark”.43 Many of the Steersman, the most responsible position men listed as Indigenous, such as Joseph in a canoe. His previous position was listed McLellan and Baptiste dit McKay Ducharme as Boute which may be J’sus à possess easily identifiable European boutte literally meaning “I’m at the end,” names.44 This points to the fact that the so he was always the Steerman. The HBC workers being paid were of mixed fishery contract illustrate that these Métis Indigenous and European ancestry. As men were regarded as contractors working shown below, archival records from the for the HBC in the fishing industry, HBC indicate that many fishermen of Métis illustrating that their history is rooted in ancestry relied on labour contracts with the commercial fishing practices. It also company to bring in hard cash into what indicates that these Métis fishers would have otherwise been a cash-starved accounted for a significant portion of the economy. These names are only a portion commercial fishing industry during the

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HBC’s economic acting as entrepreneurs harvesting the regions natural resources for profit through the sale of their services to the Company.

Figure 8: Average Annual HBC Fishing Contract Value Per Year, 1823-1888, with Polynomial Treadline (N=166)

£40.00

£35.00 £34

£30.00

£25.00

£20.00 £17 £15.00

£10.00 y = 0.0005x2 + 0.136x + 19.754 R² = 0.4327 £5.00

£0.00 1823 1826 1830 1836 1839 1842 1845 1849 1852 1855 1858 1861 1864 1867 1870 1873 1877 1880 1884 1888

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Figure 8 provides a list of HBC contracted servants that either originated in Ile a la Crosse or travelled to the trading post from elsewhere.

Figure 8: HBC Contracted “Employees” from and to Ile a la Crosse 1794 to 1901

LOCATION OF LOCATION VERIFIED DATE OF OCCUPATION NAME FISHERMAN OF WAGE MÉTIS CONTRACT TITLE ORIGIN CONTRACT HB [SK] Île-à- Babue, Baptiste Unsure 1829 English River* Middleman £15 pa. (2) his mark la-Crosse Beaulieu, HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1868 Interpreter £30 pa.+£2 t/s (2) his mark Joseph la-Crosse HB [AB] Middleman Binnot, Joseph Unsure 1880 Ile-à-la-Crosse Chipewyan, £22 pa.+£2 t/s (1) his mark General Service Fort £30 + supplies pa. (1) his mark + allowances of food supplies for his Bouvier, Michel Yes 1857 Ile-à-la-Crosse Guide valuable services during the winter as carpenter and coureur Gouvernail Bouvier, Michel Yes 1842 Ile-à-la-Crosse £22 pa. (1) his mark Native Hivernant HB [SK] Île-à- Bruce, Baptiste Yes 1836 Can Middleman £24 pa. (1) his mark la-Crosse HB [SK] Île-à- Bruce, Frederick Yes 1870 Charpentier £25 pa.+£2 t/s (1) his mark la-Crosse Charbonneau, Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- No 1867 Pêcheur £25 pa.(1) his mark David River la-Crosse Charbonneau, Can [PQ] HB [SK] Île-à- £22 pa. (2) his mark known to be No 1829 Steersman Jean Baptiste Boucherville la-Crosse disobedient/drunk Daigneault, Can English HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1864 Labourer £22 pa. (2) his mark Vincent River* la-Crosse Flammand, HB [SK] Île-à- Interprète 900 livres pa.+ allowances (2) his No 1822 Joseph la-Crosse Milieu mark natif Lachouette, HB [SK] Île-à- Gouvernail Pierre Laliberté Yes 1851 £22 pa. (3) his mark la-Crosse Steersman dit Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Laliberté, Pierre Yes 1842 Boute £20 pa. (2) his mark River la-Crosse Laliberté, Pierre HB [SK] Île-à- Gouvernail Yes 1851 £22 pa. (3) his mark dit Lachouette la-Crosse Steersman Laporte, Pierre Can [PQ] La HB [SK] Île-à- 500 livres de vingt sols 200 livres Unsure 1823 Milieu "A" Prairie la-Crosse deducted from debt £20 pa. (3)+ bonus sig. note HB [SK] Île-à- Leask, Hugh No 1794 Scot OKI Orphir Steersman previous contract Northward la-Crosse Expedition Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Linklater, Peter Yes 1851 River Labourer £20 pa. (2) his mark la-Crosse Settlement Magloire, Postmaster £60 pa. (3) his mark postmaster's Yes 1898 Ile-à-la-Crosse Maurice General Service allowance Magloire, HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1901 Post Master £55 pa.+ gratuities (3) his mark Maurice la-Crosse Majeau, Louis Can [PQ] HB [SK] Île-à- Unsure 1825 Interpreter £24 pa. (2) his mark "A" L’Assomption la-Crosse Mallette, Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1860 Bowsman £23 pa. (1) his mark Arsene River la-Crosse McKay, Thomas Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Milieu £20 pa. (2) his mark copy 1 year as Yes 1864 "A" River la-Crosse Hivernant head man HB [SK] Île-à- McKay, William Yes 1868 Horsekeeper £25 pa.+£2 t/s (1) his mark la-Crosse

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Mercredi[e], Can English HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1859 Devant £23 pa. (2) his mark Abraham River* la-Crosse Mercredi[e], HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1861 Devant £25 pa.(2) his mark Abraham la-Crosse HB [SK] Île-à- Mirasty, David Yes 1870 Steersman £27 pa.+£2 t/s (1) his mark la-Crosse Morin, Antoine HB [SK] Île-à- Guide Yes 1867 Ile-à-la-Crosse £35 pa. (2) his mark "B" la-Crosse Interpreter Morin, Antoine Can English HB [SK] Île-à- Guide Yes 1860 £30 pa. (1) his mark copy "B" jnr. River* la-Crosse Interpreter Morin, Antoine HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1870 Can Guide £40 pa.+£2 t/s (1) his mark "B" jnr. la-Crosse Can English HB [SK] Île-à- £20-22 pa. (2) his mark Native Paul, Baptiste Yes 1825 Bowsman River* la-Crosse cancelled HB [SK] Île-à- £40-50 pa. (2) sig. previous Peek, James Unsure 1821 Clerk la-Crosse contract deceased 1 June 1822 Richotte, Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1867 Milieu £22 pa.+£2 t/s (3) his mark copy Baptiste River la-Crosse Can English HB [SK] Île-à- Roy, François Yes 1867 Guide £35 pa. (1) his mark River* la-Crosse HB [SK] Île-à- Smith, James Yes 1868 Middleman £24 pa.+£2 t/s (1) his mark la-Crosse Sylvestre, Jean HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1852 Can Fisherman £20 pa. (1) his mark Baptiste la-Crosse HB [ON] Thomas, John Yes 1867 Ile-à-la-Crosse English River Middleman £18-22 pa. £2 t/s (3) his mark Dist. £14 pa.+ bonus (3) sig. note Eng LND St. HB [SK] Île-à- Thompson, John No 1794 Bowsman previous contract Northward Margaret's la-Crosse Expedition Tourangeau, HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1868 Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) his mark Antoine la-Crosse Tous-Les-Jours, HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1850 Milieu £17 pa. (3) his mark André la-Crosse Tous-Les-Jours, HB [SK] Île-à- Yes 1855 Milieu £21 pa. (1) his mark André la-Crosse Walkingchief, Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Bowsman Unsure 1860 £23 pa. (3) his mark John River la-Crosse Labourer

5. MODERN COMMERCIAL FISHING

The lives of Métis people of both Saskatchewan are deeply ingrained in the commercial fishing industry. In 2007, a federal survey completed by the Freshwater Fish Management Corporation (FFMC) collected data regarding commercial fishermen across Canada. The FFMC is a federal crown corporation that, under the Freshwater Fish Act, has the right to market and trade freshwater fish to interprovincial and export markets. About 75% of fish harvesters surveyed by the FFMC indicated they were of Indigenous (?) or Métis ancestry.46 As well, the results of the survey also illustrated that the commercial fishing industry in Saskatchewan is the second largest in Canada. Several economic impact studies have also estimated that from 2006-2007, 88% of commercial fishers in Saskatchewan self-identified as Indigenous (First Nations) or Métis.47 It clearly indicates that, in the province of Saskatchewan, the commercial fishing industry is dominated by people of Métis and Indigenous ancestry.

