- z NON-WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS ~-> 2
Gum naval stores:stores: turpentine and rosinrosin from pinepine resinresin
Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unaed Nations N\O\ON- -WOODWOOD FOREST FOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 22
Gum navalnaval stores:stores: turpentine• and rosinrosin from pinepine resinresin
J.J.W.J.J.W. Coppen andand G.A.G.A. HoneHone
Mi(Mf' NANATURALTURAL RESRESOURCESOURCES INSTITUTEIN STITUTE
FFOODOOD ANDAN D AGRICULTUREAGRIC ULTURE ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATION OFOF THETH E UNITEDUNITED NATIONSNATIONS Rome,Rome, 19951995 The designationsdesignations employedemployed andand thethe presentationpresentation of of materialmaterial inin thisthis publication do not imply the expression of any opinionopinion whatsoever onon thethe partpart ofof thethe FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof thethe UnitedUnited Nations concernconcerninging thethe legal status of any countrycountry,, territory, city or areaareaorofits or of its auauthorities,thorities, orconcerningor concerning the delimitationdelirnitation of itsits frontiers or boundaries.boundaries.
M-37M-37 IISBNSBN 92-5-103684-5
AAllll rights reserved.reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrretrievalieval systemsystem,, oror transmitted inin any form or byby anyany means,means, electronic,electronic, mechanimechanicai,cal, photocphotocopyingopying oror otherwise, withoutwithout thethe prior permission ofof the copyright owner. AppApplicationslications forfor such permission,permission, with a statementstatement ofof thethe purpose and extent of thethe reproduction,reproduction, should bebe addressedaddressed toto thethe Director,Director, PublicationPublicationss Division.Division, Food and Agriculture OrganizaOrganizationtion of the United Nations,Nations, Viale delle Terme di CaracaCaracalia,lla. 00100100 00 Rome, Italy.
©0 FAO FAD 19951995 PREFACE
This global study was undertaken byby the NaturalNatural ResourcesResources InstituteInstitute (NRI)*,(NRl)*, thethe scientificscientific armarrn of the UnitedUnited Kingdom'sKingdom's OverseasOverseas DevelopmentDevelopment AdministrationAdministration (ODA).(ODA). FundingFunding forfor the studystudy andand forfor thethe publicationpublication of thethe reportreport waswas metmet byby ODA'sODA's ForestryForestry ResearchResearch Programme.
The information andand analyses presentedpresented in in this this reportreport areare based on thethe authors'authors' research andand first-hand knowledgeknowledae of of gumgum naval storesstores production inin a numbernumber ofof prodproducingucing countries.countries.
A complementary studystudy carriedcarried outout by NRI, whichwhich provided some inputsinputs forfor thethe present one andand whichwhich waswas financedfinanced byby thethe ODAODA ForestryForestry ResearchResearch ProgrammeProgramme withwith support from FAO,FAO, hashas involvedinvolved an assessmentassessment of the prospectsprospects forfor developmentdevelopment ofof newnew gumaum naval stores industriesindustries inin CentralCentral andand SouthernSouthern Africa.Africa. Single copies of thethe AfricaAfrica report areare availableavailable from thethe FAOFAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice for AfricaAfrica (PO(PO BoxBox 1628,1628, Accra,Accra, Ghana).
* Natural ResourcesResources Institute,Institute, CentralCentral Avenue,Avenue, ChatharnChatham Maritime,Maritime, KentKent MEA ME4 4TB, UnitedUnited Kingdom.Kingdom.
III CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE III
ABBREVIATIONS viiiVlll
SUMMARY ix
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1.1. PRODUCTION,PRODUCTION, TRADE TRADE AND AND MARKETSMARKETS 3
DESCRIPTION, USES AND PRINCIPAL SOURCES 3 Resin 3 Rosin 4 Turpentine 4
WORLD PRODUCTION, TRADETRADE ANDAND OUTLOOKOUTLOOK 5 Production and trade 5 Prices 7 MajorMaj or marketsm arkets 8 Trading structures and procedures 8 Trade in crude resin 9 People's Republic of China 10 Indonesia and other countries of Southeast Asia 11 Portugal and elsewhere in Europe 11 Russia 1212 North America 1212 Central and South America and the Caribbean 13 Africa 14 Indian sub-continent 14
ESTIMATES OF WORLD PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS 15
CHAPTER 2. RAWRAW MATERIALS MATERIALS AND AND INPUTSINPUTS 17
RAW MATERIALMA TERrAL REQUIREMENTS 17
RESIN TAPPING OPERATIONOPERATION 18 System of tapping using a wide face 20 System of tapping using a narrow face 21
LABOUR AND ORGANIZATION 22
v CHAPTER 3. PROCESSINGPROCESSING AND AND PLANTPLANT DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION 24
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 24
OLUSTEE PROCESSPROCESS FORFOR THETHE PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION OFOF TURPENTINETURPENTINE AND ROSIN 24
PRODUCTION OFOF TURPENTINE ANDAND ROSIN IN PORTUGAL 27
SCALE OFOF OPERATIONSOPERATIONS ANDAND LABOURLABOUR REQUIREMENTSREQUIREMENTS 29
CHAPTER 4. FINANCIALFINANCIAL AND AND ECONOMICECONOMIC ASPECTSASPECTS OF RESIN TAPPINGTAPPING ANDAND PROCESSING 31
RESIN TAPPING OPERATIONSOPERATIONS 31
RESIN PROCESSING OPERATIONSOPERATIONS 33
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES ANDAND DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES OF DOMESTIC, REGIONALREGIONAL ANDAND EXPORTEXPORT MARKETSMARKETS FORFOR AA NEWNEW PRODUCER~OOOC~ 35
CHAPTER 5.5. CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS AND AND ADVICEADVICE TOTO AA NEW PRODUCER 37
TABLES
Table 11 Commercially tappedtapped sources of pine resin: speciesspecies andand countrycountry of production 3
Table 2 GumCrum ros rosin:in: landedlanded prices,prices, 1991-95 7
Table 3 Estimated world production andand exportsexports ofof crudecrude resin,resin, gurngum rosinrosin and gum turpentine 16
Table 4 Resin tapping operations: estimated pre-production, fixed investmeninvestment,t, working capital and annual production costs for an African country 32
Table 5 Resin processing operations: estimated pre-production, fixed investment, working capitalcapital and annual production costs for an African country 34
TabTablele 6 Some trade specifications for gum rosin 44
Table 7 Physical property requirements of the InternatiInternationalonal Organization for Standardization specification for gum spirit of turpentine 45
vi Table 8 Resin quality and yield characteristics of some Pinus speciesspecies 46
Table 99 Rosin: exports from the People's Republic of China, 1987-92 53
Table 1010 Rosin: exports from Portugal, 1987-921987-92 53
Table 1111 Rosin:Rosin: exports from Indonesia,Indonesia, 1987-921987-92 5454
Table 12 Rosin: exports from Brazil, 1987-93 55
Table 13 Rosin: exports from the UnitedUnited States,States, 1989-931989-93 56
Table 1414 Rosin: imports into the European Community,Comm)lJlity, 1987-92 57
Table 1515 Rosin: imports into Japan, 1987-93 58
Table 16 RRosin:osin: imports into the UnitedUnited States,States, 1989-931989-93 58
Table 17 Turpentine: exportsexports fromfrom thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of of China, China, 1987-92 1987-92 5959
Table 1818 Turpentine: exports from Portugal, 1987-92 59
Table 19 Turpentine: exports from Indonesia,Indonesia, 1987-921987-92 60
Table 20 Turpentine: imports into the EuropeanEuropean Community,Community, 1987-921987-92 61
Table 2121 Turpentine: imports into Japan, 1987-931987-93 62
FIGURES
Figure 11 Systems of resin tapping using a wide and narrow face 19
Figure 2 Scheme of resin processing in thethe United StatesStates ofof America 25
Figure 3 Scheme of resin processing in Portugal 28
APPENDICES
Appendix 11 References and further reading 41
Appendix 2 Quality criteria, specifications and test methods 43
AppendixAppendix 3 Genetic factors influencing resin composition andand yieldsyields 46
Appendix 4 Packaging of turpentine andand rosin 48
Appendix 5 List of importers and traders of naval storesstores 50
Appendix 6 Statistical tables 53
vii ABBREVIATIONS
ASTM American Society for Testing andand MaterialsMaterials c&fc & f costcost and freight EC European Community IMDG InternationalInternational Maritime Dangerous Goods ISO InternationalInternational Organization for Standardization US$ United States dollar
In tables: na indicates not available ns indicates not specified -indicates nil
viii SUMMARY
InfonnationInformation isis provided on the technicaltechnical and economiceconomic aspects of crudecrude resinresin productionproduction from pine trees and on the subsequent production of gum turpentine and gum rosin (known cocommerciallymmercially asas gum naval stores). Recent trends in world production and markets are also reviewed. TheThe publication publication isis aimedaimed atat prospectiveprospective newnew producersproducers ofof gumgum navalnaval stores,stores, and organizationsorganizations andand individualsindividuals appraisingappraising projectsprojects involvinginvolving theirtheir production.production. It isis particularly intended for those in developing countries.
Total worldworld productionproduction ofof rosin rosin is is approximately- approximately 1.21.2 millionmillion tonnestonnes annually,annually, ofof which almost 720720 000 tonnes, 60% of the total, is estimated to be gumgum rosinrosin derived from tapping living pinepine trees.trees. WorldWorld productionproduction ofof turpentineturpentine isis aboutabout 330330 000000 tonnestonnes fromfrom allaU sourcessources,, of which 100 000000 tonnestonnes isis estimatedestimated to bebe gumgum turpentine.turpentine. The numbernumber of countries producing gum naval storesstores isis largelarge butbut thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina dominatesdominates production ·,andand worldworld trade;trade; ofof thethe otherother producers, Indonesia, Portugal and Brazil are the mostmost importantimportant in tennsterms ofof world trade.trade. PresentPresent (early(early 1995)1995) pricesprices for gum rosin are atat the highest levels for some years, due largely toto recent events in the People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China.China. TheThe prospectsprospects ofof entry entry intointo thethe international international marketmarket byby newnew supplierssuppliers willwill dependdepend mainly on future trends in Chinese production and consumption.
RosinRosin has a widewide rangerange ofof applicationsapplications includingincluding adhesive, paper size and printingprinting ink manufacture. TurpentineTurpentine isis usedused eithereither asas a solvent for paints and varnishes,varnishes, oror asas aa rawraw material for fractionation and value-addedvalue-added derivative manufacture.manufacture. MostMost prospectiveprospective newnew producers willwill havehave opportunitiesopportunities forfor domesticdomestic oror regional regional salessales ofof rosin rosin andand turpentine.turpentine.
While most pines are capable of yielding resinresin onon tapping,tapping, it is only economic to dodo so if the quantity obtainedobtained is sufficient andand itsits qualityquality isis acceptable.acceptable. BothBoth thesethese factorsfactors areare determineddetennined primarily by the species ofof PinusPinus which is tapped,tapped, so informationinfonnation is provided on thethe suitabilitysuitability of different speciesspecies forfor gumgum navalnaval storesstores production.production. TappingTapping can bebe carriedcarried oOutut eithereither on natural standsstands oror plantations.plantations. Methods of tapping which do notnot adverselyadversely affect the quality of the trunkwoodtrunkwood areare describeddescribed and thesethese enableenable plantation pines to bebe felled and utilizedutilized inin thethe normalnonnal mannermanner whenwhen tappingtapping isis stopped.stopped. The cleaningcleaning andand distillation operationsoperations involvedinvolved inin processingprocessing thethe crudecrude resin are described,described, andand qualityquality criteria, specifications andand packagingpackaging optionsoptions forfor rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine areare provided.provided.
An indicationindication of the costs involvedinvolved in the production and processing ofof pinepine resinresin isis given. 'TheseThese areare basedbased onon 10001000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin beingbeing producedproduced fromfrom 400400 000000 treestrees whichwhich each yield an average ofof 2.5 kg of resin. TheThe comparativecomparative advantagesadvantages andand disadvantagesdisadvantages of domestic, regional andand export marketsmarkets for aa new producer areare discussed.
ix INTRODUCTION
'Naval stores'stores' is the inclusive termterm usedused toto denote the products obtained from the oleoresin or resin*resin* ofof pine treestrees (genus PinusPinus).). TheThe termterm originatesoriginates frornfrom the daysdays whenwhen woodenwooden sailing shipsships,, includingincluding naval naval ships, ships, were were waterproofedwaterproofed using using pitch pitch and and tartar and otherother resinous products from pine trees. AlthoughAlthough thethe connectionconnection withwith shipsships isis nownow remote,remote, thethe term isis stillstill commonly-commonly used used by by thos thosee in in the the trade trade andand elsewhere.elsewhere. There areare threethree distinctdistinct sources of naval stores:
• Gum navalnaval stores stOl'es are are obtained obtained by by the the -tapping tapping ofof livingliving pinepine trees.trees. Collection of the 'gum'gum ' oror resin resin is is a alabour-intensive labour-intensive operationoperation (similar(similar toto rubberrubber tapping).tapping). DistillationDistillation ofof the resin,resin, whichwhich cancan bebe undertakenundertaken inin fairlyfairly simplesimple equipment,equipment, produces gum rosin and gumgurn turpentineturpentine inin varyingvarying ratios,ratios, usuallyusually betweenbemeen 4:4;1 1 and 6:1.
• Sulphate navalnaval stores stores are are by-products by-products recovered recovered during during thethe conversionconversion ofof pinepine wood chips to pulppulp byby the sulphatesulphate (kraft) pulping process.process. SulphateSulphate turpentineturpentine is condensed from the cooking vapours. CrudeCrude talltall oil,oil, obtainedobtained fromfrom thethe alkalinealkaline liquors, is fractionatedfractionated intointo variousvarious productsproducts includingincluding talltall oil rosinrosin andand talltall oiloil fatty acids.
• Wood navalnaval storesstores are are obtained obtained from from resin-saturatedresin-saturated pinepine stumpsstumps long afterafter thethe tree hashas beenbeen felled.felled. The stumpsstumps areare solventsolvent extractedextracted usingusing capitalcapital intensiveintensive technology,technology toto givegive woodwood turpentine,turpentine, woodwood rosin,rosin, dipentene and natural pine oil.
Pinus isis oneone ofof the the most most widely widely distributeddistributed genera of treestrees inin thethe northernnorthern hemisphere, extending from the polar region to the tropics; one species, P. merkusii, occursoccurs naturally southsouth ofof the Equator. TheThe aenusgenus isis alsoalso oneone ofof thethe mostmost widelywidely plantedplanted exoticsexotics because of its large-scalelarge-scale use for timbertimber and pulp,pulp, and largelarge areasareas ofof PinusPinus areare foundfound outside its natural range in South America,America, Africa andand Australasia.Australasia. Standing resources of pine trees exist,exist, therefore,therefore, inin manymany partsparts ofof thethe world.world.
The two majormajor productsproducts ofof thethe navalnaval storesstores industryindustry areare rosinrosin (a(a brittle,brittle, transparent,transparent, glossy,glossy, faintly-faintly aromatic aromatic solid)solid) andand turpentineturpentine (a(a clearclear liquidliquid withwith aa pungentpungent odour and bitterbitter taste). Annual world production of gumgum rosinrosin andand gumgum turpentineturpentine isis approximatelyapproximately 700700 000 tonnes (valued(valued atat aroundaround US$420US$420 millionmillion atat firstfirst halfhalf 19941994 prices)prices) andand 100100 000000 tonnestonnes (valued at US$50 million), resperespectively.ctively. For manymany years rosin and turpentine were used in an unprocessunprocesseded form in thethe soap, paper, paint and varnishvarnish industries.industries. Today, most rosin is modified and used inin aa widewide ranaerange of o fproducts products including including paper paper size, size, adhesi-ves, adhesives, printingprinting inks, rubber compoundscompounds andand surfacesurface coatings.coatings. The compositioncomposition of turpentineturpentine cancan varyvary considerably according to the species of pine exploited, and this greatlygeatly influences influences itsits valuevalue and end use.use. Turpentine, like rosin, is aa veryvery versatileversatile materialmaterial andand nowadaysnowadays isis usedused mainly as aa feedstockfeedstock byby the the world's world's chemical chemical industries. industries. The alpha-alpha- andand beta-pinenebeta-pinene constituents ofof turpentine, inin particular,particular, areare the startingstarting materials for the synthesissynthesis of aa widewide
* The terms 'oleoresin''oleoresin' and 'resin''resin' maymay be used interchangeably, and for convenience thethe termterm 'resin', which mustmU.';;;t not bebe confusedconfused with rosin, is used in thisthh report.report. Standard terminologytenninoiogy relating to naval storesstores isis given in the AmericanAmerican SocietySociety forfor TestingTesting andand MaterialsMaterials (AST'M)(ASTM) standard D 804-92.804-92.
1 range ofof fragrances,fragrances, flavours,flavours, vitaminsvitamins andand polyterpene resins,resins, andand formform the basis of aa substantial and growinggrowing chemicalchemical industry.industry. However, the simpler,simpler, moremore traditionaltraditional products inin whichwhich rosin and turpentine can be used, such asas soap,soap, paperpaper sizesize andand paintspaints andand varnishes, can still be of value to thethe domesticdomestic economyeconomy ofof developingdeveloping countries,countries, andand itit isis not necessarynecessary toto thinkthink onlyonly inin termsterms ofof thethe widerwider international international marketsmarkets whenwhen planningplanning navalnaval stores production. ConsumerConsumer demanddemand inin developingdeveloping countries is expected to grow withwith increasing industrializationindustrialization and and urbanization urbanization and and there there are,are, therefore, opportunities forfor countries with suitable pinepine resourcesresources toto replace importedimported navalnaval storesstores productsproducts with those produced locally.local I y.
The aimaim ofof thisthis publicationpublication is toto provideprovide basicbasic informationinformation to enableenable prospectiveprospective new producersproducers of gumgum turpentineturpentine arldand gumgum rosinrosin toto makemake consideredconsidered judgementsjudgements on whether or not toto proceedproceed withwith investment.investment. Information onon thethe production of wood andand sulphate naval stores, and on furtherfurther processingprocessing ofof gumgum rosinrosin a_ndand gumgum turpentine,turpentine, isis notnot included. The publicationpublication is intended particularly forfor prospectiveprospective producersproducers andand government bodies,bodies, financialfinancial institutions oror donordonor agenciesagencies inin developingdeveloping countriescountries concerned with the appraisalappraisal of projectsprojects involvinginvolving gum naval stores production.production. It is hoped, also,also, that itit willwill assistassist existing producers, traders and consumers of gumgum turpentineturpentine and rosin by increasingincreasing their awareness of production methods and product characteristicscharacteristics in otherother partsparts ofof thethe world, world, and and their their knowledge knowledge ofof market market demands,demands, trendstrends andand preferences.
The text isis presentedpresented inin fivefive chapters.chapters. FollowingFollos,ving this this introductionintroduction,, Chapter 11 summarizes majormajor aspectsaspects ofof production, tradetrade andand markets for gum naval stores. The chief pine species used inin different parts of the world are listed, and the levelslevels of productionproduction and trends inin allall thethe majormajor producing producing countriescountries areare indicated.indicated. Chapter 2 reviewsreviews thethe tapping methods usedused toto recover resin fromfrom thethe tree,tree, and inin ChapterChapter 33 thethe technologytechnology required to processprocess thethe resinresin intointo rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine isis described.described. In ChapterChapter 4, thethe financial andand economiceconomic aspects of the resin tapping and processing operations areare analysed.analysed. In the finalfinal chapter,chapter, thethe technicaltechnical andand economiceconomic aspects which must bebe consideredconsidered whenwhen planning a gum naval stores industry are summarised.summarised. TheThe appendicesappendices containcontain referencesreferences and suggested further reading,reading, qualityquality criteria,criteria, specificationsspecifications and test methods for rosinrosin andand turpentine, aa discussiondiscussion ofof geneticgenetic factorsfactors influencinginfluencing resinresin composition and yieldsyields and thethe importance ofof correctcorrect speciesspecies andand provenanceprovenance selectionselection when assessingassessing pine treestrees forfor tapping, packaging requirements forfor turpentineturpentine andand rosin,rosin, aa listlist ofof importersimporters and traders of naval stores, and statisticalstatistical tables.tables.
2 CHAPTER 1 PRODUCTION, TRADE AND MARKETSMARKETS
DESCRIPTION, USESUSES ANDAND PRINCIPAL SOURCESSOURCES
Resin
Crude resin obtained byby tapping livingliving pine trees isis aa thick,thick, sticky,sticky, butbut usually,usually, stillstill fluidfluid material. It isis opaqueopaque (due(due toto the the presence presence of of occluded occluded moisture), moisture), milky-grey milky-grey inin colour,colour, and inevitably contains a certain amount ofof forestforest debris (pine needles,needles, insects,insects, etc.)etc.) when it is collected from the trees.
Most Pinus speciesspecies 'bleed'bleed' whenwhen the stemstem wood (xylem)(xylem) is cut or otherwiseotherwise injured,injured, but probablyprobably only a fewfew dozendozen ofof approximatelyapproximately 100100 speciesspecies which exist has everever beenbeen tapped commercially as a source of resin for rosin and turpentine production; inin the others,others, poor yields and/or quality of the resin make exploitation uneconomic.uneconomic. TheThe principalprincipal speciesspecies which are presentlypresently tapped,tapped, andand thethe countriescountries inin whichwhich thisthis takestakes place,place, areare listedlisted inin TableTable 1.1.
Table I1 Commercially tapped sources of pine resin: species and country of production
Species° Producing countrybcounrryb
PiMISPinus elliottiielliottii Engelm. Brazil, Argentina,Argentina. South Africa, (USA,(USA, Kenya)Kenya) P. massonianamassoniand D.D. DonDon People's Republic of China P. kesiya R.oyaleRoyale ex Gordon People's Republic of China P. pinasterpinasler AitonAiton Portugal P. nzerkusiimerkusii Jungh.Jungh. & Vriese Indonesia, (Viet(Viet Nam)Narn) P. roxburghii Sarg. India, (Pakistan)(Pakistan) P. oocarpa SchiedeSchiede Mexico, Honduras P. caribaeacaribaea MoreletMorelet Venezuela, (South(South Africa.Africa, Kenya)Kenya) P. sylvestrissylveslris L. Russia P. halepensisholepensis Miller Greece P. radiataradiala D.D. DonDon (Kenya)
Notes:a In somesome case only the major species tapped in a particularparticular countrycountry is indicated. In thethe People'sPeople's Republic ofof ChinaChina,, P.P. massoniana is thethe main species utilized and althoughalthough thethe contributioncontribution ofof speciesspecies suchsuch asas P. kesiyakesiya isis smallsmall byby ChineseChinese standards,standards, it is significantsignificant compared to the scalescale ofof productionproduction inin otherother countries.countries. Relatively sinsmall all butbut increasing areas ofof P. elliottii and otherother exoticexotic pines areare tappedtapped inin China in additionaddition to P.P. massonianamassoniana andand otherother nativenative species.species. InIn Mexico, P.P. oocarpa often occurs in mixed stands so thatthat otherother speciesspecies are likely ttoo be tapped. b TheThe listlist ofof countriescOWltries isis notnot intendedintended toto bebe exhaustive. exhaustive. ParenthesesParenthesc.'s indicate a minor producer.
Until veryvery recently, thethe crudecrude resinresin waswas nevernever consideredconsidered to to bebe aa product for international trade.trade. AlthoughAlthough itit mightmight oftenoften be transported some distance by road or rail to
3 the factoryfactory wherewhere itit waswas processed,processed, processingprocessing stillstill tooktook placeplace withinwithin thethe producingproducing country. However,However, thethe acuteacute shortageshortage experiencedexperienced byby somesome traditional producers in recent years has led to thethe importationimportation ofof resinresin for thethe firstfirst time;time; IndiaIndia andand PortugalPortugal areare bothboth known to havehave importedimported crudecrude resin.resin. Although losing thethe benefits ofof added value, new producers therefore have the option of tappingtapping trees andand exportingexporting crude resinresin toto nearbynearby countries without needingneeding toto processprocess itit themselves.themselves.
RosInRosin
RRosinosin is the majormajor productproduct obtainedobtained fromfrom pinepine resin.resin. It remainsremains behindbehind asas thethe involatileinvolatile residue after distillationdistillation of the turpentineturpentine andand isis aa brittle,brittle, transparent,transparent, glassyglassy solid.solid. It isis insoluble in water butbut solublesoluble inin manymany organicorganic solvents.solvents. It is graded and sold onon thethe basisbasis of colour, thethe palestpalest shadesshades ofof yellow-brownyellow-brown beingbeing thethe betterbetter quality.quality. Quality criteria andand specificationsspecifications are described inin AppendixAppendix 2.2. Several other physico-chemicalphysico-chemical characteristics influence thethe quality and these are largelylargely dependent on the species of pine from whichwhich the rosinrosin isis obtained,obtained, i.e.,i.e., theythey areare determineddetermined moremore byby geneticgenetic thanthan environmentalenvironmental andand processing factors. TheseThese aspects aspects areare discusseddiscussed inin moremore detaildetail inin AppendixAppendix 3.3.
Most rosinrosin isis usedused inin aa chemicallychemically modified formforrn ratherrather thanthan inin the raw statestate inin which it isis obtained.obtained. It consistsconsists primarilyplimarily of aa mixturemixture ofof abietic-abietic- andand pimaric-ty-pe pimaric-type acidsacids with srnallersmaller amounts ofof neutralneutral compounds.compounds. This intrinsicintrinsic aciclity,acidity, coupledcoupled with otherother chemical properties, enables it to be converted to a large number ofof downstream derivativesdelivatives which are usedused inin aa widewide rangerange ofof applications.applications. TheThe derivativesderivatives include salts, esters andand maleic anhydride adducts, andand hy-drogenated,hydrogenated, disproportionated andand polymerizedpolymerized rosins.rosins. Their mostmost important usesuses areare inin the manufacture of adhesives, paper sizing agents, printing inks, solders andand fluxes,fluxes, variousvarious surfacesurface coatings,coatings, insulatinginsulating materials for thethe electronicselectronics industry, syntsynthetichetic rubber,rubber, chewing gums andand soapssoaps andand detergents.
