------¥.....----...... L Y. .V'I\
CSUDIES IN FAMILY PI.ANNING1
LEARNING ABOUT RURAL WOMEN
Sondra Zeidenstein
,uest editor
A Special Issue LEARNING ABOUT RURAL WOMEN Sondra Zeidenstein
guest editor Studies in Family Planning
Editorial Committee Editorial Staff George F.lBiow:n, Chairmnan Vakt-d'i sladt, ,",1,1n g tLditou Judith Bruce RobertI I1 h,I z'ks tI I ditor EthilI'.Churchill Renet, honthl-..I induction Design Marguri Mcv / Sul,11 A. Rthbbns A Publication of S. BLruce Scheartr The lPopu lti(iouncilH Irving Sivin One} I lammnarskjold Paza Btoverly W\inikoff New ",.i.,N.Y. 10017
Leaming about Rural Women
This special issie of Stuoh's in Fimnihr llan nin' , is one of a series of issues dedicated to a single2 subject Oar program. ()ur intention is to pr-,wide an examina tion in depth of selected key topics br'vond the rangtOf a single artiCle. This special issue focis,',, oin wVa\'s in which the rolk's aid status of Iurl womn,- in different societies am he betterl understood, There is a vital neCCd to understand rual \vomln, not as a Se of statistic,, -Iulas individuals nerforllling crucial roles in societv ank the it rteplavi ng fundam1entalh iinprtant parts in the de\elOplllenl pro'ess. A varietv of wavs to learn abo tit rl aI women ae11adescribed. Sole ap proaches adopt standard sociologi,:al and demographic nethodologies, while others employ anthropological technic'ies. All attempt to ,egin from th- Point of view Of the individual womaion, toiunderstand how she s(Xs herself in the soci ety arotind her and how she adapts to clhlngt>, brought about by d1 ve'lopmlent efforts and other social forces. For those concerned with improving tamily plannin programs, this spe cial issLC is intended to,provide a fresh viewpoin1--Lperspective on the re pl'oductive and child- rearing fulnction a's viewecd bv individual WOeLnl, in the contcxt of their daily lives. A brtoadening Of on11rUnderstanding of ,'llirrl\Vomenl, and particuliarlv a deejpCning of our appreciation of the w\aysy-, wolneln perceiv\e their rols, can significan tl' help to illlplotV' plogrlm des"ign and management of famiy plllni ng and other developnen t efforts. Indeed, the_'material in this special issie is intentionally wvide-ranging, directed to other sectors Of the devel opment field in acdition to family planning. Most deveh piment actions havt a direct or indirect impact on rural womn. We 111t1_Isunderstl-nd rural wonen better, in order to plan suLccessful. policies and pr.I'rmLIMS and to avoid unin tended negative effects. The methods described in this special issue will, I hope, aid in deepening Our Understanding.
GEORGE F. BROWN Director, International Prograns Vice President, The Populatit'n Council
©-)The Population Council, Inc. 1L)79 Contents
309 Introduction Sondra Zeidenstein Part 11 Approaches to Learning: A Sharing ... ___ .. ______of Experience Part I Lookinq at 361 Intvoductien Rural Women Judith Bruce
315 Women, Docto-,,, to ri 1 ,11iLl-,1 Group III: l sutimimorn fo: Learning 406 11(w\ 1ri \0 i,1t NII!,1i \\K1,v, t w:V 385 NIPvtij I,t \i n . K i, mic Rtuleu l\l r'lh . Iii li l',!i;IJi ,111dl ( ' l'lil"i'm,ll' k"'\!1\,) (-,tlJrt1l1Nl.tmi , %.,l t 1,1l.tur .-\tldr , ,l4.2i 408 r ciiImill :1\' iL i( i,ti\ it u:l t 3 9 0 , J.r[.., ii, tii ,,V .,lilk i' I 1 1 H 4i ' i . i tI(iab A l riu11,1kii,'r,I an t iln ,I\ N,e.tii fii. ' i ld i,Wtri-cA I Hrlitt 393 , ala [,a 0kcri 42I1Atb ot till A1trIs Group %V:The V"o~ic.e R~urall 3 9 8 ."r'oje, of Womenl1 t-( )rict'n o'lR't C<,/11i[11 A (,c'1" 16 , 4 lI-n/i] 'I~i Ol( Lillltl/~r 401 kcs- arch [Prihwitit,,: W\ -n-icilill ,'\f'ca Acho],i lPalh t)kc\,() 421 About the Authors Introduction S0ndra, ZOCiIdt~nLcin t Ini thi,, spi,' ii i.s-t'it 5,1mm:tl. #in lt.~ l li)/ 'iini,\,, wi' aelti sl lsitt .i1< il i/ril pi,ltietilil ,ant piiit's snt'i'st, t liv kii',\ IL, )', abut rii ril \'iiliiltli1 i'-, t'st'ii- i1/'> li\'t'- ttt al.ii;. alrtisa,, tll~c t i ln, traldh, and ta i~dl t i ,l] tl t Id d al t i i t\ I I' , a(1 a Ini hki'% I k ti.i\,1 itt t t lt ll pkrI' id h' l', fd1IarIIlt'n . th .l r,,,p il iIit \ ii t ig out ,tl-.ounti' Lit r iLill t tI i tai ii 11 6 1e1ninV , , tnrt it I pec i,IIt t I I r1 1 '1s tor il i i ' tihilit tIr an1th ii i tt11'11tI llh ilt ioi I f sou rI tii ,d thatori I t'I li tks o ti hlt,tIt I'I ItIIilit I II t i t's Ithru h - I hIiti'h pIIItIIt ionIt i - ' ftlI tfam itl I s \ lhgi,i tl - ii(iIiti'rtllt t r ' i s on (lll t '., t ItL t'fiir t ti ii 'l Iit' Idrii ti tl'r \ilr, a lh tiii nil ir'stiii'-,ihilii'stha ha',, K pitaitii for tiiis'iih ti iil t iii priipfi.i n di t1, i~ i ) tI,V iV , n ary-1.,1 V'i I IIt't11I inaV -i11itIlt II ''ttiit hIl lilt' I I lt eatring it i'tilh rIr \\t'IourIt'il Ith'gr', t the ltitle, andIgc hoillkii. Isw I( t li tt II\'lnl 1.1ilI)11(Ilig1111tiltl{ ii Itii01 (I 1 '1, 'i1l i ' lh.(et1.iki' w di'kiI,I4I t ,'\ I iII M tit It' 't 1'/ItInIa('11 ( IcuiiI'lt\ t' III.\i , IIiht l (II' II,t i1' It'i ~t't'1 is(Itn , if is iyt'II\ toc~ hiirn'nt' thactu i osti 'si ( anuc t In',nI I ItI g t e inMI't t1ir ' ionll ttt wate, C t ,I l nr'd\it1 1,,tl iip, I tt, ttt' Wh,I! 0l,,iii ' 'nI ( I a v' rvf,t , ftt'I I ,ullhI ' tiI I I1,viiu 11l1 h cc Iln1r) , il ' , k i llIt ip~ll ,t \V[t('tiI ,I L IM lt)'l'1 lt1t1tPk",c, , It anii,(-,I Iht , , i kII1h ' h h tit'lO llilalil 1(t'r"at' L. 1'-, I.'Lthat pi t \ i t'f 111,11rL', t ,. U~, ' i tllI I dtII I ' ,, ,,i 1-,1r)Ia d,.,.hlt)r)I.IiVr11i , lll 1111Odt f I I 111111i i4~ l dIt4 ftc 'tLt ( ) 10:1I 1C(V S htnvalrd a'chieving4 ruraldt'yt'Itth),ilntdct ,~c. gitaltitp'nd 301) 310 STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUM.BiR 11 12 NO'CMBE R DECEMBER 1979 and us' Of rscest-', is IL, b a.sic an elemnI( nt (f rrall.' food productiol iS rlatel, d to fI lilure to undetrstand dVIllIll ics as ment'IL, orl thai t i IodtILn, glrit (dturt1 the, IIationaland rlh kot .