Over the past several decades, the Métis people have used both legal and administrative channels in attempt to advance their and fishing rights. In the case of R.V. Laviolette, Métis fisherman Ron Laviolette was charged with contravening section 13(1) of The Fisheries Regulations

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made pursuant to The Fisheries Act 1994 traditional land. They were regarded as a (Saskatchewan). More specifically, he was distinct people and granted a right to fish charged for fishing without a license during for food, social, and ceremonial purposes. the closed fishing season. Laviolette was The landmark decision set the precedent accompanied by two other Indigenous for future provincial cases involving the (First Nations?) fishermen whose Métis commercial fishing industry. rights allowed them to fish for sustenance The ability of Métis people in Northern purposes.48 However, Laviolette was a Saskatchewan to fish commercially has Métis resident of the Flying Dust reserve historically been impeded by both provincial near Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan, which and federal law. It is argued that commercial had not been defined as a historic Métis fishing is a traditional Métis way of life that is settlement unlike its neighbouring Green inherently protected by the Métis right to Lake community.49 Provincial policy states autonomous self-government. This commercial that in order to exercise Métis harvesting entitlement equates to the right to sell, barter rights, an individual must self-identify as and trade fish in their traditional territories.55 Métis and maintain a connection to their Although the Métis people in Saskatchewan respective community.50 Similarly, they have the right to fish, their ability to fish must live in the Northern Administration commercially is bounded by government 56 District and must uphold a traditional policies and regulations. This has negatively impacted the Métis community, even though lifestyle.51 However, the Crown asserted the provincial government has argued that that Laviolette did not meet these criteria 52 modern catch limits can produce a sustainable and attempted to have him fined. livelihood.57 However, many of the Métis On July 15th, 2005, the presiding judge, people in Saskatchewan that remain in the Earl Kalenith, ruled that the respondent commercial fishing business are unable to make a substantial living due to high quotas and maintained the right to fish for subsistence shortened fishing seasons.58 In Cochin, as a Métis person on traditional Métis Saskatchewan, the fishing season has decreased land.53 The Judge stated that “I find that and is only two weeks long.59 Following World the evidence led at this trial contains War Two, the fishing industry in Cochin sufficient demographic information, proof flourished, but is now depleted due to of shared customs, traditions and collective increasingly stringent regulations. As well, fish identity to support the existence of a quotas are currently too low to provide regional historic rights-bearing Métis fishermen with a tenable income. In fact, many community, which regional community is have to rely on Employment during generally defined as the triangle of the the off-season.60 If harvesters exceed their fixed communities of Green Lake, Ile a la quota, the already condensed fishing season Crosse and la Biche and includes all of must finish early. For example, the current the settlements within and around the quota set for walleye, the most highly sought- after fish due to their selling price, sits at 50 triangle including Meadow Lake”.54 In 000kg.61 Once this quota has been reached it is defining Meadow Lake as a Métis illegal for harvesters to fish for other species community, the judge established that even if their respective limitations have not yet Laviolette had obeyed provincial been reached.62 These quotas are based on guidelines. This decision established that statistical data used in order to protect the the Métis people in Saskatchewan are ecology of lakes and to prevent overharvesting. entitled to fish for personal use on their However, fishermen in Northern Saskatchewan

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT) often find that there is a surplus of fish once the expand their harvesting rights. Similar changes season has closed. James Chartier, a have also occurred at the federal level. On June commercial fisherman from Northern 27, 2019, the federal Liberal government signed Saskatchewan, believes that limits on certain self-government agreements with the Métis types of fish such as northern pike are too Nations of , , and Saskatchewan. high.63 “The way it is now is just too lopsided, This was a major turning point for the Métis and something needs to be done because, for a communities in Saskatchewan because the lot of people in the North, fishing is the only agreement set the foundation for future real economic source we have on the west negotiations with Métis communities across side”.64 Though the province fears Canada which may potentially include overharvesting and wants to protect fishing expanding commercial fishing liberties. resources provincial regulations have it difficult Although, Athabasca NDP MLA Buckley for Métis fishers. Belanger asserts that there is still a long way to go.69 He believes that “the North needs to take A similar logic has been upheld at the federal a step forward and say this is our land, these level in appeal courts across the country in are our traditional resources and our traditional addition to the Supreme Court of Canada (SCC). area”.70 The right to self-governance is safeguarded by section 35 of the 1982 Canadian constitution.65 It has been upheld in SCC cases such as R.V 6. THE CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC IN Sparrow in 1990. However, historically, the NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN courts and government do not believe that this entitlement encapsulates a right for Métis The COVID-19 pandemic has had a devastating people to fish commercially. Since their effect on the Métis and First Nations people of inception, the courts have been used as a Northern Saskatchewan.71 On April 18, 2020, channel to defend these entitlements, but the the Métis Nation- Saskatchewan declared a burden of proof lies with the Métis claimant. . state of emergency in response to the ever- In the case of R. V. Van der peet (1996), the increasing threat of COVID-19.72 Métis Nation majority held that while the plaintiff had the Saskatchewan and such as the right to fish for subsistence or ceremonial Prince Albert Grand Council (PAGC) are purposes, this entitlement did not include the committed to supporting First Nations and right to fish commercially.66 This case, in Métis families whose livelihood has been addition to many others such as R.V. Gladstone, compromised by the pandemic.73 Northern created the precedent that in order to prove Saskatchewan’s inland fishing industry has been that commercial fishing is a right, the Métis hit particularly hard. The winter fishing season people must demonstrate that the trading, generally ends on April 15th but, due to the bartering and selling of fish is an integral pandemic, lakes were closed on March 27th to component of their culture and history.67 prevent the spread of the virus. Thus, Despite these facts, there are some instances of harvesters lost access to fish and a substantial progress. In December 2019, the government of amount of revenue.74 In addition, commercial Saskatchewan and the Métis Nations, fishershave asserted that, if there is a second Saskatchewan (MNS) signed a memorandum wave of COVID-19 in the fall, processing plants agreeing to negotiate current harvesting will have to shut down.75 This could have a rights.68 Although, these rights remain limited devastating impact on the fishing industry, by legal precedence set by the courts and potentially wiping out an entire fishing season. government, these negotiations will hopefully According to the Government of Canada, the create a channel by which Métis people can nation’s fish and seafood industry is an integral express their grievances, and eventually,

