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Collective Memories and Social Struggle in Contemporary Bolivia: A Study of Narratives of the Past during the ‘Gas War’ in La Paz (2003) and the Civic Strike in Potosí (2010) By Sue Angélica Serra Iamamoto A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, under the supervision of Prof. James Dunkerley School of Politics and International Relations Queen Mary University of London September 2015 1 STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY I, Sue Angélica Serra Iamamoto, confirm that the research included within this thesis is my own work or that where it has been carried out in collaboration with, or supported by others, that this is duly acknowledged below and my contribution indicated. Previously published material is also acknowledged below. I attest that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge break any UK law, infringe any third party’s copyright or other Intellectual Property Right, or contain any confidential material. I accept that the College has the right to use plagiarism detection software to check the electronic version of the thesis. I confirm that this thesis has not been previously submitted for the award of a degree by this or any other university. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. SUE A. S. IAMAMOTO 25 September 2015 Details of collaboration: Transcription of recorded interviews by Normah Flores Castro and Claudio Delgado Ponce (September 2013 to January 2014); Proofreading by Jay Lingham (September 2015). Published materials: IAMAMOTO, S.A.S. (2013). “Memórias coletivas na Bolívia contemporânea: uma tentativa de entender a vigência da rebelião de Tupac Katari” (work in progress paper). In: Acta Científica XXIX Congreso de la Asociación Latinoamericana de Sociología 2013 (ISBN: 978-956-19-0828-4). Available at: http://actacientifica.servicioit.cl/biblioteca/gt/GT6/GT6_IamamotoS.pdf 2 ABSTRACT This thesis focuses on how collective memories appeared during social mobilisation in Bolivia and how they helped social activists to make sense of their struggle and to build a sense of cohesion around it. Two very distinct moments of social struggles are studied: those of September and October 2003 in the province of Omasuyos and the city of El Alto, and that of July and August 2010 in the city of Potosí. The work is based on 70 semi-structured interviews with local activists from the three areas, as well as archival research, particularly from newspapers, and participant observation in public spaces: demonstrations, marches, assemblies, workshops, commemorative ceremonies and local rites. The thesis is structured in three parts, each dedicated to one of the areas and to one main collective memory. Part I covers the struggle in Omasuyos province during the ‘Gas War’ and the memory of the anti-colonial rebellion of Tupac Katari (1781). Part II is dedicated to the mobilisation in the city of El Alto in the same period and to the memory of the War of the Pacific (1879) and the lost seacoast. Part III focuses on the civic strike in Potosí in 2010 and on the memory of the rise and fall of the “glorious” colonial Imperial City of Potosí. Collective memories depicted in this study served as platforms to express the demands of contemporary social struggles, and were particularly powerful because they contained a combination of the following elements. They presented a simplified prototypical story of imbalance, with just and unjust characters (normally identified as the activists and the state), which could be easily projected into familiar spaces and displayed corporal metaphors reproducing the effect of trauma. This narrative has often experienced a path-dependent continuous remembering through history (fed by official nationalism and oppositional movements) and turns out to be both constitutive and instrumental for the activists claiming it. Thus, this work avoids the understanding of collective memories as “latent” or as expressions of “collective unconscious” and makes a contribution to the study of the politics of memory and the mechanisms that explain the strength of storytelling during collective action. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In a study all about memory, this short section is about recalling the people that made it possible and expressing my deep gratitude for their support, knowledge, friendship and love. This is my memory path. Jallalla. During this research, I received crucial funding from the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (Capes) of the Brazilian government (number of the process BEX 0557/12-9); Queen Mary University of London; and Santander, through its studentship award. I cannot express enough gratitude to my supervisor, James Dunkerley, who has supported all important steps of this research, provided me with wise guidance and has shown an enormous generosity by sharing his knowledge of and passion for Bolivia and Latin America. Jeff Webber gave me valuable feedback many times during these past few years and helped me to remember that, in my heart, I am a radical thinker too. During the progression reviews of the programme, Adam Fagan, Madeleine Davis and Bryan Mabee gave much appreciated comments on my work. I must thank Andrew Loveland and Alex Challis, former and current research managers of the School of Politics and International Relations, vital guides for PhD survival in the British academic environment. I am also indebted to the examiners in my viva, Paulo Drinot and Andrew Canessa, whose comments allowed me to enlarge considerably the theoretical and methodological discussions of the thesis, and opened my work to new scholarly dialogues. In Queen Mary, Boonwara Sumano was my first and dearest friend, who offered me unlimited support during the difficult