%x n i involv ,lient ill access to and trIl( 1 1 vrI ,, tLI10 , diftfer Iitn iti- foo 1ttioLLpt uLct . Muich is being hLrned a bout ihe t',lIItIV btt'I'Ii I.I a ti VtlltIT. t'L(!lIidLFie 11,t e1na t\ow mlitn'.I woIrk, 1) a11I 1 i11l il h t'hl l~vhvit -l inih'l t r ' 'sll lii11 II'! hit it '-, lo IW Ocit l It I t i I t' itt III(. rt1 on~l\' haltf the' illtilllltill l ,t' llt' 1'1 Vs tauIi,Il I %' I. jIk Ii(',I (It 1)p 1tidI I I t an n tII 1ce di l httrlllin- its distrib ulio>l .l tlhi, ritiicl point \\, nIlIt as'k:en110 ing polic . Fill .,,,Irlph' hII\ 'lii ad ,I L t I cLI iLI - \1' iit ill happenI Aals,to th,' ,,)I of mII ve\%lteL nt it ,e, p et Irlt,, d > 111', la 1 of I' II a \td 1rd Ito flli I\ %tuppor'It is It I larg, ' Illtl),iiI 1,.v talrll,, that the tactl that p I\ It mW tk,lil ' I h!il ie tJ,r ,ll a- h,l 1 'e%tit,,ILIlllliit ll, Iild, ,l t II iT (ie'nUIare, li g tlit' tlL' Jt1 i ) 't lit ,l n lll I1,11,Lt I III 111-0Ih1 ,ll, te lp IrtI! to I 'I,u ll) uthi li/<, -,maIllIr It ' 1 k S'L I \ mell Ld I I 1ll , a1 fLI I I I 1 I'll I lil\ be 1 1t i fLl) 1 tll kf \ t 1kIIil I I s I si lIt'I tt t Is'i tlo I ilt, bI ) ii I1 \,1t llt1 1 IIIa l o e II I, ilIlI L I'tIsI ,-V Llll t'I'Ia.lllittlill i, ,,, ,t t fITJtlsl- , in Irit , it all il .I I lkiak 1, rt t LI thlith \a t lait(X II II t llkI LIisp'IIlsbli,ll's 1 ii ' tk Ib 'sothtI h i ltI ' 'tuI 'I lIL , s I- ' Il IXI l I g II,1s )t I lItI Ih' r V''lI,itlT ' i Ido' l - t ki.' t iil ' rl,i- IlI ,I ti i a- I ales.i h ktIlt, I 'I ili i li l tCd Ias t tIt l r I , ' lI st i t 'I ' I liI tl IIt t il 1tI l i,W"ilti It'ri i t iltiL I I A, 1 i T lI t'I I II'utI t l It I II,' I IT l lI, 1lt 11V 1Li't' . t ' t ilill i .s ,il t il t r Il k hi, ll I ll ir LIIt i, \ l lll l u' p1 stiI Itltilt I'l i'i 't l ti l iii T Isil i i Ii l l aItIIt if f, l t tl i slitl - t'\ It Ih'l l tilI fitI I l - ,LIpIiv a h i I ii tl h Lit I lt fi v it' T iI i t I I d i \' lT'i\ I .I I I l t 11it1 , iItI T , b I I l'k'i'I I 1 t IIl t L'k iht t'ic l wor,, I' I I,,1 T I uliT ll 1li'v,t i1i1'i Os IlIi's Ii tIlti Ii, 1 1111 I it tl It, '11.I 1 I II I t i itLt It i i' it's,I I I I ( I i tt ItMIO Ltii I II t Ill Ill isa iiLIk ih t i II i.iii 1lr i I i i I II pI, lh,il( I I , , ll 'I - ( J ' l t II 'il IIt lt't l lt ltIIi t ' hI,iii' lIT,'' t Is t I riII I It I t I . , tIu I,I'kil t , , I" k t tI t IiI ttI 'i I t l I ,kIli I ,t III Il t I ' t I i nII,, I 1 thI< - I'tI LLt 1),I~St ( I I dli I I1 1, ril 111\ ill 110kM. 1t d 1 11kl< It d.,Ilt ,,t li <\ I,m I , l I I, I tl k (" I tt }l l I InI Irl )u1~, 1111 1 "( Ir,0 nHIilt Ili,tILI,) %k11Ol~ L'- ["t , I(-,,, i1 ,li1 i('n11 ,1 i>1IIILII h, lIII t IIILI, IIt< 'k,cIn I i i , t i% < lt -II,r iILIt ll u. II( It ,l t I ' p ]t'L rL' ,ulrk-Il ,t >1.1 t) I~I\\ 'H . th/i11 1,<,i LhI< ' l u . ll t ll , c a t t 1:CtIiI, I c [ (11.1tI_(~ l u L11 Lh i lt l , , I ILI) uII ' - I; I IllC11t I I I I I.I I~ih I.I- d I L t ,li i<, n l t .td Iil[ I I , L~,IIItI I I it'l l 1.tl 11't \ 111in1)1 , I It uIIr i"I ,1 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 '12 NOVEMBER DECEMBFR 1979 311 tives, This is true des'pite tilt'fact that pilot ap- ZeidlnSt'in anale tu ol01 thes iSSu, illnte proacihes in those areas ildiclate th,lt aI u,-h larger terin. iii1 S arl0e i 'lt'rstedtilltnlltr ck,Opting. Somel' r I tems Lr related to the i tlficult, o1t IhAlneling i soures to rural area-, through 'dlge, Concep.ItsSIentrlido1 rural 1.1'e1opI',)'nt hlvT tu1s far" inStIitutions. \lalnV RoIblem aIrI r-lte to theI, dtailedC' t il-,IilItITr- ntrllv It I \,, ItI'n, benlavior ncCnoI(t vtn the, perS)CL tive% I titI prog ,m ,i l I in plred,'lictin, inLIk'l iling rilral ph1 IIlIi',ui,, andI pe'rspec,IX ot t'ie userst . I t thet aroe I aIttlI ts ttkIll p rr b e,)thertI re li seen Lite IIneII L t' undLr uerL tad1Lnd iv It kilIindsI 'h t 10 ki'I)t iIn an llddes, s-tanL the traIIaI.w r,k gI\etrli I that Ibeha-II'I,,ri i 1 of delivery womnIII- tiIl u ,leH in their ci ctunI- ordru'Ito Itrnllatt' ,. kI ta'r ouILIt)(tlic i iire tte'Lt'- StiiiLctc, Il'rhI'll s bcaue't'II there is little recognition lil t I hus, lthough reearch ai'rNIt rrail \ m.llenlt11 is that wo L 'ellll uatI( 'such rieIsCIllces I,II Ig1 ti Ih L It.e k,\ in ailI 'JI,,tiaItIr a.ret trog' iiliita- socitoeconml ic ftriite orki nenltit m tnet,(o\ie'.StudtieSt lit haMIrt' o( niti II 1Ihit rt'-t'rL lit taking , o twoLmen atiiudL tow I-LrdrneiiIII ual bleedingtLoI pIic. t):C incliatlion is t1i- LTV il can b tIbund in tIle articleItil L\ (L llti. l'i ItpkIlick\ to m-I II it n ik it is tleltr- Siiilaly, hl, IVtlliltl tie \0k4'ee i tIto .I e I I riml h ilr i ihagin g 1g the i r t IitIL i i Idat, Ii I ItIer issues. I le r'e0tL It b[hairv , IpiiI-r.iiiiml,l\ k\ IIthat li(ItIn1t1rtilad to mfftrt ift t IId litigL thI'I , ile it rurIil is t Ithat was it1 1I,\ p)1 riirtv for trial1\1 , k\iuin it's k1iw11 tgkhigc t k tIi.ilt ,i it I i wh iss,ues< has ,l )l-.kiirjoI anl ( 11kt I I .I'- \\iiittIl',Ik I i I;pp talhsI pIi tial, Is has ttl) hIuvekl(I I t policy aIsrt i n tha1t e ellrget Irgalit,l, all tttkIt tihu,n It Iw I11ultt furI k IiWlOdg III Ig iit,,L I i',I11 d iI I ,1 trI, (\d I pl,, tI1, tii 'ii-(uI t i,li rIil hich wuli- t[1r i ttrI'it i in- seek to iritlr rit Iili\ IlltI" I( itnIre,r IIIpi,il lin al l teItliu(th L titllt '...--- and ha ur.kvi , suggest, tIha t tlI pri iI iu ihtt um)itrI), l' ,,0 v I'V If tli ,'ti\01 t itiC 1giiti r It \\iUlltii's tjullal I differ'it ttuts-t'illi those uti mtli0 ,uui-tltial p-ograjs spuiriibilite in1til ruali Iliust'lil1h i 11d tli' iOll , diriVLct d i \\IIiL',,It . kILinct of(Iittthat tlt ruIr tI\ ian1il iL ,, ii inrma I IU )rie u\'iltluh giess that a Ii'%\ it'iplisis oll ill- i\'tlrlL Lit' -,itglit itirh p i ,ted illtit kn u l dge i l t-gar il,irig Ilp i t will\ suetl\i te(l iili, 'L i. hirs fo" r 1 rl i inI1trg , mli ,p '1ti ittll Ii,'d in ourIl bet ter' ur tt kIarit,l g d h t tMunIlt'\ilIV Of rural pr')i'.Anls1. 