Although it isis moremore economicaleconomical toto manufacturemanufacture derivativesderivatives ifif largelarge quantitiesquantities ofof rosin are involved,involved, small producersproducers often manufacturemanufacture simple derivativesderivatives for for salesale in thethe domestic market asas a substitute for imported products.products. ForFor example,example, fortifiedfortified rosinrosin sizessizes can be mademade basedbased onon thethe reactionreaction ofof rosin rosin with with maleic maleic anhydride.anhydride. However,However, for thethe purposes of this report, nono furtherfurther referencereference isis mademade toto thethe technical technical aspectsaspects ofof additional additional processing or to the productsproducts themselves.themselves.
TurpentineTll rpentine
Turpentine isis a clear,clear, flammableflammable liquid,liquid, withwith aa pungent odourodour and bitterbitter taste.taste. It is immiscible with with water water andand hahass a boilingboiling pointpoint aboveabove 150°C.ISOoC. Quality criteria andand specifications areare indicated inin AppendixAppendix 2. 2. Turpentine is a mixture of organic compounds, mainly terpenes,terpenes, and its composition can vary considerably (more so than rosin)rosin) accordingaccording to thethe speciesspecies ofof pinepine fromfrom whichwhich itit waswas derived. derived. This This gr greatly e atl y influencesinfluences its value and end use and is ddiscussediscussed in greater detail in Appendix 3.
For somesome applicationsapplications turpentineturpentine isis usedused in whole form, usually asas a solventsolvent for paints and varnishes or asas aa cleaningcleaning agent.agent. However, like rosin it isis aa veryvery versatileversatile material chernicall.v-,chemically, and and nowaday nowadays,s, it it is is usedused mostly after further processing.processing. It usually-usually
4 undergoes fractional distillation to isolateisolate thethe desirabledesirable chemicalschemicals (mainly(mainly alpha-pinene and beta-pinene) whichwhich are thenthen transformedtransformed intointo value-addedvalue-added derivatives.derivatives. This furtherfurther processing is only economic if itit is carriedcarried outout on a very large scale, and it is not somethingsomething toto be consideredconsidered by a newnew producerproducer ofof gumgum navalnaval stores.stores. Occasionally,Occasionally, the ttu-pentineturpentine is richrich enough in alpha-pinene, for for example,example, to to bebe usedused inin wholewhole form.form. TheThe derivativesderivatives are widely used in fragrance, flavour,flavour, vitaminvitamin andand polyterpenepolyterpene resinresin manufacture,manufacture, a_ndand formform thethe basisbasis of aa substantialsubstantial andand growinggrowing chemicalchemical industry.industry. The biggestbiggest singlesingle turpentineturpentine derivative,derivative, syntheticsynthetic pinepine oil,oil, is used in disinfectants,disinfectants, cleaning agentsagents and other productsproducts with aa 'pine' odour.odour. ManyMany derivatives, derivatives, includingincluding isobornylisobornyl acetate, camphor,camphor, linalool,linalool, citral, citronellol, citronellalcitronellal and and menthol menthol are are used used either either on on their their own own oror inin the elaborationelaboration of otherother fragrance and flavour compounds. AA fewfew ofof the the minor minor constituents constituents ofof ttu-pentine, turpentine, such as anethole,anethole, areare employedemployed forfor fragra_ncefragrance oror flavourflavour useuse withoutwithout thethe need for chemicalchemical modification. DownstreamDownstream derivativesderivatives are are notnot discusseddiscussed ftirtherfurther inin thisthis report.report.
WORLD PRODUCTION,PRODUCTION, TRADETRADE ANDAND OUTLOOK
Many ofof the usesuses toto whichwhich rosinrosin cancan bebe putput are are subject subject toto intense intense competitioncompetition fromfrom sysynthetic,nthetic, petroleum-based resins,resins, andand betweenbetween gumgum rosinrosin andand talltall oiloil rosin.rosin. TallTall oiloil rosin,rosin, which used to suffersuffer fromfrom odour problemsproblems associated with its method of production and aa tendency to crystallize,crystallize, was considered to bebe inferiorinferior toto gumgum rosinrosin forfor many many applications.applications. Today,Today, most ofof thesethese problemsproblems havehave beenbeen overcomeovercome and tall oiloil rosinrosin competescompetes moremore effectivelyeffectively with gum rosin.rosin. TechnicalTechnical developmentsdevelopments whichwhich havehave lleded to moremore effectiveeffective formulations for many rosin-based productsproducts havehave meantmeant thatthat lessless rosinrosin is neededneeded toto achieve a particular result.result. In the paperpaper industry,industry, forfor example,example, thethe developmentdevelopment ofof moremore effectiveeffective fortified rosin sizessizes andand emulsions,emulsions, andand changeschanges inin thethe paper-makingpaper-making processprocess itself,itself, havehave ledled to aa markedmarked decrease in the amount of rosin consumed perper tonnetonne ofof paperpaper produced.produced. TheThe increasing,increasing demanddemand forfor paper,paper, hhowever,owever, means thatthat the use of rosinrosin byby thethe paperpaper industry industry is is still substantial.
Any detailed analysis ofof the navalnaval storesstores industryindustry whichwhich attemptsattempts to followfollow production, tradetrade andand marketsmarkets beyondbeyond the primaryprimary rosin and turpentine stage, and between thethe different sources ofof navalnaval stores,stores, isis complexcomplex andand difficultdifficult and beyond the scopescope ofof thisthis report. In any case, a prospectiveprospective new producer of gumgum naval stores will first need to assess llocalocal pine resources, and their capacity to meetmeet domesticdomestic or regionalregional marketsmarkets forfor rosin andand turpentineturpentine (rather thanthan their derivatives), and suchsuch additionaladditional detaildetail is unnecessary-.unnecessary.
Production and trade
Total annualannual productionproduction ofof rosinrosin isis aboutabout 1.2 1.2 million million tonnestonnes world-wide.world-wide. Of this,this, itit isis estimatedestinnated that almost 720 000 tonnes, or 60%,60%, isis gumgum rosin;rosin; most of thethe remainder,remainder, aboutabout 35%, isis talltall oiloil rosinrosin andand thethe restrest isis woodwood rosin.rosin. WorldWorld productionproduction ofof turpentineturpentine isis approximatelyapproximately 330 000 tonnes fromfrom allall sources;sources; almostalmost 100100 000000 tonnestonnes (30%)(30%) isis estimatedestimated to be gum turpentine,turpentine, andand thethe bulkbulk ofof thethe remainderremainder isis sulphatesulphate turpentine.turpentine.
TheThe navalnaval storesstores industryindustry isis complexcomplex andand ever-changing.ever-changing. InIn thethe earlyearly partpart ofof thethe century, gum naval stores productionproduction waswas thethe dominant,dominant, andand inin mostmost cases,cases, thethe only,only, meansmeans
5 of producing rosin and turpentine. WoodWood navalnaval storesstores production,production, involvinginvolving the uprooting and extraction of old pinepine stumps,stumps, developed in those countries withwith largelarge areasareas of raw materials, such as the United States and the former Soviet Union; production in the United States peaked during the 1950s and has since declineddeclined to to aa lowlow level.level. The recoveryrecovery ofof talltall oil rosinrosin andand sulphatesulphate turpentineturpentine asas by-productsby-products ofof chemicalchemical pulpingpulping ofof pinepine chipschips alsoalso began during thethe 1950s.1950s.
As labour in the moremore industrializedindustrialized countries has become more expensiveexpensive andand lessless willing toto undertake the task ofof tapping,tapping, gumgum navalnaval storesstores productionproduction hashas declineddeclined andand thethe centre ofof itsits productionproduction hashas shifted.shifted. The UnitedUnited StatesStates andand manymany forrnerformer producingproducing countries ofof Europe are either no longerlonger producers,producers, oror are nownow onlyonly ableable toto sustainsustain productionproduction at very low levels. ProductionProduction hashas alsoalso declineddeclined inin countries such as IndiaIndia andand Mexico; inin India,India, aa shortageshortage ofof treestrees forfor tappingtapping hashas addedadded toto thethe otherother problems.problems. DuringDuring the 1980s, Brazil emerged as a significantsignificant producerproducer ofof gumgum navalnaval stores,stores, butbut here too, thethe cost of labourlabour isis nownow beingbeing felt.felt. Also, government financial incentives which encouraged new planting in Brazil have been reduced, soso asas existingexisting areasareas ofof plantationplantation comecome toto thethe end ooff their tapping life fewer suitable trees are available to replace them.
The focus of production forfor world gumgum navalnaval stores stores today today isis Southeast Southeast Asia.Asia. The People's RepubbcRepublic ofof China hashas been the world's dominant producerproducer for many years, but a dramatic increase in production, signalledsignalled by the installationinstallation of an improvedimproved andand expandedexpanded processing capacitycapacity inin thethe early 1980s, hashas seenseen IndonesiaIndonesia becomebecome thethe secondsecond biggestbiggest producer ofof gum rosin and turpentineturpentine inin thethe world.world. ChineseChinese production accounts for 430 000 tonnes (about(about 60%)60%) ofof thethe totaltotal annualannual productionproduction ofof gumgum rosinrosin andand IndonesiaIndonesia accounts for a further 6969 000000 tonnestonnes (almost(almost 10%).10%). WhileWhile ChineseChinese productionproduction isis unlikelyunlikely to increaseincrease further,further, IndonesiaIndonesia has anan ampleample (and(and growing)growing) numbernumber of treestrees availableavailable forfor tapping and the potential toto increaseincrease productionproduction significantlysignificantly inin thethe years toto come.come.
The People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina and IndonesiaIndonesia also dominate \vorldworld trade inin gumgum rosin and turpentine. TradeTrade statistics statistics forfor the the major major exporting exporting andand importingimporting countriescountries areare given in Appendix 6.6. ChineseChinese exportsexports ofof gumgum rosinrosin werewere approximatelyapproximately 277 000 tonnes in 1993 (70%(70% of worldworld trade)trade) andand IndonesianIndonesian exports were about 46 000 tonnes. RussiaRussia andand Brazil produce moremore gum rosinrosin than PortugalPortugal butbut most of it is used to meet domestic needs.needs. Portugal is the third biggest exporter and exports most of its output (about(about 2626 000000 tonnestonnes in 1992, although somesome of thisthis waswas producedproduced from importedimported crude resin). AA much much smaller smaller proportion ofof thethe turpentineturpentine producedproduced inin thethe People'sPeople's RepublicofRepublicof ChinaChina isis exportedexported (about(about 5500 tonnes); bothboth IndonesiaIndonesia (7500(7500 tonnes) and Portugal (6000(6000 tonnes) export more.more.
The future supplysupply of gum rosin and turpentine to the worldworld marketmarket dependsdepends mainlymainly on production trends inin thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China,China, Indonesia andand Portugal (in that order), and toto aa lesserlesser extent,extent, Brazil.Brazil. It alsoalso dependsdepends onon consumptionconsumption trendstrends inin ChinaChina which are difficult to predict; increasing Chinese industrialization and domesticdomestic consumption ofof naval stores maymay eventuallyeventually resultresult in a decreasingdecreasing surplussurplus availableavailable for export. The desiredesire to earnearn foreignforeign exchange,exchange, and the potentialpotential for somesome provincesprovinces to expand productionproduction as othersothers declinedecline (see(see below),below), maymay enable exports toto bebe maintainedmaintained atat about their presentpresent level.level. AnyAny decreasedecrease inin exportsexports couldcould bebe partlypartly oror wholly wholly mademade upup byby increased supplies fromfrom Indonesia.Indonesia.
6 The availability ofof gumgum rosinrosin (and turpentine) decreaseddecreased sharply inin late 1994 as thethe effects of severe floods in the People's Republic ofof China duringduring JuneJune toto September became known.known. ManyMany ofof thethe majormajor productionproduction areasareas werewere affectedaffected and this ledled toto aa significant significant reduction inin China's abilityability to to collectcollect andand processprocess crudecrude resinresin andand exportexport it toto worldworld markets.markets. SomeSome trade trade estimates estimates have have suggested suggested that that supplies supplies forfor 1994/95 1994/95 may- may bebe reducedreduced by as much as 30-40%. ThisThis damagingdamaging dropdrop inin productionproduction hashas beenbeen compoundedcompounded by a rapid and competitive expansion in the number of licensedlicensed exporters within the country, andand byby a radicaradicall changechange inin thethe export licensing system.system. Severe droughts in the productionproduction areasareas ofof Indonesia andand BrazilBrazil alsoalso ledled toto reducedreduced productionproduction inin 1994,1994, andand asas aa result ofof the ensuing disruption and disorganization, worldworld prices rose sharply between late 19941994 andand early 1995.
Prices
Estimates for EUMgum rosin rosin price price levels levels from from 199] 1991-94, -94, and and for for the the firstfirst quarterquarter ofof 1995, are shown in Table 2. TheyThey show show the the large large price price rises rises betweenbetween thosethose datesdates andand thethe difference difference in the price of rosinrosin fromfrom differentdifferent origins,origins, butbut theythey areare notnot exactexact transactiontransaction prices.prices.
Table 22 Gum rosina:rosina: landed prices, 1991-95b1991-95b (US$/tonne)
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Portuguese 800 765 795 835 900900 Chinese 675 675 650 575 750-775 Indonesian 570 620 575 560 650-670 Brazilian 680 680 600 590 775-850
Source: LondonLondon dealersdealers Notes: a WWWW grade b AverageAverage annualannual pricesprices exceptexcept 19941994 (July)(July) andand 19951995 (January)(January)
It isis likelylikely thatthat pricesprices willwill fallfall back from the highhigh levels of earlyearly 19951995 toto aboutabout USS700/tonneUS$700/tonne by the end of 1995. However,However, somesome uncertaintyuncertainty exists because the extent of lost production inin thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China, and thethe ability forfor productionproduction toto recover during 1995/96 is not known. AtAt thethe early early 1995 1995 price price levels,levels, PortugalPortugal andand BrazilBrazil couldcould both expand tappina,tapping but fw-therfurther fallsfalls inin rosinrosin pricesprices wouldwould makemake thisthis extra output doubtful.doubtful. Indonesia will continue toto expandexpand production.production.
It isis not usefuluseful to givegive aa similarsimilar price series for aumgum turpentine, which is traded at high prices in drumsdrums oror much lowerlower pricesprices inin 2020 000000 litrelitre ISOISO tanks.tanks. The scalescale andand ex-tentextent of internationalinternational trade is moremore limitedlimited than for gumgum rosin,rosin, butbut aa priceprice levellevel ofof US$450- US$450- 550/tonne delivered waswas typicaltypical fromfrom 1]993 993 toto mid-1994. LevelsLevels ofof US$600-650/tonne US$600-650/tonne c8z.f c&f India or Europe would bebe moremore representativerepresentative ofof earlyearly 19951995 priceprice levels.levels.
7 Major markets
Virtually all thethe non-producing countriescountries inin thethe worldworld (and somesome ofof the producers) import rosin and tutpentine,turpentine, or their derivatives or synthetic competitors. ExamplesExamples ofof thethe scalescale ofof imports can be seen in some of the trade statistics in Appendix 6.6. TheThe biggestbiggest marketsmarkets for imported gum rosinrosin areare Japan,Japan ,Western Western EuropeanEuropean countries,countries ,particularly particularly Germany,Germany, thethe Netherlands and France, the Republic ofof Korea,Korea, thethe United StatesStates and India. Globally,Globally, thethe European CommunityCommunity (EC)(EC) is thethe biggestbiggest importerimporter andand consumer,consumer, andand thethe People'sPeople's RepuRepublic blic ofof China isis itsits biggestbiggest suppliersupplier byby far far.. France and Spain are the biggestbiggest importersimporters of gumgum turpentineturpentine inin thethe EC;EC; theythey fractionatefractionate itit andand manufacturemanufacture downstreamdownstream derivativesderivatives for domesticdomestic consumptionconsumption andand re-export.re-export. Japan and India are otherother largelarge importersimporters of turpentine; supplies of rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine toto IndiaIndia supplement supplement indigenousindigenous production.production. The veryvery largelarge requirementsrequirements for bothboth rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine inin countriescountries suchsuch asas thethe UnitedUnited States andand thethe for-rnerformer SovietSoviet Union are met primarily throughthrough domestic supplies of tall oil rosin andand sulphatesulphate turpentine.turpentine.
Elsewhere, althoughalthough demand maymay be relatively lowlow it is still significant. DemandDemand isis somesometimestimes met byby domesticdomestic production.production. In Kenya,Kenya, the paperpaper industry-industry usesuses about 10001000 tonnestonnes of rosin per year, most of which is supplied fromfrom locallocal sources.sources. InIn otherother countriescountries itit is necessary toto import mostmost or all of the requirements. Thailand,Thailand, forfor example,example, produces a few hundred tonnes of rosin but imports several thousand tormestonnes a year.
Trading structures andand proceduresprocedures
In some of the majormaj or producing countries, the structurestructure ofof thethe industry,industry, andand thethe channelschannels of distribution ooff gum naval stores into the internationalinternational market, has changed in recentrecent years. In Portugal,Portugal, individualindividual producersproducers havehave formedformed producerproducer groupsgroups throw.:,,h through whichwhich tradetrade isis conducted. ThisThi srelatively relatively smallsmall numbernumber ofof groupsgroups hashas generallygenerally simplifiedsimplified the negotiationnegotiation of importsimports fromfrom PortugalPortugal andand givengiven somesome measuremeasure ofof consistencyconsistency inin thethe levellevel ofof prices.prices. Conversely, there has been aa movemove awayaway from the moremore centralizedcentralized system ofof trading inin the People's Republic of China to oneone inin whichwhich differentdifferent provinces have the freedom to enterenter into contracts withwith internationalinternational buyers. EvenEven withinwithin one provinceprovince there maymay bebe severalseveral groups competing forfor sales.sales.
Most of thethe productionproduction inin smallersmaller producingproducing countriescountries isis forfor domesticdomestic consumption.consumption. The processors sellsell directlydirectly to endend usersusers suchsuch asas paperpaper mills,mills, paintpaint oror chemicalchemical companies.companies. However, there areare somesome basicbasic proceduresprocedures andand practicespractices whichwhich shouldshould bebe notednoted byby prospective new producers or others considering thethe salesale ofof exportsexports.. MostMost purchasespurchases areare made on thethe basis ofof agreed specifications. AsAs indicatedindicated inin AppendixAppendix 2, thesethese specificationsspecifications will vary according toto thethe origin ofof thethe rosinrosin oror turpentine.turpentine. NewNew producers willwill therefore need to reassurereassure potentialpotential buyersbuyers ofof thethe qualityquality ofof the the materialmaterial beingbeing offeredoffered byby providingproviding samples beforehandbeforehand and, perhaps,perhaps, aa trial shipment.shipment. International tradetrade is normally-normally conducted throug,hthrough agents or dealers,dealers, rather thanthan byby directdirect negotiationnegotiation betweenbetween producerproducer and end user. AgentsAgents usuallyusually actact onon behalfbehalf of a specificspecific producer. DealersDealers buybuy andand sellsell onon theirtheir own account, theirtheir main contacts being otherother dealers,dealers, producersproducers andand endend uusers.sers. They are veryvery wellwell informedinformed about markets and trends, prices, product uses and endend useruser requirements; this knowledge may be difficult forfor producers to acquire,acquire, particularlyparticularly smallsmall ones.ones.
8 A new producer ofof gumgum navalnaval stores maymay wish to sellsell directly to the finalfinal user to avoid paying commission toto intermediaries. WhenWhen sellingselling thethe productsproducts domestically,domestically, thisthis may be the only option. However,However, in in the the international international market,market, variousvarious middlemenmiddlemen havehave aa valuable rolerole and end usersusers willwill usuallyusually prefer to conductconduct theirtheir transactionstransactions usingusing agentsagents and dealers. CommercialCommercial practicespractices varyvary betweenbetween companiescompanies and countries, and details of terms andand conditionsconditions for buyingbuying and sellingselling are a matter ofof negotiationnegotiation betweenbetween thethe twotwo parties. Established suppliers are normally paidpaid by cash againstagainst documents,documents, butbut buyersbuyers would prefer to make payment afterafter receipt of the merchandise from new producers.
Brief reference is made to packagingpackaging options for rosin andand turpentineturpentine inin ChapterChapter 33 and they are describeddescribed inin moremore detaildetail inin AppendixAppendix 4.4. Buyers of materialmaterial transported byby ocean freight preferprefer toto minimizeminimize transporttransport andand handlinghandling costscosts byby importing- importing- aa minimumminimum shipment size of one container load (approximately(approximately 20 tonnes gross weight).
Trade in crude resin
In anyany analysisanalysis ofof world production andand tradetrade in gum naval stores, the volume of trade taking place in crude resinresin needs to bebe estimated.estimated. Until recently,recently, thisthis diddid notnot needneed toto be considered as all resin was processed at origin and rosin and turpentine were the primary products of trade. However,However, trade trade in in crude crude resinresin hashas developeddeveloped overover thethe pastpast fivefive years as the capacity for tappingtapping hashas fallenfallen inin somesome ofof thethe traditionaltraditional producingproducing countries,countries, notablynotably Portugal andand India.India. These countriescountries havehave excessexcess processingprocessing capacitycapacity (usually(usually fullyfully depreciated) which can be brought back into production if an economic, external source of crude resin isis found.found. The absence of capital costs therefore enables thethe processors of imported resin toto sell the outputsoutputs (gum(gum rosinrosin andand turpentine)turpentine) at a priceprice whichwhich onlyonly need cover raw material and processing costs,costs, freight,freight, drumsdrums andand profit.profit. TheThe salesale of crudecrude resinresin also allows producing countries with a surplussurplus toto earnearn extraextra revenuerevenue withoutwithout investinginvesting inin additional capacity for processing.
The mainmain suppliers of crude resin in 1993 were BrazilBrazil (exporting(exporting aboutabout 1212 000-13000-13 000 tonnes), IndonesiaIndonesia (2000-3000(2000-3000 tonnes)tonnes) andand thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina (3000-4000(3000-4000 tonnes). TotalTotal exports exports in in 1993, 1993, based based onon trade trade estimates, estimates, werewere thereforetherefore 1717 000-20000-20 000000 tonnes. Present -levelslevels areare likelylikely to to bebe muchmuch reducedreduced inin thethe shortshort termterm asas a result of thethe destructive floods inin China in 1994 and the impact of severe summer droughts inin IndonesiaIndonesia (Java) and Brazil. AtAt thethe moment,moment, BrazilBrazil isis probablyprobably exporting less than 10 000000 tonnestonnes ofof crude resin, andand thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina andand IndonesiaIndonesia maymay not bebe exportingexporting any.any. The buyers of crude resinresin in 19931993 werewere Portugal (which(which imported 8000-108000-10 000000 tonnes of Brazilian resin)resin) andand IndiaIndia (which boughtbought 3000-40003000-4000 tonnes tonnes from from Brazil,Brazil, andand mostmost of Chinese andand IndonesianIndonesian resinresin exports,exports, toto givegive aa totaltotal ofof 8000-118000-11 000000 tonnes).tonnes).
There'There isis littlelittle likelihoodlikelihood thatthat tappingtapping willwill bebe expandedexpanded inin eithereither PortugalPortugal oror India, and if the present reduced trade inin crudecrude resinresin becomesbecomes permanent,permanent, PortugalPortugal willwill havehave lessless rosin to sell,sell, andand IndiaIndia willwill needneed toto import import more more Chinese Chinese andand IndonesianIndonesian rosinrosin andand turpentine inin orderorder toto meetmeet domesticdomestic requirements.requirements.
It is suggestedsuggested elsewhereelsewhere (Chapter(Chapter 4) that onceonce domesticdomestic marketmarket demand has been satisfied, the export ofof crudecrude resinresin couldcould bebe moremore profitableprofitable for new,new, smallsmall producers thanthan
9 the export ofof smallsmall volumes ofof gum rosinrosin andand turpentine.turpentine. However, this would depend on a continuing demand for external supplies of resin from Portuguese and Indian processors.
One unfortunate consequence ofof the use of crude resin which is not indigenous toto the country inin which itit is processed is that the compositional characteristics ofof thethe rosin and turpentine may no longerlonger indicateindicate the sourcesource ofof thethe processedprocessed products.products. In the past,past, thethe different species of pine used byby thethe majormajor producersproducers ofof internationallyinternationally traded gumgum rosinrosin and turpentine have conferredconferred on thethe productsproducts intrinsicintrinsic chemicalchemical properties whichwhich denotedenote their origin.origin. End users havehave alsoalso becomebecome accustomedaccustomed to thethe predictable,predictable, consistentconsistent properties of productsproducts delivereddelivered from traditional suppliers; thethe greatergreater thethe trade in crudecrude resin, thethe lessless certaincertain thesethese propertiesproperties become.become.
In thethe nextnext sections,sections, productionproduction and tradetrade inin thethe majormajor producingproducing countriescountries andand regions isis described.described.
People's Republic of China
Vast areas of native pines growing in the south of the country form the basis of the ChineseChinese gum naval storestoress industry. TheThe principalprincipal speciesspecies used is P.P. massonianamassoniana (mostly(mostly naturalnatural stands), with smaller contributionscontributions from from P. P. yunnanensis, yunnanensis, P. P. latteri,latteri, P.P. tabulaeformistabulae/ormis and P.P. kesiya.kesiya. AA small small proportion proportion of of the the resin resin raw raw material material isis obtained obtained fromfrom plantationsplantations ofof P.P. massonianamassoniana andand aa further further small, small, butbut increasing, increasing, amountamount fromfrom plantationsplantations ofof exoticexotic P.P. elliottii.elliottii. P.P .elliottii elliottii was was introduced introduced primarily primarily asas aa timbertimber species but it has been found toto give significantlysignificantly higherhigher yieldsyields ofof resin than the nativenative pinespines whenwhen tapped.tapped. The mainmain production areasareas areare Guangxi,Guangxi, Guangdong,Guangdong, Fujian,Fujian, Jiangxi,Jiangxi, YunnanYunnan andand HunanHunan provinces;provinces; Guangxi and Guangdong are currently thethe most important. However,However, thesethese twotwo provincesprovinces are amongamong thosethose whichwhich areare undergoingundergoing dramaticdramatic socio-economicsocio-economic changes,changes, includingincluding thethe drift of the ruralrural populationpopulation toto moremore attractiveattractive andand remunerativeremunerative employmentemployment inin thethe cities.cities. This may eventually lead toto a decrease in gum naval storesstores production in these traditionally important areas.areas. On the otherother hand,hand, YunnanYunnan hashas aa considerablyconsiderably greatergreater standingstanding pinepine resource than any of the otherother provincesprovinces plusplus thethe benefitbenefit of aa largelarge poolpool ofof low-costlow-cost labour,labour, so it will probably assumeassume greatergreater importanceimportance asas aa supplysupply source.source.
