Amerasia Journal 38:1 (2012): ix-xviii

American Toxicity: Twenty Years After the 1992 Los Angeles “Riots”

Darnell Hunt

Race, for us, is like the miner’s canary. Miners often carried a canary into the mine alongside them. The canary’s more frag- ile respiratory system would cause it to collapse from noxious gases long before humans were affected, thus alerting the min- ers to danger. The canary’s distress signaled that it was time to get out of the mine because the air was becoming too poison- ous to breathe. Those who are racially marginalized are like the miner’s canary: their distress is the first sign of a danger that threatens us all. It is easy enough to think that when we sacrifice this canary, the only harm is to communities of color. Yet others ignore prob- lems that converge around racial minorities at their own peril, for these problems are symptoms warning us we are all at risk. —Lani Guinier and Gerald Torres

The above words open Lani Guinier and Gerald Torres’s 2002 book, The Miner’s Canary: Enlisting Race, Resisting Power, Trans- forming Democracy.1 They speak powerfully to the ways in which society’s most basic flaws are exposed by the vulnerabilities of its subordinated groups. The metaphor of the miner’s canary, I believe, is also particularly apt for helping us to make sense of where we find ourselves today in the United States, twenty years after frustration and dissent exploded so violently on the streets of Los Angeles. The 1992 Los Angeles “riots,” as I have written elsewhere,2 were popularly depicted in the mainstream media as a “black thing.” According to the conventional narrative, it was angry and disaffected African Americans who initiated the events on April 29

Darnell Hunt is director of the Ralph J. Bunche Center for African Ameri- can Studies at UCLA and professor of sociology. He is author of several books on race, media, and cultural studies, including Screening the Los Ange- les “Riots”: Race, Seeing, and Resistance (Cambridge University Press, 1997).

ix x Amerasia Journal 2012 definitions of similar situations before and since. and before situations similar of definitions official simple”—reflects and pure mob, a of brutality “the ed assessment ofthe1992Los representthey Angeles events—that - perative to restore order, above all else. President George Bush’s responses tosuchevents havebeenstrikinglyconsistent:itisim official years, the Over 1967. of summer hot long, the during ies of 1965andtheexplosionunrest throughout thenation’scit- urban uprisingsofthe1960s,most notablyoftheWatts “riots” The Los Angeles “riots” of1992clearly evoked memories ofthe “The brutalityofamob,pureandsimple” tury,” which theLosAngelesTimes proclaimed “theworst riots ofthecen- beating blackmotoristRodneyKing.Theresulting civilunrest, brutally videotaped been had who officers police four the of day when theytooktothestreets toprotest theacquittalearlierin to mediaportrayalsofsuch events. common, dominantframeinusearound theglobewhenitcomes mainstream newsaccountsofthesituation,restore order. the helpof this kindbehaviorincheckand,with deployed toput quickly thus are Guard National and police The “arson”). and ing offrustration or simply ofcriminal behavior (i.e.,“looting” simple “rioting,”whichconjures upimagesofthesenselessvent- to reduced instead is “insurrection”) or “rebellion” as (i.e., quo might beseenaspoliticalactivityaimed at reordering thestatus discourse inorder toblamevictimsofsocietalinequities fortheir lance functionrelies heavilyonanelitestrategyof usingracist tion trumps all others in the coverage of civil unrest. This surveil elite discoursereveals thatthenewsmedia’ssurveillance func- the raciallyprivilegedare beginningtofeeltheeffects. society.our in becoming Twentywas later, even years conclude, I an earlywarningofjusthowtoxicthesocio-politicalatmosphere canary—was uprising—like theproverbial collapseoftheminer’s symptoms than causes. I contend that this multiracial, multi-factor the racialelementswere indeedquitereal, theywere more akinto “riots” were aboutmuchmore thanmere racialantagonism.While atic imagesinmainstream newscoverageoftheevents. of local Korean businesses for looting and arson became emblem- ing ofwhitetrucker ReginaldDennybyblacks andthetargeting in property damage,andthousandsofarrests. Theinfamousbeat- To be sure, Dutch scholar Teun van Dijk finds that there is a is there that finds TeunDijk scholar van Dutch To sure, be In this introduction, however, I argue that the 1992 Los Angeles 3 resulted inatleast51deaths,more thanonebilliondollars 5 His comparative analysis of of analysis comparative His 4 That is, what - - American Toxicity xi - - - - - a political stance 8 seamless Times Angeles Los