1ru I t ilrtt.tu)ta i/tIII isI iplt it if ]I()t wl li Lt01a.'ib ' ir ildiVI-( ih'dL Ig tL i pr t IIL, tilu<,art t'\pl t it ill all th' art I I , t III t(I lkirI'st 't'li , tLItlr w'iti'i tlt'hi f ii , the, i re'ct ild i ldime't Mnts-t illti1 s, ,t is it is, i', ii l t thit r \v re'- Illta 1i t"\ List' l0 ) 1'(Ihutt L 't' i'cLt, idl t c0'1 - stac other topic, Iltlg la e ntrl role, than ences ais etntti nd ailhropiiii.g\. Nt'-st'alrche'rm most in 'xplinilg ,urll lilt'. A g t d'a,ll f0 inIIrrna- art, iniroducirg in con ntitiolil 1r'alnit'\WOrkS (ifst,tis tiOtn is Ivilabl,, tiiCh Of it colt'lh'ted and IIalh'tt'tI tits or ltOr\'t'vs Hmplefew 1 ,1nalvtic apt tlih>- alrd sinceu l 175 bY ,IItl with theC suppirt of a1n ilnres"ted nTew motlilts I,collect MtI atccurate inftorlIlation f , ttr,n ilhttti [)' ii in1ti Iit t Iiil " I t 'Itlh il eh- ,IlIIt t I tII tiI. Iht'v a'd tlet hVlOpine motlh Vdllt 't'Il i',Il d {,t L tI i t'llt 1 1 ltt't I',l I vin 111VIk(I -l (){I(tI I( it -, I(I 'itk il tI('\V ltF iS iIII'I.. nll h I anoIn I Tre pirit, vh vlt ti,'h t . lh hII ItIVIlihtle i-, I'int, traiilinv, ititl,\ tw (',t'r ill u ilnil'rltn i I!mtihe ttl'\t s galh ldtrte,d t]r , itkinltlW It iols. I lt'\\ Irt' t'ttg i/imingillt ,it lit' U i1t r i lh11v lii Svtlttnlt, Ittl riv l li r aiL. ttt tuntrWilCt nlital kInt littJi e tilt' rt'alit 1 r i ttli h rin jt ipsi.kIt'd t hat hi\'t- rt'th'c la rt'',Ili \\tttllt'rt- live )ii all ,Iltt'n/pIts hII\ t' , r l rmri Vrl tlt'li gap. Lite IinC ,tic p 01tlitit ,11it rtI, \ I I( 1it.li'1,l l ,t'tll t lu at J grt, isl(l'0tn , t iLi -'girt')i, dt to know rr l l tuldies isl t1 It'Iiti\' l Ito It t iti paidtI hli,ll \ hit tlutit'ions to ask, how t Sk thilt , )td hlow 1r. l nr,i rerltI rIh,1 1ir lI u .,t, de'sctl'ibini ilrurl I I (ornIIItIn ttI,. ,is the ',- is I i- hllrmtltl nIl t tIttllict igrlnt ,llit, Iltt rt'cinil11ilit'dl that tIcts t'Vttl\tLl to, I'xA in ill(. rIal plit'tcl niitii],i flie\ did icaltit 'n s ht' tlt'\v'hptdt h>I tRIla ' \ )tte,111hll' t', ritit ap pr'i,I Vttt'I\I ttti(i'p,t1ili/t tIlt' 'tilt' il \vtnlttIl. litjl 1,1l h lit1t'd 1 ctr, rit'wt\ Lks, . ir1a L n look, aTS 'he t'umstrr t iti I in rIi','d k h lict, I rtvt It, 1rtmtil 1l ill hla inlIn id tni ,ii t hit I rit' tiit irk in W ITit'll StOilI\' Li I'tI I hhInlV FI)]r aIrt I hi thLitl(l)LIIlttt1t rura a1s,a \\tttiIt'ti ttpt'titt' ,1 ti',liiiL ial it lt tal t' s,\',Ysttlml ld basis for ,iv ig nih t'li Ititt ttTnt oilI,,h(mlnlntttkm th t't l policy thaiti ilt i l utIl I e aIctOctta blt, the inStrut nt l-',aIhlt1\'lilet111t1( I ir 1in Vhe followig article describes traditional health care sys- enced during the month preceding each interview, emns Of rural Indonesian woomen. It distiguishecs the asked primalrily to check-the possible influence of ill centraifromn the peripheral aspects of systemIs thalt 70om1C1 ness onl tile anthropomietric measures being col have developed to mneet their own1 needs and contrasts lected, yielded rich insights into womnen's per theim with mnodern health care siystems It Suggests whlat ceptions of illness and methods of treatmient. A valu v can be donie to keep) the valuabyle features of each ap- able supplement to our interview data was a systemn proach. of field notes kept by each interviewer. Conversa tions with village womnen; encountered on the way to During the past two years the Population Institute Of and from interview sessions or while attending vil Cadjah Mada Uniiversity has been conducting a lage functions wefre noted on cards, which have been longitudinal study of factors determining birth spac- labeled and subsequently filed according to topic. ing patterns in the~ subdistrict of Ngaglik, abou t 15 THe large proportion of these notes dealing with kilomneters north of Yogyakarta in central Java.1 Over health-related topics indicates the imiportance of • 4/ :'7 !;:4;'; i ;: r! : : :: ?Z iJi;L; = :/ ) 5 % ; : : !' ° V : /! ;, % :A ' ° :, 4," : ' 500 women' ;: have:; been=: followedd 'Ci~' through pregnancy,!: '" : : .:these i: mattersV ; : in! the: women's' / :° ,yi::: %?lives.: Open-endedi; %- "I'7I W in-:I: childbirth, and the postpartumn period, with inter- terviews wvere also conducted with the community's views conducted twice monthly-once to obtain an- traditional midwives, as well as with trained mnid thropomnetric data for mother and infant, and once to wives and local clihUic personnel, inl order to discover L obtain data on attitudes and behavior related to Such more about their roles in the provision of health care. birth-interval determinants as lactaticn, amienhor- In this, article we present some of, What wve rhea, and abstinence. learned about traditional beliefs and practices in mna Through these frequent interview sessions, the ternal and child health care among wvomnen in research uncovered a great deal about the main con- Ngaglik, and review somec of the important changes cerns of womnen in Ngaglik. Our,focus was nofspe- occurring as modern miedical care is introduced. We cifically on maternal and child health, yet intensive learned about positive and negative practices in both K interviews with pregnant womien and ne~y, mothers traditional and modern medicine and considered presented a unique opportunity to learn aboult these specific ways that this knowledge could be used to miatters. For example, a question on illnesses experi- improve healtih care programs. Perhaps miore imnpor 'The rese~arch was carried out in two villages (with atotal population about half of all households o~vncd no irrigated rice land, itself an important of 15,799), which included areas of well -irrigated rice Iand as wel I a q poorer indicator of economic and social stitlis. The majority of women regularl y quality land suitable only for dry-cropping. Most adults are engaged in ag- engage in economic activities in addition to household tasks, primarily riculture; howecver, there were also large numbers oftraders and artisans, as farming, farm laboring, and petty trading. well as sonie civil servants who commute daily into the city of Yogyakarta. A community health center combined with a mnaternal and child Althiough the majority of the population is nominally Muslim, only a small health center serves the approximately 40,000 people of the subdistrict oif proportion strictly adheres to Islamic teachings. Ngaglik. Staffed by paramedical personnel supported by weekly visits from~ The women selected for prospective interviews in the Ngaglik study, a doctor, the center is attended by anl average of 20 to 25 patients a day included all those giving birth between January 1976 and March 1977. These Women in our stud), lived anywhere froni~a few meters to seven kilometers women wereyoung, 50 percent of them bectween the peak childbearing ages from this main health center, and also had access to one of several doctors of 20 to29. About a third have had no schooling, and just under 30 percent and trained midwives with private practices in thle area. For a full descrlp have had only a few years of primary school. Average monthly household tli of the N1 ,aglikStudy, including somic prei~minary findings as of Janlu income was estimated at approximately Rp. 10,000, or about US525, and aiy 1977, see Hlull (1978). 