In spite of the veryvery recentrecent fall in production due to the floodsfloods inin 1994,1994, totaltotal annualannum production of crudecrude resinresin inin recent yearsyears has exceeded 500 000 tonnes,tonnes, givinggiving aroundaround 400400 000 tonnes of gumgum rosin after processing. ResinResin processingprocessing covers all scales of operation from the veryvery small,small, involvinginvolving onlyonly aa fewfew hundred tonnestonnes ofof resin, toto the veryvery large;large; oneone factory in Wuzhou, eastern Guangxi, is claimed toto bebe thethe largestlargest inin thethe world, with a rosinrosin output capacitycapacity of 4040 000000 tonnes/year.tonnes/year. AA recent recent Chinese Chinese source source (Shen (Shen Zhaobang,Zhaobang, 1994)1994) indicates thatthat in 1993, 430 000000 tonnestonnes ofof rosinrosin werewere produced,produced, ofof which which approximately approximately 60% (277(277 000000 tonnes)tonnes) waswas exported.exported. Of thethe rosinrosin whichwhich remainsremains forfor domesticdomestic consumption, about 44% is used for the manufacturemanufacture of soap (1990 data) andand aboutabout 35%35% for paper. IncreasingIncreasing amounts amounts ofof rosin rosin andand turpentineturpentine (30(30 000000 tonnestonnes andand 2020 000000 tonnes,tonnes, respectively) areare convertedconverted toto downstreamdownstream derivativesderivatives withinwithin thethe country.country.
10 Indonesia and otherother countriescountries ofof Southeast Southeast AsiaAsia
Although Indonesia hashas produced rosin and turpentine forfor many years, it waswas notnot untiluntil comparatively recentlyrecently that that itit emergedemerged asas aa majormajor forceforce inin world world trade. trade. VirtuallyVirtually all crude resin production is based on extensive areasareas ofof P.P. merkusiimerkusii plantations plantations on on Java. Java. These are managed by Perum Perhutani, thethe Forest State Corporation,Corporation, who areare alsoalso responsibleresponsible for the tapping and processing operations (although(although some of the factories fall within thethe privateprivate sector). AA very very small small quantityquantity ofof resinresin isis producedproduced intermittently inin Sumatra.Sumatra. In the earlyearly 1980s, modemmodern processing methodsmethods werewere introduced toto replacereplace the older,older, direct-fireddirect-fired distillation units. Production subsequently roserose fromfrom 1616 000 tonnes of crude resinresin (9000(9000 tonnes ofof rosin)rosin) inin 19811981 toto 7070 000000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin (49(49 000 tonnes of rosin and 8000 tonnes of turpentine) in 1991; by 1993, it had risen to over 100 000000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin (69(69 000000 tonnestonnes of rosin and 12 000 tonnes of turpentine). SlightlySlightly lower production levels are forecast for 1994 because of a severe drought whichwhich affectedaffected resinresin yields.yields.
Although most of the rosin andand turpentineturpentine produced in Indonesia is exported, an increasing proportion of both isis beingbeing consumed domestically. PerumPerum PerhutaniPerhutani statisticsstatistics for 19931993 showshow thatthat approximatelyapproximately 46 000 tonnes of rosin (two(two thirds of totaltotal production)production) and 7500 tonnestonnes ofof turpentineturpentine werewere exported.exported. FiguresFigures fromfrom thethe official official IndonesianIndonesian tradetrade statistics are significantlysignificantly lower.lower. ProductionProduction ofof downstreamdownstream derivativesderivatives is likely to attract increasing attentionattention inin thethe yearsyears toto come.come.
In 1991, production in Indonesia camecame from from aboutabout 100100 000000 haha ofof pine.pine. TheThe actualactual area of planted pine in JavaJava is about four times thisthis figurefigure andand stillstill expanding. expanding. There are also large areas of pinepine plantationsplantations on Sumatra,Sumatra, .Sulawesi and Kalimantan andand these,these, too,too, are increasing inin sizesize toto meet thethe demand forfor woodwood pulp. TheThe potentialpotential forfor increasedincreased resinresin production isis thereforetherefore veryvery largelarge (assuming(assuming thatthat labourlabour continuescontinues toto bebe available)available) andand inin future yearsyears IndonesiaIndonesia willwill -undoubtedlyundoubtedly consolidate consolidate and and improveimprove itsits positionposition asas thethe second biggest producer ofof gumgum navalnaval storesstores afterafter thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China.China.
Production elsewhere inin Southeast AsiaAsia is veryvery low.low. Viet NamNam producedproduced approximately 2500 tonnes of resin from P. merkusii in each of the five years from 1986 to 1990, and asas thethe countrycountry isis nownow openopen toto foreign foreign investmentinvestment thisthis figurefigure may rise inin thethe future. ThereThere is is some some production production in in Thailand Thailand andand LaosLaos fromfrom P.P. merkusii,merkusii, andand somesome fromfrom P. kesiyakesiya inin MyanmarMyanmar (Btu(Burma), ma), but it is very low (less thanthan 500 tonnes/year) and does notnot enter international trade.trade.
Portugal andand elsewhereelsewhere in Europe
The warm summer temperatures which areare conducive to high resin flow, and the large areasareas of naturalnatural pinepine whichwhich exist,exist, mademade PortugalPortugal andand somesome Mediterranean Mediterranean countriescountries majormajor producers of gum naval storesstores atat oneone time.time. SomeSome production also took place in central and eastern Europe. However,~owever, increasing increasing labour labour costs costs and and a agrowing growing unwillingness unwillingness amongstamongst workers to undertakeundertake tappingtapping has led to aa declinedecline inin production,production, sometimes toto the pointpoint where it has ceased altogether.
P. pinaster occursoccurs quitequite widelywidely inin centralcentral andand westernwestern areasareas ofof northernnorthern PortugalPortugal and, with the exceptionexception ofof recentrecent purchasespurchases ofof crudecrude resinresin fromfrom Brazil,Brazil, isis the solesole sourcesource ofof
11 Portuguese gumgum navalnaval stores.stores. In thethe tenten yearsyears 19781978 toto 1987,1987, crude crude resin resin production production averaged 110 000 tonnes/year and yielded 8484 000000 tonnestonnes ofof rosin and 19 000000 tonnestonnes ofof turpentine. ByBy 1992, 1992, production production hadhad declineddeclined toto approximatelyapproximately 30 000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin (equivalent to to 22 000 tonnestonnes ofof rosin),rosin), althoughalthough a slightslight increase increase isis predicted for the 1994/95 crop year. MostMost of of Portugal's Portugal's rosin rosin output output is is stillstill exported,exported, althoughalthough anan increasingincreasing amount is beingbeing usedused internally;internally; much of itsits turpentineturpentine isis fractionatedfractionated oror consumedconsumed domestically.
France no longer produces gum rosin or turpentineturpentine and production in Spain has fallen to aa veryvery lowlow level.level. Production in central and eastern European countriescountries such asas Poland, Bulgaria, and the former Yugoslavia and CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia hashas alsoalso declined.declined. Greece produced aboutabout 60006000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin fromfrom P.P. haZepensishalepensis inin 1993, butbut the trendtrend forfor production is downwards. ProductionProduction ofof resinresin isis nownow reportedreported toto havehave ceased ceased inin Turkey,Turkey, although in the late 1980s it produced about 3000 tonnes/year from P. brutia.
Russia
P. sylvestrissyZvestris coverscovers vast areasareas ofof RussiaRussia andand otherother partsparts ofof thethe formerformer SovietSoviet UnionUnion andand forms the basis of a substantialsubstantial naval storesstores industry.industry. TheThe mainmain areas for gum navalnaval stores production areare inin IrkutskIrkutsk andand YekaterinbourgYekaterinbourg (the(the formerformer SverdlovskSverdlovsk region),region), thethe centralcentral parts of thethe KrasnoyarskKrasnoyarsk region, and the central and northern regions of the European part of Russia.Russia. Siberia and the Urals account for about 50% ofof crudecrude resinresin production;production; thethe remainder comes fromfrom European Russia. TheThe coldercolder regionsregions ofof SiberiaSiberia areare notnot conduciveconducive to highhigh resinresin yieldsyields andand productivity,productivity, inin general,general, is believedbelieved to bebe low.low. Russian sources have stated that productionproduction ofof resinresin hashas fallen inin recent years from aa highhigh ofof 115115 000000 tonnestonnes to aroundaround 9090 000000 tonnestonnes inin 1992;1992; thisthis totaltotal isis believedbelieved toto includeinclude veryvery minorminor amountsamounts of larch andand firfir oleoresin.oleoresin. If plans to taptap treestrees inin thethe CrimeaCrimea gogo ahead,ahead, productionproduction maymay bebe stabilized atat this levellevel asas resinresin yieldsyields inin thisthis areaarea areare expectedexpected to bebe higher.
Most ofof thethe rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine producedproduced in in Russia Russia is is usedused domestically, domestically, butbut small small amounts have been offered onon thethe internationalinternational marketmarket inin recentrecent years.years.
North America
For many years, the UnitedUnited StatesStates hashas experiencedexperienced problemsproblems in recruiting labour for the arduous task ofof tappingtapping trees atat aa wagewage whichwhich makesmakes thethe collectioncollection andand processingprocessing ofof resinresin economically viable.viable. This has led to a steadysteady declinedecline in gum naval stores production, and from a widewide supplysupply base in thethe southeastsoutheast where P. elliottiielliottii (slash(slash pine)pine) isis growngrown forfor pulpwood, tapping is nownow confined toto thethe statestate ofof Georgia.Georgia. ExtantExtant productionproduction isis probablyprobably only a few thousand tonnes; exports of gum rosin averaged about 12001200 tonnes/yeartonnes/year for thethe five years 1989-93 and were lessless thanthan 10001000 tonnestonnes inin 1993.1993. Naval stores productionproduction remains a major industry inin thethe USA (and a dominant force in the world), butbut itit isis basedbased largely on sulphate turpentine and talltall oil rosin recovered duringduring chemicalchemical pulping (sulphate(sulphate naval stores) and.and, to a much lesser extent, on wood naval stores.
12 ThereThere are probably more native PinusPinus species in Mexico than in any other countrycountry in thethe world. AlthoughAlthough manymany ofof thethe speciesspecies areare unsuitableunsuitable for tapping, a large naval stores industry hashas developed using thosethose whichwhich areare.. AlthoughAlthough mixedmixed standsstands ofof pinespines areare oftenoften tapped, thethe major species isis P. oocarpa.oocarpa. Tapping isis concentrated in in thethe states ofof Michoacan,Michoacán, Jalisco andand Mexico.Mexico. However, asas inin the United States, there has beenbeen aa downward trend in resin production, and output has fallen fromfrom aboutabout 60 000 tonnes/year in the earlyearly 1980s1980s toto aboutabout 3030 000000 tonnes/yeartonnes/year inin thethe earlyearly 1990s.1990s. Gum rosin and turpentine production was around 2222 000000 tonnestonnes andand 40004000 tonnes,tonnes, respectively,respectively, inin 1991;1991; most was consumed domestically.
Central andand SouthSouth AmericaAmerica and the Caribbean
Several countriescountries inin CentralCentral AmericaAmerica have have tapped tapped pines pines for for resinresin atat some time butbut Honduras remains the majormajor producer.producer. MostMost of the resinresin isis obtainedobtained from P. oocarpaoocarpa although aa small quantityquantity comes comes from from P. P. caribaea caribaea var.var. hondurensis.hondurensis. Production of crude resin in Honduras peaked in thethe earlyearly 1980s,1980s, butbut hashas sincesince declined.declined. In recentrecent yearsyears itit appears to havehave stabilizedstabilized atat aboutabout 6000-80006000-8000 tonnes/yeartonnes/year (equivalent(equivalent toto approximatelyapproximately 4500-6000 tonnes ofof rosin).rosin). Most of thethe rosinrosin isis exported,exported, mainlymainly to Europe,Europe. wherewhere Germany is the largestlargest importer.importer.
Brazil isis thethe biggest producerproducer ofof gum navalnaval storesstores inin SouthSouth America.America. ConsiderableConsiderable areas (approximately(approximately 1.5 million ha)ha) are planted with pine of different species; the tropical P. caribaeacaribaea andand P.P. oocarpaoocarpa are are grown grown in in the the north north and and the the more more temperatetemperate P.P. elliottiielliottU andand P. taedataeda (a(a poorpoor resin resin yielder) yielder) areare growngrown inin thethe south.south. Large-scale tappingtapping began in the late 1970s and production of crude resin increased steadilysteadily toto aroundaround 6565 000 tonnes in the late 1980s. TheThe resinresin hashas beenbeen obtainedobtained almostalmost entirely fromfrom P.P. elliottii and production has taken place mainly inin SaoSdo PauloPaulo state; there isis somesome additionaladditional production inin Paraná,Parana, SantaSanta Catarina, RioRio Grande dodo SuISul and Rio de Janeiro. ProductionProduction fellfell somewhatsomewhat in 1991 and 1992 but is currently believed toto be around 60 000-65 000 tonnes (equivalent toto 42 000-45 000 tonnes of rosin and 7000-8000 tonnes ofof turpentine).turpentine). MostMost ofof thethe processedprocessed productsproducts are consumed domestically, but significant quantitiesquantities areare exportedexported (13 500 tonnes ofof gumgum rosin and 3000 tonnes of turpentine inin 1993).1993). ReplantingReplanting is not keeping pace with the loss of P. elliottiielliottii treestrees asas theythey comecome to thethe endend ofof theirtheir tappingtapping lifelife andand itit isis likelylikely thatthat P. caribaea will will be be increasingly increasingly targeted targeted asas aa sourcesource ofof resinresin in the future.
Argentina and Venezuela areare the only other two countriescountries producingproducing gumgum navalnaval stores in South America.America. inIn Argentina, Argentina, plantationsplantations of P. elliottiielliottii areare tappedtapped inin thethe north-north eastern provinces of Misiones,Misiones, CorrientesCorrientes and EntreEntre Rios.Rios. Crude resinresin productionproduction isis estimated at approximately 3030 000000 tonnestonnes (1993) fromfrom whichwhich 2121 000000 tonnes of rosin and 4000 tonnestonnes ofof turpentineturpentine areare obtained.obtained. Substantial amountsamounts of of both productsproducts areare converted into value-added derivatives forfor domestic consumption andand export.export. VenezuelaVenezuela isis believed to proouceproduce around 7000 tonnes ofof crudecrude resinresin fromfrom P. P. caribaeacaribaea..
There are some very large plantations ofof P.P. radiata inin ChileChile (about(about 1.51.5 millionmillion ha).ha). Experimental tappingtapping has has takentaken placeplace andand although thethe quality of thethe turpentineturpentine fromfrom P. radiataradiata is is probably probably superiorsuperior toto thatthat from from anyany otherother species, species, yieldsyields ofof resinresin areare notnot highhigh enough to encourage commercialcommercial production.production.
13 InIn thethe Caribbean,Caribbean, smallsmall quantities of resin have been producedproduced in Cuba from three native pinespines (P.(P, caribaea var. caribaea, P. tropicalistropicaiis andand P. cubensis)cubensis) but output hashas averaged less than 700700 tonnes/yeartonnes/year forfor thethe fivefive yearsyears fromfrom 19891989 toto 1993.1993.
Africa
Although large areasareas ofof pinespines havehave been-been'- plantedplanted forfor timber or pulp forfor somesome time,time, AfricaMrica has only become a producer of gum naval stores relatively recently.recently. Tapping of P. elliottii in the Chimanimani areaarea ofof thethe Eastern Highlands ofof ZimbabweZimbabwe beganbegan inin 1976.1976. ProductionProduction of crudecrude resinresin hashas nevernever exceededexceeded aboutabout 10001000 tonnes/year,tonnes/year, however, andand as thethe pinepine resource comes under increasingincreasing pressure forfor useuse as timber, outputoutput is expected to fallfall andand perhaps cease altogether.altogether. Small amounts of rosinrosin havehave beenbeen exportedexported intermittentlyintermittently to South Africa but most isis consumed domesticallydomestically byby thethe paperpaper industry.industry.
Kenya and South MricaAfrica bothboth beganbegan productionproduction inin about about 1986.1986. A diverse source of raw materials is used in Kenya; P. elliottii growinggrowing inin thethe MachakosMachakos areaarea ofof southernsouthern KenyaKenya provides mostmost ofof thethe resin, P.P. caribaea var.var. hondurensishondurensis is tapped in the southernsouthern coastal r~gionregion of Kwale, andand P.P. radiataradiata isis tappedtapped atat higherhigher elevations nearnear Nakuru.Nakuru. TheThe totaltotal resinresin production of aboutabout 10001000 tonnes/yeartonnes/year is showingshowing a smallsmall upward trend. All the rosin isis converted to a modified form and sold to local paper mills for use as a sizing agent.
South AfricanAfrican tapping operations areare centred on thethe extensiveextensive P.P. elliottii andand P. caribaeacaribaea var.var. caribaeacaribaea plantingsplantings inin thethe LakeLake StSt LuciaLucia areaarea ofof northern northern Natal.NataL Production of resin is more than 20002000 tonnes/year,tonnes/year, which is the highest of the three AfricanMrican countries. MostMost of of the the resulting resulting rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine isis consumed domestically. The rosinrosin is used mainly for paper sizesize andand inin thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof adhesives;adhesives; somesome isis exported.exported.
Several other AfricanMrican countries havehave thethe potential for gum naval stores production by using the extensive areas of under-exploited pinespines which which exist. exist. There are signs that in some cases thisthis potentialpotential isis beingbeing realizedrealized inin practicalpractical terms.terms. Malawi, for example,example, hashas more than 50 000 ha of mature pines in the north of the countrycountry andand althoughalthough mostmost ofof themthem are P. patuia,patula, aa speciesspecies withwith littlelittle oror nono prospectprospect asas aa commercialcommercial source of resin, there are probably enough P. elliottiielliottii toto makemake commercialcommercial tappingtapping aa viableviable proposition; itit isis unlikely,unlikely, however, toto becomebecome aa largelarge producerproducer ofof navalnaval storesstores inin international international terms.terms. It is understood (late(late 1994)1994) thatthat commercialcommercial productionproduction will begin in MalawiMalawi inin 1995.1995. In Uganda, commercialcommercial tapping tapping of of P. P. caribaeacaribaea beganbegan onon aa small scalescale inin latelate 1994.1994. Several Several other countries,countries, includingincluding Tanzania and Zambia, havehave substantial areasareas ofof pines, but theirtheir suitability and capacity to supportsupport gum naval storesstores production has not yetyet beenbeen proved.proved.
Indian sub-continent
India has been producing naval storesstores forfor aa longlong time.time. AreasAreas ofof naturalnatural and,and, moremore recently,recently, plantation P. roxburghiiroxburghii (chir(chir pine) have been used in the northern states ofof JammuJammu andand Kashmir, UttarUttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.Pradesh. P. wallichianawallichiana growsgrows atat higherhigher elevationselevations along the same Himalayan belt but as it gives lower yields ofof resinresin thanthan P.P. roxburghii, little,little, if any, is tapped commercially.commercially. CrudeCrude resin production peaked at about 75 000000 tonnestonnes inin 1975/76 and has since fallenfallen steadily.steadily. Production in 1990/91 waswas less thanthan 25 000 tonnes,
14 although it is now believed to have recovered and stabilized at about 2525000-30000 000-.30 000 tonnestonnes (equivalent(equivalent toto approximately 1818 000-21000-21 000 tonnes of rosin).rosin). The main reason for thethe decline has been the loss of trees for tapping, either because many of them have reached the end of their productive lives andand there areare no new areas ofof pinepine withwith whichwhich toto replacereplace them,them, or because the damagedamage donedone toto treestrees byby thethe useuse ofof inefficient, inefficient, incorrectlyincorrectly appliedapplied methodsmethods of tapping has led to Forest DepartmentDepartment bansbans onon tapping.tapping.
The loss ofof substantialsubstantial indigenous productionproduction ofof crudecrude resin, and the demands of Indian industryindustry forfor navalnaval storesstores products,products, havehave meantmeant thatthat IndiaIndia isis nownow aa netnet importer of both rosin andand turpentine.turpentine. TheThe shortfall shortfall inin locallocal productionproduction hashas beenbeen furtherfurther compensatedcompensated by thethe importation ofof about 10 000 tonnes/year ofof crudecrude resin.resin. TheThe greatestgreatest singlesingle use ofof turpentine inin IndiaIndia isis forfor thethe productionproduction ofof syntheticsynthetic camphor.
P. roxburghiiroxburghii isis alsoalso tappedtapped inin Pakistan,Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan. TheThe quantityquantity ofof resinresin produced by the threethree countriescountries combinedcombined does not exceedexceed aa fewfew thousandthousand tonnestonnes andand isis probably much less. AllAll the the output output from from NepalNepal andand BhutanBhutan goesgoes toto India.India.
In Sri Lanka, about 30 000 ha ofof P.P. caribaeacaribaea (mainly (mainly var.var. hondurensis)hondurensis) havehave beenbeen planted on degradeddegraded land,land, onon whichwhich thethe speciesspecies hashas flourished.flourished. These plantationsplantations havehave great potential as sourcessources ofof gumgum navalnaval stores,stores, butbut althoughalthough somesome small-scalesmall-scale tapping has taken place, therethere isis nono large-scalelarge-scale collectioncollection andand processingprocessing ofof resinresin atat present.present.
ESTIMATES OFOF WORLDWORLD PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION ANDAND EXPORTS
Estimates for production of crude resin, gum rosin and gum turpentine, and exports ofof gumgum rosin and gum turpentineturpentine are presented in Table 3. TheThe estimates estimates areare basedbased onon published published data which are believed toto be reliable, andand onon tradetrade sources. InIn casescases wherewhere figuresfigures differdiffer widely the authorsauthors havehave usedused theirtheir judgement toto provideprovide anan estimate.estimate.
15 Table 33 EstimatedEstimated world production and exports of crude resin, gum rosin andand gum turpentine (tonnes)(tonnes)
Production Exports
Crude resin Rosin TurpentineTtirpentine Rosin Turpentine
Total 976000976 000 717000717 000 9940099 400 384000384 000 2500025 000 a/which:of which: China, People's Rep. of a1993 570000570 000 430000430 000 5000050 000 277277000 000 55005 500 Indonesia 19931993 100000100 000 6900069 000 1200012 000 4600046 000 75007 500 Russia 19921992 9000090 000 6565000 000 90009 000 10001 000 500 Brazil 19931993 6500065 000 4545000 000 80008 000 13 000 33000 000 Portugal 1992 3000030 000 b22b22000 000 b5b5000 000 2626000 000 66000 000
India 1994 3000030 000 b21b21000 000 b4b4000 000 - - Argentina 1993 3000030 000 2100021 000 40004 000 Cioe10 000 22000 000
Mexico 1991 3030000 000 2200022 000 40004 000 50005 000 ? Honduras 1992 88000 000 66000 000 10001 000 50005 000 500 Venezuela 1993 77000 000 55000 000 800 Greece 1993 66000 000 40004 000 600 South Africa 1993 22000 000 15001 500 200 Viet Nam 1990 22000 000 15001 500 200 11000 000 Others 66000 000 40004 000 600
Source: BasedBased onon variousvarious literatureliterature andand trade estimates Notes: a ProductionProduction andand exportsexports expectedexpected toto bebe sharplysharply reducedreduced for 1994/951994/95 b Does notnot includeinclude thatthat producedproduced fromfrom importedimported crudecrude resinresin c Mainly downstreamdownstream derivativesderivatives - IndicatesIndicates smallsmall amountsamounts
16 CHAPTER 2 RAWRAW MATERIALS ANDAND INPUTS
RAWRAW MATERIALMATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
The fundamental requirement is an adequate number of suitable, mature pinepine trees availableavailable for exploitation overover thethe lifetimelifetime ofof aa processingprocessing plant. plant. Both natural forests and plantations may be used, although the high tree density and easier terrainterrain whichwhich enablesenables thethe tappertapper toto visit a greater number of trees per day, makes resinresin collectioncollection cheapercheaper andand easiereasier toto manage in plantations. If the annual yield ofof resinresin isis 33 kg/tree,kg/tree, at least 330 000 mature pine trees would be necessary to provideprovide resinresin feedstock to aa smallsmall processingprocessing plantplant withwith anan annualannual throughput of 1000 tonnes.
Many countries have substantial resourcesresources ofof pinepine treestrees of one oror moremore species,species, either as naturalnatural forestsforests ofof indigenousindigenous speciesspecies or asas plantationsplantations ofof introducedintroduced exotics.exotics. Although all pines areare capablecapable ofof yieldingyielding resin, bothboth thethe obtainableobtainable yieldyield andand thethe intrinsicintrinsic quality of the rosin and turpentine can varyvary considerablyconsiderably accordingaccording to to thethe species.species. TheThe wayway in which these genetic factors cancan influenceinfluence resin characteristics at thethe species,species, provenanceprovenance and individual tree levellevel are discusseddiscussed inin moremore detaildetail inin AppendixAppendix 3.3. Species selection is therefore crucial to thethe marketabilitymarketability of the productsproducts andand thethe profitabilityprofitability ofof thethe overalloverall operation. TheThe principalprincipal pinepine speciesspecies tappedtapped inin variousvarious parts of thethe worldworld havehave alreadyalready been noted inin ChapterChapter 1.1. It should be appreciated, however, thatthat those which are tappedtapped are invariably chosen from the standing resource already existing within thethe country either as natural standsstands oror plantations.plantations. Pines are usually plantedplanted forfor timber or pulp ratherrather thanthan resin, and whether thethe speciesspecies originallyoriginally selected for wood oror fibrefibre qualityquality areare alsoalso suitablesuitable for resin production isis aa mattermatter ofof chance.chance. P. patu/a,patula, for example, which is one of the most widely planted pines in Africa, producesproduces aa very poor quality resin in low yields and cannot be tapped economically.
