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La Relación Entre Las Crisis Economicas Y Las Guerras Tomo Vi

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La Relación Entre Las Crisis Economicas Y Las Guerras Tomo Vi 62 130 130 SUSANA NOEMI TOMASI HISTORIA ECONÓMICA MUNDIAL LA RELACIÓN ENTRE LAS CRISIS ECONOMICAS Y LAS GUERRAS TOMO VI: EN LA EDAD MODERNA CAPÍTULO IV: ÚLTIMO CUARTO DEL SIGLO XVII 1 2 Editorial Magatem Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina Abril de 2021 Dibujo de tapa: en tinta china y plumín, acuarela y microfibras, sobre papel: denominado: “Buscando” realizado por Karina Valeria Woloj mail: [email protected] Editorial Magatem Acassuso 5808 (1440) Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires Argentina TE: 011- 46822431 Mail: [email protected] 3 INTRODUCCIÓN En este último cuarto del siglo XVII, se visualiza el afán de las compañías internacionales, para abarcar el comercio (los esclavos) surgido de las colonias sojuzgadas y esquilmadas, era el negocio del siglo. Aparecían como privadas, pero casi siempre estaban tras ellas las Coronas respectivas. En África occidental la trata humana, condujo a franceses, portugueses, españoles, etc. a crear diversas compañías y fundar distintos poblados. Joaquín Portillo Pasqual del Riquelme (1), indica que “Creándose entonces la Compagnie du Cap Vert et du Senegal, y en 1664 la Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, con la idea de monopolizar durante 40 años el tráfico de carne humana, desde Cabo Verde al de Buena Esperanza con destino a las Antillas; en ella tuvo acciones el propio Voltaire. Más comedida en sus ambiciones y longevidad fue la Compagnie du Senegal (1672—1661). Sin embargo, los ingleses se les habían adelantado; estaban en Gambia desde 1608…. Fundada en 1618, la “Compañía de los aventureros reales de Africa”, obtenía en 1661 la exclusiva de la trata desde Cabe Blanco (en el Sahara Occidental) al de Buena Esperanza; y, como se deriva de su propio nombre, todos sus accionistas pertenecían a la aristocracia inglesa. Luego se llamaría The Royal African Company y, de 1660 a 1669, envió a América 259 navíos con 46.396 esclavos. En 1697, el Parlamento protestó contra el monopolio de la nobleza y consiguió que cualquier británico pudiera beneficiarse del comercio negrero, así, las compañías privadas pudieron superar el cupo de la compañía real: en solo dos años (1698—1700) exportaron 42.000 esclavos a Jamaica. Se daba por supuesto que un 25% de la mercancía se “perdía” durante el viaje. Y el lenguaje mercantil correspondía a esos conceptos. En 1696, la Compañía portuguesa de Guinea se comprometía, por escrito, a suministrar “diez mil toneladas de negros”. Claro que, para entonces, los centros de la trata se habían visto obligados a desplazarse más al sur, a las costas del Congo y Angola. Por la sencilla razón de que, a finales del siglo XVII, la esclavitud europea había despoblado las costas senegalesas y guineanas”. 4 Y en América, como los pueblos originarios no soportaban las condiciones infrahumanas a que eran obligados a trabajar sobre todo en la minería, los esclavos africanos suplantaban esa mano de obra. Esa ha sido la fuente de todo el poder y dinero con que contaron y siguen contando las monarquías europeas, para vivir a costa de sus propios subordinados y de los pueblos conquistados. En éste capítulo se van a desarrollar los conflictos por la lucha económica y la conquista de los territorios en diversos lugares del mundo. La imagen que antecede, muestra el tráfico negrero desde 1502 hasta 1866, el número de esclavizados, el origen y el destino, de semejante comercio vil, y se encuentra en https://atlas.fgv.br/marcos/trabalho-e-escravidao/mapas/trafico-negreiro-1502-1866 5 DESARROLLO Voy a desarrollar los distintos conflictos, algunos como continuación de los iniciados en el capítulo anterior, que se seguirán en el primer capítulo del siguiente tomo, si no terminan en el año 1700, que es hasta donde se abarca en este capítulo. CONFLICTOS CON ESPAÑA: EN FILIPINAS Y PAÍSES ALEDAÑOS 1676–1700 El conflicto comenzó con los moros a través de una serie de batallas en Filipinas (2) que duraron varios siglos (hasta 1898). Comenzó durante la era española hasta la guerra hispanoamericana cuando España finalmente comenzó a subyugar al pueblo moro después de siglos de no hacerlo. Los españoles iniciaron el conflicto conquistando Filipinas e invadiendo el territorio Moro en un esfuerzo por someter la región a su dominio desde el siglo XVI. Cuando los españoles conquistaron el reino musulmán de Manila, un vasallo del Sultanato de Brunei, el rajá islámico, el rajá Sulayman resistió a los españoles. Manila se convirtió entonces en la capital de las Filipinas españolas después de la conquista, y los españoles convirtieron a la gente al catolicismo por la fuerza. Las Guerras Hispano-Moro comenzaron con la Guerra de Castilla, una guerra entre españoles y el Sultanato de Brunei. (El término Moro en este momento incluía a los musulmanes tagalos gobernados por el Sultanato de Brunei). Después de la reconquista, un período durante el cual la cultura española y cristiana fue restaurada en aquellas