315 V 316 SIJIDIISINfAMILRYPIANNIN(G V 'LtJ I[ Ml NIMBIKttI I.' N')VI, 'lt I? ti p, N/ Muie.sta lL ofiv the_x.'et%\ o+[a0tpr,ri riL iLI I wlhIC et'i, i IL --l i tln tl'J 'i n i-, i' i \,I Sitd i t i ' ,l' [it t, ill I li' t t1tt," t hi l Ilt' ho hlillt Vk\ e lotjid vb v~ w ill rlvkcivc, lot kIriI WIIr,I,,'ti I 1,II k tbii,,dlr'h rI'tl t 11 What Women Are Doing-:htql~iJntlt Tra d itiona l He a lth Ca re t,ltio ll ,0tilPt] I Ilt' ttit e iliti vtit l~I(I II , , '" -, I ,, IIti \, - !IIt,' i'!.I t IIrt,IIt I, t,ti f II IIhI(,r1,, O UrlA lV,it l t i (-II Iit IJit l, .iIJ ,I ,I1 t , t,, . ,Itt H)ilIk It;! iM Al t t :'d IIll 11 i\%, rlklt, M,t I 'rI- , l tr < (111,1V LUhe1,u t~ ld ,.t 11V + 1 i, i ,, + [(t c t l s cl t? h l i lt i ,,n Il l 1 '\lt~ L,1h1l tL,, , till]i1I i" , wCI1 1,111Va\' Int'\lliititI'cIn , ! ,l~ t ,ll l. , i> \ i tu h t i ,711I IIi I-,f tIIII II I I It 1c [w it-lt 111 'i\ ci,1 I~ )' l IOUMt Ill - , \N kll it 11 t',lr-, ll(,I t , i tll \%ii/- tIwt " Woi sdo' mi n rcl it [I,tio k",iiItn~ltIMli/t~l ILI IL' i< k II CnIk ",,1 ttt< \,,f 1tI in0111i, beII IC(I'lI111IfIII,R I l i' I h t,k ,IIt . I \k wII IIt I % {III l.o I I I L t i11d , a in\ , IilIrlt,~l\+~ (it~, t+vit ,llmIhi<~uII~~ "iit ki "\I (II, , I IIn k" c l II.I,t ( ktIn-I ranW lisdomc /tnit'tl4Trt ladi ~-tion\V lt~l ilrili,,1, i. rf l l it t n i \ , , ,t ' ih-.,t II~tt~IicIi \lt A .II l. ilil, 1,1- h ill|, rob, bt Lt ]i (I-ill J Iu r (n, %Il[it 11, t it ,,\lciIv it\ h i,"t th11,1Ith I.'v< \\.- i l ' (,i ( Inj tt'i COLitiI uou ,.lh' OL- ,iti J I ll-.t: '' ,Pil'i tl-, di 1',til " t' I'I I',\ IL LISLll'Jdi ('lto (Y 1 II~ ~ ltlI\ 'Ill\ I'i-- p ti ' t ' lr til Illilhrr( h<'it'Af tol Cith10r iilc'C ,l41t or < b.*or, ,lt-i to) ),(It 11t 1i Inct lt, , , ()i, ll 1 '.l, I a,bh, tt h"rt',t i'l, l 1,,illn-I, + 11 ther andl ilil t. i tl' tOfnltll1 Chill-ibir-th 1111.111011Wt lliC ,'V,rV (.,\1111:, 1077). ,Ii, < ll l 4S0 ' r I''t , ) Mi P',t !L'S It l ,)Lit i 1i li\, ()III. A i,t-i I t Im iti i l , I 1iIk , ,lIi , ', , (~ rtII IIn . ", t1l l1t , , , Fo r CX, aill I- Ct, C( Itl li 'iv tt') 111k .ltil0t III(i Ct,II 1 1 (t i( k. N( '11Vt'Iri l r h im p'h ', ' I , i n \'vo , [lit, c ot lnib ii a t il e u nl11b iliL7,1 1 COYLrI j., 110 t tu u nl1il I ,titA 0 ,h l , t t iO ln t if , -, 11 ,111V I I,i t I , 'l,l ri1 1 t~t'1k i nl,'IV , c t n s. 1,111111 spiritt1ia1 " Otll/,Or ,i lin ft i lt' -illinl, hlld, h(,In ,MrV b\ 1-11 irlh 10t' t u ,ir 1i11kltht'lr i" ,I !,I)OLifii ' eX×p tLl o01. A 1t1 u ,,h i, Id/l h l l l t11hC t rI 'i tI~l ll i kt ti r IVI r I I (1 t k'V t' rv t tLIII I t11 , Ii ilnl( . 'nI. rI_ It, _ i'C,1', 1Lk Llcl ,n nmoqhrr clrink , te j,11111- ,110citik tt( 1 t1r o u t at 11wil. '111d oll bl ta Lh il d 's", ,il l l t , illtilt' iA,\ t, I~lt iol tlh, iI it W ill b e , fe w w ith t h e , , N,,ils j ll c ,f ,Ik u ku l 11, ,\ I ( .J~ll '1"ill , ,11ndt lIII I , l, . tl ,11n .11i1it tL'c t h r o u g h h et r nli ilk . \ "oili otn c ith e r k n o w 1978') . Of t h e's <;' r -CIn L ti i , l t 4 o r ' Cwel,ltt -, a l LIV\ i C Ctf r t oll~l SIUDlt:S IN FAMILY PLANNINC V )lL ME I0 NUMBER I 12 NOVEMBER DJECEMBER 1979 317 lai il\' n tIl heI.r )iilv rivr tI i, \N ' 11pCJrt1p i'i te t IWtha' h( I I'' s IIttk I' I(I Lce I - .,I IioIL i I IIII chldpreIvIItk t tL I trtI.II t i iI Itl\IIiltdsl i hrpesiiaI. III I't'i nhi I nin alistinellek t ti Mtl ,ll Bl,,I'IitI . IJI All Ik'li 14.Ill I t1l,t I 'r I ' litII tn'(I It'd nIiiittt pt t I LiteA'ces ameiIPracticesl HarmIfuit lt ' 1,1,11ilit , ,ei 1t'Iitttts a I1h t 'I II I i- eItriL eu1', ut It( elI t't' i lA, tr ' ll it t )l1 i It'' l Lpd ll . k If1 I11,,I't 1,r1,1 I ItptNli ) iI l[-'i c.t,I l ful i \tr'III t'l'l , , I I raL ilt, t rt i p II,p t',lltul i I'l , IVhttr )('t lII'Ittt Itt'( t . 1t1.1,w itl h t ctn id r' I i i illttriIl( n tIthit l,,li,\ , i ,t 1 i tii tt i ILh iti.tI ill-t aI sat)i/,iih li lulh" I tI I il iit tl,I\ 1i t 1\n S . IVr L ' , i~t~hii IIk i 11 t,1 'alier 1 lr itilu i I WI l b i SIl(n)IIl t ,tit I i'kg11 t tlltil IIIt (iTih t h - fllcL 'd (in ptisii 'It'a, peti ts , ith (,eI ,il'rs It i I ,%tio-iall] I I rI'.i i.c tuI I It I I iII l tIdr llt- ihi 't ila i I L i I ii e ults a t ',) It ttiil 1t I lit, Ihiittt-t \,v,.iit' '1,;i L i ii1t aih' tI l I I Iren dc ' blic n &atl ll i e e tI pkoI I It I te tIl' l t hi itLliatil L ,irL'L ii lt,' liII 'iItiII II e t Ch llI t C\\i/tII- A1 1 I i (', l ( I J( , tIJrIi<< tm I I"< l lii-t,II tM br) .i ,I , ctid, 1 il. 11ill tti I'lil I\, I lrl 1 ,, J\lt~ ~ id I,nt('[ nl,ITw ifeN VrII,',,i iii'tt l1)( hWILhF(,lil' 1)\ hI1 trt iWI1 inj l V ,i l/I(1,1{C J k .11 theeli , II.h tiraca 1 rss it i be1\,i 11d ),I, ,l I.''eill LIIt II ,1' m t thatIlIk\Itra 'Wt lI., nittrtIitIl L h(II R' -' t ,il~ii(n,/It L -lrrh<,,id,i I I,l [tll't,~~ ~~ ~~~~t ~ , ~~~~~~~diea,l ~l~l- i" l ul Il \\,i,~cii~ilI'i~ OffOITS.,I,ill 01I CdntIVnLil, 0 10 il(,t'l h illtCt11 / l thrt'dlt, lh c t< c itl tO ~om i a H)C_~lplrmfuI011, Practi ces,I'%%id II (Atc nl(V1(), I-t itlic l t('l., I d _lc'd d,b( t 1 1)c'Iw'd fliC'l , I-h tId tO dC lld ,dI- ini~, lv i 1 .l th'IIit , I i II,Ill I ,,I k C Illt, l (III Iv 0t1d O II t \vI, ' i h1'11i i 11 t t1 )Ilnl i be,< ll Id t ell d t\'p I\'itlll ~ W h ilethe li Inef~ tll"tth JAII-l\i t -"'''4''t ~ .. ~et~lmortli--and--the- incidence--ofo brt ~ -' Trad itons ot Unknown' Effet' -7 -4 - 