www.schoolofpublicpolicy.sk.ca | 13 Métis Commercial Fishing

component of the country’s economy.76 In an for sale and trade; that is, they fished for effort to help employees in the commercial commercial purposes. As reported earlier, Métis fishing industry across Canada, the federal fishers dominated employment in the inland government introduced a 62.5 million aid fisheries holding more contracts for greater package dedicated to providing workers and value than the Scots, other Europeans, and businesses with financial support.77 This Canadians that the Company paid to come into includes equipping labourers with personal Rupert’s Land to fish. They were the Company’s protective equipment (PPE) and helping plants inland fishery, they worked on term contracts, to adapt to provincial health guidelines.78 Thus, they were well paid, and individuals often had this funding showcases an attempt to “keep the multiple contracts over the 65 years for which seafood market alive”.79 However, this funding data survives between 1823 and 1888. The HBC is unavailable to inland fisheries in Northern records held at the Manitoba Archives have Saskatchewan. PAGC Grand Chief Brian barely been scratched on the topic of the Inland Hardlotte holds that the commercial fishing fishery and the role of the Métis in the trade, industry in Northern Saskatchewan has but the early evidence documented in this essentially shut down despite the fact that its report demonstrates that the Métis products are still in high demand.80 Hardlotte participated in the western Canadian asserts that the federal government must commercial fishery prior to and after address the disparity between oceanic and Confederation. inland fisheries by providing similar financial support to freshwater fisheries in Northern Future research on the history of the Métis Saskatchewan.81 This will help businesses to Fishery could document the generation-to- effectively restart the industry and financially generation passing on of commercial fishing assist struggling families. It will also ensure that from the HBC era to the modern day using the inland fisheries in Northern Saskatchewan are extensive Métis genealogies which exists and given the same opportunities as their oceanic continue to be built along with oral histories counterparts. which would enrich our understanding of the role of the fishery in Métis society. It is the hope of Métis Nation Saskatchewan 7. CONCLUSION that creating a strong with the Crown through negotiating with the provincial The Métis people of Northern Saskatchewan and federal governments will allow the Métis and Canada are socially and economically people expand their historic commercial fishing affected by the limitations of their commercial rights. By documenting the historical fishing rights. Although this current state-of- participation of the Métis in the commercial affairs is augmented by the threat of COVID-19, fishery as leading business partners with the it has its roots in the position by the Crown that HBC, the de facto government of western the Métis only fished historically for Canada prior to 1870, it is hoped that the Métis subsistence, not commercially. This position position as long-term partners in the itself seems to be rooted in the perception that commercial fishery will be legally recognized the Indigenous people of the Americas were not and that a new commercial fishing relationship part of a trading economy, but rather only with the Crown can be negotiated. fished for food or ceremonial purposes. As argued in this report, Métis fishers also fished

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT)

8. REFERENCES

Ambroziak, Phil. “Fish Quotas a Concern.” Northern Pride, July 29, 2019. https://northernprideml.com/2019/04/fish-quotas-a-concern/.

Douaud, Patrick C. The Western Métis: Profile of a People. Regina: , Canadian Plains Research Center, 2007.

Dove, Nathaniel. “Province, Métis Nation-Saskatchewan Agree to Discuss Harvest Rights.” Global News. Global News, December 19, 2019. https://globalnews.ca/news/6314982/Métis-nation-saskatchewan- hunting-rights/.

Ferguson, Myles. Policy North, April 2020.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Communications Branch. “Ministerial Advisory Panel on the Freshwater Fish Marketing Corporation.” Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Communications Branch, 8 July 2019, www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/initiatives/freshwater-marketing-commercial- poisson-eau-douce-eng.html.

“Fishing.” Fishing. Learning The New Land. By Ed Theriau as Told to Barbara Armstrong., www.jkcc.com/fishingx.html.

“Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture.” The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. 2013, www.Métismuseum.ca/resource.php/00742.

GTA Fisheries Consultants Inc. Assessing the Skills Needs of Aboriginal Fish Harvesters ... www.fishharvesterspecheurs.ca/product/assessing-skills-needs-aboriginal-fish-harvesters-canada.

“HBC Biographical Sheets.” Biographies | Hudson's Bay Company Archives, www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/biographical/index.html.

“HBC Servant Contracts.” Servants' Contracts (1780-Ca.1926) | Name Indexes | Hudson's Bay Company Archives, www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html.

Hudson's Bay Company Archives – HBC Fur Trade Post Map of Northern Saskatchewan. Government of Manitoba. Accessed May 13, 2020. https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/resource/cart_rec/postmap/saskatchewan.html#northern- sk.

“Hunting And Fishing Rights Recent Developments In The ...” Accessed May 8, 2020. http://redengine.lawsociety.sk.ca/inmagicgenie/documentfolder/AC1179.pdf.

Jarvenpa, Robert, and Hetty Jo Brumbach. “Occupational Status, Ethnicity, and Ecology: Métis Cree Adaptations in a Canadian Trading .” Human Ecology, vol. 13, no. 3, 1985, pp. 309–329., doi:10.1007/bf01558254.

www.schoolofpublicpolicy.sk.ca | 15 Métis Commercial Fishing

Macdougall, Brenda. One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010.

Macdougall, Brenda. “Wahkootowin: Family and Cultural Identity in Northwestern Saskatchewan Métis.” The Canadian Historical Review, vol. 87, no. 3, 2006, pp. 431–462, doi:10.1353/can.2006.0082.

“Métis National Council.” Go to Métis National Council. Accessed May 6, 2020. https://www.Métisnation.ca/index.php/who-are-the-Métis/citizenship.

“Métis Nation – Saskatchewan Declares State of Emergency.” Métis Nation Saskatchewan. Accessed May 14, 2020. https://Métisnationsk.com/2020/04/18/Métis-nation-saskatchewan-declares-state-of- emergency/.

Nicholson, Karen. “A 2007 Overview of Manitoba’s Commercial Fishery, from 1872 to 2005. A History of Manitoba’s Commercial Fishery (.” Historic Resources Branch, (2007): 94-96). https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/hrb/internal_reports/pdfs/FisheryMBCommercial.pdf.

“Northern Saskatchewan Fishers in Need of Federal Aid Package.” NationTalk. Accessed May 13, 2020. http://nationtalk.ca/story/northern-saskatchewan-fishers-in-need-of-federal-aid-package.

Oceans Canada. “Government of Canada Announces New Canadian Seafood Stabilization Fund to Help Canada's Fish and Seafood Pr...” Canada.ca. Government of Canada, April 25, 2020. https://www.canada.ca/en/fisheries-oceans/news/2020/04/government-of-canada-announces-new- canadian-seafood-stabilization-fund-to-help--fish-and-seafood-processing-sector.html. Policy North, Interviews with leading Métis Business Leaders (Anon), May 2020. Anonymized Transcripts available.

Pride Newsroom, and Name*. “Northerners Willing to Fight Back.” Northern Pride, February 12, 2020. https://northernprideml.com/2020/02/northerners-willing-to-fight-back/.

“Red River Ancestry of Manitoba, Canada.” Red River Ancestry, www.redriverancestry.ca/.