6 From the earliest racial projects—such as the conquest of as projects—such the earliest racial From 7 Indeed, as the idea of race was institutionalized within Amer within institutionalized was race of idea the as Indeed, The consistency of elite investment in racist discourse speaks elite investment in racist discourse The consistency of Native Americans or the establishment of African slavery—elites African of establishment the or Americans Native di- to justify the crude race in order the idea of have promoted on the and inferior groups vision of populations into superior yet socially visible characteristics. Race basis of rather arbitrary, phenotypical difference much as is there not exist in nature; does Instead, them. within is there as groups racial so-called between a social construction, to as race constitutes what sociologists refer human inter over time through a category of distinction created fluid concept, one in whichA assignmentaction. of racial status meanings have liter and the corresponding to particular groups nonethelessally changed over the years, race has always served the In hierarchies. status fundamental stabilizing of purpose the United States, white supremacy has remained a de facto com despite the evolution of law and ponent of the social structure, racial etiquette. This is because elites benefit from the distrac- upon whiteness tion of antagonisms attributed to race; they rely other subordinated between themselves and to form a buffer race words, other In quo. status the challenge might that groups is essentially a mask for privilege. shap- it became a key component of cultural reality, ican society, who we we are, ing the formation of individual identities—who socialized been have Individuals be. to hope we who and not, are to police (and racial reinforce) boundaries in their daily routines, At crucial to their lived experiences. as a means of bringing order with belonging associated compensation the psychic moments, to a group defined as raciallysuperior hasmotivated whites to assert a “possessive investment in whiteness,” ly reverts to the crime frame, despite its tacit acknowledgement despite its tacit acknowledgement to the crime frame, ly reverts back- and races all of people drove that issues justice social the of Injustice Social Wrong: Is Violence “When streets: the to grounds Another.” Is Is One Thing, Crime own victimization and related frustrations. It is a gaze invested - causes—partic than underlying on symptoms rather in focusing - neolib the of efficacy the challenge might that causes those ularly to justify theinvoked by elites logics routinely eral, market-based contemporary status quo. Thus, in the weeks the following 1992 the in editorial an events, Angeles Los to the power (and value) of race as a central axis of social - rela tions. affirming elite views ofreality rather than those embraced by ra- xii Amerasia Journal 2012 necessary but singly insufficient social and material factors that factors material and social insufficient singly but necessary model represented aparadigm shiftofsortsbyemphasizingsix Smelser’s unrest. urban understand to efforts our in influential of somecritiquesandrevisions over theyears, factor model of collective behavior that,despite theemergence “collective behavior”likethe1992Los Angeles events. to thekindsoffactorssociologistsoftenassociatewith moments of readings oftherest ofKing’swords, however, readings thatpoint the kindofunwarrantedbeatingKingendured. There are broader administering videotape on captured actually officers police vict inal justicesystemin America—one that,forexample,wouldcon- progressiveinvolves ongoing efforts alegitimatecrim- establish to they haven’twonthewar.” continued. “We’ll, we’llgetourjustice;they’vewonthebattle,but right—it’s notright. And it’snotgoingtochangeanything,”King tion of the quote complicated King’s simple message: “It’s just not dia around thenationandglobe.Butlesser-known continua- guns—gainedwidespread with erty coverageinmainstream me- ing Reginald Denny or Korean store owners protecting their prop- simple message—likethemore disturbingimages of blacksbeat- poignant messageoftolerance,patience,andunderstanding.This ate aftermathofthe1992Los Angeles eventswasfamousforits Rodney King’spleaforcalmandreconciliation intheimmedi- “Can weallgetalong?” Angeles events. face. they collective actiongeared toward addressing thesocietalinequities invoke theirownracialstatusinhopesofmobilizingsupportfor economically. These racially subordinated groups, in turn, often cialized groups withwhomtheyactuallyhavemore incommon spread participationof“illegalaliens”alsocloudedthepicture. the events primarily in terms of criminal behavior or the wide Similarly, explained that minorities. frames middleman dominant black participantscouldhardly bereduced tothepresence ofthese of outrage and frustration the course, Of owners. store Korean nant mediaframespittingangryblack“rioters”againstgun-toting businesses with “Black Owned” signs, resonated nicely with domi - reflectedwas which guarding of practice the in community certain In the early 1960s, sociologist Neil Smelser proposed a six- a proposed Smelser Neil sociologist 1960s, early the In The mostobvious“war”towhichKingrefers here, ofcourse, Such was the case for many black participants in the 1992 Los Los 1992 the in participants black many for case the was Such 9 And theirinvocationofrace as arallyingpoint, 10

