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Household Sanitation Technical brief Household sanitation Part of a series of Introduction WaterAid technology briefs. Open defecation in fields, bushes or beaches results in disease-causing pathogens being Available online at spread freely, and should be prevented. There www.wateraid.org/ are many designs of latrine, ranging from a technologies simple pit with a slab and superstructure, January 2013 to a double vault composting latrine producing high quality organic fertiliser, and any of these will effectively contain faecal pathogens (provided they are well used and maintained). Pit latrines have proven to be a popular choice with many people in various countries and are highly affordable; however it is important that people are given the opportunity to examine a variety of options and decide which they would prefer. Given sensitive guidelines and a little technical help, families can build latrines for themselves at very low cost. It should be noted that latrines are only one part of a sanitation system, particularly in urban areas. This technology note is concerned solely with on-site sanitation. For decentralised systems and collection and treatment of sludge please refer to the technology note ‘Wastewater treatment’. There are three main components in latrine design: • Pit • Slab • Superstructure Many variations of each component exist, which can be interchanged to design an optimum solution for a particular area. Technical brief Household sanitation Main components design, the slab should be shaped so that liquid drains towards the central Pit hole. Larger slabs should not be cast The pit for a family latrine should be over the pit, and should be preferably about 1.2m in diameter (this is the cast in two pieces (for easier smallest dimension that can be dug transport). Casting a slab in a round conveniently), with the base of the shape, rather than square, means that pit above the water table. The pit can it can be rolled to its destination. be built (partially or wholly) above If the slabs are to be made within the ground level and the depth should communities, they should be supplied generally be around 1.5m but can be with well-designed steel or timber as deep as 3m. This is influenced by shuttering for the casting, and given family size and decisions around how advice on concrete mix proportions. latrines will be emptied. Specifics will Well-trained local craftsmen must depend on the particular context: for supervise the mixing and placing of example, urban areas or composting the concrete in the slab. latrines might require shallow pits with frequent emptying; in unstable Superstructure ground the pit walls should be A superstructure can be built of any supported with timber, cement rings, local material. It needs to provide stones or trapezoidal blocks. adequate privacy and should be A twin pit system, with the constructed with a floor, walls and a superstructure and slab being roof. Improved ventilation and other used over the two pits alternately, modifications will help to control flies allows one pit to be in use whilst and odours. the contents of the other are left to naturally biodegrade and can have a Latrine design virtually unlimited life. The following technologies can use Slab interchangeable designs of pit, slab Slabs generally come with either a and superstructure. simple hole, a pour-flush pan (which Basic pit latrine can come with or without a water seal), or a urine diversion system A basic pit latrine comprises of a pit, which separates faeces and urine. slab and superstructure, built using The type of slab used depends on the whatever local materials are most type of household latrine treatment appropriate. It is recommended that system in place, as detailed below. latrines are upgraded from this basic Most slabs can be easily adapted to design, as it is susceptible to flies and any of the three types. If the latrine is odours. also to be used for bathing, it might Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine be preferable to have a larger slab, but ideally washing water should be The ventilated improved pit (VIP) diverted to a separate soakaway. latrine was introduced in Africa in the 1970s and has proved successful in The slab needs to be strong and easy overcoming problems with flies and to keep clean. Concrete is a good odours. material, and should be used in combination with steel reinforcement. The interior of the superstructure must If none is available, strength can be be well ventilated and darker than achieved by using a domed shape. daylight outside. The pit must have a Raised “footpads” should be cast ventilation pipe which should be at into the slab and, unless of a domed least 100mm in diameter and extend 2 Technical brief Household sanitation Fly screen from the pit to about 0.5m above the roof. The top should be fitted with a fine-mesh stainless steel, GRP or aluminium fly-screen. Flies attracted by smell into the pit will be drawn up the pipe by the daylight at the top of it, and get caught by the screen. Wind passing over the vent pipe will also Vent pipe cause an up-draught, removing any smell and helping to draw up flies. Alternate pit squat hole temporarily sealed The door access should ideally face Alternate pit into the prevailing wind direction to vent pipe hole maximise the dispersion of odour. Removable cover slab However if the prevailing wind direction means the access faces the living area of the community, a curved Sludge safe for Pit in use entrance should be considered for manual removal after one year extra privacy. Pour flush latrine In villages where people use water for anal cleansing, pour flush latrines can be more appropriate. The squatting Fig 1: Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine slab is sited a metre or two away from the pit, which it drains to via a communication pipe. To prevent smells rising from the pit, a U-bend water seal can be incorporated or a close-fitting squat-hole cover fitted. For a double pit design, a drain junction will be needed to block the pipe to the pit not currently in use. Ecological sanitation Ecological sanitation is the principle Cover slab of returning the nutrients contained Ground level in human waste to the land. These latrines are often referred to as Waterseal pan ‘eco-san’ latrines and are designed Connecting drain to biodegrade human waste into a humus-like soil which is safe to handle, rich in nutrients and can be used to increase agricultural production. In this system, urine and faeces are seen as a resource rather than a waste. Fig 2: Pour flush latrine 3 Technical brief Household sanitation Composting latrines A variation on the basic composting latrine is called the Arborloo where A basic composting latrine has the the superstructure and slab are same design as a basic pit latrine. removed to a new pit once the old pit A handful of a mixture of soil and is two thirds full. The old pit is then ash is added to the pit after each filled up with soil and a tree is planted use to keep the pit dry, which limits inside. odours. Other organic material can also be added, such as leaves, grass The Fossa Alterna is a design with two clippings and vegetable waste, to pits which are used alternately. One aid composting. After being left pit is used until it is full and then the to decompose for 12 months, the second pit is used while the first pit resulting compost can be dug out and rests. Just before reuse the resting pit applied to the land as a fertilizer. is emptied and the dug out compost can be used as fertiliser. The composting toilet is not appropriate for greywater disposal. For this reason water used for anal cleansing should be diverted where possible, although small amounts can be tolerated. 1 2 Sometime later... Fig 3: Arborloo Once pit is full a tree is planted and a new hole dug 2m 1m Fig 4: Fossa Alterna 123 Latrine slab 4 Technical brief Household sanitation Urine-separating latrines is advisable that it is left for a short time before use, in case of possible This latrine separates urine and contamination. faeces by a urine diverting slab or pan. Faeces drops into a vault, where These toilets are often built above they are stored until all pathogens ground, making them appropriate for are destroyed and it is safe for rocky areas or locations with a high application to land and crops. The water table. decomposition process is aided by Vaults can take the form of buckets the application of soil, ash or lime or tanks. If the vault is large, then after each use. It is essential that no the dry matter should be periodically water is allowed to enter the vault. spread about with a pole to prevent Urine is collected separately and build up in the centre and to facilitate can be diluted and applied to crops. drying. Whilst urine is theoretically sterile, it Fig 5: Urine-separating latrines Faeces Urine Urine Faeces Dried faeces Urine collection 5 Technical brief Household sanitation opinions on exactly how far is Advantages of Ecological Sanitation: safe; however, 50m is generally ✓ Creates fertiliser which can be used in agriculture considered to be adequate). ✓ Cheap to build and maintain • A buffer zone of 1.5m between the base of the pit and the water table ✓ Does not require water should be ensured to minimise ✓ Double pits used alternately have a virtually unlimited life contamination; however, this is subject to the type of aquifer/soils ✓ No problems with flies or odours if used correctly and hydrogeological advice should Disadvantages of Ecological Sanitation: be sought.
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