Reimer, Gwen, and Jean-Philippe Chartrand. Historic Métis In The Rainy River And Kenora Districts Of Ontario: Fishing Practices And Off-Reserve Residence. Native Affairs Unit, 2002, www.Métisnation.org/media/510294/historic Métis rainy r kenora - 2002 (praxis).pdf.

“Servants’ Contracts (1780-Ca.1926).” Servants' Contracts (1780-Ca.1926) | Name Indexes | Hudson's Bay Company Archives, www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html.

Supreme Court of Canada. “R. v. Van Der Peet.” Supreme Court of Canada, December 3, 2012. https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/1407/index.do.

“R.V. Laviolette.” In The Provincial Court Of Saskatchewan At Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan, June 15, 2005. https://politics.Métisportals.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/R.-v.-Laviolette-2005.pdf.

THE CONSTITUTION ACTS 1867 to 1982. laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/CONST_E.pdf.

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT)

Toth, Cory. “Ile-a-La-Crosse.” The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan | Details. Accessed May 8, 2020. https://esask.uregina.ca/entry/ile-a-la-crosse.jsp.

Warren Sinclair’s Métis Genealogy Collection - Glenbow. www.glenbow.org/collections/search/findingAids/archhtm/sinclair.cfm.

Wright, Teresa, and Canadian Press. “COVID-19: Ottawa Announces $62.5 Million for Country's Fish and Seafood Sector.” National Post, April 25, 2020. https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/canada-news- pmn/covid-19-ottawa-announces-62-5-million-for-countrys-fish-and-seafood-sector.

Young, George. “Métis Win Saskatchewan Harvesting Rights Case.” Ammsa.com. Accessed May 12, 2020. https://ammsa.com/publications/saskatchewan-sage/Métis-win-saskatchewan-harvesting-rights- case.

New Material: https://www.msn.com/en-ca/news/canada/north-sask-fishers-weather-a-dry-summer/ar- BB15t71O?ocid=msedgdhp

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APPENDIX A: HUDSON BAY COMPANY CONTRACTS 1823 TO 1888 FOR FISHERIES WITH MÉTIS GENEALOGY INCLUDED

MÉTIS AS PER PAYMENT NAME YEAR AGE ORIGIN OCCUPATION PAYMENT RESEARCH LOCATION REVIEW Papin, Antoine 1823 Other Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman 800 livres (1) his Great Slave Resolution, Blacksmith mark Lake Fort Louttit, 1823 Other Scot OKI Fisherman Labourer £20 pa. (2) his mark William Isbister, John 1823 European Scot OKI HB [MB] York Fisherman £17 pa. (3) sig. Harray Middleman sister twins given Buckquoy notice to leave next year Rondeau, Louis 1823 European Can [PQ] HB [AB] Pêcheur Milieu 800 livres pa. (1) his Lanoraie Chipewyan, mark Fort LaChapelle, 1824 Métis 48 Can [PQ] Milieu Pêcheur £19 pa. (1) his mark Louis Louvion, Louis 1825 Other Can [PQ] HB [MB] York Milieu Pêcheur £17 pa. (1) his mark dit St. Cartier L’Assomption Factory Branconnier, 1826 Métis 20 Can Milieu Pêcheur £17 pa. (3) his mark Amable Isbister, John 1828 European Scot OKI Fisherman £18 pa. (5) sig. Harray Quina Isbister, John 1828 European Scot OKI Fisherman £18 pa. (5) sig. Harray Quina Ayotte, 1829 Other Can [AB] Slave Fisherman £17 pa. (1&2on Gonzaque Lake contract) his mark Ross, Simon 1830 European Scot ROC HB [MB] York Fish Curer £30 pa. (5) sig. Ullapool Factory advance £6.6.0 Lochbroom Branconnier, 1830 Métis 30 Can [PQ] HB [MB] York Milieu Pêcheur £22 pa. (3) his mark Amable Berthier Factory McKay, Joseph 1833 Métis 21 HB Fisherman £15-17 pa. (5) his Saskatchewan mark Dist. Sinclair, 1833 Métis Scot OKI HB [MB] York Fisherman £25 pa. (3) sig. William "B" Stromness Factory McKay, Joseph 1833 Métis 21 HB Fisherman £15-17 pa. (5) his Saskatchewan mark Dist. Sinclair, 1833 Métis Scot OKI HB [MB] York Fisherman £25 pa. (3) sig. William "B" Stromness Factory Moar, William 1833 European 40 Can Rupert’s HB [MB] Fisherman £17 pa. (5) his mark snr. Land Oxford House Middleman Native Lacerte, Alexis 1833 European 22 Can [PQ] Trois Milieu Voyageur 600 livres ancien Rivières Traiteur Coureur de cours de PQ derouine Pêcheur d'avance 8 piastres (3) Grieve, James 1834 European Scot OKI Fisherman £18 pa. (3) his mark Rousay Anderson, 1836 Métis Can [MB] Fisherman £20-40 pa. (3) sig. Thomas Norway North Discovery House

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Expedition Deserted 1837 Spence, 1836 Métis Scot OKI HB [MB] York Fisherman £20 pa. (3) his mark William "C" Sandwick Factory Linklater Spence, 1836 Métis Scot OKI HB [MB] York Fisherman £20 pa. (3) his mark William "C" Sandwick Factory Linklater Forcier, 1836 European Can [PQ] HB [MB] York Fisherman Trapper 650 livres ancien François Yamaska St. Factory Voyageur cours pa. Michel Hannas, Jean 1836 Other Can [PQ] St. Hivernant Voyageur 700 livres ancien Baptiste François Traiteur Coureur de cours Derouine et Pêcheur Lacerte, Alexis 1837 European 25 Can [PQ] Trois Milieu Voyageur 650 livres ancien Rivières Traiteur Pêcheur cours de PQ (3) Coureur de derouine Pêcheur Lafretay, 1838 European 39 Can Rupert’s Fisherman Standard wages for Pierre Land fishermen (3) his mark Lafretay, 1838 European 39 Can Rupert’s Fisherman Standard wages for Pierre Land fishermen (3) his mark Clark, 1839 European Scot OKI S. Fisherman £20 pa. (5) his mark Alexander Ronaldsay advance £10 Garson, David 1839 European Scot OKI HB [ON] Fisherman £20 pa. (5) sig. Stromness Moose Factory advance £10 Knight, James 1839 European 32 Scot OKI S. HB [MB] York Fisherman £20 pa. (3) sig. Ronaldsay Factory Knight, James 1839 European 32 Scot OKI S. HB [MB] York Fisherman £20 pa. (3) sig. Ronaldsay Factory Goulait, 1840 European Can [ON] HB [ON] Lac La Fisherman £19 pa. (3) his mark Charles Sault Ste. Pluie Interpreter to be given wage & Marie position of interpreter when available Cooper, John 1841 Other HB Simpson, Fisherman £22 pa. (2) sig. Fort* Gallion, 1841 European HB [NT] Fisherman £22 pa. (2) sig. Thomas Norman, Fort Brown, 1841 Métis Scot OKI HB [MB] York Fisherman Baker £23 pa. (3) sig. Thomas Sandwick Factory McLellan, 1842 Other Can HB [SK] Fisherman £27 pa. +£2 t/s (2) Joseph Cumberland his mark Native House St. Arnaud, 1842 European HB Simpson, Fisherman £22 pa. (1) his mark Bonaventure Fort* McLellan, 1842 Other Can HB [SK] Fisherman £27 pa. +£2 t/s (2) Joseph Cumberland his mark Native House St. Arnaud, 1842 European HB Simpson, Fisherman £22 pa. (1) his mark Bonaventure Fort* Rennie, 1843 European 23 Scot OKI Fisherman £22 pa. (1) his mark William Ronaldsay Middleman Liard, Médard 1843 Other Can [PQ] HB [NT] Liard, Pêcheur £22 pa. (1) his mark L’Assomption Fort