44' w~eight babies, could be reduced by the identification - C during pregnancy of conditions that would cause Finally, a number of health care pratices areof Lin thes prblem, It is kown ffiacy-probably the most important being import'ant that harmful traditional practices the many kinds of jamu, or herbal medicines, that not be viewed merely as irrational behavior, but enjoy enormous popularity among rather all' classes of Jav as havin'gi basis within the woman's percep- anese. The large majority of women take jamu during ions of relative risk and of causality. A clear under- p"regnancy (usually around 85 percent in any given standing of these underlying factors is necessary to interview month) and during lactation (95 percent), any meaningful attempt to try to change this behav-. to improve breastmilk quality and quantity. Some ior . take mixtures purported to "bring on late periods," 4, implicitly abortifacients. As mentioned above, jamu In Between: are also an important home remedy for many infant Some Harmless Practices illnesses. We need to know more about the possible '4' / ...... value or harm of these mixtures. Among the few Obviously not all practices can be classified as either studies already done, some effective pharmacological intrinsically helpful or harmful. Many may have no agents have been identified. The patterns of taking actual physical effect,' although they are helpful psy- jamu also deserve attention, since Schologically many are con- to those. who believe in them. Par- sumed regularly as preventive medicine, an impor ticularly during childbirth, such customs as the tant conceptin health care that might provide a basis recitation 'uun of mantras by the bayi or the posi- for generalization to othei activities, such as vitamin Ationing of,the mother to face in a certain direction A campaigns. during labor add to the woman's psychological pre- " It would also be useful to gain a more complete paredness for delivery, Saving the dried umbilical understanding of other commonly used remedies, stub as one of the child's "protectors" -an indicator including techniques of massage of in general and a the perceived high risks to the infant and child-is specific type of massage performed by another traditional harmless practice, as are such home reme- midwives to retroflex the uterus and prevent concep dies as bathing'eye infections with mother's milk or 'tion. scoring the skin with the edge of a coin (kerok), a very common treatment for symptoms that the Javanese Diversity In Tradition 1 ,< , describe as inasuk angin (entrance of wind into the body). Based on our Study, we would harmless also include as Most accounts of traditional practices 'tend to gener som.e of the dietary taboos during preg- alize about beliefs and customs, giving the impres nancy, for they generally involved foods'that would sion that these are found uniformly across the whole not be eaten normally or those with little nutritional society. In fact, peasant societies are rarely as homo value, such as cucumber. This is not to imply that di- geneous in either behavior or attitudes as some eth ets were adequate, for poverty prevented women nographers'would have'us believe. There are always from eating many protein-rich foods.' In the case of contrasts across generations and by sex and social Ngaglik women, an assumption that insufficient nu- class. Importantly, there is also individualvariation trition' in 'during pregnancy is caused by superstitious custom and belief: not everyone follows societal taboost would ignore the more basic un~derlying pat- norms inthe same way or to the same degree. terns'and their caluses. This flexibility in custom is both a cause and anl ..4, effect of'social change. Despite the conservative con - "notation' of the word "tradition," t''Our survey showed societal customs do 4 5 that, over all observation months for pregnant not remain static. In Java, as elsewhere, existing tra women, over half (55 percent) of the women from the lower income group ditions incorporate a history of change, Elements' of ~c~~'''reportedthat they, ate no meat at all the preceding month, and 60 percent '-an indigenous Javanese Culture Were did not eat eggs. Corresponding figures' for pregnant women in the upper. overlaid by Income group were in' - A1 Y ofutco- 20 and 24 percent. ' ' ' . Hindu,then Musim influences, of Dutch r ,'.,.. Years cole We should point out that in collecting informaton ondietary taboos ;nialism also had an impact in many areas of social w asked pecifically whether there was anything the woman ,nrally ath '.e but (a) avoided or (b)limited her intake of during the Interview month be-' and economic life, and to, elmntfetenz ser i cause she was'pregnaul. Had we simply asked "Wha't foods are tabooduring tion are evident in even the most iolated. village pregnancy?wewould undoubtedlyhaveobtained many more examplesof Present traditions are changing in both form and restrictions-for xamplL, pineapple isa well-known taboo Item, However, content. New, prducts and ideas entering the vi'ag wiomen would rarely eat pineapple normally (it is an expensive fruit), ' this taboo does so ir it iehooe villomieageo not result in diangd behavior due to pregnancy, the variable 'r fe obnd'ihtm-ooe aso er~we weriInvestigating,''', doing t Somedukun bayi today, forexaple STUDIES IN FAMIIY [1.ANNIiG V,)IJ,4 10 NIMBIR 11 12 NOV[EI3%R [fCEMBLR 1'7() 3 it) maV uIse a raztir bld itit t platt,a,(,tirtIIt(t hot pla 11W'l 1.1 IA I) -t'stllishing t0'r 2 t0( 1rIrl h Itlh knife., that was u elt.ttk,cut th(, umnbilicall c w'l. celit'r." W ith w id Clia,lFgi,i- ill tt rtl rill r iinchip ifti1 i, i ii\,I,trlinlill titilk li~ll ,1 i\ Itillci t'liv i.t' [I.r lithMu ,11l i'Lkhur ti\ tc 1111hi i lti i, I i IsIILt1ilt rii1It i it I 'ti-til,. bi l-thiir ,_,nTt(.,trI it rnaiLHC re*ehre im l aI i t'iik ,trttri ili c."tiljl itITd p tpi WiMciI n (Iltull, 1 "I ;I llli fltTi).Hit 0ntt iaIia ,ii,, Ilit,lkwIm lit I) O WII I' il [ rII, ltritil ,, ml ill'Itrit,ha l illk hil,iit I 'thtli1vii - Iulit, prUe th (di prnd [ 