As well as being dependent on the species of pine tapped, the quantity of resinresin that may be obtained from a particular group of trees depends on a numbernumber of other factors.factors. The most importantimportant ofof thesethese includeinclude ambientambient temperature (and(and altitudealtitude insofarinsofar asas itit affectsaffects temperature), rainfall,rainfall, diameter and crown size of the tree, method of tappingtapping andand lengthlength ofof tapping season.
High temperatures are conducive toto good resinresin flow,flow, whilewhile prolonged periods of high rainfall areare not,not, andand thethe extentextent ofof seasonalseasonal changeschanges inin climateclimate willwill largelylargely determine thethe period during the year when itit isis profitableprofitable to to taptap thethe trees.trees. InIn temperatetemperate countriescountries suchsuch asas Portugal, tapping takes place for eight to nfrienine monthsmonths ofof thethe year.year. TheThe timetime betweenbetween thethe end of oneone tappingtapping seasonseason andand thethe beginningbeginning ofof the next is used for cleaningcleaning or replacingreplacing tools and accessories and installing or raising gutter systemssystems andand cupscups onon thethe trees.trees. InIn moremore tropical countries, wherewhere therethere areare nono prolongedprolonged coldcold periods,periods, tappingtapping maymay proceed allall yearyear round, although seasonalseasonal heavyheavy rainsrains maymay interruptinterrupt it.it.
In general, the greater the diameter of the tree tapped and the bigger the proportion of livelive crown, thethe greatergreater thethe resinresin yields.yields. Selection of groups of treestrees forfor tappingtapping willwill therefore be made on thethe basisbasis ofof utilizingutilizing the oldestoldest or largestlargest treestrees availableavailable of thethe
17 preferred species.species. Plantation pinespines areare usually atat least 15-20 years old beforebefore tappingtapping commences; somesome countries havehave regulations whichwhich limitlimit tappingtapping toto those treestrees withwith diameters greater than aboutabout 20-2520-25 cm.cm. Comprehensive datadata are available,available, from manymany sources, relating diameter and crown size toto expected resin yieldsyields However,However, althoughalthough suchsuch data may serve to illustrate the general dependence ofof yieldsyields onon treetree size,size, theythey applyapply onlyonly toto a particular species;species; they mightmight alsoalso bebe misleadingmisleading if used directly to estimate yields outside the countrycountry from which they were derived. Furthermore,Furthermore, as resinresin yields are known to bebe genetically determined, considerable provenanceprovenance andand tree-to-treetree-to-tree variations variations may may exist. exist. As a guide, suitable species grown under favourablefavourable conditions can yield 3-4 kg/treekg/tree annually.annually. Minimum acceptable yields areare around 2 kg/tree; itit isis unlikelyunlikely that yields much below 2 kgkg could support aa viable resinresin tappingtapping operation.operation.
Tapping trials toto assessassess yieldsyields shouldshould thereforetherefore complementcomplement anyany feasibilityfeasibility stiklystddy which examines the prospects forfor establishingestablishing a gumgum navalnaval storesstores industry.industry. At the samesame time, samples ofof the resin obtained shouldshould bebe analysedanalysed to to determinedetermine quality. quality. Regardless otof the quantity produced, ifif the quality of the rosin and turpentine derived fromfrom thethe resin is so poor that thethe productsproducts areare unacceptableunacceptable to the market,market, the trees willwill not be worth tapping.tapping. Quality assessment criteria forfor gum rosin and gum turpentine are described in Appendix 2. In general, asas farfar asas internationalinternational marketsmarkets are concerned,concerned, the productsproducts fromfrom PortugalPortugal andand the People's Republic of China will setset the standards against which gum naval stores from new sources will be judged.
RESIN TAPPING OPERATION
Resin isis obtained fromfrom thethe tree in a mannermanner analogous toto rubber tapping except that the exudate is moremore viscousviscous andand slow-runningslow-running thanthan rubberrubber latex.latex. Tapping generallygenerally involvesinvolves the following basic steps:
• preparation ofof thethe faceface ofof thethe treetree • installation of the resin collection system • wounding ofof thethe treetree toto induceinduce resinresin flowflow • application of a chemical formulation to stimulate and maintain resin flow • collection ofof the resin,resin, re-woundingre-wounding ofof the tree, andand applicationapplication ofof thethe stimulantstimulant atat suitable intervals.
In somesome countries,countries, traditionaltraditional methods ofof tappingtapping areare used which do notnot entailentail application of a chemical stimulant andand which areare generally less efficient.
The precise manner in which thethe above stepssteps are carried out in the various producer countries has developed in different waysways overover thethe coursecourse ofof manymany years.years. Nevertheless, it is generally recognizedrecognized thatthat tappingtapping shouldshould bebe carriedcarried outout carefully andand inin suchsuch aa way as to avoid permanent damage to the tree.tree. OlderOlder methodsmethods in which cuts were made deepdeep into the wood havehave mostlymostly beenbeen replacedreplaced byby moremore modernmodem practicespractices involvinginvolving removal of barkbark alone. SomeSome producing producing countries countries have have spent spent much much time time and and effort effort developing developing andand refiningrefining procedures and investigating the use of different materials andand accessories suchsuch asas cups and gutters. Others still adhere to traditionaltraditional methodsmethods andand materials.materials. In Indonesia,Indonesia, trees areare tapped byby the frequentfrequent removalremoval of slivers ofof wood from thethe stem without the application of
18 stimulant (although(although steps are beingbeing takentaken to introduceintroduce alternativealternative methodsmethods which do notnot involve the removal of so much wood). InIn India, India, althoughalthough tappingtapping isis stillstill carried out whichwhich entails removal of woodwood fromfrom thethe treetree inin thethe formform ofof 'blazes', 'blazes', thethe 'rill''rill' method,method, inin whichwhich anan acid-based stimulantstimulant isis appliedapplied to smallsmall channels cut in the xylem in a 'herring bone' fashion, is advocated. TheThe method method of of tapping tapping usually usually followed followed in in the the People's People's Republic Republic ofof China China isis unusual because it involvesinvolves moving downdown thethe treetree duringduring thethe coursecourse ofof the season rather than startingstarting atat thethe basebase andand movingmoving up;up; althoughalthough thethe benefitsbenefits ofof usingusing stimulantsstimulants toto enhance resinresin yieldsyields havehave beenbeen demonstrated,demonstrated, thethe practicepractice has notnot been widelywidely adopted.adopted.
The particularparticular stylestyle ofof tappingtapping employedemployed maymay alsoalso bebe influencedinfluenced byby thethe ex-tentextent to which the treestrees areare usedused forfor purposespurposes otherother thanthan navalnaval storesstores production.production. If tappingtapping isis conducted onon plantationplantation pines,pines, forfor whichwhich the principalprincipal interest is the finalfinal sale ofof thethe logslogs for sawtimber or pulpwood,pulpwood, thethe commoncommon practicepractice is to taptap fairlyfairly intensively,intensively, using a wide face, for four years (perhaps(perhaps extending to six oror eight years)years) priorprior toto felling.felling. If therethere areare nono pressing demands forfor felling,felling, or if there is a large enough number of trees availableavailable to allowallow the use ofof aa narrownarrow faceface andand stillstill maintainmaintain the required production overall, tapping may be carried outout forfor upup toto 2020 yearsyears oror moremore onon thethe samesame group of trees.
Systems of tapping developed in the United States and Portugal areare nownow described.described. Both entailentail thethe removalremoval ofof barkbark andand thethe applicationapplication of sulphuricsulphuric acid as a stimulant,stimulant, but whereas the formerformer usesuses aa widewide faceface forfor intensiveintensive tapping, the latter usesuses aa narrownarrow faceface with a simpler systemsystem ofof guttering. TheThe two two methodsmethods areare illustratedillustrated inin FigureFigure 1.1.
Figure 11 Systems of resin tapping using a wide and narrow face
.../ \ I , 'II, ,\" II r "1 \./ i1 \., I ,r V I NIV \ , I' - 0\. \ 1 ~ l/ \., \ I 'v l v I
\ '( .:.:....:. I-----FaceFace , ,
v
t. - - Double-headedDoubleheaded nailsnaiis "- r-T-~Apron/Apron/gutter gutter
-+,,-T-- ResiResín n recereceiver iver --~-'+--4r- ,"", V\ Nail \ \"\ " \..'
Either method,method, adaptedadapted toto meetmeet locallocal circumstancescircumstances wherewhere necessary,necessary, could bebe adopted byby intending new producers. BothBoth systems systems areare wellwell documenteddocumented andand the intentionintention here isis onlyonly toto givegive an an outline outline of of the the methods methods and and materials materials used, used, highlighting highlighting thethe differences betweenbetween the two systems, ratherrather thanthan toto offer a complete guideguide toto tapping withwith detailed descriptions ofof toolstools andand accessories.accessories.
19 Variations ofof the US systemsystem have been used in many parts of thethe worldworld includingincluding Brazil, other countries in Central and South America, and Zimbabwe. CountriesCountries usingusing thethe Portuguese narrow face methodmethod includeinclude MediterraneanMediterranean producers, South Africa and Kenya. Alternative tappingtapping procedures whichwhich maymay bebe usedused in in other other countriescountries areare notnot describeddescribed herehere either because their use is limitedlimited to aa particularparticular country,country, oror becausebecause theythey areare generallygenerally considered to be less efficient.
System of tappingtapping using a wide face
In order toto facilitatefacilitate installationinstallation ofof thethe collection systemsystem on on treestrees whichwhich areare toto bebe worked for the first time, the rough outer bark is first removed fromfrom thethe areaarea atat thethe basebase ofof thethe treetree where it is to bebe fixed.fixed. ThisThis rough rough shaving shaving isis usuallyusually extended for part of thethe wayway upup thethe tree toto makemake thethe subsequentsubsequent tappingtapping easier. AlthoughAlthough aa two-piecetwo-piece apronapron andand guttergutter systemsystem made of galvanized iron is illustrated in Figure 1, this has been dispensed with in Brazil and a specially designeddesigned plasticplastic bagbag is used instead; this fitsfits across the width of thethe faceface andand isis held flush toto the treetree byby wirewire whichwhich goesgoes roundround it.it. This system is simpler,simpler, cheaper andand quicker to installinstall than the cup andand guttergutter system,system, andand doesdoes notnot riskrisk contaminatingcontaminating thethe resinresin with dissolved iron (which mayrnay resultresult fromfrom thethe corrosive action of the acid stimulant on thethe galvanized ironiron guttergutter if its application isis over-zealous).over-zealous). The riskrisk ofof leavingleaving the nailsnails used to fix the apron/gutterapron/gutter systemsystem inin the treetree afterafter tappingtapping hashas finished,finished, and of damagingdamaging saw blades ifif thethe treestrees are destined forfor sawtimber,sawtimber, isis also also removed. removed. However, itit is rather more difficult toto remove the resin from the bags without wastage than from the rigidrigid system,system, andand the bags have a shortershorter life.life. TheThe apron/gutter apron/gutter systemsystem cancan bebe nailednailed inin positionposition using five double-headed nails which areare easy toto remove and facilitate later removal of the guttering.guttering. Immediately belowbelow thethe guttering, a cupcup mademade ofof galvanizedgalvanized iron,iron, aluminiumaluminium or durabledurable plastic is fixed; itit is supported on a large nail and held in place by the bottom edge ofof thethe apron. InIn Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, galvanizedgalvanized ironiron guttersgutters andand aa smallsmall spout areare usedused toto directdirect thethe resinresin into glass jars.
A horizontal stripstrip ofof bark 2-2.5 cm high isis removedremoved acrossacross thethe widthwidth ofof thethe tree, just aboveabove thethe gutter,gutter, toto cause cause the the resin resin to to flow flow and and the the chemical chemical stimulant, stimulant, usuallyusually acid-acid based, is applied along thethe top edge ofof thethe exposedexposed tissuetissue ('streakt).('streak'). TheThe combinationcombination ofof bark removal and acid treatmenttreatment makesmakes it it unnecessaryunnecessary to to cut cut into into the the wood wood toto openopen the resin ducts, which waswas characteristiccharacteristic ofof olderolder methodsmethods ofof tapping.tapping. Wounding to the tree isis therefore only superficialsuperficial andand loss in growthgrowth duringduring tappingtapping isis minimal.minimal. The acidacid alsoalso maintains resinresin flowflow forfor aa longerlonger periodperiod ofof timetime andand thethe tapper,tapper, instead ofof having toto return to thethe faceface within two toto fourfour days,days, asas isis thethe casecase whenwhen traditionaltraditional methods of tapping are used, need not repeat thethe tasktask untiluntil somesome weeksweeks later,later, at whichwhich time the barkbark isis removedremoved above and adjacent to the first streak. InIn this this manner,manner, aa two-weektwo-week tapping tapping intervalinterval usingusing aa streak height of 2 cm would necessitate aboutabout 1616 visitsvisits toto thethe treetree in the course of an eight month tapping season, and would result in a vertical face about 32 cmcm high,high, downdown whichwhich the resin would flow to the cup. AA shortershorter tappingtapping interval,interva1, say 10 days, would use a streak height proportionately less than 22 cm.cm.
The first type of stimulantstimulant to bebe usedused commerciallycommercially was aa 50%50% solutionsolution ofof sulphuricsulphuric acid, applied as a finefine sprayspray fromfrom aa plasticplastic bottle.bottle. Later developments led to the productionproduction of a speciallyspecially formulated sulphuricsulphuric acidacid paste. paste. This is applied as a thin bead from a plastic bottle andand isis nownow quitequite widelywidely used,used, althoughalthough thethe preciseprecise formulationformulation variesvaries somewhatsomewhat
20 according to the availabilityavailability ofof local materials.materials.* * As well as being less wasteful and lessless hazardous to thethe personperson usingusing it,it, thethe pastepaste hashas thethe advantage advantage ofof requiring requiring slightlyslightly lessless frequent applicationsapplications than thethe spray.spray. The greatergreater penetrationpenetration of the pastepaste requiresrequires thethe removal of a bigger strip of bark than normal; so inin spitespite ofof fewerfewer visitsvisits toto thethe tree,tree, thethe totaltotal height of the face worked is about the same as for the spray. WhicheverWhichever typetype ofof stimulantstimulant is used, itsits strength,strength, frequencyfrequency ofof application,application, and the height of barkbark removedremoved shouldshould bebe optimized so that atat eacheach removalremoval of barkbark there isis somesome live xylem tissuetissue showing.showing. ThisThis is indicatedindicated byby thethe palerpaler colourcolour ofof the wood aboveabove the lineline which shows thethe extent of penetration of the acidacid fromfrom thethe previousprevious streak; the wood belowbelow the lineline isis darkerdarker andand redder in colour. MoreMore recent recent research research hashas shownshown thatthat inclusion inclusion inin thethe formulationformulation of 2-2- chloroethylphosphonic acidacid (e.g. EthrelTm),EthreI™), a a chemicalchemical used used toto enhance yields of latex inin rubber tapping, also has beneficial effects on resin production.production. However,However, further research is needed to demonstratedemonstrate thethe long-termlong-term benefitsbenefits and it is not thought to bebe usedused commerciallycommercially in tapping pine trees at present.
During the course of itsits flowflow somesome resin solidifies onon thethe faceface ofof the tree beforebefore reaching thethe receiver.receiver. TheThe extentextent toto whichwhich thisthis happenshappens dependsdepends on thethe speciesspecies of pinepine being tapped. TheThe solid solid may may be be scraped scraped off off periodically periodically duringduring thethe season,season, oror itit may may bebe leftleft toto the end and collected andand processed separatelyseparately fromfrom thethe bulkbulk ofof thethe resinresin asas itit willwill yieldyield a slightly lower grade of rosin.
At aboutabout sixsix monthlymonthly intervals,intervals, or or atat thethe end of the season, the cup and guttergutter system is removed and re-installed wherewhere thethe lastlast removalremoval ofof barkbark was made; a secondsecond season's tappingtapping cancan thenthen bebe carriedcarried out.out. ThisThis isis repeated for a third, fourth and, perhaps, fifth season (3-4 years in total), when the height finally attainedattained isis likelylikely to to be be tootoo greatgreat forfor a person to reachreach andand itit becomesbecomes uneconomicuneconomic toto proceed any higher.higher. DependingDepending on thethe intended useuse forfor the trees, itit maymay be possible toto initiate aa second faceface forfor tapping on the opposite side of the trunk.
System of tappingtapping using a narrow face
Procedures using a narrow faceface areare alsoalso basedbased on the removalremoval of bark with acid treatment. However, the use of a narrower face, usually 10 cm wide, brings with it severalseveral advantages,advantages, the most importantimportant being thethe simpler systemsystem of of guttering guttering that that can can bebe used.used. AA small,small, flat,flat, arc-shaped piecepiece of galvanized ironiron isis insertedinserted edgewiseedgewise into into thethe shavedshaved partpart of the treetree with a special tool; it requires nono nailsnails toto holdhold itit inin place.place. A clay or plastic pot is supported under it byby aa singlesingle nailnail oror woodenwooden splint;splint; inin appropriateappropriate circumstances,circumstances, a bamboo cup or coconut shell cancan bebe usedused as thethe resin receiver.receiver. TheThe heightheight of bark removed at each visit to the treetree isis similarsimilar to thatthat forfor aa widewide face,face, aboutabout 2-2.52-2.5 cm;cm; thethe tapping tapping scheduleschedule (using(using sprayspray or paste-based stimulant) is also similar. AfterAfter working on one verticalvertical face for fourfour years,years,
**In In additionaddition to thethe sulphuricsulphuric acidacid solution itself, a typical paste contains small amountsamounts ofof aa lubricant-cum-lubricant-cum surfactant (to reduce drying out and prevent sticking ofof thethe paste to the sidessides of thethe container),container), anan acid-acid stable emulsifier (to(to prevent separationseparation ofof thethe oiloil and aqueousaqueous phases), aa pyrogenic silicasilica (to act as aa thickener) and a carriercarrier suchsuch asas finelyfinely gradedgraded pecan shell or rice bran flour (to(to impartimpart adhesiveadhesive qualities toto the paste and provide texture). TheThe concentrationconcentration ofof thethe acidacid usedused to make the paste may be between 40% and 60% (w/w)(w/w) depending on the tapping method used and the climatic conditions under which the paste isis applied. Note:Note: appropriateappropriate safety precautions shouldshould bebe takentaken whenwhen preparing, preparing, handling handling andand usingusing stronglystrongly acidic materials and their formulations.
21 another may bebe started about 10 cm to one side of thethe first. InIn thisthis way,way, fourfour oror five five faces,faces, each lasting for four years,years, maymay bebe workedworked onon largelarge trees.trees. If the treestrees areare largelarge enough,enough, two oror moremore facesfaces maymay bebe worked worked simultaneously; simultaneously; however,however, althoughalthough theythey willwill bebe higher,higher, resin yields forfor twotwo facesfaces areare notnot twicetwice thatthat forfor aa singlesingle face.face.
Tapping remains essentially aa manual operation whatever system is used,used, andand although attempts have beenbeen made,made, notablynotably in the UnitedUnited States, to introduce mechanization forfor some of thethe tasks,tasks, particularlyparticularly thosethose whichwhich areare physicallyphysically demandingdemanding such as the initialinitial shaving ofof the tree andand thethe removalremoval ofof bark,bark, theythey havehave metmet withwith littlelittle success. TheThe tools tools and and accessories accessories requiredrequired forfor tappingtapping areare relativelyrelatively few andand simplesimple and include the following:
• bark shaving tool • cup or other form of receiverreceiver • guttering • nail(s)nail (s) (to supportsupport cup and/or to fix guttering) • hammer • bark hack • file or whetting stone (for(for sharpeningsharpening bark hack) • sulphuric acid-based stimulantstimulant (liquid(liquid oror paste) • bottle (plastic,(plastic, for applicationapplication ofof acid)acid) • bucket (into(into which resinresin fromfrom cupcup isis emptied)emptied) • funnel (for(for transfer of resinresin fromfrom bucket to drum) • drum or barrel • protective clothing andand accessoriesaccessories (for(for tapper,tapper, includingincluding visorvisor or goggles,goggles, acid-acid proof gloves, plasticplastic apronapron oror otherother garment,garment, andand rubberrubber boots).boots).
LABOUR AND ORGANIZATION
Labour requirements andand organization duringduring thethe tappingtapping seasonseason varyvary fromfrom producerproducer to producerproducer.. Methods of tapping which involve thethe removal ofof bark and applicationapplication of aa chemical stimulant usually mean that the tappertapper onlyonly needsneeds toto visit thethe tree every 7-14 days;days; the interval may be even longerlonger underunder favourablefavourable conditionsconditions andand usingusing acidacid paste. paste. MethodsMethods which involveinvolve thethe removalremoval ofof wood without applying stimulant require more frequent visits,visits, every one to threethree days,days, andand areare thereforetherefore moremore demandingdemanding inin termsterms ofof labour.labour. Resin isis emptied from the receiver every second, third or fourth visitvisit dependingdepending on thethe systemsystem ofof tapping used and the size of thethe receiver.receiver. ItIt isis emptiedemptied into buckets and the full buckets are emptied into drums or barrels strategically locatedlocated amongst thethe trees.trees. WhenWhen full,full, thethe drumsdrums are transported directlydirectly toto thethe processingprocessing plantplant oror toto aa centralcentral storagestorage depot.depot.
Productivity is dependent onon the system of tapping used andand thethe efficiencyefficiency of thethe tapper; it isis alsoalso influencedinfluenced byby treetree density andand thethe terrain over which thethe tapper has to move when going fromfrom treetree toto tree. BetweenBetween 200200 andand 800800 facesfaces may be attended in one day, so in a two-week cycle of 10 working days, 2000-8000 treestrees (or less if moremore thanthan one
22 face is being worked per tree)tree) cancan bebe tapped by one person. AlthoughAlthough a a different different individual individual usually collects the accumulated resin from the trees, there may also be aa divisiondivision of labour amongst the tappers themselves. ForFor example, example, oneone person person in in a a team team may may be be responsibleresponsible forfor applying thethe stimulant and/orand/or replacingreplacing the the cup cup onon thethe tree (which(which is either covered or · removed during streaking to avoidavoid piecespieces of barkbark fallingfalling into it) while the others carry outout the strealdng.streaking.
In additionaddition to thethe tappers,tappers, smallsmall teamsteams ofof peoplepeople areare requiredrequired duringduring thethe establishment andand maintenancemaintenance phases: phases: to to shaveshave the the treestrees andand installinstall the the cupscups andand gutters prior to tappingtapping newnew groupsgroups ofof treestrees (establishment),(establishment), andand toto remove the cups and gutters and repeat the process at the end of one season in preparation for the next (maintenance).
Several systemssystems ofof remunerationremuneration exist.exist. The hourlyhourly wagewage system,system, whichwhich requiresrequires constant supervision, increasesincreases productionproduction costs costs andand givesgives thethe labourers nono incentive to work efficiently. AA systemsystem inin which contractors or pieceworkers undertake the tapping has the advantageadvantage ofof relievingrelieving management ofof some of the problems associated with having a large labour force under its direct control, and payment on thethe basis ofof thethe quantityquantity ofof resinresin produced encourages higher levelslevels ofof production.production. SomeSome supervisionsupervision oror checkingchecking isis stillstill required to ensureensure thatthat tappingtapping isis beingbeing carried out correctly, and a systemsystem of bonusesbonuses oror penalties may bebe adoptedadopted toto reward productivity andand penalizepenalize poor poor workmanship. workmanship. In some countries a plot-holderplot-holder is allocatedallocated a specificspecific number ofof trees, perhaps 5000; he cancan thenthen employ extra tapping labour atat hishis ownown expenseexpense if he needs it, oror involveinvolve otherother membersmembers ofof his family.
23 CHAPTER 33 PROCESSING ANDAND PLANT DESCRIPTION
INTRODUCTION
The separation of resinresin intointo itsits componentcomponent parts,parts, rosinrosin andand turpentine,turpentine, involvesinvolves twotwo basicbasic operations: cleaningcleaning andand distillation.distillation. Cleaning isis necessary toto removeremove allall extraneousextraneous material from thethe resin,resin, loothboth solidsolid andand soluble.soluble. This includes forest debris such as bark,bark, pine needles and insects, which may havehave fallenfallen intointo thethe cupcup during its period on thethe tree,tree, and which requirerequire removalremoval byby filtration.filtration. Water-soluble impuritiesimpurities carriedcarried intointo thethe cup by rain water areare removedremoved byby washingwashing thethe filteredfiltered resinresin withwith water.water. The approximateapproximate composition of crude resin, as it is received at the plant for processing,processing, is 70% rosin,rosin, 15%15% turpentine and 15% debrisdebris andand water.water. Small amounts ofof iron produced by the corrosivecorrosive action of excessexcess sulphuricsulphuric acid on galvanized iron guttering and cups may also contaminate the resin.resin. AsAs thethe presence presence ofof iron iron wouldwould leadlead toto aa darker,darker, lower-gradelower-grade rosin,rosin, itit isis removedremoved by adding oxalic acid prior to filtration.filtration. IronIron contamination contamination has has becomebecome lessless ofof a a problem problem as the useuse ofof acidacid pastepaste ratherrather thanthan sprayspray has become moremore widelywidely adopted. adopted. The use ofof cups made ofof plasticplastic oror otherother non-ferrousnon-ferrous materialmaterial eliminateseliminates the risk of ironiron contaminationcontamination from this source.source.
The cleaned resin is then ready to bebe distilled,distilled, or, toto bebe precise,precise, steam-distilled;steam-distilled; thethe older type of direct-fireddirect-fired stillstill has givengiven way, almostalmost universally, to a stillstill inin whichwhich steamsteam isis used bothboth toto heatheat thethe resin resin and and to to facilitate facilitate the the distillation distillation byby co-distilling co-distilling withwith thethe turpentine vapours. DesignsDesigns ofof equipment,equipment, andand thethe proceduresprocedures followed,followed, vary somewhatsomewhat between producing countries.countries. The OlusteeOlustee process, developed andand used in thethe UnitedUnited States and adopted elsewhere, is described first. TheThe methodologymethodology isis wellwell documented,documented, andand since the differencesdifferences betweenbetween thisthis andand anyany otherother system ofof processing areare likely toto be matters of detail rather than principle, a description ofof thethe process serves as a useful guide to any prospective processor of crude resin.resin. TheThe finalfinal designdesign of plant can be tailoredtailored toto suitsuit local preferences and requirementsrequirements inin terms of scale.scale. A descriptiondescription isis then givengiven ofof Portuguese methods which areare based onon the same principles asas thethe Olustee process, but which differ in the layout of equipmentequipment and the relativerelative capacity ofof some of thethe units.units. Processing methodsmethods usedused inin otherother producingproducing countries countries are are not not described. described. ToTo a greater or lesser degree theythey allall followfollow thethe samesame basicbasic principles,principles, namely, filtration of the hot,hot, diluteddiluted resin, usually including aa washingwashing stage,stage, andand steam-distillation.steam-distillation.