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Harvey, 1844 Other 23 Scot OKI HB Simpson, Fisherman £22 pa. (2) Magnus Sandwick Fort* sig.+gratuity of a llarge dressed Moose skin at Peel River Harvey, 1844 Other 23 Scot OKI HB Simpson, Fisherman £22 pa. (2) Magnus Sandwick Fort* sig.+gratuity of a llarge dressed Moose skin at Peel River Moar, William 1844 European North HB [MB] Fisherman Bowsman £20 pa. (3) his mark jnr. America Oxford House Latreille, Alexis 1844 Other Can [PQ] St. Traiteur Pêcheur 650 livres ancien Maurice Coureur cours $11 pm. (3) his mark Latreille, 1845 Other 24 Can [PQ] Cap Hivernant Voyagekur £20-25 pa. (3) his Severe de la Traiteur Pêcheur mark Madeleine Kirkness, 1847 Other 41 HB [NT] Fisherman £20 pa. (1) sig. Thomas Mackenzie River Dist. Kirkness, 1847 Other 41 HB [NT] Fisherman £20 pa. (1) sig. Thomas Mackenzie River Dist. McKay, Neil 1848 European 25 Scot ROC Fisherman Bowsman £22 pa. (2) sig.+£3 Lewis Lochs pa. for duties of cook & servant Guimon, 1849 Other Can [ON] Lac HB [MB] York Fisherman Labourer £23 pa. (2) his mark Joseph La Pluie Factory Kirkness, 1850 Other 27 Scot OKI Fisherman £25 pa.(2) sig. Thomas Sandwick Reid, William 1850 Métis Scot OKI Eday HB [AB] Fisherman £23 pa. (3) his mark Chipewyan, Fort Kirkness, 1850 Other 27 Scot OKI Fisherman £25 pa.(2) sig. Thomas Sandwick Reid, William 1850 Métis Scot OKI Eday HB [AB] Fisherman £23 pa. (3) his mark Chipewyan, Fort Louttit, James 1851 Métis Scot OKI S. HB [MB] York Fisherman £23-25 pa. (3) sig. Ronaldsay Factory Laporte, 1851 European Can [ON] Lake HB Simpson, Fisherman Bowsman £25 pa.(2) his mark Jerome St. Superior Fort* George, dit St. George, 1851 European Can [ON] Lake HB Simpson, Fisherman Bowsman £25 pa.(2) his mark Jerome dit Superior Fort* Laporte Sabiston, 1851 Métis Scot OKI HB Simpson, Fisherman Farm £25 pa.(2) sig.+25 Alexander Sandwick Fort* Servant lbs flour 10 lbs sugar 1lb tea Laferte, Pierre 1851 Métis HB [MB] Garry, Pêcheur Hivernant £23 pa. (3) his mark [Nenie] Fort Laferté, Alfred 1851 European 30 Can [NT] HB [AB] Pêcheur £23 pa. (3) his mark Athabasca Chipewyan, Fort Kirkness, 1852 Other Scot OKI HB [NT] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) sig. Thomas Sandwick Mackenzie River Dist.

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Morrison, 1852 Other 34 Scot ROC HB [NT] Good Fisherman £25 pa.(2) his mark Alexander Lewis Hope, Fort Stornoway Sylvestre, Jean 1852 Métis Can HB [SK] Île-à- Fisherman £20 pa. (1) his mark Baptiste la-Crosse Boucher, dit La 1852 Métis Can [MB] La HB Fort Pêcheur £25 pa.(1) his mark Malice, Rivière Rouge Simpson* Baptiste Boucher, 1852 Métis Can [AB] La Pêcheur £25 pa. (2) his mark François Rivière du former engagement Paix as steersman £27 cancelled LaMalice, 1852 Métis Can [MB] La HB Fort Pêcheur £25 pa.(1) his mark Baptiste Rivière Rouge Simpson* Bouché dit McKay, Neil 1853 European 29 Scot ROC HB [MB] Fisherman Bowsman £20 pa. (2) sig.+£3 Lewis Lochs Norway House Labourer Cook pa. for duties of cook & servant Tourangeau, 1853 Métis North West HB [MB] Fisherman £23 pa. (3) his mark Antoine America Norway House Middleman this man has promised to remain inland 1 year out of 3 Morin, Antoine 1854 Métis 32 Can HB [SK] Lac La Fisherman £23 pa. (2) his mark "B" jnr. Ronge Laporte, 1855 European Can [PQ] HB Simpson, Fisherman £25 pa. (3) his mark Jerome St. Montréal Fort* George, dit McLeod, 1855 Métis Scot ROC HB Fort Fisherman £25 pa.(2) his mark Murdo[ch] "G" Lewis Bavas Simpson* St. George, 1855 European Can [PQ] HB Simpson, Fisherman £25 pa. (3) his mark Jerome dit Montréal Fort* Laporte Waters, 1855 Other 25 Scot OKI St. Fisherman £23 pa. (3) sig. William Ola Batteau 1855 Other HB [SK] Fisherman Voyageur £20 pa. (3) his mark Cumberland House Bloomfield, 1855 Métis HB [SK] Fisherman Voyageur £23 pa. (3) his mark Harry Cumberland House Laferté, Pierre 1856 Métis 56 Can HB [MB] York Fisherman £23 pa. (2) his mark Factory not obliged to work in boats Saunders, 1856 Métis 34 Can [MB] York HB [MB] Red Fisherman £23 pa (1) his mark Palm Factory River YFMJ Lamoureux, 1857 Métis 19 Can [PQ] HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(2) his mark Baptiste Montréal Dunvegan Mascouche Mainville, 1857 Other HB [MB] York Fisherman £22 pa. (2) his mark Baptiste Factory McIver, Peter 1858 Other HB [MB] Fisherman £23 pa. (2) his mark Norway House Norn, William 1858 Métis HB [NT] Fisherman £25 pa. (3) sig. Robert Resolution, Fort

