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Graduate Institute of Political and International Studies Graduate Institute of Political and International Studies Effects of military bases established after conflict on their communities and the implications for peacebuilding Mona S. Jibril Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2017 1 Declaration I confirm that this is my own work and the use of all material from other sources has been properly and fully acknowledged. All errors and omissions are my own. Mona Sadika Jibril 2 Abstract Peacekeeping organizations have recently begun to critically evaluate their operations concerning the effects their activities have on the local community in post-conflict environments. There is now an increased recognition that local-level, or day-to-day, activities play a much more significant role in post-conflict stabilization than once attributed and that they affect policy goals more directly than previously thought. Yet, a systematic study of the effects of military bases in post-conflict environments is absent. This research begins to fill this gap concerning military bases established in post-conflict environments. It uses process tracing through within case study comparison and livelihoods- focused political economy analysis of the Republic of Kosovo to address several questions: what are the impacts of the base construction activities; what are the effects of the day-to-day sustainment activities, and what are the effects of the continued presence of the base on relations between military and local elites. Noting the economic gains of shadow economies by war-time elites often translates into political power in a post-war environment, elites’ relations with the military base may assure their dominance through control of access to high-paying base employment and profitable business relationships. Thus, the everyday practices of establishing and maintaining military bases in post-conflict environments, which directly affect the political, social and economic components of the local political economy, may permanently affect stability and development. Field research of these questions finds substantial variance between bases, which have roots in the procedures of the lead contributing nation. Overall, political effects are limited, while social and economic effects are mixed. Given the size, characteristics and enduring presence of military bases in peace operations, it is therefore necessary to look beyond size of the base, and 3 interrogate more closely the specific practices, rules and regulations that they follow to identify their effects on the local political economy and implications for sustainable peacebuilding. 4 Acknowledgements I wish to express my deep gratitude to my PhD supervisor Professor Dominik Zaum, who always pushed me to be better, and to my interpreter and field research assistant Mr. Edison Krasniqi, who never met a stranger. Without their questions, care, honesty, humor and support, I could not have completed this life-changing endeavor. In addition, my heartfelt thanks to the men and women I interviewed for this research. Special thanks to those in public service in the Municipalities of Ferizaj, Gjilan, Gjakova and Prizren who gave generously of their time and resources – all were a continued source of inspiration throughout my research. I am especially indebted to the Director of the Agency for the Registration of Businesses, Mr. Gazmend Mejzini and his staff for their assistance, and for Mr. Sojeva and Mr. Jakupi in Ferizaj, Mr. Simitci in Prizren and Mayor Kusari-Lila in Gjakova for their insight. Special appreciation to the Rexha family for their warmth and hospitality throughout my Kosovo visits and for the encouragement from cherished friends and colleagues in the military. Finally, I am delighted to thank my husband Mark for his unwavering love and support, and for the opportunity to be reminded each day by his presence, “that it is better and nicer to be together.” 5 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 Table of Contents 5 List of Acronyms 12 List of Maps 14 List of Tables 15 List of Figures 16 List of Photographs 17 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Thesis 18 1.0 Introduction 18 1.1 Background of the Problem 20 1.2 Statement of the Problem and Significance of the Study 21 1.3 Research Questions and Design 23 1.4 Summary 24 Chapter 2: Literature Review: Liberal Peace, Peace Operations and Military Bases 28 2.0 Introduction 28 2.1 The Liberal Peace and Intervention 29 2.2 Military Forces in Peace Operations 31 2.2.1 Questioning the Military’s Role 32 2.2.2 Civilian Peace Operations in Military Battle Space 33 2.3 Political Economy of Conflict 35 2.3.1 Drivers of Conflict 35 2.3.2 Conflict Economies 36 2.4 Peacekeeper’s Impact on Local Political Economy 38 2.4.1 Peacekeeping