OLUSTEE PROCESS FOR THETHE PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION OFOF TURPENTINETURPENTINE AND ROSIN
The scheme of processing isis illustratedillustrated inin FigureFigure 2.2. Barrels of resin arriving at the plant are immediately weighedweighed andand upturnedupturned over an iron grill covering a large concrete oror mildmild steelsteel dump vat. TheThe barrels barrels areare placedplaced overover steamsteam outletsoutlets to removeremove the last of thethe adheringadhering semi-solid resin. 'Scrape','Scrape', thethe solidifiedsolidified resin resin which which is is taken taken off off the the face face of of the the treetree atat thethe end of thethe seasonseason andand whichwhich yieldsyields aa poorerpoorer qualityquality rosin,rosin, is emptiedemptied into aa separateseparate compartment for separateseparate processing.processing.
24 Figure 2 Scheme ofof resresinin processingprocessing inin thethe United States of America
SStearn I( ~ ( lll \ J.----- Trap t Charge CondenserConden ser tank -. [J l lIl1P va l Wasil 1<1 111 , W"s il l ank WaterW a l el
Still51111 N Steam- VI +
... - ""me Blow - , ... .. In ~--
C d S~ I p. u " vel To turpentine S ieillll receiver dlllllP W it , h vat SeparatorSep a la to l w a ler DeDe hydr iyiliator3 10r
SourceSource:: Based onon McConnMcConnellell (19631(1963) In order to facilitatefacilitate the flow from one unit toto another, the resin has toto be diluteddiluted with turpentine and heated. AsAs well well asas making making thethe resin resin moremore fluid, fluid, dilutiondilution lowerslowers itsits specific gravity,gravity, soso thatthat in the laterlater washingwashing stage it will form a two-phasetwo-phase systemsystem with water more readily. TheThe resinresin isis transferredtransferred first from the dump vat to aa blow-case,blow-case, andand then from the blow-case to a melter, byby thethe useuse ofof steamsteam pressure.pressure. FilterFilter aidaid (diatomaceous(diatomaceous earth, 0.5-0.6 kg/tonne of resin) and oxalic acid (0.6-1.2 kg/tonne)kg/tonne) areare addedadded atat either of the twotwo units.units. Turpentine (from a previousprevious distillation) isis addedadded toto bring the turpentineturpentine content of thethe resinresin toto betweenbetween 30%30% andand 40%;40%; thethe precise precise amountamount addedadded dependsdepends onon whether good qualityquality resinresin oror 'scrape''scrape' isis beingbeing processed.processed. The temperaturetemperature insideinside the melter is raised to 85-100°C85-100°C byby steam,steam, the exactexact temperaturetemperature againagain beingbeing dependent on thethe quality ofof thethe resin.resin. SteamSteam pressurepressure isis then used to force the hot resin first through a metal screen at the bottom of the melter to remove the larger sized solidsolid matter,matter, andand thenthen throughthrough a filter to remove allall remaining solids.solids. TheThe filterfilter is of the horizontalhorizontal or verticalvertical plateplate typetype and consists of about 1212 platesplates backedbacked withwith filterfilter paper oror cloth;cloth; filtrationfiltration isis assistedassisted byby thethe filter aid added previously. TheThe resinresin passespasses directly from the filter to the bottombottom ofof aa washwash tank containing hot water. EachEach tank tank holds holds 1500-2000 1500-2000 litreslitres ofof water water which which isis sufficientsufficient for washingwashing up to 2020 000000 litreslitres ofof resin resin (about(about sevenseven chargescharges fromfrom thethe melter).me Iter) . After washing, the mixture is allowed toto settlesettle forfor atat leastleast 44 hourshours and preferablypreferably overnight.overnight. The bottom aqueous layerlayer is then run off to waste,waste, anan intermediateintermediate layerlayer of unbrokenunbroken emulsionemulsion ('muck') isis runrun off toto be returned to the lowlow grade dump vat for reprocessing, and the top layer, whichwhich consistsconsists of of washedwashed resin, resin, is is draineddrained and and pumped pumped to to aa charge tank inin preparation forfor distillation.*distillation. *
The still is filled withwith resinresin fromfrom the the charge charge tank. tank. The temperature isis thenthen raisedraised byby means of steam coilscoils to aboutabout 110°C110°C atat whichwhich pointpoint livelive steamsteam isis gradually gradually introducedintroduced through sparger valves. AsAs thethe temperaturetemperature continuescontinues to rise,rise, distillation proceedsproceeds and thethe sparger steam inflow is increased until, at the endend ofof thethe distillation,distillation, thethe temperaturetemperature hashas reached 160-170°C. TheThe raterate ofof increase increase inin temperature,temperature, and therefore the time taken for the distillation, is dependent on the steamsteam pressure used; the higher the pressurepressure withinwithin thethe range 8.8-10.5 kg/cm2kg/cm2 (125-150 psi), thethe fasterfaster thethe distillation. For stillstill capacities of about 4-5 tonnes, distillation timestimes varyvary betweenbetween 9090 andand 150 150 minutes. minutes. IfIf thethe steamsteam pressurepressure isis tootoo low, it willwill be moremore difficultdifficult to removeremove the lastlast ofof thethe turpentineturpentine (particularly(particularly if there areare appreciable amounts of high-boiling components)components) andand therethere will be an inordinatelyinordinately long residence time for the hot rosinrosin inin the still;still; both these factors have an adverse effect on thethe quality of the rosin. TheThe turpentineturpentine andand steamsteam vapours pass through an entrainment traptrap to remove any entrained resin andand thenthen condensecondense inin aa water-cooledwater-cooled condenser.condenser. CompletionCompletion of distillation isis indicated byby a minimalminimal level of turpentineturpentine inin thethe distillatedistillate (which,(which, byby experience, is foundfound toto correspond toto a particular temperature).temperature). AA smallsmall proportion of thethe turpentine coming overover at thethe beginningbeginning and endend ofof thethe distillationdistillation maymay bebe collectedcollected separately as slightlyslightly lower-quality turpentine,turpentine, andand usedused forfor diluting thethe next batch of resin at the melter. Otherwise,Otherwise, therethere isis nono fractionation.fractionation.
The water-turpentinewater-turpentine distillate isis led immediately toto a separating tank; thethe upperupper turpentine layer overflows andand passespasses firstfirst downdown toto the basebase ofof thethe dehydratordehydrator andand thenthen upwards through a bed of rock saltsalt to removeremove all traces of water. TheThe dry dry turpentine turpentine isis
* Simple batch, rather thanthan continuouscontinuous oror vacuumvacuwn distillation,distillation, isis mostmost commonlycommonly usedused andand isis describeddescribed here, although the other methods offer some advantages in terms of product quality and steam conswnptionconsumption if there isis sufficient throughputthroughput ofof resinresin toto justifyjustify theirtheir use.use.
26 then fed to holdingholding tanks for subsequentsubsequent storage in bulk oror inin galvanizedgalvanized steel steel drums. drums. The hot rosinrosin fromfrom thethe bodybody ofof thethe stillstill isis dischargeddischarged from the bottombottom intointo suitablesuitable containerscontainers which areare setset asideaside forfor thethe rosinrosin toto coolcool andand solidify.solidify.
Yields ofof rosin and turpentine obtainedobtained byby USUS producersproducers werewere aboutabout 700700 kg and 160 litres (140 kg), respectively,respectively, from one tonne of resin.resin. 'Scrape°'Scrape' yieldsyields lessless turpentine than normal resin.resin. SpecificationsSpecifications for both products are given inin AppendixAppendix 2. 2. The generalgeneral appearance of the rosin should be hard, clearclear andand bright,bright, palepale yellow-brown in colour, and with no visiblevisible sign of foreignforeign mattermatter or turbidityturbidity due toto thethe presencepresence ofof moisture. moisture. Packaging optionsoptions forfor turpentine and rosin areare describeddescribed below,below, butbut moremore detaileddetailed packaging and labelling requirements areare given in Appendix 4.4.
The materials used forfor thethe construction ofof thethe plantplant areare important.important. The dump vat is concrete oror mildmild steelsteel andand thethe blow-caseblow-case isis mildmild steel.steel. In order to avoidavoid corrosion by the acidic material, anyany areaarea wherewhere hot resin is handled should be stainless steel; the melter,melter, filter (where it comes into contact with the resin), charge tank, still and all pipework are all therefore made of stainless steel.steel. TheThe washwash tanktank maymay be aluminium oror stainlessstainless steel. steel. The condenser, separatorseparator andand dehydratordehydrator areare alsoalso usuallyusually ofof stainlessstainless steel.steel.
In the UnitedUnited States, meltermelter capacitycapacity varied between 2.5 and 5 tonnes of resin when there were aa numbernumber ofof independentindependent processors.processors. ThereThere werewere usuallyusually two oror moremore washwash tanks, each capable of holding up to 2222 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin andand eacheach providingproviding material for four distillations. OperationOperation ofof twotwo stills,stills, oror doubledouble shifts,shifts, allowed up to 1010 000000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin to be processed inin aa year.
PRODUCTION OFOF TURPENTINETURPENTINE ANDAND ROSIN IN PORTUGAL
The scheme of processing followed in Portugal is based on the samesame principlesprinciples which led to the development ofof thethe Olustee process inin thethe United States but some of the unitsunits whichwhich make up thethe plantplant differdiffer inin design design andand capacity. capacity. The processprocess lay-outlay-out isis illustratedillustrated diagrammatically in Figure 3.
Metal drums containing resinresin areare unloaded atat the dumpdump vat.vat. To facilitatefacilitate thethe emptying ofof the drums (which(which is the mostmost labour-intensivelabour-intensive partpart ofof the whole process), aa rectangular section (measuring aboutabout 2525 cm cm x x 15 15 cm) cm) is is cut cut out out of of the the side side before before use. use. TheThe section is then replaced but can easily be removed subsequentlysubsequently as as required required.. On receipt,receipt, the drums are rolledrolled on theirtheir sidessides to thethe vatvat openingopening and the resinresin is forced out withwith largelarge spatulas. ResinResin fromfrom thethe dumpdump vatvat is is fedfed directlydirectly intointo aa mixermixer (the(the equivalentequivalent ofof thethe meltermelter in the previous scheme) with no intermediate transfertransfer toto andand fromfrom aa blow-case.blow-case. TheThe mixer,mixer, rather than being just a containingcontaining vessel likelike thethe melter,melter, incorporatesincorporates aa stirrerstirrer soso thatthat the contents, includingincluding the addedadded turpentineturpentine andand oxalicoxalic acidacid (if(if used),used), cancan bebe thoroughlythoroughly mixedmixed as well as heated.
Another significant differencedifference isis thethe additionaddition ofof washingwashing waterwater in the form ofof livelive steam (up toto 10%) at this stage rather than in liquidliquid form form at at aa laterlater stage.stage. The hot mixturemixture is next passed through a metal screen to take out thethe largerlarger solidsolid impurities;impurities; this occurs inin a separate vessel rather than at the bottom of the melter as in the Olustee process.
27 Figure 3 ScherneScheme ofof resin processing in Portugal
Steam
Dump vat
]Dom') Still Condenser
Water -"1--1----1
SteamStealll----j N 00 t To t orpent ate ..... - Mixer E)Decanter cc reueiVC1reLl-!IVt;H
SeparatorSep3rator
ScreenlilgSLreeoing vesselve~sel DellyiliDeliydrdlUr atur
Filter Filter
Charge To tanktillik foixur r- VVash ------... IF-1-- wat. Miluk lank SourcSUUICD:.. : Based Based on oil GamaGama (1982) A slurrysluny ofof diatomacaeousdiatomacaeous earth is addedadded from anotheranother vesselvessel and thethe screenedscreened mixture then passes immediately throughthrough a fine filter as before. The'I'he hot, filteredfiltered mixturemixture passes toto one of severalseveral decanters in which thethe aqueous portionportion isis allowed toto settle out, usually overnight; one charge from the mixermixer is sufficientsufficient to fill one decanterdecanter (unlike(unlike the Olustee system where one wash tanktank takestakes four to sevenseven charges from thethe melter).melter).
Both batchbatch andand continuouscontinuous distillationsdistillations are carried out inin PortugalPortugal andand althoughalthough batch stillsstills areare predominant,predominant, the largerlarger throughputthroughput whichwhich isis possiblepossible withwith continuouscontinuous distillation means thatthat a significant proportionproportion of Portuguese production isis obtainedobtained inin thisthis way. BatchBatch stills stills inin PortugalPortugal areare relativelyrelatively small,small, with a capacity of 0.5 oror 11 tonne,tonne, andand distillation timestimes areare short, about 20-30 minutes. OnOn completion completion ofof thethe distillation,distillation, thethe rosin is often drained from the still into aa wagon; thisthis cancan thenthen bebe pushedpushed betweenbetween twotwo lines lines of steel drumsdrums spacedspaced out onon aa concreteconcrete floor,floor, andand rosinrosin cancan bebe dischargeddischarged intointo themthem byby lowering anan overflowoverflow arrn.arm. Alternatively,Alternatively, paper paper sacks sacks may may be be filled. filled.
Stainless steelsteel is againagain thethe mainmain construction construction material.materiaL Mixer andand decanterdecanter capacities areare eacheach aboutabout 5-75-7 tonnes,tonnes, andand there are usually at least four decanters to provide a constant supplysupply ofof materialmaterial forfor distillation.distillation. Nominal plantplant capacities rangerange from a fewfew thousand tonnestonnes upup toto aboutabout 1010 000000 tonnes/year.tonnes/year.
SCALE OF OPERATIONS ANDAND LABOUR REQUIREMENTSREQUIREMENTS
The target productionproduction isis determineddetermined byby thethe availabilityavailability ofof crude resin, thethe throughput which can be sustained,sustained, and thethe sizesize ofof thethe marketmarket forfor thethe products.products. In somesome cases,cases, thethe resinresin supply may be limited by the number of suitable treestrees available for for tapping.tapping. TheThe annualannual production capacity requiredrequired toto meetmeet thethe target is largelylargely dictateddictated byby the still size, the number of stills, and the shiftsshifts worked. TheThe smallest smallest sizedsized plantplant mightmight havehave aa singlesingle stillstill with a capacity ofof oneone tonnetonne andand bebe capablecapable ofof performing performing threethree distillationsdistillations perper dayday (single(single shift). TheThe number number of of working working daysdays availableavailable each year will be governed by the lengthlength of the tappingtapping season,season, butbut assumingassuming a 260-day260-day year, anan annualannual throughputthroughput of aroundaround 800800 tonnes of resin couldcould bebe achieved.achieved.
The factorsfactors toto bebe considered considered whenwhen choosing choosing betweenbetween thethe different different processingprocessing systems include relative plantplant costs,costs, availability andand costcost ofof technicaltechnical expertise,expertise, thethe costs of maintenance and spare parts, steamsteam andand waterwater requirements,requirements, and the relativerelative advantagesadvantages or disadvantages of using larger or smaller batch sizes. EstimatesEstimates ofof plantplant costscosts areare discusseddiscussed in ChapterChapter 4.4. Data necessary toto makemake an accurateaccurate comparisoncomparison ofof steam andand waterwater requirements for the different types of plant are not available.available. TheThe use ofof largerlarger stillsstills meansmeans fewer distillationsdistillations are needed to processprocess aa givengiven amountamount ofof resin. resin. However, aa smallsmall stillstill allows for greater flexibilityflexibility ifif interruptionsinterruptions inin steam,steam, waterwater oror raw materialmaterial supplies are anticipated. AsAs thethe stills stills designeddesigned forfor distillationdistillation ofof pinepine resinresin are notnot suitablesuitable forfor distillingdistilling harvested plant material toto produce essential oils, oils, this this isis notnot an option for usingusing sparespare capacity should itit occur. InIn any any case,case, thethe riskrisk of of cross-contamination cross-contamination andand taintstaints wouldwould bebe too high.
The labourlabour requirementsrequirements areare comparativelycomparatively small for a plant capable of handlinghandling upup to 10001000 tonnes/yeartonnes/year ofof resin.resin. Only four or fivefive skilled workers and a greater numbernumber of general labourers areare needed;needed; oneone personperson isis normallynormally responsibleresponsible for operatingoperating thethe still,still, twotwo
29 or three others assistassist andand operateoperate thethe otherother piecespieces ofof equipment,equipment, and one is in charge of the boiler. TheThe emptying emptying of of the the barrelsbarrels oror drumsdrums ofof crudecrude resinresin isis the mostmost labour-intensivelabour-intensive and time-consuming part part ofof thethe whole processing operationoperation andand atat least sixsix labourerslabourers areare required for unloading,unloading, loadingloading andand similarsimilar work.work. A storeman, and office and transport staff, are also required. TheThe total total labour labour requirementsrequirements for aa largerlarger plantplant dodo notnot increaseincrease proportionately asas the samesame numbernumber ofof workersworkers areare needed to operateoperate the specializedspecialized pieces of equipment.equipment. More general labourers willwill bebe required, though, to handlehandle thethe greatergreater quantities of resin andand itsits products.products.
30 CHAPTER 44 FINANCIAL AND ECONOMICECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RESINRESIN TAPPING AND PROCESSING
The aim of thisthis sectionsection isis toto provideprovide economiceconomic andand financialfinancial guidelines forfor the production and processing of pinepine resin.resin. Although thethe production ofof crude resin, and itsits processingprocessing intointo rosin andand tut-pentine,turpentine, are distinct operaoperations,tions, thethe cost levelslevels ofof resinresin tappingtapping willwill directly affect the economic andand financialfinancial competitivenesscompetitiveness ofof resinresin processing.processing.
It isis irnpossibleimpossible toto competecompete inin world markets ifif crude resin costs areare markedlymarkedly higher than those of the largestlargest threethree exporters,exporters, thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China,China, IndonesiaIndonesia and Brazil. TheThe international international tradetrade inin crudecrude resinresin hashas expandedexpanded over thethe lastlast fivefive years,years, particuparticularly-larl y from from Brazil Brazil to to PortugalPortugal andand India, but it still represents a very smallsmall percentage of the total volume of rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine traded.
It must bebe emphasizedemphasized that costs willwill be site specific and there could be substantialsubstantial differences according-according toto locallocal circumstances.circumstances. This is particularlyparticularly truetrue of thethe tappingtapping operation, and aa detaileddetailed feasibilityfeasibility study,study, which would bebe necessarynecessary beforebefore makingmaking anyany investment decision, decision, would would need need to to looklook closely atat the pinepine resourceresource andand thethe likelylikely productivity. hIt has has already already been been noted noted that that intrinsic intrinsic resin resin yields yields areare influencedinfluenced byby speciesspecies and local climatic conditions, but outputoutput is also greatly influenced by the productivity of the workforce and thethe effectivenesseffectiveness of thethe management,management, andand thisthis maymay varyvary considerablyconsiderably fromfrom one country to anotheranother (or(or eveneven within-country).Within-COuntry).
RESIN TAPPING OPERATIONS
Tapping is aa labour-intensivelabour-intensive operationoperation andand labourlabour costscosts willwill thereforetherefore greatlygreatly influenceinfluence production costs and,and, hence,hence, profitability.profitability. TheThe tapping tapping operation operation itselfitself can can bebe cat-ried carried outout by contractors oror pieceworkerspieceworkers whowho areare paidpaid accordingaccording to thethe amountamount ofof cleanclean resinresin theythey produce. The advantagesadvantages ofof thisthis systemsystem ofof paymentpayment havehave beenbeen discusseddiscussed inin aa previousprevious section.section. AA much much smaller,smaller, permanentpermanent workwork forceforce isis requiredrequired toto supervisesupervise andand managemanage thethe tapping operation, anangearrange for for purchase, purchase, storage storage and and transport transport of of crtude crude resin,resin, andand maintainmaintain stores andand accounts.accounts. However, However, it it is is essential essential forfor managementmanagement to undertakeundertake periodicperiodic checks to ensure thatthat con-ectcon'ect tapping proceduresprocedures areare beingbeing followed.followed.
The majormajor capitalcapital costcost Nwhen hen establishingestablishing aa tapping operation is thethe purchasepurchase ofof gutters and cups, a rangerange ofof tools,tools, andand itemsitems ofof protectiveprotective clothingclothing and footwearfootwear forfor thethe tappers. TheThe gutters gutters and and cups cups may may be be manufactured manufactured specifically specifically for thethe purpose,purpose, oror theythey may be mademade usingusing suitablesuitable secondhandsecondhand materials.materials. Other majormajor itemsitems ofof expenditureexpenditure include pre-productionpre-production and start-up costs, transport withinwithin the forest and toto thethe processingprocessing plant, andand licencelicence feesfees payablepayable toto thethe ownerowner ofof thethe treestrees forfor tappingtapping rights.rights.
Although it is impossible toto provide accurate costs of aa tappingtapping operation,operation, TableTable 44 gives details of thethe estimatedestimated pre-production,pre-production, start-up,start-up, fixedfixed investment,investment, workingworking capitalcapital aandnd annual productioproductionn costcostss forfor anan AfricanAfrican countrycountry atat 19951995 prices.
31 TableTable 4 ResinResin tapping operations:operations: estimatedestimated pre-production,pre-production, fixedfixed inves-tment,investment, working capital and annualannual productionproduction costs for an African country
Sub-total Total costs (US$) (US$)
Pre-production and start-up costscosts Manpower recruitment and training:training; initial management and administrativeadministrative expenses;expenses: materialsmaterials for training 2500025 000 Contingencies (10%)(J 0%) 225 50000 2750027 500
Fixed investment costs Site preparation,preparation, civilcivi l works andand loadingloading baybay 55000 000 Buildings:Buildmgs: staff housinghousing and office 6565000 000 Production equipment: barkbark shavers,shavers, gutters:gutters; cups,cups, tappingtapping tools, acid applicators, buckets, funnels,funnels, drums, acid-proof aprons, rubberrubber boots 8080000 000 Auxiliary equipment:equipment: vehicles,vehiclcs, workshop and office equipment 7070000 000 Contingencies (10%)(10%) 2200022 000 242242000 000
Working capital costs 3 months' working capitalcapital for rawraw materials,materials, labour and staff costs,costs, exploitation fees,fees, vehiclevehicle licenceslicences andand insuranceinsurance 96 000
TOTAL fixedrIXcd and working capital costscosts 365365500 500
Annual productionproduction costscosts Manpower: wageswages andand salariessalaries toto permanentpermanent labourlabour forceforce 2020000 000 Raw materials:materi als: LicenceLicence feesfees for useuse of trees 3030000 000 Contractors'Contractors' paymentspayments (based(based onon 200200 treestrees withwith doubledouble faceface to be tappedtapped perper vvorking working day)day) 8080000 000 Production materials:materials: Nails 99000 000 Sulphuric acid pastepaste 1515000 000 Transport: fuel,fuel, licencesli cences andand insuranceinsurance 3535000 000 Equipment: maintenancemaintenance andand replacementreplacement 1000010 000 General stores 1500015 000 Contingencies (10%,(10%, allall itemsitems exceptexcept manpoweilraw manpowe,/raw materials) materials) 88400 400 222222 400400
Annual chargecharge forfo r fixedfixed andand workingworking capitalcapital (20%)(200/0) 7373100 100
TOTAL annualannual costcost ofof resinresin 295295500 500
32 All the costs are based on 10001000 tonnestonnes ofof crudecrude resinresin being produced from 400 000000 trees, each yielding an average of 2.5 kg of resin per y-earyear from from two two faces. faces. As statedstated above,above, labour productivity andand annual resinresin yields perper tree willwill bebe criticalcritical inin determiningdetermining thethe profitability of the tappingtapping operation.operation.
It should be noted that inin orderorder for thethe datadata toto reflectreflect thethe truetrue annualannual costscosts ofof production, fixed and working capital costs are charged atat 20%/year;20%/year; thisthis isis lowerlower thanthan isis usual in many AfricanAfrican countries.countries.
Table 44 shows a total total annualannual cost ofof crudecrude resinresin atat thethe productionproduction sitesite ofof US$295US$295/tonne./tonne. 'WorldWorld pricesprices forfor crudecrude resinresin inin thethe periodperiod 1991-941991-94 (for(for tradedtraded material)material) averaged US$270-320/tonne (c&f) butbut prices may fall back slightlyslightly between 19961996 andand 2000. AllowancesAllowances forfor oceanocean freight,freight, internalinternal transporttransport costs, and ad valoremvalorem importimport duties,duties, will enableenable aa newnew reresinsin producer in Africa, for instance,instance, to be competitive in domestic and regional markemarketsts andand to makemake aa profitprofit onon capitalcapital employed,employed, eveneven ifif crude resinresin isis producedproduced at levels slightly aboveabove thisthis range.range. ProfitabilityProfitability is likely to be low,low, however,however, ifif importsimports areare permitted and duty levelslevels areare onlyonly 20%20% oror lower.lower.
RESIN PROCESSING OPERATIONS
ThThee overall capital costs ofof aa resinresin processingprocessing plantplant covercover machinerymachinery andand equipment,equipment, freightfrei ght of all impimportedorted items, and ininstallationstallation and start-up.start-up. Pre-productionPre-production costs such as manpower rrecruitmentecruitment and training and all initialinitial managementmanagement and administrativeadministrative expenses also have toto bebe included.included. It isis assumedassumed thatthat thethe trainingtraining elementelement willwill bebe providedprovided byby aa foreignforeign technicaltechnical expert.expert. AdditiAdditionalonal provisiprovisionon mustmust bebe made for landland costscosts andand civilcivil works,works, buildings, buildings, utilities,utilities, auxiliaryauxiliary equipmentequipment andand spares.spares.