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Boucher, 1858 Métis Can HB [MB] Fisherman £23 pa. (3) his mark Narcisse Norway House Middleman McLeod, John 1859 Métis 42 Scot ROC Fisherman £23 pa. (2) his mark Lewis Stornoway McKay, 1860 Other HB [SK] Fort à Fisherman £27 pa.+£2 t/s (3) Baptiste la Corne his mark Native Ducharme dit Morin, 1860 Métis 35 Can English Fisherman £23 pa. (1) his mark Raphael River* Monkman, 1860 Métis HB [MB] Garry, Fisherman £23 pa. (3) his mark Edward (2) Lower Fort 1863 Spence, Friday 1861 Other Can [MB] HB [MB] Fisherman £20 pa. (3) his mark Nelson River Norway House Laporte, 1862 European Can [PQ] HB [NT] Good Fisherman £25+£2 t/s (2) his Jerome St. Lachine Hope, Fort mark George, dit St. George, 1862 European Can [PQ] HB [NT] Good Fisherman £25+£2 t/s (2) his Jerome dit Lachine Hope, Fort mark Laporte Rivet, Narcisse 1862 Other Can HB [MB] Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Norway House Steersman his mark Allard, Pierre 1862 European 30 Can [PQ] HB [NT] Good Pêcheur £25 pa.+£2t/s (2) Hope, Fort his mark Moar, Robert 1863 Métis Can Hudson' s HB [PQ] Fisherman £20 pa. (3) his mark Bay Rupert House Morin, 1863 Métis Can English HB [MB] York Fisherman £25 +bag of flour Raphael River* Factory pa. (3) his mark Stewart, 1863 European 30 Scot ROC HB [NT] La Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Alexander Lewis Pierre's House his mark Stove, John 1863 European Fisherman £27+£2 t/s pa (2) sig. advance £7.10.0 Tourangeau, 1863 Métis HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(11 months) François Chipewyan, his mark Fort Vadnoit, 1863 Métis Can HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) his mark Joseph Chipewyan, Fort Sandison, 1863 Métis Can [MB] Red HB [MB] Ellice, Fisherman Labourer £23 pa (3) sig. George River Fort Harcus, John 1864 Métis Can [MB] Red HB [MB] Garry, Fisherman £23 pa.+£2 t/s (2) River Lower Fort his mark exempt Settlement from voyage to YF in boats Lafleur, Pierre 1864 Métis 56 Can [PQ] Trois Fisherman £23 pa. (1) his mark Rivières Laporte, 1864 European Can [PQ] HB [NT] Good Fisherman £25+£2 t/s (2) his Jerome St. Montréal Hope, Fort mark George, dit Letendre, 1864 Other Can HB [MB] Fisherman £20 pa. (1) his mark Joseph Fairford McAulay, John 1864 European Scot ROC HB [PQ] Fisherman £24 pa. (2) sig. Lewis Uig Rupert House McLeod, 1864 Métis Scot ROC HB [SK] Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) William Lewis Portage La his mark copy Stornoway Loche

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Norn, Robert 1864 Other Scot OKI S. HB [SK] Big Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Ronaldsay Island sig. Whitehall St. George, 1864 European Can [PQ] HB [NT] Good Fisherman £25+£2 t/s (2) his Jerome dit Montréal Hope, Fort mark Laporte Allard, Pierre 1864 European 30 Can [PQ] HB [NT] Pêcheur Fisherman £25 pa.+£2t/s (2) Anderson, Fort his mark St. Cyr, Jean 1865 Métis Can Rupert's HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) his mark Baptiste jnr. or Land Chipewyan, Native "B" Fort Benoit 1865 Other Can [NT] HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) his mark Athabasca Chipewyan, Steersman copy Fort Tourangeau, 1865 Métis HB [AB] Fisherman Winterer £25 pa.(1) his mark François Chipewyan, Fort Lamoureux, 1866 Métis Can HB [BC] St. Fisherman £25 pa.(2) his mark Jean Baptiste John, Fort McLeod, John 1866 Métis Scot ROC HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) sig. K Lewis Chipewyan, Stornoway Fort Tourangeau, 1866 Métis HB [AB] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) his mark François Chipewyan, Fort Lamoureux, 1867 Métis Can HB [NT] Fisherman £25 pa.(1) his mark Jean Baptiste Athabasca McLeod, 1867 Métis Scot ROC HB Simpson, Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Alexander "C" Lewis Fort* his mark Stornoway Nicanicappo, 1867 Other Can English HB [MB] York Fisherman £24 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Louison River* Factory his mark Towepesim, 1867 Other Can English HB [MB] Frog Fisherman £23 pa. (2) his mark Michel River* Portage Tapecappo, 1867 Other Can English HB [MB] Frog Fisherman Bowsman £26 pa. (2) his mark Louison River* Portage Bouchez, 1867 Métis Can [MB] HB [MB] Fisherman Carpenter £25 pa.(2) his mark Joseph Norway Norway House House Everette, 1867 Métis Can Trout HB [MB] York Fisherman £30 pa. (1) his mark Joseph Lake* Factory Interpreter Charbonneau, 1867 European Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Île-à- Pêcheur £25 pa.(1) his mark David River la-Crosse Smith, Angus 1868 European 24 Scot ROC Back HB [NT] Rae, Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (5) "B" Fort sig. Tourangeau, 1868 Métis HB [SK] Île-à- Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Antoine la-Crosse his mark Tremblay, 1868 Other Can HB [NT] Fisherman £25+£2 t/s pa. (2) Raphael Athabasca his mark Mercredi[e], 1869 Other HB [SK] Fisherman £25+£2 t/s pa. (3) Abraham Portage La his mark Loche Miller, William 1869 European Scot OKI HB [PQ] Little Fisherman £30 pa. (3) sig. wife Orphir Whale River will cook for men he will receive £2.10.0 annually Ford, John 1869 Other Can [LB] Fishing Pauls Island Fishing contract

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McLeod, 1870 Métis HB [AB] Fisherman £28 pa.+£2 t/s (1) Alexander "C" Chipewyan, his mark +2 large Fort dressed moose skin & reindeer skins 20lbs grease Smith, Angus 1870 European Scot HB [NT] Rae, Fisherman £36 pa. (1) sig. "B" Fort McKay, 1870 Métis HB [AB] Fisherman £27 pa.+£2 t/s (1) William "G" Chipewyan, Interpreter his mark + 20 lbs Fort sugar 25 lbs flour 10 lbs grease pa. Kirkness, 1871 Métis Scot OKI HB [BC] Great Fisherman £25 pa. £2 t/s (2) James Laird Bear Lake sig. McLeod, 1871 Métis Scot ROC HB [AB] Fisherman £28 pa.+£2 t/s (1) Alexander "C" Lewis Lochs Chipewyan, his mark Fort Smith, Angus 1871 European Scot HB [NT] Fisherman £36 pa. (1) his mark Athabasca Lecree, 1872 Other Can [MB] Red HB [SK] Rapid Milieu Hivernant £22 +£2 t/s pa. (3) François River River Fisherman his mark wage increase for different occupation Thompson, 1873 European Scot ROC HB [AB] Fisherman General £28 pa. +£2 t/s (1) James "B" Chipewyan, Service sig. Fort Miller, William 1874 European Scot OKI HB [PQ] Little Fisherman Labourer £30 pa.+£2 t/s (3) Orphir Whale River sig. half ration flour one of meat per week for wife Mercredi, 1876 Métis Can [NT] HB [AB] Fisherman General £17 pa. (2) his mark Valentine Athabasca Chipewyan, Service Fort Munro, David 1877 Métis Can [MB] HB [MB] Fisherman Runner £28 pa.+£2 t/s (3) Oxford House Oxford House his mark Sutherland, 1878 Métis Scot OKI Fisherman £24 pa. (5) sig. James Kirkwall advance £12 Mainville, 1878 Métis Can HB [NT] Fisherman General $121.67+$9.73 pa. Michel Resolution, Service (1) his mark Native Fort McSwaine, 1879 Métis Scot ROC HB Fort Fisherman £25 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Donald Lewis Simpson* his mark Beaulieu, Paul 1879 Other Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman General £23.+ £2 t/s pa. (3) Athabasca Resolution, Service his mark Fort Mainville, 1879 Métis Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman General £25 +t/s pa. (2) his Michel Athabasca Resolution, Service mark Fort McAulay, 1879 Métis 30 Scot ROC HB [AB] Fisherman General £31+£2 t/s pa. (5) Roderick Lewis Lochs Chipewyan, Service sig. Fort Evans, 1880 Métis 28 Can [MB] HB [AB] Fisherman Bowsman £30+£3 gratuity (2) Alexander Norway Chipewyan, his mark House Fort Robillard, 1880 Métis Can [MB] St. HB [AB] Fisherman General $150.87-$155.73 Louison Boniface Chipewyan, Service pa. (2) his mark Fort