11 hasbeenquite - American Toxicity xiii - “Precipitating event,” or the event such trigger, as news of “Failure of social control,” such as the inability of authorities such control,” of social “Failure “Structural conduciveness,” such as surrounding conditions, surrounding as such conduciveness,” “Structural “Mobilization for action,” for example, the emergence of event “Mobilization for action,” for example, the emergence the slogan the police acquittals in the King beating case; But it is the remaining two factors that are most critical in in critical most are that factors two the remaining it is But G G G G to maintain order; including television news about the events, that facilitate par including television news about the events, ticipation; leaders and organizational activities. leaders and organizational It survived. It survived. or as signs. looting and Variations of Variations Store owners Store owners identification hoped that the Fairfax district. Fairfax fronts in graffiti fronts in graffiti “Black Owned” “Black helping us to understand the 1992 Los Angeles events. One of explained the emergence of these types of events. Four of the the of Four events. of types these of the emergence explained factors include: © Ben Higa, 1992 their stores from would help save help save would gas station in the appeared in store appeared in arson. This was a was This arson. xiv Amerasia Journal 2012 cases of the period, like the Soon Ja Du case, presidencies. munity building during theneoconservative Reaganand Bush es infederalsupportforhousing,education,andinner-city com grew. This precarious situation was inflamed further by decreas blacks) (e.g., poor non-working and immigrants) Latino (e.g., considerably inLos Angeles, astheranksofworkingpoor the region. The gap between the haves and have-nots widened which wasaccompaniedbyadevastatinglossofqualityjobsin long process of deindustrialization in South Central Los Angeles, decades- a been had there events, 1992 the of case the In rest. frames usedbymainstream mediatomakesenseofurban un- of societalinequitiestypically minimized in the dominant,elite these factors—“structural strains”—speakstothecausal weight tinos—it isnotsurprisingthat subsequentneoconservativeefforts problem minorities—particularlywith African Americans andLa- ity andthedominantmedia frameassociatedthe“rioting”with erty ofothers.BecauseCalifornia wasbecomingmajorityminor that senselesslydestroyed “theirown communities”andtheprop- “rioters” were participants view,event their In Angeles. Los of pure and simple” primarily saw criminal behavior on the streets President Bush’s definition of the events as “the brutality of a mob, able debate abouttheir societal impact. Those whosubscribed to ment forreal, meaningfulchange. events asagoldenopportunitytoleadparticipants inamove- tionaries who welcomed the societal cleavages laid bare by the were progressives, veteran activists, revolu and/orwould-be - the events as a chance to get more of their fair share. Still, others tion in America andsawthebreakdown oforder occasionedby because theywere acutelyaware oftheiroppressed classposi- participate to motivated seemed Others them. against stacked clearly subscribedtothegeneralizedbeliefthatsystemwas ferent reasons. was clearfrom myinformantsthatpeopleparticipatedfordif- that there were likelyseveralgeneralizedbeliefsinplay, asit search onhowpeoplemadesenseofthe1992eventssuggests pants to actually participateincollective behavior. My own re- understanding ofthesituationthatmotivatespotentialpartici- value blacklifeorrights. Americans, in particular, tofeelthatthejudicialsystemfailed In the aftermath of the 1992 events, there has been consider been has there events, 1992 the of aftermath the In The final factor, “generalized belief,” refers to a common a to refers belief,” “generalized factor, final The 12 Meanwhile, other high-profile Los court other Angeles Meanwhile, 14 Thatis,many African American participants 13 positioned African - - - - American Toxicity xv - - - Occupy gathering gathering 18 17 Of course, Clinton was 15 16 But the 1992 events also seemed to give voice to the need for also seemed to give voice to the need But the 1992 events Corporate media initially paid little attention. But as the move- had been brought together by an Internet campaign that had encour been brought on behalf of the “99 per aged participants to “occupy” the park and its ob- by the “1 percent” cent” who had been victimized America. power in scene accumulation of wealth and “Occupy the world!” “Occupy On September hundreds of 17, protesters took 2011, up camp in Street Wall near square outdoor owned privately a Park, Zuccotti The in City. mostly New York white, mostly young to “Save Our State” targeted these minority groups. In 1994, just two years after the Californiafires, voters passed 187. Proposition pub- health care, using from “illegal aliens” barred This legislation lic education, and other social services in the state. Proposition 209’s elimination of affirmative action in California’s public- insti is clearly connected to the same in 1996, later, tutions two years backlash. neoconservative, white The election of President change, however transitory. progressive left- after the events marked the nation’s Clinton seven months twelve of rightward years reversing the center, move toward ward admin- the policies of the Reagan and Bush drift associated with istrations. Some have argued that Clinton’s victory was greatly - take seri to failure Bush’s with frustration public’s by the aided exacerbat- the events—problems underlying ously the problems ed by Bush’s own right-wing policies. followed by another Bush in the White House and another eight suggests that whateveryears of neoconservative policies, which into coalesce to failed by the 1992 events stoked were sentiments change. The emer a sustained social movement for progressive potential would have to waitgence a movement with this kind of than ten years. for more Wall Street Wall quickly gave birth to copycat occupations in major cities and small towns throughout the nation. From “Occupy Street,” to Wall “Occupy Los Angeles,” to “Occupy the Hood,” largely movement was relegated early news about the growing out- radio progressive small of smattering a and blogs Internet to hijacked have elite interests and Corporate message: The lets. and the people must (somehow) take it back. our democracy, and the story could no longer be ignored, ment continued to grow focus of lack the movement’s became frame news dominant the into stretched of occupation Weeks demands. ambiguous and its xvi Amerasia Journal 2012 poverty figures proved stubborn. platform of“hope”and“change.”Buttheunemployment and president elected wasindeedsubsequently bailout, of the ona the stability of the financial system. Barack Obama, a proponent bailout of the banks, ostensibly to maintain the flow of credit and dollar billion 700 a for voted hastily Congress president, black beginning to look as though America might actually elect its first in 2008,the“99percent” were Thatis,asitwas leftwiththetab. down falling came cardsfinally of house the When wealth. elite and profits corporate inflate to designed tactics business ments, instru- financial phantom create to and loans bad issue to ciers finan- WallStreet and banks major enabled had 1990s late the in markets financial the of deregulation The greed.unregulated the generalized belief that the recession was the direct result of ing eviscerated. the Great Depression, America’s hallowedmiddleclasswasbe- between thehavesandhave-notsgrew tolevelsnotseensince ments nor selltheproperties to avoid foreclosure. As the gap their homes because they could neither make the mortgagepay- plummeted, andhomeownersalloverthecountrywere losing levels notseenindecades. Marketdemand and property values presidential election,unemploymentandpovertyrateshadhit 2008 the to up leading period the In 2008. of Recession Great lege was motivated by the structural strains associated with the best torestore order. “evict” participantsand,aswasthecaseinLos Angeles 1992,how country. Corporatenewsframesthusshiftedtopolicetactics the across dotted settlements defiant the with impatient grown months, and it eventually became obvious that authoritieshad percent” already questioning thelegitimacyofsystem. ecutives exacerbatedtheprofound senseofinjusticefelt bythe“99 Walltop to ex- paid Streetbonuses dollar multi-million the about employment andpovertylevels continuedtospike,periodicnews Bush-era taxcuts forthewealthiest Americans. Meanwhile, asun- by withdrawinghisproposal toraiserevenue byeliminating demands Republican to capitulated eventually Obama revenues. grams thatserve the“99percent” ratherthanby increasing tax must beaddressed withmassivecutsinthetypesofsocialpro- insisted Republicans which deficits, budget skyrocketing over Occupy participants and their sympathizers were moved by weremoved sympathizers their and participants Occupy privi- elite on attack in-your-face Movement’s Occupy The In the summer of 2011, the federal government deadlocked government federal the 2011, of summer the In 19