An approximationapproximation of of pre-production, pre-productio n,fixed fixed investment, investment, workim_-_,- working capitalcapital and annualannual production costscosts for anan AfricanAfrican country is givengiven inin TableTable 5 5 (based(based on on 19951995 prices).prices). CostsCosts relate to single-shiftsingle-shift workingworking thrthroughoutoughout thethe yearyear andand areare basedbased onon 1000 tonnes ooff crude resinresin as raw materialmaterial (costed(costed inin TableTable 4) producingproducing anan estimatedestimated 700700 tonnestonnes ofof rosinrosin andand 110 tonnestonnes of turpentine.turpentine. OperationOperation ofof the the factory factory onon a a two-shift two-shift basis basis processing processing 20002000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin annually,annually, would reducereduce unitunit fixedfixed and working capital costscosts per tonnetonne ofof rosinrosin produced.produced. TheThe annual annual chargecharge forfor fixedfixed costscosts wouldwould fallfall byby US$60US$60 000,000, butbut annualannual productionproduction costscostS wouldwould rise.rise. TableTable 5 5 shows shows aa total total annualannual costcost for for processing processing 10001000 tonnes tonnes of crude resinresin ofof aboutabout US$668US$668 000.000.
UsingUsing the figuresfigures for total annualannual costscosts shownshown forfor thethe AfricanAfrican modelmodel inin TablesTables 44 andand 5, and assumingassuming that 700 tonnestonnes ofof rosinrosin andand 110110 tonnestonnes ofof turpentineturpentine areare recoveredrecovered fromfrom 1000 tonnetonness of crude resin,resin, itit isis possiblepossible to calculatecalculate the annualannual production cost perper tonnetonne of rosin. InIn those those parts parts of of Africa Africa where where petroleum-based petroleum-based 'mineral'mineral turpentine'turpentine' oror whitewhite spiritspirit is available cheaply, gumgum turpentineturpentine maymay not bebe highly-highly valued, valued, andand itit maymay bebe uneconomicuneconomic ttoo ship small consignments toto expexportort markets because of the cost ofof drumsdrums andand oceanocean freight.freight. Therefore, in calculatingcalculating aa break-evenbreak-even priceprice for rosin,rosin, turpentineturpentine isis givengiven aa nominalnominal valuevalue ofof US$350/tonne.US$350/tonne. The total valuevalue for 110110 tonnestonnes ofof turpentineturpentine is thusthus US$38US$38 500,500, andand deducting thithiss fromfrom the total annualannual production costs of US$668US$668 400 givesgives a residualresidual cost ofof US$629 900;900; thisthis isis equivalentequivalent toto aa break-evenbreak-even price forfor the rosin of US$900/tonne.US$900/tonne.
33 Table 55 Resin processing operations:operations: estimatedestimated pre-production,pre-production, fixedfixed investment,investment, workingworking capitalcapital and annual production costs for an African country
Sub-total Total costs (US$) (US$)
Pre-production and start-up costscosts Technical expertise 2000020 000 Manpower recruitment;recruitment; trainingtraining andand administration;admillistration; materialsmaterials for trialtrial runsruns 2500025 000 ContinContingenciesgencies (10%)(10%) 45004 500 4950049 500
Fixed inves-ttnentinvestment costs Site preparation and civil works 1010000 000 BuildinBuildings:gs: Factory 6000060 000 Workshop andand staff housing 8000080 000 Contingencies (10%)(J 0%) 1515000 000 Plant and equipment:equipment: Boiler (imported)(imported) 7400074 000 All other production equipmentequipment (made(made locally)locally) 240240000 000 Manager's 4WD vehicle;vchlcle; workshopworkshop andand officeoffice equipment;equipment; clothing and tools 6000060 000 Contingencies (5%)(5%) 1870018 700 557700557 700
TOTAL fixedfixed costscosts 607200607 200
Annual production costscosts Manpower: wages and salariessalaries to pennanentpermanent labour force 8400084 000 Raw materials: 10001000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin atat US$295/tonneUS$295/tonne 295295000 000 ProducliProductionon materials: filters,filters, filterfilter aidaid andand oxalicoxalic acidacid 2020000 000 TranspTransport:ort: truck hire; fuel, licenceslicences andand insuranceinsurance forfor ownown vehicles 3636000 000 EquipmEquipment:ent: maintenance and replacementreplacement 1000010 000 PackaPackaging:ging: 4-ply paper sacks withwith HDPEHOPE lining,lining, 2020 kgkg netnet 77000 000 General overheads: office,office, telephone.telephone, fax,fax, etc.etc, 3030000 000 Contingencies (including(including aa provisionprovision forfor workingworking capitalcapital toto cover two months'months' supplysupply ofof resin)resin) 6500065 000 547547000 000
Annual charge forfor fixedfixed costscosts (20%)(20%) 121 400
TOTAL annual costscosts 668400668 400
34 It should bebe notednoted thatthat thethe gumgum navalnaval storesstores industriesindustries establishedestablished during thethe lastlast 2020 years will be operating withwith older,older, lower-costlower-cost equipmentequipment whichwhich willwill havehave fullyfully or partiallypartially depreciated. AsAs aa result, result, theythey shouldshould bebe ableable toto produceproduce bothboth crudecrude resinresin andand processedprocessed rosin at pricesprices 20-30%20-30% lower than those shown in Tables 44 and 5 whichwhich areare basedbased onon capital equipment purchase andand start-upstart-up costscosts atat 19951995 prices.prices.
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES OFOF DOMESTIC, REGIONAL AND EXPORT MARKETS FOR AA NEWNEW PRODUCER
It isis recognizedrecognized thatthat thethe break-evenbreak-even priceprice forfor rosinrosin ofof US$900/tonneUS$900/tonne isis highhigh comparedcompared withWilh the price of Chinese or IndonesianIndonesian imported rosin,rosin, although itit shouldshould bebe possible toto reducereduce costs byby improvementsimprovements in productivity, particularlyparticularly in in the the tapping tapping operation. operation. However,However, ifif the quality of his product isis acceptable,acceptable, an African (or any other) producer would havehave anan advantage o-verover thethe endend useruser of imported rosin, in terms of meetingmeeting domesticdomestic oror regionalregional demand, because he would not incur the followingfollowing additionaladditional costs.costs. First, internal transport costs fromfrom portport toto factoryfactory for for imported imported material material wouldwould probablyprobably bebe aroundaround US$40-60/US$40-60/ tonne. EvenEven if if exports exports are are made made to to regional regional countriescountries byby railrail andand truck,truck, thethe advantageadvantage willwill be retainedretained ofof notnot havinghaving toto bearbear thethe costcost ofof ocean ocean freight freight (approximately(approximately US$70-90/tonne)US$70-90/tonne) incurred by Chinese, IndonesianIndonesian andand other competitors.
Secondly, any customs duties or tariffstariffs levied on imports will add to thethe landedlanded cost; aa dutyduty ofof 20% 20% will will add add a afurther further US$100-120/tonne. US$100-120/tonne. It isis alsoalso possiblepossible that aa neighbouring country buying gumgum navalnaval storesstores willwill havehave aa reducedreduced (or preferential) rate of duty, allowing the regional exporter to pay only 50% of the full ad valorem tariff.tariff.
Thirdly,Thirdly, relatively small users often experience difficulty in opening 30-day letters ofof credit or providingproviding sightsight drafts;drafts; severalseveral months' working capitalcapital maymay bebe tiedtied up inin thethe import of 50-20050-200 tonnestonnes of rosinrosin inin aa singlesingle shipment,shipment, andand interestinterest charges may add aa furtherfurther US$50-100/tonneUS$50-1 OO/tonne toto theirtheir costs.costs.
These additional costs amount to US$190-280/tonneUS$190-280/tonne forfor importedimported rosinrosin andand wouldwould raise the cost to the end user from about US$600 (c&f) toto US$790-880/tonne.US$790-880/tonne. AtAt the early 1995 rosin price ofof US$750-800US$750-800 ratherrather thanthan US$600,US$600, thethe AfricanAfrican producerproducer couldcould sellsell competitively inin the domestic market for betweenbetween US$900US$900 (his(his break-evenbreak-even price)price) andand US$1100/tonne. However,However, asas thesethese priceprice levelslevels areare unlikelyunlikely to be sustained over the next three toto fivefive years,years, aa newnew producerproducer shouldshould aimaim to produceproduce rosinrosin atat US$750-800/tonneUS$750-800/tonne oror preferably less.less.
Once the domesticdomestic demand is satisfied, the new producerproducer wiLlwill face face aa dilemma.dilemma. HeHe will be obliged to becomebecome aa competitivecompetitive exporter to findfind newnew marketsmarkets butbut willwill onlyonly havehave marginal tonnagetonnage toto sell. HeHe maymay havehave aa surplussurplus ofof crudecrude resin,resin, butbut willwill have to contendcontend with low pricesprices andand withwith buyers'buyers' minimumminimum volume requirementsrequirements whichwhich areare hardhard to meet.meet. His factory may be able to sell all itsits rosinrosin andand rosinrosin productsproducts but may also need to disposedispose of 50-150 tornestonnes ofof turpentine turpentine inin drums.drums. TurpentineTurpentine in in such such smallsmall quantities,quantities, andand possiblypossibly not of thethe bestbest quality-,quality, maymay bebe difficultdifficult to to sellsell on on internationalinternational markets. markets. However, itit isis alsoalso difficult toto expand output from 1000 tonnes of product soldsold inin domesticdomestic markets, to 3000-3000-
35 4000 tonnes split between export and domestic markets.markets. TheThe greatest barrierbarrier is the extraextra coscostt incurred fromfrom local transport by road oror rail,rail, portport handlinghandling chargescharges andand oceanocean freight;freight; although this was an advantage when import substitution began, it has now become a major barrier to profitable exporting, eveneven ifif marketsmarkets can can bebe found found for for small small tonnages. tonnaaes. The cost of new drums willwill addadd aa furtherfurther USS20-25/tonneUS$20-25/tonne to export costs.
These charges mean that the ex-factory pricesprices ofof rosin and turpentine for a newnew producer must bebe US$130-175/tonneUS$130-l75/tonne (internal(internal transporttransport + oceanocean freightfreight ++ packaging)packaging) below the market price for established producers if it is to be landedlanded in importing countries at parity,.parity. For manymany smallsmall producers, the swingswing from aa freightfreight advantageadvantage ofof US$110-US$llO ISO/tonne150/tonne (internal transport + ocean freight) on domestic sales to a freight disadvantage of US$130-175/tonneUS$130-l75/tonne on on exportexport sales, is tootoo great.great. Agents andand brokersbrokers areare sometimessometimes reluctant toto handlehandle ververy y small consignments ofof uncertainuncertain andand untested material, and thethe time and efforteffort whichwhich maymay bebe requiredrequired toto overcome overcome such such diffic-ulties difficulties often providesprovides aa further disincentivedisincenti ve toto thethe newnew oror smallsmall producer.producer.
The best solution to thisthis problemproblem is to first expand the processing capacity fforor rosin and turpentine in line with domesticdomestic or regionalregional demand. AssumingAssuming therethere areare sufficientsufficient trees toto supportsupport increasedincreased productionproduction of resin,resin, crude resinresin exports, or increasedincreased output ofof processed productsproducts (by(by workingworking multiplemultiple shifts) which will be more marketable than very small quantitiesquantities,, can be considered at a later date.
New producers of crude resin, rosin and turpentine should anticipate thesethese problems of balancingbalancing reresinsi n supply, locallocal demand,demand, capacitycapacity and and export export sales,sales, ifif theythey areare toto operateoperate profitably. It shouldshould notnot bebe presumedpresumed thatthat thethe priceprice levelslevels ofof latelate 1994/early1994/early 19951995 ofof US$750-800/tonne for rosinrosin willwill continuecontinue for twotwo oror threethree moremore years.years.
36 CHAPTERSCHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND ADVICEADVICE TOTO AA NEWNEW PRODUCERPRODUCER
There areare twotwo majormaj or andand distinctdistinct operationsoperations involvediiwolved inin producingproducing gumgum rosinrosin andand gumgum turpentine: ththee tapping of pine trtreesees toto produceproduce resin,resin, andand thethe recoveryrecovery from resin ofof rosinrosin and turpentineturpentine usingusing thethe relativelyrelatively simplesimple techniquetechnique ofof steamsteam distillation.distillation. ProductionProduction ofof crude resin alonealone is unlikely toto bebe economiceconomic asas a a separateseparate operation. operation. A resinresin price ofof about US$300/tonne closeclose toto the tapping operations inin thethe forestforest willwill riserise toto an export price of about US$500/tonneUS$SOO/tonne when the costscosts of of drums,drums, internalinternal transporttransport andand oceanocean freightfreight areare added.added. ThisThis price price could could notnot compete compete with with thatthat for for the the crudecrude resin resin currently currently availableavailable from Brazil, IndonesiaIndonesia and thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina whichwhich normallynormally sellsseUs aatt belowbelow US$300/tonne delidelivered \ ered to the importingimporting country.
Operations inin nearly all producingproducing countries combinecombine tapping with processing tthehe ccruderude rresinesin intointo rosinrosin and turpturpentine.entine. ThereThere maymay be options for further processing but thisthis ususuallyually demandsdemands aa high volumvolumee ofof ooutpututput to taketake advantageadvantage ofof economieseconomies ofof scale.scale. HHowever,owever, if there is aa locallocal paperpaper industry,industry, the productionproduction of rosinrosin sizesize isis aa fairlyfairly simplesimple process whichwhich isis worthworth considering.considering. Despite the existenceexistence ofof aa substantialsubstantial internationalinternational marketmarket for rosinrosin andand turpentine,turpentine, itit isis recommendedrecommended that aa developingdeveloping countrycountry shouldshould basebase itsits operationoperation initiallyinitially on supplying,supplying, perhaps, the soap,soap, paperpaper andand paintpaint manufacturing manufacturing industrieindustriess ooff thethe domesticdomestic market.market. This would yieldyield immediateimmediate benefitsbenefits fromfrom importimport ssubstitutionubstitution and the saving of fforeioreig ann exchange.exchange. Once the raw materials and tthehe technotechnologylogy have been provenproven in thethe domesticdomestic market,market, itit wouldwould bebe appropriateappropriate toto expandexpand intointo neighbouringneighbouring regional marketsmarkets andand widerwider internationalinternational ones.ones.
AA glimgum naval stores operation hashas severalseveral attractionsattractions for aa developingdeveloping countrycountry withwith ssuitableuitable pine resources.resources. It isis anan industryindustry basedbased onon renewablerenewable naturalnatural resources.resources. The tapping operaoperationstions are labourlabour intensiveintensive andand cancan thereforetherefore offeroffer employmentemployment andand income-income eearningarning oopportunitiespportunities toto peoplepeople in ruralrural areas.areas. Although the processingprocessing operationsoperations havehave low labourlabour requirements,requirements, the totaltotal investrnentinvestment cost isis alsoalso relativelyrelatively low.low. In additionaddition to savsavinging and earningearning foreign exchangeexchange fromfrom importimport substitutionsubstitution or exports,exports, locallocal industriesindustries shoshoulduld derive some 'benefitbenefit fromfrom the rresinesin producerproducer's's expenditure on buildingsbuildings and tapping eequipment,quipment, as well asas onon thethe locallocal fabricationfabrication ofof partpart of the resin processingprocessing plant.plant.
As a guide,guide, thethe minimumminimum sizesize ofof plantplant necessary,necessary forfor a viableviable processingprocessing operationoperation would be oneone withwith sufficientsufficient capacity fforor a throughputthroughput of aroundaround 10001000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin annually, workingworkina oonn a single-shiftsingle-shift bbasis.asis. ThereThere wouldwould bebe scopescope forfor increasingincreasing thethe quantityquantity of resinresin processedprocessed byby worldngworking multiplemultiple shifts,shifts, withwith onlyonly marginalmarginal additionsadditions to fixedfixed capitalcapital (sto(storagerage capacity) and workingworldng capcapitalital fforor financing stocksstocks ooff resin,resin, rosinrosin andand turpentine.turpentine. ItIt is estimatedestimated thatthat forfor anan operationoperation ofof thisthis sizesize inin oneone AfricanAfrican country,country, thethe totaltotal investmentinvestment costscosts forfor thethe tapping,tapping operation are likelylikely to bebe aboutabout US$350US$3S0 000;000; thisthis includesincludes allaU pre-pre production and start-upstart-up costs andand threethree months'months' working capital. TheThe investmentinvestment costcost ofof the processinaprocessing operation operation isis aboutabout US$600US$600 000.000. These figuresfigures couldcould varyvary substantiallysubstantially accordingaccording toto thethe sitesite andand thethe specific specific locallocal circumstances;circumstances; costs, inin general,general, areare likelylikely toto bebe aboutabout US$250US$2S0 000-400000-400 000000 andand US$500US$SOO 000-700000-700 000000 forfor thethe tappingtapping andand processingprocessing operations,operations, respectively.respectively.
37 The viability of any gum naval stores industry depends mainly on the number of pine trees available forfor tapping,tapping. resin yields andand resinresin quality.quality. TheThe aboveabove estimatesestimates havehave beenbeen based on 400400 000000 treestrees eacheach yielding, yielding 2.5 kgkg ofof resinresin annually.annually. It isis unlikelyunlikely thatthat yieldsyields much below 22 kgkg couldcould sustain sustain anan economically economically viableviable tappingtapping operation.operation. In favourablefavourable circumstances.circumstances, andand dependingdepending on on thethe tapping regime,regime. 3-5 kg/yearkg/year areare possible.possible. If aa development isis contemplated,contemplated. detailed and reliable information must first be obtobtainedained oonn the identity.identity, availability.availability, ageage and distributidistributionon of the pine species,species. andand onon thethe climaticclimatic conditionsconditions at thethe forestforest sites.sites. All stagesstages ofof thethe developmentdevelopment processprocess shouldshould bebe undertakenundertaken inin consultation withwith thethe ForestForest DepartmentDepartment or or owner owner of of thethe treestrees asas they will needneed to bebe assured that tappingtapping willwill not injureinjure the trees.trees. In some instances,instances. the preliminarypreliminary data maymay indicate that tappinatapping wouldwould bebe unprofitable.unprofitable. IfIf the preliminarypreliminary surveysurvey suggestssuagests that thethe availability of of thethe raw materialmaterial isis satisfactory,satisfactory. limitedlimited tapping trials combined with a laboratory evaluation of resinresin samplessamples shouldshould bebe undertaken.undertaken. If thesethese resultsresults areare alsoalso satisfactory.satisfactory, more extensiveextensive tappingtapping trials,trials. togethertogether withwith aa detaileddetailed feasibilityfeasibility study,study. shouldshould be carried out.
Any fefeasibilityasibility studystudy mumustst examineexamine carefullycarefully the the costs costs ofof capitalcapital (with an adequate allowance for working capital costs and profits) and the annualannual charaecharge forfor this,this. alongalong withwith annual productiproductionon costs.costs, so thatthat potentialpotential investorsinvestors cancan comparecompare theirtheir break-evenbreak-even sellingselling price for rosinrosin withwith thethe costcost ofof imported imported rosin.rosin. The key elementselements or questionsquestions forfor anyany feasibility study areare listedlisted below.below.
• Marketing TheThe local loca ldemand demand for for rosin rosin and and turpentine, turpentine. thethe competitioncompetition fromfrom impimportsortS whether from regional producers or internationalinternational suppliers.suppliers, thethe potential forfor marketmarket growthgrowth overover thethe nextnext threethree toto fivefive years,years. andand thethe levellevel ofof pricesprices fromfrom these competitors needneed toto bebe assessed.assessed.
• Quality AnAn estimate estimate will will be be needed needed of of how how locallylocally producedproduced rosinrosin andand turpentineturpentine willwi 11 comparecompare withwith internationallyinternationally tradedtraded material.material.
• Raw materialsmaterials The The availability availability of of the the pine pine resource resource and and its its potential potential productivity productivity should bebe determined,determined. takingtaking fullfull accountaccount ofof thethe fellingfelling andand replantinareplanting policypolicy inin the casecase ofof plantationplantation pines,pines. andand ofof thethe possiblepossible changeschanges whichwhich mightmight occuroccur inin end useuse whichwhich wouldwould affectaffect theirtheir availabilityavailability forfor tapping.tapping. The abilityability toto bringbring new treestrees on'on stream' stream' asas workedworked ones ones reach reach the the end end of of their their tapping tapping life life isis crucialcrucial toto thethe sustainabilitysustainability of a gumgum naval stores operation. TheThe intrinsic intrinsic productivityproductivity of the trees,trees. andand thethe efficiencyefficiency of the work force involved inin tapping.tapping, needneed toto be sufficient to provide crudecrude resinresin atat anan economicallyeconomically attractiveattractive price.price.
• Processing If anan existingexisting producer is willingwilling to considerconsider purchasespurchases of crudecrude resin,resin. the advantages andand disadvantages ofof initiallyinitially setting up a tappingtapping operationoperation only.only, need to bebe evaluated.evaluated. The location of aa processingprocessing plantplant (availabilty(availabilty of energy.energy, water and labourlabour supplies,supplies. transport costs.costs, and thethe relativerelative meritsmerits ofof siting the plant close to either the tapping areas.areas, thethe end users.users, or thethe portsports ofof exit for inter-nationalinternational mmarkets)arkets) also requires consideration.
• Labour The The availability availability andand costcost of of labour, labour. particularlyparticularly inin thethe forestforest areas,areas. andand methodsmethods of organizationorganization and payment,payment. need toto bebe determined. determined. Adequate
38 incentives will bebe requiredrequired toto retain an efficient work force who cancan collectcollect resinresin at a low unit price.price .
• Financial andand economic economic appraisal appraisal An An assessment assessment of of the the financial financial andand economiceconomic returns willwill depend primarily on establishing aa correctcorrect value for the costcost ofof fixed fixed and workingworking capital to thethe investor(s)investor(s) planning thethe project. AA realistic realistic annualannual chargechar.cle for for capital capital mu mustst bebe includedincluded inin thethe calculations toto allow anan accurateaccurate estimate of the full costs of tapping operations andand resinresin processing.processing. The key factfactorsors will not be factfactoryory and office overheads, marketing costs,costs, depreciationdepreciation oror interestinterest onon loans,loans, butbut thethe priceprice ofof crudecrude resinresin andand thethe project's project's ability, ability to sellsell gumgum rosin, against competing imports,imports, atat a priceprice aboveabove thethe operation'soperation's break-evenbreak-even productionproduction cost level.level. A cash flowflow analysisanalysis based on discounteddiscounted costscosts andand revenues over the lifelife of the project should use two oror threethree differentdifferent pricesprices forfor crude resinresin and three different prices forfor salessales ofof rosinrosin andand turpentine.turpentine. AA properproper sensitivity analysis willwill sshowhow thatthat crudecrude resinresin costscosts and prices and the salessales priceprice of rosinrosin willwill largelylargely determinedetermine whether whether aa gum navalnaval storesstores projectproject is economicallyeconomically viableviable oror not.not.
39 APPENDIXAPPENDIXl I REFEREREFERENCESNCES ANDAND FURTHERFURTHER READING
PinusPirius species
CRITCHFIELD, W.B. and LITTLE, E.L.E.L. (1966)(1966) GeographicGeographic DistributionDistribution of thethe PinesPines ofof the World.World. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service Service MiscellaneousMiscellaneous PublicationPublication 991.991. Washington, USA:USA: USDA.
Production technologiestechnologies
CLEMENTS, R.W. (1974)(1974) Manual,Manual, ModernModem CrumGum NavalNaval Stores Stores Methods.Methods. USDAUSDA Forest Service SoutheasternSoutheastern ForestForest Experiment£rperiment StationStation General TechnicalTechnical ReportReport SE-7.SE-7. Asheville, USA: USDA.
DIREC<;:AoDIRECÇÀO GERAL DOS SERVIÇOSSERVI<;:OS FLORESTAIS E AQUICOLASAQuicOLAS (1962) [Resin[Resin Tapping - BasicBasic Instruction forfor Resin Tappers.Tappers.]] Portugal:Portugal: JuntaJunta Nacional Nacional dosdos Resinosos.Resinosos. (In Portuguese)Portuguese)
GAMA, A. (1982)(1982) [Processing,[Processing ofof pinepine resinresin inin Portugal.]Portugal.] Boletim dodo InstitutoInstituto dosdos ProdutoProdutoss Florestais -- Resinosos,Resinosos, no.no. 38: 2626-30.-30. (In(In Portuguese)Portuguese)
GREENHALGH, P.P. (1982) The Production, Marketing and UtilizationUtilization ofof NavalNaval Stores.Stores. Report of the Tropical ProductsProducts Institute [now[now NaturalNatural Resources Institute],Institute], G170.G170.
KRISHNAMURTHY,KRISHNAMURTHY, T.,T., JUYALJUYAL,, S.P.S.P . andand UPADHAYA,UPADHAYA, L.P.L.P. (1971)(1971) AA reviewreview ofof somesome investigationsinvestigations on pines for their oleoresin (review(review of tapping methods uusedsed worldwide).worldwide) . pp. Q1-Q35.Q1 -Q35. In: SeminarSeminar on thethe RoleRole ofof Pine Pine ResinResin inin thethe EconomicEconomic andand IndustrialIndustrial Development of IndiaIndia,, New Delhi,Delhi, April, 1971.
LAWRENCE,LAWRENCE, R.V. (1989)(1989) ProcessingProcessi ng pine gum into turpentineturpentine and rosin. pp.pp. 123-142.123-142. In: Naval Stores.Stores. Production,Production, Chemistry,Chemistry, Utiliattion,Utilirotion. Zinkel, D.F. and Russell,Russell, J. (eds).(eds). New York:York: Pulp ChemicalsChemicals Association.Association.
McCONNEL, N.C.N.C. (1963) OperatinOperatingg Instructions for for Olustee ProcessProcess forfor Cleaning and Steam DistillationDistillation of PinePine Gum.Gum . USDAUSDA publication publication ARS-687.ARS-687. (Available fromfrom the Southeastern ForestForest Experiment Station, Olustee, Florida, USA).
McREYNOLDS, R.D.,R.D., KOSSKOSSUTH,UTH, S.V.S.V. and CLEMENTS,CLEMENTS, R.W. (1989)(1989) GumGum navalnaval storesstores methodology.methodology. pp.pp. 83-122.83-122. In: Naval Stores. Production,Production, Chemistry,Chemistry, Utilization.Utilization. ZZinkel,inkel, D.F. and Russell, JJ.. (eds). NewNew York:York: PulpPulp ChemicalsChemicals Association.Association .