POLICY NORTH (NORTH WEST SASKATCHEWAN POLICY UNIT)

Munro, David 1880 Métis Can [MB] HB [MB] Fisherman Runner £28 pa.+£2 t/s (3) Oxford House Oxford House his mark Mandeville, 1881 Métis 30 Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman General £25+£2 t/s pa. (2) Michel Resolution, Resolution, Service his mark Fort Fort Kirkpatrick, 1883 Other 23 Scot OKI HB [LB] Fisherman £3 pm. (3 mos.) sig. William Rae Stromness Esquimaux Bay advance £6 with [NW River] engagements to contract in country for years MacKay, 1883 European 29 Scot CAI HB [LB] Fisherman £22 pa.+£2 t/s (5) Donald Thurso sig. advance £11 certs. testimonials checked Murray, John 1883 Other 24 Scot OKI Fisherman £22 pa. (5) his mark Stromness advance £11 not clear Beaulieu, Paul 1883 Métis Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman General £24 pa.+ £2 t/s (2) River Resolution, Service his mark Fort Gunn, Peter 1883 European 21 Scot OKI Hoy HB [AB] Peace Fisherman Labourer £22 pa. (5) sig. River advance £11 certificates with original Munro, David 1883 Métis Can [MB] HB [MB] Fisherman Runner £28 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Oxford House Oxford House his mark Native Mandeville, 1883 Métis Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman £26+£2 t/s pa. (2) Michel Great Slave Athabasca Interpreter General his mark Lake Service Sutherland, 1884 Métis 19 Scot SUT HB [LB] Fisherman Labourer £22-24 pa. (5) sig. James Helmsdale advance £11 certificates of health character attached to original contract Mercredi, 1885 Métis Can [NT] HB [AB] Fisherman General £30 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Valentine Athabasca Chipewyan, Service his mark Fort Robillard, 1885 Métis Can [MB] St. HB [AB] Fisherman General £36 pa.+ gratuity (2) Louison Boniface Chipewyan, Service his mark Fort Smith, Baptiste 1885 Métis Can [NT] HB [AB] Fisherman General £30 pa.+£2 t/s (2) Athabasca Chipewyan, Service sig. Fort Munro, David 1885 Métis Can [MB] HB [MB] Fisherman Runner £28 pa.+£2 t/s (3) Oxford House Oxford House his mark Native Lieucheux, 1885 Other Can Fisherman Sawyer 30 M[ade] B[eaver] Alphonse pm. + tea/tobacco Stuart, John 1885 Métis Scot ROC HB [NT] Fisherman Teamaker £40 pa. incl. £2 t/s Athabasca General Service (2) his mark Kirkpatrick, 1886 Other 32 Scot OKI HB [LB] Fisherman £25 pa. (5) sig. William Rae Ophir Esquimaux Bay advance £12.10.0 [NW River] Sandison, John 1886 Métis 30 Can [NT] HB Simpson, Fisherman £30 pa. (2) his mark Mackenzie Fort* River Brown, 1886 European Scot OKI HB Simpson, Fisherman Carpenter £40 pa. (2) sig. Magnus Fort* advance £11.3.0

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Tourangeau, 1886 Métis Can [AB] HB [AB] Fisherman General £28 pa.+£2 t/s (1) Amable Chipewyan, Chipewyan, Service his mark Fort Fort Lieucheux, 1886 Other Can Fisherman Sawyer 30 M[ade] B[eaver] Alphonse pm. MacKay, 1888 Other Scot ROC Fisherman General £30 pa. (5) his mark Donald Lewis Servant advance £15 certs. Stornoway testimonials Tolsta checked McKay, 1888 European Scot ROC HB [NT] Fisherman General £30 pa. (5) sig. Murdo[ch] Lewis Athabasca Servant advance £15 certs. Stornoway Health, character & service worked 7 yrs HBC McKenzie, 1888 European Scot ROC HB [NT] Fisherman General £30 pa. (5) sig. John Lewis Athabasca Servant advance £15 copy 2 Stornoway testimonials Tolsta certificates Mandeville, 1883 Métis Can [NT] HB [NT] Fisherman £26+£2 t/s pa. (2) Michel Great Slave Athabasca Interpreter General his mark Lake Service Source: “Servants’ Contracts (1780-Ca.1926).” Servants' Contracts (1780-Ca.1926) | Name Indexes | Hudson's Bay Company Archives, www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html

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ENDNOTES

1 Fish was also used to make pemmican. During sturgeon fishing, much of the sturgeon flesh was cured and stored for later use. This was made by drying and pounding sturgeon flesh into a powder, to which sturgeon oil and were added. This mixture was then packed into sturgeon skin bags and used in a similar way to bison pemmican. https://www.dibaajimowin.com/Métis/an-indigenous-super-food 2 The HBC Contracts records list 293 entries for Interpreters, Figure 2 provides one example. See: https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html 3 Trevor Jonathan Orchard (2007) Otters and Urchins: Continuity and Change in Haida Economy During the Late Holocene and Periods, Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto; Emilie Cameron (21011) Copper Stories: Imaginative Geographies and Material Orderings of the Central Canadian Arctic, in Rethinking the Great White North Race, Nature, and the Historical Geographies of Whiteness In Canada, edited by Andrew Baldwin, Laura Cameron, Audrey Kobayashi 4 Brenda Macdougall, “Wahkootowin: Family and Cultural Identity in Northwestern Saskatchewan Métis”, The Canadian Historical Review, no. 3 (2006): 431. 5 Patrick C. Douaud, The Western Métis: Profile of a People. Regina: University of Regina, Canadian Plains Research Center, (2007): 2-3. 6 Myles Ferguson, “Reconciliation and Balancing Competing Interests Through Negotiated Agreements”, Policy North, 2020. 7 Brenda Macdougall, “Wahkootowin: Family and Cultural Identity in Northwestern Saskatchewan Métis.”, The Canadian Historical Review, no. 3 (2006): 466. 8 Brenda Macdougall, “Wahkootowin: Family and Cultural Identity in Northwestern Saskatchewan Métis.”, The Canadian Historical Review, no. 3 (2006): 433. 9 Ibid.