áreas de España invadidas por el califato omeya, la Inquisición requirió que judíos y musulmanes se convirtieran al catolicismo romano o enfrentaran el exilio o la pena de muerte. Así, los españoles intentaron suprimir el Islam en las áreas que conquistaron. Con este fin, atacaron a los sultanatos moro- musulmanes en el sur de Mindanao. Los Moro Datus y los sultanes asaltaron y saquearon ciudades españolas en las islas del norte de Filipinas en represalia por los ataques españoles y aterrorizaron a los invasores españoles con piratería constante. Los españoles estaban preparados para conquistar Mindanao y las Molucas después de establecer fuertes en 1635, pero los chinos amenazaron a los españoles con una invasión, lo que los obligó a 6 retroceder para defender Manila. Varios miles de chinos que fueron desalojados por los españoles se unieron a los moros. Los seguidores de Morog declararon una yihad contra los cristianos españoles y filipinos, para defenderse de los invasores españoles que intentaron apoderarse del territorio Moro. Los Moros tomaron represalias con importantes campañas de saqueo y esclavizaron a los cristianos filipinos después de arrasar por completo sus aldeas. Varios sultanes Moro dirigieron estas jihads. Derrotaron los intentos españoles de conquistar Mindanao. Los españoles habían utilizado su gran número para obligar a los moros a retirarse. Fueron gobernadores de Filipinas en el período: Francisco Coloma nombrado gobernador general (1677) por la Audiencia Real, Francisco Sotomayor y Mansilla nombrado gobernador general (1677-1678) por la Audiencia Real, Juan de Vargas y Hurtado es nombrado gobernador general (1678-1684), Gabriel de Curuzelaegui y Arriola (1684-1689) y Fausto Cruzat y Góngora (1690-1701). Durante todo el periodo colonial, (3) los chamorros y los españoles, mayoritariamente filipinos y novohispanos, mantuvieron una relación compleja, con momentos de conflicto, como las llamadas guerras hispano-chamorras y otros de colaboración. Ocurren los siguientes incidentes: PRIMERA REDUCCIÓN DE LOS CHAMORROS 1678-1682 Alexandre Coello de la Rosa (4), indica que “En 1678, el gobernador de Filipinas don Juan de Vargas Hurtado envió una guarnición de 30 hombres a las órdenes del nuevo gobernador de las Marianas, el madrileño don Juan Antonio de Salas (1678-1680), con el fin de reprimir los continuos ataques del «hechicero» Aguarin contra el presidio de Agaña. Para ello contaron con el apoyo de dos principales de Guam, don Antonio de Ayihi y don Alonso Soong, quienes, como «indios leales y muy cristianos», ayudaron a los españoles a castigar a los rebeldes. 7 Ante esta situación, a principios de 1680 el gobierno interino de la Real Audiencia de Manila (1667-1678) autorizó una fuerte expedición punitiva. El superior Bartolomé Besco y los jesuitas — alemanes, italianos y españoles— recién llegados se unieron a ella con entusiasmo en unas intensas campañas de pacificación, conversión y exterminio que dieron lugar a nuevas entidades de población y gobierno local en la isla de Guam. Todos acordaron que el uso de la fuerza era el único medio a través del cual podrían doblegar la resistencia de los grupos disidentes de su propia fe. Los jesuitas —diez sacerdotes, tres hermanos Coadjutores y el donado Felipe Sonsón— pretendían su reducción y evangelización, mientras que las autoridades civiles promovieron el repartimiento de los cautivos de guerra entre soldados y particulares.” José de Quiroga y Losada, gobernador de la isla, “supo ganarse el favor de los nativos, los cuales persiguieron a los ejecutores de muchos jesuitas y españoles, así como al rebelde Aguarin, responsable de las últimas revueltas, a quien capturaron y ejecutaron en 1680 en la isla de Rota”. El 8 de septiembre de 1681, el maestre de campo don Antonio de Saravia y Villar16, nombrado primer gobernador y capitán general, en una asamblea general que contó con la participación de las autoridades nativas o jefes de los distintos grupos territoriales y familiares de las islas, pretendió pacificar las islas y reorganizarlas de acuerdo a patrones de asentamiento estables, contando con la colaboración de los jesuitas y para ello instó a los sublevados a abandonar la violencia y a jurar lealtad al rey español, por lo cual los chamorros, se convirtieron en súbditos del rey. Y “a los pueblos «infieles» de la isla de Guam todavía no sometidos militarmente se les exigió vasallaje, o lo que es lo mismo, una prestación de trabajo y productos a través de los cuales reconocían el dominio español, mientras que a los ya cristianizados se les redujo a siete «pueblos» o «reducciones», a pesar de las lógicas resistencias a la transformación de sus modos de vida tradicionales. La mayoría eran horticultores y la propiedad de la tierra era comunal. Su producción se orientaba al autoconsumo, pero los gobernadores, o «gobernadorcillos », los obligaron a aumentar sus rendimientos para hacer frente a los tributos. 8 Al ser nombrados directamente por el rey y depender de las autoridades filipinas, poseían el control absoluto de la vida económica, política, civil y militar de las islas.
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