VERMA, V.P.S. (1978) Field GuideGuide toto ModernModern MethodsMethods of ResinResin TappingTapping [in[in India].India]. Dehra Dun, India:India: ForestForest ResearchResearch Institute.In stitute.
41 Quality assessmentassessment ofof PinusPinus speciesspecies
COPPEN, JJ.W.,J.J.W., GAY,GAY, C., JAMES, D.J.,DJ., ROBINSON,ROBINSON, J.M. andand MULLIN,MULLIN, L.J.L.J. (1993)(1993) Xylem resin composition andand chemotaxonomychemotaxonorny of of three three varietiesvarieties of of Pinus caribaea.caribaea. Phytochemistly,Phytochemistry, 33:33: 1103-1111.1103-1111.
COPPEN, J.J.W., GAY,GAY, C.,C., JAMES,JAMES, D.J.,D.J., ROBINSON,ROBINSON, J.M.J.M. and and SUPRIAN.A, SUPRIANA, N.N. (1993)(1993) Variability inin xylem resinresin composition amongstamongst naturalnatural populationspopulations ofof Indonesian Pinul'Pinus nierkusii.merkusii. Phytochetnistry,Phytochemist/y, 33:33: 129-136.129-136.
COPPEN, J.J.W., GREEN,GREEN, C.L.,c.L., GREENHALGH,GREENHALGH, P., KEEBLE,KEEBLE, B.B. andand MILCHARD,MILCHARD, MJ.M.J. (1985)(1985) TheThe potentialpotential ofof somesome tropicaltropical pinespines as sourcessources of marketablemarketable turpentine.turpentine. pp. 138-147. In: Proceedings,Proceedings, NinthNinth InternationalInternational CongressCongress onon E'ssential&sential Oils,Oils, Singapore,Singapore, ]1983, 983, (Book-(Book 5).
COPPEN, J.J.'W.J.J.W. and ROBINSON, J.M. (1988)(1988) Terpenoid constituentsconstituents andand propertiesproperties ofof xylem oleoresin fromfrom exoticexotic PinusPinus radiata.mdiata. NavalNaval Stores Stores Review,Review, (Mar./Apr.):(Mar./Apr.): 12-14.12-14.
COPPEN,COPPEN, J.J.W.,J,J.W., ROBINSON,ROBINSON, J.M.J.M. andand KAUSHAL,KAUSHAL, A.N.A.N. (1988)(1988) CompositionComposition ofof xylemxylem resin from PinusPinus wallichiana and P. roxburghii. Phytocheinistry,Phytochemistry, 27:27: 2873-2875.2873-2875.
COPPEN, J.J.W., ROBINSON,ROBINSON, J.M. andand MULLIN,MULLIN, L.J.L.J. (1988)(1988) CompositionComposition ofof xylemxylem resin fromfrom fivefive MexicanMexican andand CentralCentral AmericanAmerican PinusPinus speciesspecies growinggrowing inin Zimbabwe.Zimbabwe. Phytochemistry,Phytochemisny , 27: 1731-1734.1731-1734.
GREEN, C.L.,C.L., KEEBLE,KEEBLE, B.B. andand BURLEY,BURLEY, J.J. (1975)(1975) FurtherFurther gum gum turpentineturpentine analysesanalyses ofof some P. oocarpa, P.P. caribaeacaribaea and and P. P. k.esiyakesiya provenances.provenances. TropicalTropical Science,Science, 17:17: 165-174.165-174.
SHEN ZHAOBANGZHAOBANG (1994)(1994) ChemicalChemical utilization of non-wood forest productsproducts inin China.China. Nanjing: Research Institute of ChemicalChemical Processing and UtilizationUtilization of ForestForest Products.Products. [Unpublished report.]
Additional note
Naval StoresStores ReviewRe view isis publishedpublished bi-monthlybi-monthly and contains trade news,news, informationinformation andand technical papers onon allall aspectsaspects ofof the the pine pine chemicals chemicals in.dustry. industry. It alsoalso includesincludes paperspapers fromfrom the annualannual InternationalInternational NavalNaval StoresStores ConferenceConference organized by thethe PulpPulp ChemicalsChemicals Association. TheThe presentpresent annualannual costcost ofof subscriptionsubscription (late(late 1994)1994) isis USS80US$80 (six(six issues and the International Yearbook). Yearbook) . The.ThE; address address forfor subscriptionssubscriptions is:is: NavalNaval StoresStores Review,Review, KriedtKriedt Enterprises Ltd,Ltd, 129129 S.S. CortezCortez Street,Street, NewNew Orleans,Orleans, LALA 70119,70119, USA.USA.
The addressaddress ofof thethe PulpPulp ChemicalsChemicals AssociationAssociation is: PO BoxBox 105113,105113, Atlanta,Atlanta, GAGA 30348,30348, USA.USA.
42 APPENDIX 2 QUALITY CRITERIA, SPECIFICATIONSSPECIFICATIONS ANDAND TEST METHODS
Rosin
Although several other criteriacriteria determinedetermine rosinrosin qualityquality andand acceptabilityacceptability forfor differentdifferent applications,applications, colourcolour andand softeningsoftening pointpoint areare usuallyusually sufficientsufficient indicators of quality to satisfysatisfy purchasers of rosinrosin from tradititraditionalonal andand provenproven sources.sources. RosinRosin is graded on thethe basisbasis ofof colour, the palestpalest beingbeing thethe mostmost desirabledesirable andand designateddesignated WW*ww- ('water('water-white').-White'). ThisThis gradegrade and the slightly llowerower grade WG ('window-glass')('window-glass') areare thethe mostmost commonlycommonly tradedtraded rrosins.osins. AA superior grade, X,X, isis sometimessometimes offered.offered. Darker gradesgrades areare N,N, M, K, I,I, HH andand lower.lower. Rosin is a glass,glass, ratherrather thanthan aa crystallinecrystalline solid, and the pointpoint atat whichwhich isis softenssoftens whenwhen heated is referredreferred toto asas thethe softeningsoftening pointpoint (rather(rather thanthan meltingmelting point). AA softening softening point point in in the range 70-80°C isis usual, the higher end of the range representing the better quality.
Since rosinrosin is anan acidicacidic materialmaterial andand thethe manufacturermanufacturer ofof downstreamdownstream derivativesderivatives depends onon itsits acidacid functionality,functionality, a high acid number (and saponification number)number) is also an indication of goodgood quality.quality. The betterbetter qualityquality rosins usually havehave an acid number in the range 160-170. ProvidedProvided that that the the acid acid number number is is high,high, thethe detaileddetailed resinresin acidacid compositioncomposition of rosin is usually of little consequence oror interestinterest toto thethe endend user.user. AnAn exceptionexception isis rosinrosin derived from P. merkusii which, because of the presence of a rather rare resinresin acid,acid, hashas anan acid number which isis higherhigher thanthan normal;normal; it it maymay reach reach 190190 oror more.more. TheThe percentagepercentage ofof unsaponifiable mattermatter indicates thethe amountamount ofof non-acidic materialmaterial inin thethe rosin,rosin, soso thethe llowerower this value,value, the better;better; anythinganything aboveabove aboutabout 10%10% unsaponifiableunsaponifiable mattermatter wouldwould bebe consideredconsidered a poorer quality rosin.rosin.
'ThereThere areare no internationalinternational sstandardstandards forfor rosin, and although thethe AmericanAmerican Society for TestingTesting andand MaterialsMaterials (ASTM)(ASTM) describesdescribes standard testtest methods,methods, it stipulates nono specificationsspecifications ttoo which rosinrosin shouldshould conform.conform. TheThe appropriateappropriate controllingcontrolling bodies of some producing countries dodo provideprovide specificationsspecifications but,but, inevitably,inevitably, companiescompanies andand traderstraders involved in the rosinrosin industryindustry havehave theirtheir ownown 'in-house' 'in-house' specificationsspecifications whichwhich willwill varyvary fromfrom company to company, and this makesmakes itit difficultdifficult to generalizegeneralize andand quotequote 'typical''typical' analyticalanalytical data.
Table 6, whichwhich waswas compiledcompiled fromfrom trade sources,sources, presentspresents somesome specificationsspecifications forfor gum rosin of different origins and may be used as a guide for assessingassessing the acceptabilityacceptability of rosin by thothosese thinking of entering rosinrosin production.
Data suchsuch asas thethe contentscontents ofof volatile volatile oil,oil, insolubleinsoluble matter,matter, ashash andand ironiron (which(which sshouldhould all be low)low) maymay bebe specifiedspecified byby producersproducers ofof rosin.rosin. Other, lessless w,ellwell defineddefined properties, such asas the tendencytendency of thethe rosinrosin toto crystallizecrystallize (which(which is undesirable), also affect its value; ChineseChinese and,and, to somesome extent,extent, IndonesianIndonesian rosin have this particular shortcoming.shortcoming.
'The"'The notationnotati on followsfollows thethe USDA USDA colour colour scale scale for for rosin rosin which which is is used used universally universally in in inter-national internati onal trade.trade.
43 Table 6 SomeSome trade specifications for gum rosin
Origin Colour SoftSofteningening Acid Saponification UnsaponifiablcUnsaponifiable ppointoint t°C)(OC) nurnbernumber number manmarterer (70)(%)
China, PR WW 7070-85-85 162-175162-175 ma.xmax 7.5 Portugal WW minmiti 70 165-171 171-177 4.34.3-5.5-5.5 Brazil XX/WW/WW 7070-78-78 155-170155-170 165-185 max 1010 Indonesia WW(WGWW/WG 75-775-788 160-200160-200 170-210
For determinationdetermination of of these physical data,data, referencereference shouldshould be be made to thethe definitions andand methodsmethods ofof analysis given given by by the the ASTM.ASTM. TheThe followingfollowing testtest methodsmethods coconcerningncerning rosin areare described (Annual(Annual Book of ASTM ASTM standards, standards. Section 6):
026269-929-92 Insoluble matter in rosin 0464-92464-92 SapocificationSaponification number of rosin 0465-92D 465-92 Acid number of rosin 0509-70509-70 Sampling and gradinggradina rosin 0889-5889-588 Volatile oil in rosin 01061063-513-51 Ash in rosin 01064-51064-588 Iron in rosin 01065-921065-92 UnsaponifiableUnsaponifiable mattermaner in rosin 03003008-908-90 Resin acids in rosin by gas-liquid chromatography E 28-92 Softening point by ring-and-ballring-and-ball apparatus
Turpentine
Specifications for 'gum spirit of turpentine'turpentine' havehave beenbeen publishedpublished byby severalseveral nationalnational bodiesbodies includingincluding, the the American American Society Society for for Testing Testing and and Materials Materials (ASTM(ASTM 0 D 13-92)13-92) andand thethe Bureau of IndianIndian Standards (IS(IS 533:1973).533:1973). TheseThese standards standards werewere devised devised largelylargely forfor thethe quality quality assessment of turpentine intendintendeded fforor use as a solvent, i.e., in whole formforrn rather than as aa chemical feedstockfeedstock in which the compositioncomposition is ofof primeprime importance.importance. They generallygenerally specify parameters suchsuch asas relativerelative densitydensity oror specificspecific p-avity,gravity, refractiverefractive index,index, distillationdistillation and evaporationevaporation residues.residues.
The InternationalInternational Organization for Standardization (ISO), which is a world-wideworld-wide federationfederation of national standardsstandards institutes,institutes, has issuedissued a standard,standard, thethe mainmain requirementsrequirements ofof which are shownshown inin TableTable 7.7.
A draft ISO standard for 'Oil of turpentine, Portugal type, Pinus pinaster' (1994)(1994) includes physical datadata veryvery similarsimilar toto thatthat inin Table 7 but with the addition of a range for opticaloptical rotationrotation (20°C)(20°C) of -28°_28° to -35°._35°. CompositionalCompositional rangesranges areare also given for a number of constituents ofof thethe turpentineturpentine includingincluding alpha-pinenealpha-pinene (72-85%)(72-85%) andand beta-pinenebeta-pinene (12-(12- 20%).
44 Table 7 Physical property requirementsrequirements ofof thethe InternationalInternational Organization for Standardization specification for gum spirit of turpentine (ISO(ISO 412-1976)
Relative Refractive DistillationDistillation EvaporationEvaporntion ResidueResidue alterafter Acid Flash density 0.862-0.8720.862-0.872 1.465-1.478 max 1 below 150°ClSOoC max 2.5 max 1212 maxmax! 1 min 3232 min 8i87 below 170°Cl700e TurpentinTurpentinee purchasedpurchased bbyy the chemicalchemical industryindustry as a source of isolatesisolates forfor subsequentsubsequent conversion to pinepine oil,oil, fragrancefragrance andand flavour compounds, andand otherother derivatives,derivatives, is assessed on the basisbasis of itsits detaileddetailed composition. TheThe majormajor demand demand isis forfor turpentines turpentines cocontainingntaining a hiahhigh totaltotal pinenepinene content.content. P. elliottiielliottii turpentineturpentine containscontains around 60% ofof alpha-pinene and 30%30% ofof beta-pinene.beta-pinene. P. radiataradiata turpentine,turpentine, notednoted earlierearlier asas beingbeing ofof exc,eptionallyexceptionally good good qualityquality,, generally generally contains contains more more than than 95 95%% ofof total pinene,pinene, ofof whichwhich overover half is betabeta-pinene;-pinene; it hahass virtually nono high-boilinghigh-boiling constituents. constituents. However, the relativerelative proportions of otherother componentscomponents maymay alsoalso influenceinfluence anan individual individual buyer'sbuyer's quality evaluations; 33-carene,-carene, which is found in significantsignificant proportions in the turpentineturpentine ofof somesome PitiusPinus speciesspecies (such(such as P. rayburghiiroxburghii andand P.P. sylvestris)sy[vestris) isis ofof littlelittle value,value, and eveneven if itit isis present in relrelativelyatively smallsmall amountsamounts it maymay bebe undesirableundesirable forfor certaincertain applications.applications. Depending on the variety,variety, P.P. caribacaribaeaea turpentineturpentine maymay contain up to 50%50% oror moremore ofof beta-beta phellandrene. WhileWhile suchsuch aa compositioncomposition doesdoes notnot diminishdiminish its value as a solventsolvent forfor paints,paints, iitt would not be attractiveanractive as a source ofof pinenes for derivative manufacturemanufacture.. 45 APPENDIX 33 GENETIC FACTORS INFLUENCINGINFLUENCING RESINRESIN COMPOSITIONCOMPOSITION ANDAND YIELDS SomeSome of the factors which affect resin yields havehave beenbeen referredreferred toto earlier.earlier. GeneticGenetic factorsfactors playaplay a major role inin determiningdetermining both yields and composition (quality) ofof thethe resin, and a provisional judgementjudgement onon thethe suitability of of aa standing resourceresource ofof pines for tapping cancan often be made simply byby considerationconsideration of of thethe speciesspecies concerned.concerned. For exampleexample P. patula,patula, which is widely planted in Africa,Africa. gives aa very poor quality resin in low yields,yields, and is notnot tapped commerciallycommercially anywhereanyv,There in inthe the world. world. P. P. caribaeacaribaea provide~provides turpentine and rosin ofof acceptable, but notnot exceptionalexceptional quality, butbut it isis nownow beingbeing recognizedrecognized asas aa particularlyparticularly highhigh-yielding-yielding species; in Africa andand BrazilBrazil itit hashas out-yieldedout-yielded P.P. elliottii,elliottii, a speciesspecies often usedused as the benchmarkbenchmark by whichwhich others areare judged.judged. P. radiata,radiata, onon the the other other hand, hand, producesproduces probably the best quality turpentine in the world, but resin yields are poorer than P.P. elliottii, for example, and itit isis notnot widelywidely tapped.tapped. Table 8 ggivesives an indicationindication of the relative quality and quantitiesquantities ofof resinresin whichwhich mightmiaht be expected from some speciesspecies ofof Pinus. Table 8 Resin quality and yieldyield characteristics of some Pinus speciesspecies Species Quality Quantity P. elliottiielliottii ++ ++ P. pbwpinasterster ++ + P. massonianamassoniantl + + P. merkusiimerkusii + + P.p. caribaeacaribaea + +++ P. radiata +++ + P. roxburghiiroxburghii + + P. kesiyakesiya + +/-+/- P.p. oocarpa +I-+/- +I-+/- P. sylvestrkssylvesrris +I-+/- +I-+/- P.P.paru patillaia - Note:Note: ResinResin characteristicscharacteristics areare ratedrated onon aa scalescale fromfr om very gcxxlgood (+++)(+4-0 toto poorpoor (-)(-) The listlist isis notnot intendedintended toto bebe exhaustive,exhaustive, and no attemptattempt hashas beenbeen mademade toto provideprovide specific quantity values basedbased oonn yieyieldld datadata reportedreported in thethe scientific literature.literature. SuchSuch datadata encompass a wide range of variablesvariables (age and size of trees, climate,climate, tapping method, etc.)etc.) and itit couldcould bebe rnisleading misleading toto quotequ ote preciseprecise figures.figures. Site-specific factorsfactors can affectaffect thethe rating either favourably oror adversely, soso a relatively poorpoor ratingrating doesdoes not meanmean thatth at thethe species cannot be used (P.(P. oocarpaoocmpa andand P.P. sylvestrt'ssylvestris areare tappedtapped inin Mexico/CentralMexico/Central AmericaAmerica and Russia,Russia, respectively).respectively). Conversely, aa high rating does notnot ensureensure profitabilityprofitability ifif thatthat 46 particular species is tapped; if temperatures are low the resin will not flow, no mattermatter howhow good a yielderyielder thethe speciesspecies maymay bebe intrinsically.intrinsically. A relativelyrelatively recent develdevelopmentopment is thethe interest shown by foresters inin PinusPinus hybrids.hybrids. ByBy controlledcontrolled crossingcrossing ofof appropriateappropriate speciesspecies itit isis possiblepossible to combine thethe desirabledesirable featuresfeatures of oneone speciesspecies withwith thosethose ofof anotheranother atat the the expense expense of of the the less less favourable favourable attributes. attributes. Recent workwork inin SouthSouth Africa,Africa, followingfollowing earlierearlier researchresearch inin Australia,Australia, hashas confilinedconfinned thethe potential forfor improved woodwood productionproduction of of P.P. elliottiielliottii xx P. caribaeacaribaea hybridshybrids overover thethe parent species. OfOf equal equal importanceimportance toto navalnaval storesstores production,production, waswas thethe findingfinding that thethe hybrid also givesgives enhanced reresinsin yyields.ields. InIn thethe future, Pinus hybrids may become a valuable resourceresource for combinedcombined woodwood andand resinresin production,production, if they are found to be suitable.suitable. In spite ofof thethe generalizationsgeneralizations which can be made about the suitabilitysuitability ooff certaincertain pine speciesspecies forfor navalnaval storesstores production,production, intrinsicintrinsic variation inin resin properties can alsoalso occur within aa speciesspecies accordingaccording toto the natural population from which the trees areare derived,derived, i.e.,i.e., thethe provenanceprovenance origin;origin; P. caribaeacaribaea showsshows some some variabilityvariability betweenbetween and within eacheach ofof the varietiesvarieties (var.(var. caribaea,caribaea, var.var. honciurensishondurensis and var. bahamensis). AsAs resin resin composition composition ((measuredmeasured in terms of thethe turpentineturpentine andand rosin)rosin) isis easilyeasily determineddetermined andand isis lessless influencedinfluenced by environmentalenvironmental factors than yield,yield, mostmost ofof thethe available available inforrnationinformation onon provenanceprovenance variationvariation relarelatestes to compositioncomposition ratherrather thanthan yield.yield. Compositional variativariationon is mostmost oftenoften sseeneen in thethe turpentineturpentine andand cancan sometimessometimes bebe quitequite marked.marked. The turpentineturpentine from oneone provenanceprovenance mightrrlight havehave aa highhigh (and(and thereforetherefore desirable)desirable) pinene content,content, whereaswhereas turpentineturpentine from aa differentdifferent provenanceprovenance mightrrlight be richer in 33-carene.-carene. RosinRosin compositioncomposition isis muchmuch moremore stablestable within aa species thanthan turpentine.turpentine. If naturalnatura I standsstands ofof pinespines areare beingbeing consideredconsidered for tapping, itit isis essentialessential toto surveysurvey thethe differentdifferent areas wherewhere itit growsgrows inin orderorder toto determinedetermine thethe extentextent ofof anyany majormajor variationvariation inin resin quality;quality; tappingtapping trialstrials atat ddifferentifferent sitessites shouldshould alsoalso bebe carried outout toto assessassess productivity. IfIf plantation plantation pinespines areare derivedderived fromfrom differentdifferent provenances,provenances, samplessamples fromfrom eacheach provenance shouldshould be tested toto ensureensure that theythey areare allall suitablesuitable for explexploitation.oitation. AlthoughAlthough thethe variabilityvariability ofof turpentine ccompositionomposition may may appear appear to to impose consconstraintstraints oonn thethe utilizationutilization of a pine resource,resource, in practice it doesdoes not,not, particularly fforor aa smsmallall prod producer.ucer. TheThe tturpentineurpentine isis likelylikely to bebe usedused locally,locally, inin wholewhole for-rn,form, ratherrather thanthan as a sourcesource ofof chemicalchemical isolates for which composition isis crucial.crucial. VariationsVariations inin resinresin yieldsyields areare farfar moremore important.important. If individualindividual trees areare examined,examined, pronouncedpronounced differencesdifferences in resinresin (turpentine)(turpentine) compositioncomposition and yieldsyields becomebecome apparentapparent eveneven withinwithin thethe samesame provenance.provenance. TreesTrees ofof comparable size growinggrowing closeclose toto eacheach otherother (and (and therefore therefore experiencing experiencing identicalidentical climaticclimatic and edaphiedaphicc cconditions)onditions) cancan yiyieldeld vastlyvastly differentdifferent amounts amounts of of resin. resin. In oorderrder to evaluateevaluate thethe productivityproductivity of a particularparticular site, tappingtapping trials should bebe designed toto take accountaccount ofof thisthis variability by testin,g,testing a a sufficisufficientent numbernumber of trees. In spitespite ofof thethe disadvantages,di sadvantages, thesethese differences offeroffer sosomeme long term scopescope forfor improvementsimprovements inin qualityquality andand productivityproductivity byby éliteelite germplasmgerm plasm seselection.lection. InIn a a few few cases,cases, seedseed orchards orchards have have been been established established fromfrom whichwhich ssuperioruperior seed can be purchased (P.(P. elliottiielliottii inin thethe UnitedUnited States, for example).example). 47 APPENDIX 44 PACKAGING OFOF TURPENTINE TURPENTINE A_ND AND ROSIN Turpentine International shipments ofof turpentine are usually made in container size (20-tonne)(20-tonne) bulkbulk tanks. In response to thethe world-wideworld-wide concern for adequate safety measures toto ensure the safe handlinghandling and transportationtransportation ofof materialsmaterials thatthat areare actuallyactually oror potentially potentially dangerousdangerous substances, increasing attention is being paid by importing countries to thethe packagingpackaging andand labelling ofof 'dangerous'dangerous goodsgoods'.'. AsAs ttxpentineturpentine isis aa flammable flammable materialmaterial itit isis classifiedclassified under thisthis heading.heading. Within the European Community,Community, a 19791979 CouncilCouncil DirectiveDirective (79/831/EEC),(79/831/EEC), whichwhich has now become mandatory,mandatory, details 'laws,'laws, regulations andand administrativeadministrative provisionsprovisions relating to thethe classification,classification, packagingpackaging andand labellinglabelling ofof dangerousdangerous substances'.substances'. The DirectiveDirective requires every package to showshow thethe namename andand originorigin ofof thethe substance,substance, thethe dangerdanger symbolsymbol (e.g. aa flameflame inin aa red red diamond diamond indicating indicating a aflamrnable flammable liquid)liquid) andand standardstandard phrasesphrases indicating specialspecial nisksrisks (e.g. 'flammable')'flammable') and safetysafety advice.advice. The MiTliMUMminimum size size andand placement ooff labelslabels isis alsoalso specified.specified. When dangerous 'substances' are transported theythey become 'goods', and when conveyed fromfrom oneone countrycountry toto another they are subjectsubject toto .international regulations according to thethe meansmeans ofof conveyance.conveyance. VVhenWhen sendingsending shipmentsshipments by sea, the regulationsregulations of the InternationalInternational Maritime Dangerous GoodsGoods (IMDG) code have to bebe observed.observed. AsAs with with dangerosus dangerous substances,substances, dangerous goods have to bebe markedmarked withwith warning labels.labels. Turpentine is shipped under United Nations number 1299 which means that the container mustmust meetmeet certaincertain requirements;requirements; thisthis numbernumber fallsfalls withinv.