11 Brenda Macdougall, One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan, Vancouver: UBC Press, (2010): 3. 12Patrick C.Douaud,, The Western Métis: Profile of a People. Regina: University of Regina, Canadian Plains Research Center, (2007): 2-3. 13 Ibid. 14 “Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture”, The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. 2013. 15 Robert, Jarvenpa and Hetty Jo Brumbach. “Occupational Status, Ethnicity, and Ecology: Métis Cree Adaptations in a Canadian Trading Frontier.” Human Ecology, vol. 13, no. 3, 1985, pp. 16 Ibid. 17 Brenda Macdougall, One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan, Vancouver: UBC Press, (2010): 54-55. 18 Ibid 19 Brenda Macdougall, One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan, Vancouver: UBC Press, (2010): 53. 20 “Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture”, The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. 2013. 21 Brenda Macdougall, One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan, Vancouver: UBC Press, (2010): 47. 22Cory Toth, “Ile-a-La-Crosse”, The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan, Accessed May 8, 2020. 23 Ibid. 24 Brenda Macdougall, One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan, Vancouver: UBC Press, (2010): 22. 25 “Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture”, The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. 2013. 26 Robert, Jarvenpa and Hetty Jo Brumbach. “Occupational Status, Ethnicity, and Ecology: Métis Cree Adaptations in a Canadian Trading Frontier.” Human Ecology, vol. 13, no. 3, 1985, pp.

28 Robert, Jarvenpa and Hetty Jo Brumbach. “Occupational Status, Ethnicity, and Ecology: Métis Cree Adaptations in a Canadian Trading Frontier.” Human Ecology, vol. 13, no. 3, 1985, pp. 29 “Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture”, The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. (2013): 1-2. 30 “Huntingand Fishing Rights Recent Developments In The ...” Accessed May 8, 2020.

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31 “Fishing”, Fishing, Learning The New Land, By Ed Theriau as Told to Barbara Armstrong., www.jkcc.com/fishingx.html. 32 Brenda Macdougall, One of the Family: Métis Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northwestern Saskatchewan, Vancouver: UBC Press, (2010): 50. 33 Hudson's Bay Company Archives – HBC Fur Trade Post Map of Northern Saskatchewan. Government of Manitoba. Accessed May 13, 2020. 34 Location Code (HBC Records) the first letter of the code (Generally A or B) refer to where the document/record was retrieved. Any code with “A” would be designated as a Governor & Committee record, whereas “B” designates that the records were retrieved as post records. Generally whatever post was closest would document the situation. So, for example B.8 would designate that the records were retrieved at the post of Fort Assiniboine and anything with an “A” would be from the head leadership of HBC. As for the numbers (ie: .32/49 fo. 28) these refer to the specific point in the film reel for which these documents can be found. Anything from the Governor/Committee record will be followed by the film coordinates whereas Post Records will be followed by a class number, alphabetical type, and a unit. See: https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/resource/post_rec/types.html#a 35 He is referenced in https://www.jkcc.com/voyageurs2.html 36 (dit) there are a number of Métis contractors listed with a second surname which is shown as (dit) or French, A dit name is essentially an alias, or alternate name, tacked on to a family name or surname. Dit (pronounced "dee") is a French form of the word dire, which means "to say," and in the case of dit names is translated loosely as "that is to say," or "called." Dit names are found primarily in (French-Canada, , etc.), France, and sometimes Scotland. See: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-dit-name-3972358 37 See: https://www.glenbow.org/collections/search/findingAids/archhtm/extras/sinclair/m-8736-586.pdf. 38 http://furfortfunfacts.blogspot.com/2012/07/what-was-made-beaver-worth_27.html 39 See Appendix A and https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html 40 Gwen Reimer and Jean-Philippe Chartrand, Historic Métis In The Rainy River And Kenora Districts Of Ontario: Fishing Practices And Off-Reserve Residence, Native Affairs Unit, (2002): 16. 41 Fishing”, Fishing, Learning The New Land, By Ed Theriau as Told to Barbara Armstrong., www.jkcc.com/fishingx.html. 42 Ibid. 43 “Servants’ Contracts (1780-Ca.1926)”, Hudson's Bay Company Archives. 44 Ibid. 45 See Appendix A and https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/hbc_servants_contracts.html 46 GTA Fisheries Consultants inc. Assessing the Skills Needs of Aboriginal Fish Harvesters. 47 GTA Fisheries Consultants inc. Assessing the Skills Needs of Aboriginal Fish Harvesters. 48 “R.V. Laviolette.” In The Provincial Court Of Saskatchewan At Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan, June 15, 2005. 49 Ibid. 50 George Young. “Métis Win Saskatchewan Harvesting Rights Case.” Ammsa.com. Accessed May 12, 2020. 51 Ibid 52 “R.V. Laviolette.” In The Provincial Court Of Saskatchewan At Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan , June 15, 2005. 53 George Young. “Métis Win Saskatchewan Harvesting Rights Case.” Ammsa.com. Accessed May 12, 2020. 54 “R.V. Laviolette.” In The Provincial Court Of Saskatchewan At Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan, June 15, 2005. 55 “Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture”, The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. (2013): 1-2. 56 Myles Ferguson. Policy North, April 2020. 57 Ibid. 58 “Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture”, The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, 11 Sept. (2013): 1-2. 59 Ibid. 60 Policy North, Interviews with leading Métis Business Leaders (Anon), May 2020. Anonymized Transcripts available. 61 Ibid. 62 Policy North, Interviews with leading Métis Business Leaders (Anon), May 2020. Anonymized Transcripts available. 63 Phil Ambroziak. “Fish Quotas a Concern.” Northern Pride, July 29, 2019. 64 Ibid. 65 The Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982. laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/CONST_E.pdf. 66 Supreme Court of Canada. “R. v. Van Der Peet.” Supreme Court of Canada, December 3, 2012. 67 Ibid. 68 Nathaniel Dove. “Province, Métis Nation-Saskatchewan Agree to Discuss Harvest Rights.” Global News. Global News, December 19, 2019. 69 PrideNewsroom, and Name*. “Northerners Willing to Fight Back.” Northern Pride, February 12, 2020. 70 Ibid. 71 “Northern Saskatchewan Fishers in Need of Federal Aid Package.” NationTalk. Accessed May 13, 2020.

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72 “Métis Nation – Saskatchewan Declares State of Emergency.” Métis Nation Saskatchewan. Accessed May 14, 2020. 73 Ibid. 74 Policy North, Interviews with leading Métis Business Leaders (Anon), May 2020. Anonymized Transcripts available. 75 Ibid. 76 Oceans Canada. “Government of Canada Announces New Canadian Seafood Stabilization Fund to Help Canada's Fish and Seafood Pr...” Canada.ca. Government of Canada, April 25, 2020. 77 Teresa Wright and Canadian Press. “COVID-19: Ottawa Announces $62.5 Million for Country's Fish and Seafood Sector.” National Post, April 25, 2020. 78 Oceans Canada. “Government of Canada Announces New Canadian Seafood Stabilization Fund to Help Canada's Fish and Seafood Pr...” Canada.ca. Government of Canada, April 25, 2020. 79 “Northern Saskatchewan Fishers in Need of Federal Aid Package.” NationTalk. Accessed May 13, 2020. 80 “Northern Saskatchewan Fishers in Need of Federal Aid Package.” NationTalk. Accessed May 13, 2020. 81 Ibid.

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