periods of these last four years. With Sandra Carvalho, I shared precious laughs, as well as many experiences of learning and living. Matheus Lock has been a great friend, with whom I shared all sorts of things, from the anguishes of Brazilian politics to the desperation of the London rental market. My colleagues in the PhD room, Daniel Gover, Koen Slootmaeckers, Angus McNelly, Sofa Gradin, Gina Floyd, Jennifer Thomson, Alen Toplisek, Marissa Díaz, Tania Gomez and David Jeffery were essential support. I would never have got through the past two years without the tea breaks, cookies, hugs, Christmas tree, Monday’s pub adventure in Weatherspoon’s, technical assistance to deal with the printer and all the marvellous plans to transform the kitchen rooftop into a London summer attraction. Elsewhere in London, I have enjoyed the friendship of the staff working at Canecão pub in 2012, Evertane, Sandro, Cauê, Leandro e Elton. Sometimes I miss that half an hour after the shift, in which I considerably improved my snooker technique. Jay Lingham, a good friend and passionate academic, has been a constant and essential support all these years. The friendship 4 of Ana Carballo is another gift that life in London has given me; her dedication to critical development studies has definitely inspired me and many other researchers. For someone who lived most of her adult life in a megalopolis of 20 million people, living in London should have been a piece of cake. It has been exhausting and fascinating but definitely not easy. And to “survive” this constant rediscovering of oneself, to feed the continuous interest on the city and its overwhelming expressions of basically everything in the world, I borrowed the eyes of old and dear friends. Through his immense talent, Vitor Flynn showed me the people on the tube, the dark shadows and the architecture of the alleys, the ‘lost in translation’ patterns of our daily lives, and a fox called Lola. Through her inexhaustible enthusiasm for life, Renata Summa took me to parks, markets, concerts, plays, bookshops, and shared with me all the beautiful things that warm our hearts. Aiko Amaral has been an incredible friend, with whom I shared the passion of studying Bolivia, the experiences of UK academic life and countless moments of good laughter. Pedro Mendes has provided brave companionship of beers and cachaças, plus all the interesting conversations that came along with them. Anne Toomey and her deep commitment to ethical and horizontal research practices have been inspirations throughout these past years and I truly appreciate her friendship and support. I met Emma Felber and Thomas Grisaffi very quickly but they gave me sage advice on fieldwork and memory studies in Bolivia, showing a generosity typical of almost everyone I met in the field of Bolivian studies. In Brazil, I am hugely indebted to Bernardo Ricupero, who demonstrated a close interest in this project and was always an attentive interlocutor. Caroline Freitas also provided me precious advice during the first steps of this study, inspiring me with her strength and generosity. The best and the worst memories of fieldwork in Bolivia were shared with Rafaela Pannain. During our long kitchen-table conversations in La Paz, which I will always remember with affection, we mastered the art of living with doubts, love and friendship. I truly appreciate the friendship of Patricia Costas, who offered me the first home I had in La Paz. Big heartedly, Gabriel Zeballos familiarised me with the city’s slopes and was a constant support. Also during my stay in Bolivia, I enjoyed the friendship and guidance of many fellow researchers: Heloisa Gimenez, Clayton Cunha Filho, Rodrigo Santaella, Liu Leal, Gladstone Leonel Jr., Renata Moraes, and Lorenza Fontana. I must also mention the companionship of the Mamani siblings (Gilber, Mara and Rubén), Bernardina Suarez, Giorgia Sessa, Nicolás Tremblay and the Chaskis. During my fieldwork in El Alto, I was most indebted to Marco Llanos, who supported me in many aspects of the research and was a dear friend.
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    Gobierno Autónomo Departamental de Oruro Oruro - Bolivia CUADRO DE TARIFAS EN EL DEPARTAMENTO DE ORURO PROVINCIA SABAYA ORIGEN DESTINO MODALIDAD PASAJE REFERENCIAL EN Bs. PASAJE SIST. TARIFARIO EN Bs. ORURO SABAYA OMNIBUS 30 29,75 ORURO SABAYA MINIBUS 35 34,17 ORURO PISIGA OMNIBUS 35 33,36 ORURO PISIGA MINIBUS 40 37,24 ORURO COIPASA OMNIBUS 35 33,92 ORURO COIPASA MINIBUS 40 37,11 ORURO CHIPAYA OMNIBUS 30 28,89 ORURO CHIPAYA MINIBUS 35 34,43 PROVINCIA MEJILLONES ORIGEN DESTINO MODALIDAD PASAJE REFERENCIAL EN Bs. PASAJE SIST. TARIFARIO EN Bs. ORURO HUACHACALLA OMNIBUS 20 19,37 ORURO HUACHACALLA MINIBUS 25 24,39 ORURO TODOS SANTOS OMNIBUS 35 33,21 ORURO TODOS SANTOS MINIBUS 40 37,11 PROVINCIA CERCADO ORIGEN DESTINO MODALIDAD PASAJE REFERENCIAL EN Bs. PASAJE SIST. TARIFARIO EN Bs. ORURO CARACOLLO MINIVAN 5 4,69 ORURO LA JOYA MINIBUS 7 5,57 ORURO (VINTO) HUAYÑAPASTO TAXIVAGONETA 4 4,13 ORURO SORACACHI (OBRAJES)MINIVAN 6 5,99 ORURO SORACACHI (PARIA) MINIBUS 5 4,05 ORURO SORACACHI (SORACACHI)MINIBUS 5 4,61 ORURO SORACACHI (CAYHUASI)MINIBUS 6 6,25 ORURO SORACACHI (LEQUEPALCA)MINIBUS 10 9,1 ORURO EL CHORO OMNIBUS 10 9,02 ORURO EL CHORO MINIBUS 10 9,71 PROVINCIA TOMAS BARRON ORIGEN DESTINO MODALIDAD PASAJE REFERENCIAL EN Bs. PASAJE SIST. TARIFARIO EN Bs. ORURO EUCALIPTUS MINIVAN 10 9,88 PROVINCIA PANTALEON DALENCE ORIGEN DESTINO MODALIDAD PASAJE REFERENCIAL EN Bs. PASAJE SIST. TARIFARIO EN Bs. ORURO HUANUNI MINIBUS 5 5,16 ORURO HUANUNI OMNIBUS 5 4,92 ORURO MACHAMARCA MINIBUS 3,5 3,35 Plaza 10 de Febrero, Presidente Montes, Bolívar y Adolfo Mier www.oruro.gob.bo Gobierno Autónomo Departamental de Oruro Oruro - Bolivia PROVINCIA POOPO ORIGEN DESTINO MODALIDAD PASAJE REFERENCIAL EN Bs.