-ithin ClassClass 3,3, Packing,Packing GroupGroup III,Ill, andand hashas toto bebe quotedquoted in in all all shipping,shipping documents. AA newnew producerproducer contemplatingcontemplating the export andand internationalinternational shipmentshipment ofof turpentineturpentine shouldshould obtainobtain moremore detaileddetailed informationinformation from national transportationtransportation authoritiesauthorities oror prospective importers. When it arrives in thethe country to which it is being shipped, the importer may divide the consignmentconsignment intointo lacquer-linedlacquer-lined steelsteel drumsdrums forfor locallocal sales.sales. If the importerimporter isis willingwilling to take thethe turpentineturpentine inin drums,drums, theythey shouldshould be new galvanized steel drumsdrums ofof aboutabout 200 litreslitres (170-185 kg net) capacity.capacity. Internal lacquering ofof the dramsdrums isis usuallyusually preferred, butbut carecare shshouldould be taken to avoidavoid crackingcracking thethe lacquerlacquer layerlayer whenwhen handlinghandling because thisthis has an adverse effecteffect OT1 on the the turpentine.turpentine. Rosin Requirements forfor the labelling ooff rorosinsin for transportationtransportation into, andand within,within, thethe EuropeanEuropean Community areare currently (late 1994) under discussion andand maymay notnot be resolved for somesome time. ProspectiveProspective exportersexporters ofof rosinrosin toto thethe ECEC or or elsewhere elsewhere areare thereforetherefore advisedadvised toto seekseek up-to-date information fromfrom importersimporters inin thethe countriescountries concerned.concerned. 48 Rosin may bebe packaged inin aa variety ofof forms. OnOn dischargedischarge fromfrom thethe still,still, thethe molten rosin is oftenoften fed intointo new,new, galvanimdgalvanized steelsteel drumsdrums ofof aroundaround 225-250225-250 kgkg (net)(net) capacity. TheThe drums drums havehave domeddomed topstops soso thatthat afterafter theythey have beenbeen set asideaside for the rosin to coocooll andand solidifysolidify (with(with resultingresulting contraction in volume), the tops cancan bebe hammeredhammered flat.flat. Alternatively, flat-toppedflat-topped drum drumss can can bebe filledfilled in in two two oror three stages over several days to allow for the change in volume on cooling.cooling. InternationalInternational shipmentssltipments ofof rosin rosin areare also also usually usually made in containercontainer loads.loads. In the largerlarger producingproducing countries in whichwltich there areare largelarge end-end user consumersconsumers ofof rosin,rosin, transportationtransportation ofof moltenmolten rosinrosin inin speciallyspecially designeddesigned tank-carstank-cars isis feasible; tltisthis iiss unlikely, howeverhowever,, toto be somethingsomething wltichwhich a new, smallersmaller producer wouldwould cocontemplate.ntemplate. End users are showing a growing preference forfor lessless robustrobust forms of packaging to enable easier opening andand handling,handling, andand inin thistltis case,case, siliconesilicone oror polypropylene-lined polypropylene-lined multi-multi wall paper bagsWas can be used. TheThe sacks sacks cancan bebe filledfilled eithereither withwith moltenmolten rosin directly from the stillstill (which(wltich is then allowed to cool toto forrnform aa solidsolid block)block) oror withwith flakesflakes ofof solidified solidified rosin. TheThe flakes flakes areare formedformed byby dischargingdischarging hothot rosinrosin ontoonto aa movingmoving belt;belt; byby thethe timetime itit hashas reached the end ofof thethe line,line, thethe rosinrosin hashas solidifiedsolidified into a thinthin sheetsheet whichwhich cancan easilyeasily bebe broken up and transferred to bags. ForFor ease ease of of handling, handling, 2525 kgkg bagsbags areare aa convenientconvenient size. size. For relativelyrelatively small navalnaval storesstores operations,operations, thethe quantitiesquantities ofof rosinrosin produced or the intended markets maymay notnot warrant investmentinvestment in in newnew drumsdrums oror other forms of moremore expensive packaaing.,,packaging, so so simpler simpler ways ways o off handling handling and and transporting transporting the the rosinrosin can be used.used. The'I'he moltenmolten rosin from the stillstill can bebe draineddrained eithereither intointo cardboardcardboard boxesboxes supportedsupported byby suitable frames, or intointo splitsplit drums.drums. Solidified rosinrosin fromfrom split drums can be brokenbroken intointo lumps and bagaed.bagged. TheThe disadvantage disadvantage ofof thistltis methodmethod isis thethe formation formation ofof an an appreciable appreciable quantity of powderedpowdered rosinrosin whichwhich isis proneprone toto oxidationoxidation andand discolouration,discolouration, andand whichwltich results in aa poorer qualityquality product.product. 49 APPENDIXAPPENDlX5 5 LIST OF IMPORTERSIMPORTERS AND AND TRADERSTRADERS OFOF NAVALNAVAL STORES The follovvingfollowing tistlist ggivesives thethe namenamess and aaddressesddresses ofot some of the companie,scompanies which import or trade inin navalnaval stores.stores. Such companies may be willing toto considerconsider purchasespurchases ofof export-export qquality,uality, container-loadcontainer-load shipmentsshipments o off rosinrosin oror turpentine from a newnew producer.producer. Only compacompaniesni es inin EuropeEurope,, JJapanapan and thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates areare given.given. The listtist shouldshould not bebe regarregardedded as exhaustive and inclusioninclusion inin ththee tistlist doesdoes nnotot imply thatthat FAOFAO oorr NRI havehave anyany knowledge of thethe financialfinancial standingstanding ofof thethe company.company. EUROPE France AlmimetSAAlmimet SA 18 RueRue de llaa MMichodièreichodiere 75002 Paris DerivesDérives ResiniquesResiniques etet TerpeniquesTerpeniques 30 Rue Gambetta 40105 Dax Germany GratenauGratenau & HesselbacherHesselbacher ChemieChemie KG KlosterwallKJosterwall 2 20017 HamburgHamburg HermannHermann ter HellHell && Co.Co. KattrepelsbriickeKattrepelsbriicke 11 20095 HamburgHamburg Weissmeer-Baltische GmbH Lange Miihren 9 20002000 Hamburg Willers,Willers, Engel GmbHGmbH & Co. Grimm 8 20457 HamburgHamburg Italy Chemverga SL Via RomagnosiRomagnosi 20 00196 RomeRome 50 1EMPSAIEMPSA Delta Via Boccaccio 33 29020 Trezzano on NaviglioNaviglio Milan Netherlands De Monchy International BV POPOBox Box 762762 Meent 106106 3000 AT Rotterdam Integrated Chemicals BV Kanaalstraat 276 PO Box 302302 2160 AH Lisse G.C. Rutteman && Co.Co. Exchange Building,Building, Room 374 PO Box 30028 3001 DA Rotterdam United Kingdom Ferguson & Menzies Ltd 312 Broomloan Road Glasgow G51 2JW Langley SmithSmith cg:. & Co.Co. LtdLtd 36 Spital Square London E1El 6DY AA.V..V. Pound & Co. Ltd 83a High Street Esher KT10KTlO 9PZ White Sea and Baltic Co. Ltd AmdaleArndale House Otley Road Headingley Leeds LS6 2UU Japan Arakawa Chemical Industries Ltd 3-7 Hirano-machi 1-chome Chuo-ku OsakaOsaka 541 5151 Harima Chemical Inc.Inc. 6-7 Dosho-machi 3-chome Chuo-ku Osaka 541541 Sang Yo Boeki LtdLtd Daiwa Bank Buildings 2-5-28 Kyu Taro-machi Chuo-ku Osaka 541541 Toyo Chemical Co. Ltd 1616-12-12 Ginza 6-chome ChuoChuo-ku-ku Tokyo 104104 United States PDM Inc. 3512-6 Silverside Road Wilmington DE 19810 Rausch Naval Stores Co.Co. Inc.Inc. PO Box 4085 New Orleans LA 70178 Ter Chemicals Inc.Inc. PO DrawerDrawerP P Pass Christian MS 39571 52 APPENDIX 6 STATISTICAL TABLES Table 9 Rosina: exports from the People'sPeople's Republic of China, 1987-92 (tonnes)(tonnes) 1987 19881988 19891989 1990 1991 1992 Total 193000193 000 193000193 000 182975182 975 174000174 000 205000205 000 261000261 000 Source: CustomsCustoms StatisticalStatistical Yearbook,Yearbook, 19921992 Note: a BelievedBelieved toto bebe whollywholly oror mainlymainly gumgum rosinrosin Table 1010 Rosina: exports from Portugal, 1987-921987-92 (tonnes) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total 8484456 456 5959068 068 5454258 258 57 57107 107 4705047 050 2626069 069 a/whichof which to: France 13 107 88059 059 1044810 448 90919 091 77655 655 55068 068 GermanyGennany 2215622 156 1545415 454 1568715 687 2020518 518 1849318 493 95359 535 Netherlands 95909 590 88338 338 44302 302 44213 213 33368 368 11994 994 Italy 91229 122 77005 005 77657 657 88894 894 66882 882 22804 804 UK 55687 687 55028 028 33342 342 33122 122 1 831 11520 520 Belgium/Luxembourg 907 434 289289 698 325 471 Spain 1414059 059 88890 890 77250 250 55664 664 33997 997 649 Switzerland 356 412412 315 400 369 258 Austria 485 428 181 275 269 354 Japan 300 263 193 193 298 315 USA 30163 016 22471 471 22311 311 19851 985 11592 592 11389 389 Canada 408 169 476 180 403 111III Venezuela 12241 224 100 106 140 140 140 South Africa 1I 115lIS 337 224 120 80 135 Morocco 830 302 547 402 641 679679 Other countries 22094 094 1I 378 930 1I 212212 707 647647 Source: EurostatEuraslat Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'rosin'rosin obtainedobtained fromfrom freshfresh oleoresinsoleoresins' oror 'gum 'gum rosin'rosin' [excludes[excludes otherother typestypes ofof rosin andand rosinrosin derivatives]derivatives] 53 Table 1111 RosinGROSina,b:,b : exports exports from from Indonesia,Indonesia, 1987-92 (tonnes) 1987 19198888 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total 1414966 966 22 103103 73807 380 1414562 562 1748017 480 2323274 274 ofa/whic whichh to: GerrnanyGennany - na 18 696 653 Netherlands - 126126 342 13971 397 1192 9200 Italy 350 36 288 936 11453 453 UK - 126126 54 36 108 40 Be1giumILuxembourBelgium/Luxembourgg - na - - 346 Portugal - - - 340 I1 056 Spain - - 38 1 709 Greece na 36 36 125 Turkey 1818 36 594 India 56455 645 5529 2944 1 310 55937 937 33290 290 1 795 Bangladesh 386 474 54 144 54 454 Pakistan 791 630 15 913 Sri Lanka - na 72 113 Japan 27862 786 44822 822 44420 420 22520 520 44392 392 22856 856 Taiwan, Prov.Provo ooff China 34173 417 56605 660 702 15741 574 11088 088 22451 451 Singapore 1I 388 2 115115 492 225 239 352 Korea, RcpRep.. of 522 594 162 1 166 22822 282 22072 072 Thailand 750 499 101 10851 085 742 595 Philippines 54 864 50 176 387 650 AustraliaAustralia 76 144 186 1 116116 USA 1616 95 614 1 015015 Mexico na - 55 Colombia na - 335 EcuadorEcuador - na 72 Eg-yptEgypt - - - 528 96 Other countries 18 296 0 56 76 438 Source: IndonesiaIndonesia ForeignForeign TradeTrade StatisticsStatistics Notes:Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'pine'pine resin'resin' butbut believedbelieved to to bebe whollywholly oror mainlymainly gumgum rosinrosin bh Additional, ssmallmall quantities are classified under 'rosin'. TotalsTotals are:are: nil (1987),(1987), na (1988),(1988), 148148 (1989),(1989), 607607 (1990),(1 990),404 404 (1991),(1991), 104104 (1992);(1992); inin eacheach case, most went toto India.India . na ~ Not availabavailablele 54 TableTable 12 RosinRosina,b:o,b: exportsexports fromfrom Brazil,Brazil, 1987-93 (tonnes) 1987 19198888 1989 1990 1991 1992 19919933 Total 962 II11 668282 1313 843843 8458 4511 83308 330 10 338484 1313 550202 o/of whiwhichch tto:o: GGermanyennany 101101 494900 na 15 na na nana NetherlandsNetherlands 120 1 779 na 17721 772 na nnaa nana ItalyItal y 117777 na 20 T1n. a nana nana UK-UI< 40 925 na 235 nan. na na BelgiurnBelgium 8844 na 38 nan. nana nan. PortugalPortugal 441515 na na na nana Spain 60 na 79 na na nana Japan 36 na 779 nan. nana na SingaporeSingapore 10 1100 nana 74 na nnaa na USA 477 4 53153 1 na 33938 938 na nana nana MexicoMexico - na 387 nan. na na Uruguay 135 332626 na 302 nan. na nana ChilChilee 42 770505 na 425425 na na na EcEcuadoruador 30 10 na na nana na VenezuelaVenezuela 1 598 na 156 na nana na PPerueru 110303 na 120 na na nna. ArgentinaArgentina nan. 25 nan. nana nan. South AfriAfricac. 4 335335 nan. 40 nan. na nan. OthOtherer ccountriesountries 3 98 nan. 46 nan. nan. nan. SourSource:ce: NationalNational tradetrade statistics statistics NoNotes:tes: a DefinedDefined asas 'colofonias'colofonias' [excludes[excludes rosinrosin derivatives]deriv.tives] b BelievedBelieved to be wholly or mainlymainly gum rosinrosin na =:::::: NotNot availableavailable 55 Table 1313 Rosina: exexports pons from the United States, 1989-931989-93 (tonnes)(tonnes) 11989989 1990 1991 1992 19199393 Total 1 808 10871 087 12741 274 1 109 820820 a/whichof which to:to : GGermanyennany 91 122 35 - 1199 NetherlandsNetherlands 3300 5 4 ItItalyaly 5 22 1177 17 UK 83 - 57 BBelgiumelgium 101 - LebanonLebanon - 95 PakistanPakistan - 15 7171 JJapanapan 480 428 447777 51 258 SinSingaporegapore 7 1 1188 6 22 ThThailandailand 23 11 11 - PhilippinesPhilippin es 9 8 7 27 CariadaCanada 111166 Mexico 78 191 3838 706 69 ElEI SalvadorSalvador 60 15 11 27 PanamPanamaa 5 54 2828 32 - VenVenezuelaezuela 2 80 232 49 35 PeruPeru 1010 2 49 32 15IS ColombiaColombia 36 7 45 - ArgentinaArgentina - 95 EgyptEgypt 750 - KenyaKenya - 139 SouthSouth AfricaAfri ca 85 18 OtherOther countriescountries 106 61 117 35 35 SSource:ource: NationalNati onal tradetrade statistic.sstati sti cs Note:Note: a DefinedDefined asas 'gum'gum rosinrosin '[separate [separate fromfrom woodwood rosinrosin andand taIltall oiloil rosin]rosin] 56 Table 1414 Rosina: imports into tthehe European Community,Community. 1987-92 ((tonnes)tonnes) 19198787 19881988 1989 1990 1991 1992 TotTotalal 151986151 986 147897147 897 141961141 961 146075146 075 160160354 354 118888 036 ~rwhichof which lrom:from: FFrancerance 672 574 362 544 496 22276 276 Germany 12541 254 ]1 551 1 835 14051 405 1] 782 1 989 NetherlandsNetherlands 395 ]1 796 28892 889 16241 624 24902 490 55213 213 UK 69 58 215 593 12761 276 22068 068 Belgium/LuxembourgBelgium/Luxembourg 472 407 401 465 16771 677 33243 243 Portugal 7187571 875 5454442 442 5021950 219 51 654 4155141 551 23 142142 Spain 509 292 412 457 478 520 Yugoslavia,Yugoslavia ,forrric.T fanner 5 187187 85398 539 312 45 Greece 165 9911 81 157 302 300 Soviet Union, formerfanner 23 347 28942 894 977 952 303 Russia ns ru;ris ns ns nsru; 942 China,China. People's RepRep.. of 6546865 468 6666725 725 6666459 459 7684376 843 9494790 790 123895123 895 Indonesia - 404 180 579 44664 664 ]100872 872 Hong Kong 329 ]1 879 161611 304 234 1 389 USA 763 1 303 716 689 799 1 11011 0 Mexico 1221 2211 835 585 142142 197 73 Honduras 2 809 22308 308 33352 352 27492 749 22841 841 34633 463 Brazil 101 33045 045 55941 941 22063 063 22708 708 50095 009 ArgentinaArgentina 1155 42 973 241 76 639 VenezuelaVenezuela 66 1 316 2020 - SouthSou th AfricaAfrica - - 81 Other countries 659 33259 259 33908 908 33273 273 22 976976 1 509 alwhofwhichich to: France 2088820 888 1986119 861 1739617 396 1821118 211 2121725 725 21 979979 Germany 4906949 069 4742547 425 44 833 5454487 487 5454553 553 61 053 NetherlandsNetherla1l(ls 3364433 644 3434025 025 3838023 023 33 33445 445 39 39564 564 4343811 811 ItalyItaly 1616036 036 13 601 1284612 846 1212292 292 1515083 083 15 639 UK 1515546 546 1188386 386 1403314 033 13 335 11 323323 1122658 658 Belgiurn/LuxembourBelgium/Luxembourg 2-, 20872 087 1 970 22228 228 33121 121 33038 038 55758 758 Spain 1403714 037 1051910 519 11 158158 88999 999 88607 607 13 994 Portugal 12 1I 410 503503 809 33115 115 88875 875 Greece 2 - 9 134 Denmark 329 310 356 184 794 1I 029 Ireland 336 390 576 11921 192 22552 552 3 106106 Source: EuroEurostal star Notes:Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'rosin'rosin obtainedobtained fromfrom freshfresh oleoresins'oleoresinsl or 'gurn'gum rosin'rosin [excludes[exclud es otherother types of rosinrosin andand rosinrosin derivatives]derivatives] ns = NotN at specifiedspecified 5757 Table 1515 Rosina: imports into Japan, 1987-931987-93 (tonnes) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Total 7101171 011 8282416 416 7891178 911 6084460 844 7474442 442 6868927 927 7575303 303 of which .from:from: China, People's Rep.Rep, ofbofb 6047360 473 6639966 399 5959589 589 4832848 328 6060697 697 5858046 046 6161755 '755 Taiwan, Prov.Prov, of China 230 - - 522 630 IndonesiaLndonesiabb 33723 372 50385 038 90059 005 34743 474 55656 656 44968 968 81728 172 Hong Kong 118 200 10221 022 535 1 150 15311 531 212 Viet NambNamb - - - 300 815 821 New Zealand 1 885 1 375 14911 491 13741 374 1 163 845 10031 003 PortugalPortugalbb 248 298 263 158 333 333 263263 USA 44809 809 86638 663 74297 429 60726 072 44164 416 15541 554 22379 379 BrazilBrazilbb 36 97 798 634 20 2020 Other countries 106 177 15 105 93 293 48 Source: Japan ExportsExports andalUi InwortsImports Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'rosin'rosin' oror 'rosin'rosin andand resinresin acids'acids' [excludes[excludes salts, ester gumsgwns and other derivatives]deri vati ves] b Believed toto bebe whollywholly oror mainlymainly g,tungum rosin Table 1616 Rosina: impimportsorts into the UnitedUnited States,States, 1989-931989-93 (tonnes) 19891989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Total 14314 30101 1616783 783 13 703703 14 639 13 671671 ofofwhichtom: which from: Portugal I1 863 17581 758 18951 895 22118 118 2 168168 ChinaChina., People'sPeople's Rep.Rep, ofb 33281 281 55818 818 55508 508 77028 028 33112 112 IndonesiabInctonesiab 18 678 11073 073 1122 2288 Hong Kong 220 127 1 081 560 347 Singapore 151 Canada 274 294 - 202 MexicobMexkob 963 390 26 16 49 HondurasbHondurasb 396 120 60 20 BrazilBrazilbb 60686 068 44275 275 33756 756 22864 864 60936 093 Argentina12Argentinab 838 33382 382 664 807 433 VenezuelabVenezuelab 44 452 - Other countriescOWltries 354 149 35 2 39 Source:Source: NationalNational tradetrade statisticsstatistics Notes: a(l Defined asas 'gum'gum rosin'rosin' [separate[separate from wood rosin and tall oil rosin]rosin] b Believed to be whollywholly or mainly gtungum rosinrosin 58 Table 1717 TurpTurpentinea:entine": exports fromfrom the People's Republic of China,China, 1987-921987-92 (tonnes)(tornes) 1987 11988988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total 22855 855 67696 769 24 323 17881 788 88052 052 5 560 SourceSource::. CustomsCustoms StatisticalStalistical Yearbook,Yearbook, 19921992 NNote:ote: a BelievedBelieved toto bebe whollywholly oror mainlymainly gumgum turpentineturpentine Table 1818 TurpentinTurpentinea:e": eexportsxports from Portugal, 1987-92 (tonnes) 19871987 19881988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total 126912 6955 99888 888 79747 974 575 78484 78757 875 5775 7755 o/wof whichhich to:to: FranFrancece 5675 6755 443 39898 31533 153 16941 694 22767 767 1 561561 GGerrnanyermany 666655 774949 517 603 510 363 NeNetherlandstherlands 182182 119696 170 89 149 9191 ItalItalyy 31831 8 161600 54 429 280 398 UK 417 352352 222 60 102 64 BBelgium/Luxembourgelgium/Luxembourg 344 250 185 159 275 299299 Spain 4584 5833 3 448080 33614 614 226 65858 33721 721 29682 968 OthOtherer countricountrieses 511 303303 59 92 71 3131 Source:Source: EurostatEurosrat Notes:Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'gum'gum spiritsspirits of turpentineturpentine ' [separate[separate fromfrom spiritsspirits ofof woodwood andand sulphatesulphate turpentine]turpentine] 59 Table 1919 Turpentine":Turpentinea: exports from Indonesia,Indonesia. 1987-921987-92 (tonnes) 1987 19819888 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total 22147147 33421421 34033403 44935935 39893989 77223434 a/wof whichhich to:to : FranFrancece - 97 237 508508 GGermanyermany 349 360 65 116565 NethNetherlandserl ands 163163 192 3838 Italy - 227 126 754 UK 50 312 42 164 BeBelgium/Luxembourglgium/Luxembourg 394 20 121233 GreGreeceece - 95 336666 India 15871587 1 616199 22030030 22470470 25592559 44121121 BangladeshBangladesh - - 6688 JapanJaptlo 358 111 12828 552 292 204 95 Taiwan, PrProv.ovo oof f China 95 226969 96 82 152 68 HHongong KonKongg - - 9494 SinSingaporegapore 3344 - 59 - Korea.Korea, RRep.ep. of 2797 14 14 - Thailand 80 109 14 4141 NNewew ZealandZealand 332727 54 - USAUSA - 631 39 209209 CanadaCanada - 57 152 379379 EgyptEgypt - - 14 2828 OtherOther ccountriesountri co;; 0 30 0 0 19 13 SSource:ource: IndonesiaIndonesia ForeignForeign TradeTrade StatisticsStatistics Note:Note: a DefinedD efin ed asas 'gum'gum turpentine'turpentine' 60 Table 2020 Turpentine":Turpentinea: imports into the European Community, 1987-921987-92 (tonnes)(tonnes) 1987 19819888 19891989 1990 1991 1992 Total 1471514 715 1454614 546 2128821 288 1990319 903 158215 8211 1641516 415 ofqf which from:from: Portugal 1296512 965 1111 042 93509 350 64156 415 80628 062 55977 977 Germany 127 311 1 063 22135 135 825 992 Bulgaria 58 90 150 266 376 Yugoslavia, formfarmerer 505 1I 243 945 302 87 - Soviet Union, fformeranner 589 879 415 103 717 121200 Russia ns ns ns ns nsTIS 457 China, People's Rep. of - 80 74987 498 75287 528 3 149 34923 492 Indonesia - 501 10721 072 594 22125 125 Brazil 28 233 513 771 1 155 116 68484 Argentina - - 626 South Africa - 109109 339 247 127 Other countriescotmtries 443 758 804 1 088 719 439 afwof whichhich to: France 56485 648 58865 886 93019 301 67256 725 6 6453 453 39383 938 Germany 868 1 103 26582 658 25572 557 15401 540 1 341 NetherlandsNetherlands 159 259 283 176 308 132 Italy 14721 472 1 555 11542 542 1 359 770 1 379 UK 490 468 411 463 339 306 Belgium/LuxembourgBelgitun/LtLxembourg 441 375 357 650 379 481 Spain 55305 305 48694 869 54525 452 77260 260 44936 936 66373 373 Portugal 59 1 100 445 650 1 618 Greece 135 - 148 236 417 812 Denmark 95 15 10 16 21 22 Ireland 43 16 26 16 8 13 Source: EuEur rostatostoc Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'gurn'gum spirits of turpentineturpentine '[separate [separate fromfrom spiritsspirits ofof woodwood andand sulphatesulphate turpentine] ns -=~ NotNot sspecifiedpecified 61 Table 2121 Turpentine":Turpentin ea :imports imports intointo Japan, Japan, 1987-931987-93 (tonnes) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Total 79957995 1226612 266 1489414 894 66580 580 77629 629 82408 240 66533 533 a/which/rom:ofwhich from: China, People's Rep.Rep. ofbofb 17111 711 44828 828 88357 357 22484 484 22384 384 1 809 33196 196 IndonesiaIndonesiabb 302 1 521 770 176 272 136 567 Hong Kong 53 53 98 56 Viet NambNamb 20 40 40 30 24 New Zealand 899 1 120 498 1 360 13071 307 19151 915 906 USA 44418 418 39793 979 44551 551 20012 001 30393 039 33537 537 12741 274 Chile 645 775 625 476 528 762 571 Other countries 0 3 0 0 1 1 19 Source: Japan ExportsE'ports and Importsimports Notes: a DefinedDefined asas 'gum,'gum, woodwood oror sulphate sulphate turpentineturpentine oils'oils' b Believed to be wholly or mainlymainly gum turpentine 62 r; ~., y~v, sot .~ ( ~ ~{~ ,\ \ ~ \\ .t • o Pinus isis one one of of the the mostmost widely widely distributeddistributed genera ofof trees inin the northern hemisphere.hemisphere. ItsIts rangerange extendsextends fromfrom the polar regionregion to thethe tropicstropics andand includesincludes Central and NorthNorth America,America, Europe Europe and and Asia.Asia. PinesPines are among thethe most widelywidely planted exotics for timber andand pulppulp purposes, purposes, andand largelarge areas areas ofof these these treestrees areare thereforetherefore foundfound outside their naturalnatural rangerange in South America, Africa andand Australasia.Australasia. PinePine treestrees are important not only forfor wood,wood, butbut also also asas a valuable source of non-wood forest products.products. They can be tapped for resin, which cancan thenthen bebe distilleddistilled to produceproduce gumgum turpentineturpentine andand gumgum rosin.rosin. Gum naval stores:stores: turpentine and rosin fromfrom pinepine resin provides informationinformation on the technical and economic aspects ofof pinepine resinresin productionproduction including the tapping of treestrees and thethe distillation ofof thethe resin.resin. It also reviews recent trendstrends inin world productionproduction and markets forfor gum turpentine andand gum rosin. The book is intended for prospectiveprospective producers of turpentine andand rosinrosin andand forfor organizationsorganizations andand individuals appraising projects involving their production. ItIt isis particularlyparticularly intendedintended forfor readersreaders in developing countries. Itkt over 441iirel-f- Aiint- ISBNISSI" 92-5-103684-592-5-103684-5 ISSI'J020-3370 1111111111111111111111111111 1111 110ID 0 9 -77 88925 9 2 5 11 003 3 6684 8 4 6-6 M-37M-37 V6460E/1/5 95/2000 f>.- \ .%01,