1,.,1dB h l igs t, , . Opi ic t t t aIrII' hu t-isJ ih iI t stIipp I 1 1riitt' 1 ,ttll t I itl il hbil dut, , 84l- h') 1tl til It ldI lil k n, d ii,t iLIi)1t t lit ' ,, w itills l ' i li itI q. tI ill f ifiw iti ,,liti ti If kI,, lrIr - ' t Do -,t.kIIr ," ,r I itn I:III ) , ti \ hiiII l I tis ilt I tI t l iit'( til t it' IIk-'l it 1Lil itn II 'o1,.1 H Itq , Il ItttltiJ rt tI l itLtI it' itt'h t l'i I t 1,1' (.litj tott Ii t- t <+ t-,[ %\ i, v i n Ip ti tI l, I tlt itrl I,ipl n I. ,f t t1il.il r 1 n [t)t j li, lII I hti 1111hk i I1i1 i 1 1It ill a h ( i titlru ai I rlr trcini hIt 1, rt iI. t it I )LIcrt suchi ar ttlft ct IIn t I - iI I ti Ct I kua Itin I t ca I i i III t'h ',Iat i( I I v iII i, d(,cith ir Ih i,. <-, ir It t i - I,,ri i, hI t ; to n I II-,)trII Itt tuk ,I,'k I I ,Ir t,I 1ihfr ulv- i.It, h tq ilt- ' ) thI l tll)l\ I~V/lt>t'' I\tl/dIlqf , ItnIn~tt, 11t,1LI ~lI.h i ,li n 1t _iIIIIt 11CaIV I111*l1/ 11'I, 'I) 11+,1"i Icttk llI li- ,lllitu111 +Ol11,t~qilt~i x <'c~1,1h.u i tIt0i1 ,11 t da _'.' t (iflth1i 1 ' t -rt C. t , l i,] , 'Ii,lll( i SPCCIfiC [I~art ik ("-,,11Vt 1101 ,lk tIII,< [\'(, ivu to haltlh c,liti,theuir ,Ittem pnlttI _t,, illotl Pe'ople., FVt'nt l n: rh t t " tosi, liltk. kl:,ni< brt'l, Itc,. tI iI ', "o 'It l \w l wvho %\,liltto begiil Olr are OHiLIn L-WtVOld tilt' Illc'dlW tlill g L~ln ic ' 0t' lilllII ' I ilnt Ik)I I . I Irt< n LIl o ,/.II < 7 ) llI t iil t w ilt (.1id r1ci\t l 1r,i n ' \\ ut \ 1i 1, t Iti -i I I L.thI ilt>/,' ' kd I,It'..II 'I II!, II I\ [kibV tY\ in lter III in ttItu , I ,I i lt1(' Hr t 'I c tI ,I II IL. l IIh 1C )i I'mtrT o bi I th11,\ \ t I ll It b r l'n), h llt l 1it ' X\A L tha h1',IcI , i writ' ~ I r iir thII,'l; i tht-Inr v I at ',I t tilI , 1)i ,,t 1 ltb rLf,l,it I Iit II', I*LI k t,ftl ;1 1-1 tel t rcI~t < dl"i L~,s k i InLIs. 1 1 CIItU I I I AIIII'J (' ) I( hk Iil)i g Ii 111, R II hd -Wd IIlII rt' ti(111 a t Il1VCt1nit ll L' ad kI , il I I I c (l t 1 \'.11 I . I, t 'tt I III t L I t b I It l ,tIniI t lII 111t i LZ'tlr t % <\ 1 ad I I l, L ! (il b vP L ciin \ tii 1,It 1 c~do~ill I,, l\ ). tnfivttr ~[' i n I I I (I C.1 111. "L'niIItS s(, (in i ktc \v tlh c fl'tl hI ItIc I yI III I n~ , t ~ 1' 11u ttt,, 1~ iI)th Ilkllt ( I nt) 1 i Il k~ it s i11 Lrt , I L'I rn a1,t IS t in a bcn II i , liIt,1 illi.,f U < ' FI t l~ Ci' , I lt i\ Wl' I'Tc i. l t l ct ttu11 tolld it \( Jt in h1 m ~l.u1 \\trb0 . inlthI)., o..if , (, tlt ;,Ill\ , itiI 1t Ll 1n1i,U LI f uIr 0 Ch ild PfIit i'It'cV i., , . 1Ar( 1.1 li 1 tIGI . 't' LibI IkV vi Ih , I mlild C,dd hO btL gi VC I tt 'rd1 \ in,1 oCI)rtt11t,r dtC rt,d 1n'.ilk')" Wd SILAin L'ild VLLc ll d i tI-iI.) I t,( I t L ,h 11Il ld t l'l ,L\pl i vc l<1. < nI., ( uni \'~sl tl1rIICb0dlt,lnhS part st'nini ig from ihe xai tm p'nig i ifl fth Ih ( d istoUragenitnt, of broastfetding) ol evenI in new in khii t ,oii illii ii I teli101 plt.t uci, drlInti' and forms of danger (SUCh as the, overuse of drugs). ,'idesread rislillt,. Ithis pltularitx often Iids ned iCal pracltitiolrs toh ,4iv Iinit'ifo , (usialix ,, ,iii mini1B t'oMlpIl'\) Wlh r JI itt iim 'diCIlI\ ilIicafid. ''I paid 3)) ru pi,hs', ftr in% i elict it l at flh dilnli, bht niv neighbor paid t,til 2I)()( rn1p1ih,,. \V\' x' Expropriation of Health '1110 L Itt st'If-itrII , t Idet. a thAlth iSa Modernl ftiril. of freaMt'nf tn allxTiati' n1alv Ir tu't, faniilv ma,t't-r, ti t lii imtki ,t hukunst ire a illnt sse, sififrlcre Lv , ,jik xv, ,1e1antheir chil- steii as barrit'lrl ft) iiipleiItI'nfinI g mode0(.1rn1 heallh , dren'l. ,,\,s, nolltedL \' Ilici tL)7"1) atnd t ,llirs,h this ne,' s-,i'vices. '-'-1iftc-,ridifiitiial cur'sL.,ire fttmi inefft' knoxVILege i ,hcit in tliv, t\it, ixt' prixinit, If fivett h'auiimOuf the iniljiatiill wtill, (tlaxl' is thtl i ,OtIeriil i' clical prrl~ it ioltrs". ',A ,m t'll Ilm 1iit\ xxt', ll niaMiC , h%',CIWr, I ' 11l t I,' ri,poll ibilit (t tll,lt, ex't'n it lh,,xtillii'ih ii is'lx'i's itii-Ll 1 - lhti ,c, x ith lil' n!,I''As Mxiit,', , .'et Ilfh, int'tiil ic .",d ftirs ,ntl ciii \x iirki' in , ir, int II1iir- , , leC's With tl'ir ,iiilik anti i1tlIt fi !lv, 01 t1ici- \\', ive\ , tiiuni. Ii0t ex't,'u 11,1t fliL'rt' is nuih that nologicallv attlini a 1', I lit's' ;iitt,' llrt't rImit, i' t s-ifiV ' illt lit liuiltna <' pri h fit health care. l' tfl' h ll i, it aiidllrt ' ill 1,!( t sii t iii'. ilra- .li h praLAtici's "Is ] nIiti'tltlivr )Il] blr',lstfttino tiO1n,1llb ,ii.4 to ,11) (t C'l[ v' tlis 0it iiln Iiiiifriiiolt . 1 ,10nlt i l t-sI, ils Ct'-in, tlistinctlv iiip lrtpriatle. , , lo trn xvavs, is the litix,, icl litahir: Sittltt' wxitli r healh. pttrarns, cii icli , A wictltr anitl llorc last cial pitxters whtse titl-r, alt' itoiixxdfi oil filh. I'Velti i iig ilipic , t xvikling ir kiiitx\ I'lgt' in atditittl to the traditiiteal h1,1ialer is miie likei' fi ito fttr ,il i'\pl- st 'r'i"te-:' teac.hin. pitiplt' htW It prell illntl'ss, to iiatiol for !1it' cL 'tit ,1,1an illnis hin is, flt' iiit ,rii k IiOit ktiniart' I tittli' titec x't'. iC l tto recOgnize ot.kctir t )xiihtnis_(b'1it ii prLtfes-,iiii )lp LSt b(2 Ilk, ,li'1l ,,i blindI faith ihit (claiacttu'l / I the's sitigli., t Isl, kin! itti apprtai l , t t I the t raini.ng pro- tit,'iit- tt)ctir rili, ti llShip in many1lk l''t'lOipt't ciitO i- gl'ailll for tr,itkitiOiili i i tlxxixt'shut it caii b' tlk-il trie s is Il)\ ' t'c llnii i t t h t aiL,ll lt iii1g ed uc antfet t , , 1 1 r 11h -- ho , Vl'l'V IIl/ ' i n )h1IllL n i t ': Liurba n Itmi ne1Csia- Ur1. aii xxtItIIIt'ii iicrsIC iig',ln1V rd\' kuit' Litc(trL . talk ati[til seIt-cat' as if it lv're tlii til t'0 so 'xice, Of miitOttlnt I iiitdical prtititn ,rs, loit kL,rit , .... it in ti 1ih11 11ifitt , tlni lN h1iiitli i'hIllt'uui 0nlV for iilnICS tiut Jlsti fur)It i ict' Ill su 'II il,ltt'rs as ,l/i l ihii l ',l i11h,1/ l/ l l,,im,!!t lllu; )tl't il liu'hi i w infanlt fCetiig aI( Oth all p cs Ai ich tart'.'h Unlike' /ittei " (\\'t'riit'r, 1i77, \x2; t'iiuphisis il tIlI' (rigiiia ). illost wx' iuni iin .gaglik, fit' t0aiilifesT, Of th I Uran \Ash ift ill triority ttl1i ptOVi i g ht'aIlth st' x'ic' elite' haVe, Inlt en traiiit'th silct' ,hildhillId tur tlheir ti ftathinllg is not I rtx'lutittlrx,' itdea (tlit' word uiithehrioiit irile.11110 U(.)nct'01 1- 1 C1C 0 mlarritic,011 .] ,1 I' 1 r i~ i tihtx't l L' ' do things for thcnis'lves mvtake.alittle, time, but it is the Ie'sign and imple,mentation of Ilca M(I I pro reVlative vinerpel(ISive',I,-at it - ttarelastilg. \Ior,- grams. The Followm, I n-Pitlillustraltel hoV a teW over the peCople' e Strieghenlle \d11e ltter t1p1-rlles ideas drawn from our disclsioll of traditional and aUnd wea/kened' Dvtheilhln .r neu ii t lydriek, 10.37, IInodClln health care, might be tranSlate'd into pol p. 6>1. icy sugges'01t ionls. 