American Toxicity xvii - - - International Com International it has nonetheless 21 Racial Formation in the United States States the United in Formation Racial The Miner’s Canary: Enlisting Race, Resist- Canary: Enlisting The Miner’s Understanding the Riots: Los Angeles Before and Understanding the Riots: Los Angeles Before austerity measures have combined to to have combined measures austerity ): 49. Angeles: Los Angeles Times (Los (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006). University Press, (Philadelphia: Temple 20 Screening the Los Angeles “Riots”: Race, Seeing, and the Los Angeles “Riots”: Race, Seeing, and Screening (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Press, University Harvard (Cambridge: Democracy Transforming ing Power, 2003): 11. Lani Guinier and Gerald Torres, Gerald Torres, Guinier and Lani See Darnell M. Hunt, After the Rodney King Case Resistance Shelby III, Coffey ed., 1992, munication Gazette (1989). editorial, May 20, 1992. Los Angeles Times Indeed, Indeed, nineteen years after the 1992 Los Angeles events, British Prime had this to say about similar events in London Minister David Cameron - was “not about politics or pro The uprising during the summer of 2011: test, it is about theft.” See http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/world/ uk-looters-and-rioters-face-court/story-e6frf7lf-1226113122420. Analy- An Press: the and Riots “Race, , Dijk, van A. Teun see example, For sis of Editorials in the Press about the 1985 Disorders,” Michael Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Routledge, 1994). York: the 1960s to the 1990s (New from The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People George Identity Politics from Profit The warning delivered by the collapse of the canary has been by the collapse of the The warning delivered Twenty years after the Los Angeles “riots,” rampant inequal rampant “riots,” Angeles the Los after years Twenty