Organizations in a Post-Conflict Environment 38 2.4.2 Military Forces in a Post-Conflict Environment 39 2.5 Peace Operations’ Lessons Learned and Observed 40 2.5.1 Inflated Prices 41 2.5.2 Purchasing and Contracting 42 6 2.5.3 Housing and Office Space Scarcity 42 2.5.4 Bases’ Effects on Local Infrastructure 44 2.5.5 Hiring Local Staff 44 2.5.6 Changes in Social Customs and Mores 45 2.5.7 Peacekeeper Prostitution 46 2.6 Overview of Military Organizations and their Surrounding Communities 47 2.7 Base Closure Literature 48 2.7.1 Civilian – Military Relationships 50 2.8 Summary: Gaps in the Literature 52 Chapter 3: Methodology 53 3.1 Literature Review 53 3.2 Research Methodology and Rationale 56 3.3 Case Study Selection 58 3.3.1 Kosovo as Case Study 58 3.3.2 Kosovo’s Permissive Environment 60 3.3.3 Community Selection 61 3.4 Terminology and Definitions 62 3.5 Research Hypotheses 63 3.5.1 Hypothesis 1 63 3.5.2 Hypothesis 2 64 3.5.3 Hypothesis 3 65 3.6 Research Sample 67 3.6.1 Data Quality 69 3.6.2 Researcher Positionality 69 3.6.3 Research Ethics and Confidentiality 71 3.7 Fieldwork Overview and Challenges 71 3.7.1 Loss of Access to Military Bases in Kosovo 72 3.7.2 Interviewee Fears 73 3.8 Summary 74 Chapter 4: Political and Economic History of Kosovo 75 4.0 Introduction 75 4.1 Section Introduction 76 4.2 Establishing Yugoslavia 76 7 4.2.1 The Nationalities Problem 79 4.3 The Autonomous Region of Kosovo 81 4.3.1 Kosovo and Albania under Axis Occupation 82 4.3.2 Kosovo and Communism 83 4.4 Yugoslavia’s Break with Soviet Russia 85 4.4.1 Yugoslavia’s Self-Management 86 4.4.2 Systemic Exclusion in Kosovo 87 4.5 Revision to Yugoslavia’s Constitution 89 4.5.1 Relative Autonomy in Kosovo 91 4.6 The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution 92 4.7 Post-Tito Yugoslavia and Rise of Slobodan Milošević 93 4.7.1 Revocation of Autonomy 94 4.7.2 Emergence of the KLA 95 4.8 NATO Intervention and Support 96 4.9 Introduction to Military Bases in Kosovo 98 4.10 Military Fortifications and Bases in Yugoslavia 99 4.10.1 Military Bases under Milošević 100 4.11 Modern Characteristics of the Military Base in Peace Operations 101 4.12 Post-conflict Military Bases and Law Enforcement 103 4.13 Military Intervention in Kosovo 104 4.13.1 Operation ALLIED FORCE 104 4.13.2 Operation JOINT GUARDIAN 106 4.14 KFOR’s Multinational Brigade in Practice 107 4.15 KFOR Activities and Functions 110 4.16 Base Support to Military Operations 112 4.16.1 Employment of Local Civilians 112 4.16.2 Local Purchasing 113 4.17 Community Relations 114 Chapter 5: Kosovo’s Economy 115 5.0 Introduction 115 5.1 Establishing Communist Yugoslavia 116 8 5.2 Economic Break and Blockade from Russia 118 5.3 Post War Economy of Kosovo 120 5.3.1 Land Collectivization in Kosovo 121 5.4 Industrialization in Yugoslavia 124 5.4.1 Industrialization in Kosovo 125 5.4.2 Significance of Industrialization 128 5.5 Investment in Kosovo, 1966-1974 129 5.6 Outmigration and Remittances 131 5.6.1 Emigration in Kosovo 132 5.6.2 Embargos and Emigrant Return 133 5.7 Development of Yugoslavia’s Informal Economies 134 5.8 Revocation of Kosovo’s Autonomy 136 5.9 Embargo and Sanctions Against Yugoslavia 138 5.9.1 Embargo and Sanction Effects on Kosovo 139 5.10 Kosovo’s Deindustrialization 140 5.11 A Political Economy View 141 5.11.1 Insufficient Federal Investment 142 5.11.2 Structural Discrimination 144 5.12 Kosovo’s Economic Isolation and Arrival of KFOR 145 Chapter 6: Camp Bondsteel Case Study 146 6.0 Introduction 146 6.1 Establishing US Camps 146 6.2 Establishing Camp Monteith 147 6.2.1 Recruiting and Hiring Local Residents 150 6.2.2 Local Purchasing 152 6.2.3 Community Relations 155 6.3 Establishing Camp Bondsteel 156 6.3.1 Recruiting and Hiring Local Residents 159 6.3.2 Local Purchasing 160 6.3.3 Community Relations 162 6.4 Base Operations Summary 162 6.5 Political, Social and Economic Effect of Camp Bondsteel 163 6.5.1 Political Effects 164 6.5.2 Social Effects 166 9 6.5.3 Employment and Influence on Women 168 6.5.4 Economic Effects 170 6.6 Municipal Profile 173 6.7 Camp Bondsteel Analysis and Summary 177 Chapter 7: Camp Prizren Case Study 180 7.0 Introduction 180 7.1 Prizren Background 180 7.2. Establishing Camp Prizren 182 7.2.1 Administrative Procedures 184 7.2.2 Recruiting and Hiring Local Residents 184 7.2.3 Local Purchasing 186 7.2.4 Contracting for Services 188 7.2.5 Community Relations 190 7.3 Base Operations Summary 191 7.4 Political, Social and Economic Effect of Camp Prizren 192 7.4.1 Political Effects 193 7.4.2 Social Effects 195 7.4.3 Influence on Women 196 7.4.4 Peacekeeper Prostitution in Prizren 196 7.4.5 Economic Effects 198 7.5 Municipal Profile 200 7.6 Camp Prizren Analysis and Summary 202 Chapter 8: Municipality of Gjakova Case Study 204 8.0 Introduction 204 8.1 Gjakova Background 205 8.2 Local Yugoslav
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