1he resIlrtRctionI of this aplOaCh miv COll in the form-111Of currtnllt planS ftor the e\l.,nsion of a Village AIintiltlitl Car. In addition to he usul barriers health worker (kflcit pl)grali, which will llp pro- i0inic at'e. Inlce-tcitii itance, statIs (ifr vide health trainin al the village lee\tI. everall t lli' Isllenat ulct--,st,i in\gal',preieLi t litte ni sc1heies a luadV functionl inl \riO tl at ot Inido- tt.crntiols- om n in \gaglik little nILclo nesia, and the govermiCnlt i' considerind g mking the 1'r I-egnlal Visits to a clillic during pregnlanlilc'y. A training of volunteer village health workers i pairt of hlalth Ir)ogrll niti achiev bettr reslts ild the Third lDevlopni, nt lln. ('tiorrent programllS V'h MORIetlicient use of Is I tl' it it detlTIIiI' its (e.g , Some kader are sal'iCd, S0lI' are \l.un11teer's). tI-iilritie, ill linte i\ ith ithe Itt llllit\1V's perceived but tl i alll r e alentirst step toward grlss-roots- . 1tt1 , th,11 < Ll ltnI s\ ltL-1t, (it Two ve'ars' experienci' With \vollli'ii in Ngaglik ill t ciiilt d il ?i'y t'cliiliiltii, I Ilk' clIIT lIt IhLiktlll na vi OilIV coilVilcCed US that SClf-hlilp he'alth ',i' hiLll trainiiig prilgrali m il0it I' i11liI' ofiCti\', if lilli, 0t receive priority, but also 'itl did spitcific idias ful' thel (I \\iii stralu'gie. wStIkic: I, t - I STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLjME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 197? 323 * Locating thecutairs infa niodest (1nnlite) vil- h1ta1fa I calth Carc. It is in thu field of infant lage hoime r tler than at the cin ic, with ltesons on health, an are,va (d constanitcon,.-ern to Ngaglik lVgiCnU and apUtS of deliverv ticllliklt 1-in,, IVn011'1, th,1t traininlhe mtihr in bas-,ic p-reventive geared to the o illageu hic e.' t,Hilrlielt. L\illpatbet t- ,iltd curative hekalth care naY have tile greate.t ini ic trainers,perhaps a dukll 1h)d'i who l1,d i s- pact. \Vtn win can Itear to recogn i/ce 'arilv signs of ill cessfully completed a pr"Vi sl c .r ,n, taLli instrct l es., gi't' basic curati\'et, re tnlent, inl tie li1111e, tInder the gu idaice 0i clinic prsttr nnel. pr',idt' kittiae lu tritioi, onlitcr cLiild deveh( P- SlIncorLoratIin, , benWficial Iraditi0clal practicts, lnilt, aid improve the hlic ell\ irillflet to pre suchl a, delayi:ng the cLlltiingl 0i tlhe 1,11lthili,.il cord. illls-, s Traditional nidtcivts myi, be n)1,re recepttivek itaI (iiid weighing4 rcriiandt health cards (rc training canrse that i lciliitW rat east ackm leigts c~rd ingt ,ilildr iln'i mik \\ilti ,ltad pevriodic in these tamiliii raictices),. clulatihlli,) are sinlc bitIvaluable' \ a,"v for Lhe e 111011. to tthiIkc\ Itl ,ta~ n -n tra auc ~ h 'tlt a i tj stuth w tliil i respi itdc tnchil tiiu .i ii sitall\devt HimIIt.it, h e \gaglikr egu lar harmles, pIacicest ad the recitaicth ci11nra i0 child weighing g dtlrilg Ir rILHweILh. It gaIve lt n111 * lPrcvidinig sels itiver a1t1 cLIr t\pI ItLtt nots)t Obiectivo and ldiea uln 'rstalhaDleJh ' I11easuI-re Ot whY stmelc' t 'lllitI prclit ' ,' l l rn tni. ,i ( t thatlwl lhir cih ilrkn' pl[,I) r( , kt,ll t t ti,i t ,1ill iwas saet' prIctIl' II IVa IbsL,titutd, a g d ,igkn. talte'rinfIg I.,1h , ,it;Lt 'ttI I ICt'I'll. * Lt ab lish in g 0' i ti1 tt1thI L ct aW t 111I111nifliti- ( II1 11etIl In ts )ldsuc h aI \ ii d ,11I Lg r 11 nstils11 th i V tiOll bet \v'n iilsiuticrtot' and1lild t uun [Li1ay i;'l ihere are inllth haIL ha a bad ,i1iirL t, unldcubtecttv ideos tc be learned ircn hti. lr wei1iIi.n oll Itbe as gIkct this timII aII witws liltI lllh)I\ bi t rili, 1 1 1 \\V Ilti atIthese ,[eItici,1 wtIi prIaI ttIIii i a I Ia e p iat il i\ I pn vide BL ' 'lhe impOfrancuJ,10f''d0. tCibralstte dillg health 11 tra,1inl1ing, a, wh,ll a, kiirect illttr\einticfl h\ is rcoigniZied by tile Hltiolll lealtl dLpartillelt and villag)t- health \\tck.rs. is bei ilg etil Lotinrged w ith a cai 1i aiil that ti tlse tile approach: "t'0litilhue tile' tIaditicll ct breiteedil tarti t- 'l Iii Ilitan .tI pt''t'l I t ttLII itt stat i l i r'g. .ILt'iin 111('111i c, ildii Itcetr' 'e11scrli, btl t w t( iv ll cw i g what tl,1\ Iltarti I ,i ii t ,malpp li lttL it I ill l, 1 ti( iof ab the "right pllctice... large inilu i % ti I ntllenl (t stinIll i, ailcll 1ig tWllIigd, t kctti< ',cl ell,l itlt- " itt ct titisirtia , inL111 LI t i as lpil-,CIrlphi k\- r o ill latev icresi,ip r',,pmn ibilit i t IHt ample"> that tiis practict, tict,1 1lIt rulIt ill i pric idilng Itt tu lle iilt0 111 herbal 1 I ires Il't ken 1 ' I tat iI l1 tItht'"-,. I heir tlt h ' -r I lItri% \ l 111,'1t l ihl pIt iIll inId illin tra 111ill Utieti in1av be pst llttht i(,l; th,,v 11\ illtiet'd irs stt tiiat policy tail beh resptllsiv ' to ds. , inclute <~agalctttttit,;C HI hirlt ril rv [i nt'ti Iiiitildw tirk' s i i ',t l ,\prsti toi [ f i tictut lie ill the \ IIa tI il t lu id in Ia kt , l i l ihI i slitt t t I I t' sert\i , I t l iI f itlIII i t p lIIi nug. WtIlll 11It is ap Pnlt1 thaI, \v\ a ,t't'r Iu-ichItleC IhI,' art ittu tunl\ alk 'd ir Itiv ice ttr nietl itinI tiLr ll sIll, lllci1 Iepitri tlhe, ti si d re til It,. A pl-ctice sick t h ildren, aiititt11d l have ltegtn tpplillg siln thi with'spread and1 rd tr-l kvlCL} Cffttct ivt, canti blotb peI 'i C ine tiI tI -IIr tI\n. Ille 7,(0t)0 tllnilh plan igi-Ired by it t rni all tare prttrIII. s. n iing i iwtdt rkers cLuI'rlIt lll akiu I LhIsi I 1-hlIhSL' 324 SiUDIS INFAMILY PLANNING VOMI, !L NI lMBI11 12 NOVt:MBjPR [4CfMBp 197g visits to all women in the reprodUctive ages are a nitY health: I lOrieinci> ot a cotinfrY Loctor). lrLa valuable potential resource for the provision of basic 3, no. 5: _- 74. health training. IHulltll, leri, I.1.ertiili75. \t, soci oec loiic status, and the piOilik it wi1 ililen in a Javaln se vil lage." UnpII bished Ph. ). th"isk, lI)epMarment of De- I-I.,'--l-lh,,,ographV, Australia Iityl,National niverlCan Conclusion berra. _.... . 