2. 1. 4. 3. 6. 7. 5. 8. awaken those largely unmoved by the events of 1992. Today’s 1992. Today’s of events by the unmoved largely awaken those gen- pervasive more rise to a much strains have given structural eralized belief that something is America. wrong in In 1992, the flaw was framed primarily in racial terms: problem minorities - used race to limit their opportuni by a system that felt wronged often put the groups to full citizenship, which ties and claims in competition with one While another. the Occupy Movement a clear anti-racist politics, has yet to articulate ments corporate media associated with the “senseless rioting” of with the associated ments corporate media - Ameri by white today expressed are 1992 in minorities problem for themselves old, who see no viable future cans, young and in the status quo. In this sense, the Occupy Movement and Los linked. Angeles 1992 are has America in over the years. The political atmosphere ignored become so toxic that the miners themselves are beginning, final- to feel the effects. ly, succeeded in exposing truths about elite privilege traditionally traditionally elite privilege about truths in exposing succeeded senti of kinds the sure, be To antagonisms. by racial masked

Notes ity and “shock-doctrine”

xviii Amerasia Journal 2012

21. 20. 19. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 10. 18. 11. 9.

cember 2011/January 2012). Kelley,G. D. Deferred,”RobinDreams “Occupy York: Picador, 2008). Klein, Naomi See www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/us/14census.html?pagewanted=all. ure in the 52 years the bureau has collected figures on poverty. See http:// 46.2 million Americans were living below the poverty line, the highest fig- 2011,of September By Statistics). Labor of Bureau (Source:2011 of gust Au- in percent 9.1 staggering a was rate unemployment U.S. overall The cent; seehttp://www2.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html. wealth in 2007, while the bottom 80 percent of Americans owned only 7 per financial nation’s the of percent 43 owned Americans of percent 1 top The occupy-wall-street-demographics-infographic. http://www.fastcompany.com//1792056/see 45; over were percent 32 According to one survey, 81.2 percent of participants were white, and only Memorable Twitter quotefrom October15,2011. Reading RodneyKing/Reading Urban Uprising (New York: Routledge, 1993). ed., Gooding-Williams, R. Politics,” U.S. Contemporary and Riot’ ‘Race Angeles Los “The Winant, Howard and Omi Michael see example, For Hunt. bation andnojailtimefortheshooting. superior court judge, Joyce Karlin, sentenced Soon Ja Du to five years pro- later,whitemonths a Nine head. the of back the in Harlins shooting and handgun a out pulling Du Ja Soon shows video The leave. to turned and counter the on bottle the placed Harlins two, the between struggle brief a After juice. orange of bottle a steal to attempting of Harlins accused had Koreana storeDu, liquor Ja Du Soon merchant.Ja by Soon girl, black old beating, another camera captured the killing of Latasha Harlins, a infamous 15-year- King’s Rodney videotaped camera a that month same the In nomic DevelopmentQuarterly6(1992):356. Melvin L. Oliver, “The Los Angeles Rebellion: Aand Jr.,Retrospective View,” Farrell, C. Walter Jones, K. Cloyzelle Jr., Johnson, H. James See (New Orleans:QuidPro, LLC,2011). See Gary T. Marx, Foreword, in Neil J. Smelser, TheoryofCollectiveBehavior king-rodney-king-speaks. http://www.sweetspeeches.com/s/1257-rodney- at: online Available Hunt. (New The ShockDoctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism Bunche Center News (De Eco- - -