1078. 'A Std\' ot birlth intrval dv'nam Women ili Ngaglik have always been active part ic in rural Java.' In Xiitrition anI lnnaui Repr(Ouc pants in fai lV health care, using whatevTr limit,., ti(,,t d. W. o irn XlOsrwa.Ntiv Yrk: PiC. resources ar,,available t I hem. Most modern health ...... Kodr an, and rawati Sig rl un . care programs, perceiv'ing traditiolal patterns as Ob- "FapilyStries N 9. univri: , In- stacs to developrni'iit, work to remote health, care N PupulatOrI from the resp,msibility of the andinian her famil v stitute, Gadjah Mada .niver,,it *\,. and to place it in the hands of profcssionlals. Ite kn- tlI drick, 1 1 91_.37.it ci'-in RiiraI l/Si'ct 'V rk phasis is thuLS Oil t-,ridirlg l~alth ('art- (': MW:ia 1dP lic I"(duW lioll 0ft Ilhf c tli, lt'Uh .qrt ¢of phassro\'dinghealh isthuson cre >rT'.\ >cliemrlamts hndia, BaItavia ---Cintruni. Java. (Includes Al alternative approach is to provide w\,mt. n lllitatihi le b . . e caia W ith t ,ln uh , tO mIor', ff(,tiv('lV IlW (A th e(ir'ow%\I uotatioll frtml hdttHr of the I lealth Section'I bV D r. (' . 1 1.11-110r, ch l1,1ir 1a of the, World Federation of f.(1u and their family's health cre needs, w ilh profeAs- cititln \SSO iatioll,. sional service,, providing appropriate sutprt. )r cat itn. two-year research project amion, Ngaglik wO\iti i M,Iva ln.7.don: Calhe &i\'a.: showed wls 1 us man \ in whili in derm programs litM oi t',ilh n. Idm . ,l izT& a r'i/'.l-..ce can benefit from an understanding of traditii ton,t N.J.: Van NostranI:d. health cart: by building on the basic approaclh O Poer1Oi , .sr. 1978. DiCari: Runiah bersalin self-reliantc, hv incorporating specific practices that aire bene'ficial, traditional Peiidukun' AL ' (WaIted: A iateri it vl- ospital ard by svnipatihetic pndkgAI"(Vnc:A aril hsla treactnices 4iti, that l,arear\' Inet- i,,l whiCh supp rts breastfeeding). IFenilla, techtie or pf tln ilv hari filr no. 137: 161. jI.,e b'ca0 ith aware lNaphael, Dana. 1976. I' Ten/er Gift: Itr'aslfi'cd th cotmplexiities Of stdying tradit inll health care, iis', New York: Scholkcn Books. vet ctii'ced that careful and sensitive, stud Rohde, Jon R., aid Robert S. ,\irthrup. 11)78. what womenll are, curentr,,ly dinng is essei ial to>tIhc 'Mother as the basic h,alh design and impClenen tat workcr: Irainiig her and grai her trainer.''" In lb' (han,ii,\, Rls and I dn alim, off f ed Hi'alth Car lMt'snMn/ trinhO'uli in Vit' (of1ti'lncrcas,' rf B ij thealth .'rz'es. I-ILI. Ri mald W. NIcNlu r. Phil adelphia:_Vianfo, Society for I talth and I Va lUes. I1., and I. V. Nlaris. 1974 "Masalah kesehatai References di Karnlpuing-kamipung kota besar"' ([lie problem of healhti in city ka inpu ng Islu 1is1). Prisina 3, no. 5: 50-03. Amin Yitno and Tri Handavan i. 1978. "Hasil Singarimbun, Nlasri. ard Chris Manning. 1974. penelitiarldukuri bavi" (Results from stluc\' a of tra- F'rtilitwu and lamnilm Planmin,1 A /(Oama.Monograph ditional midwives). Semirar No. 83. Yogyakarta: Series No. 1.Yogakarta: Ppulation Inlstitute, Gad Population Institute, Gadjah Mada University. jah Niada University. Arms, Suzalne. 1975. /mmaculati' D'cilti i: A Smith, Datus C. 1%1. ,' land anl Pi'iipe if ld New Look at Wnmn and Chiilt'irthin Amn'rica. Boston: iiisia. Philadelphia: 1. B. Iippincott. Houghton Mifflir. Sub\akto. 1974. "lusat ke'sehalaril nasyarakat: Geertz, Clifford, 1960. ie Rclifm i/ iflava. Glen- Konsep dan pemibinaanr\,a" (Thle rural health cen oe, Ill.: The Free Press. ter: Coicept alrd practice). Prisma 3, no. 5: 51-55. Geertz, Hildred. 1961. lie javani'Si Fanihr: A St lian ti Saris,}. 1974. "Politik kesehatan nasin Shdy if Kinship ah S(iialization. GlriCOe', Tle Ill.: rial" (The politics of national healtli). Prisma 3, no. 5: Free Press. 9- 14. Hashem, 0. 1974. "Peranan dokter dalam pen- Vtrnel, David. 1977. Whi'r Ther' Is No Doctor: A ingkatan masvarakat: Peigalaman seorang dokter di Village ltialtlh Car' Haultok. Palo Alto, Calif.: The daerah" (The role of the doctor in improving cOiiriiu- Hesperian Foundat ion. STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER I I ! 12 NOVEMBErR DECFMBER 1979 325 Villiam s, Cicely 1.,)and lHrrick B. ! liff,. 1972. %Iad, Univcrsitv who harve worked With this projCct, *Vothtr and Child th'a/l I'liz,,ri, th sl5iz's. inCluding Amin ll Yitn,, Ierence I lull, Elizabeth London: 0xtord Universitv I''C'ss. ",eyr, Jioll Rohd,, Lu prawardhan i Sulr'ono, Tri landacall, and other>. I acknowledge their ontlri .butions, t h\iH' accepting respons ibil it' It r any errors Or misinttr tions. I would also like to thank A( KN c;WIINMI, ithe data ps,ent,d in th is lereijeI 1lull, a1.11(Il ire Mali ngreu, Nancy PCl- paper represent the work of a team Otf retSedlc]hers USoL,and Ion ROhde' tht, their ValuWh, 'lecommnltSOil associated with the PopuLItion Institute f Gadjah an earlier draft otf this paper. konjo.... " {j';-:ThIs following ,atilelooks in deTtail latarotatingcredit use's to which suc h pooled monetary contibutions 73 systini ,oni.nyofus...by rural Ngeria. This systein, are put, as well as their social )",;;:iwhich zwomen use to ensure the significance, are also ". availability of cashi to discussed. The particular financial institutions Se- .;¢:Meet their family's financial :: tieeds, has.-analogues ] ected for study ire generally kniOwn as EsusliIn most !'ti, hr'oughou~t t!he World, This close study of lehaVior-in .parts of Nigeria and as Otu-Uul or ottu ofi in the !Oisth2.?,i instance, aboitho1170o011eln forin groups to save and two rural comnlnities studied. Although as' c a >: deveroghut, ths udy Thines syobe ion iflected her,o Nighrchiand as tcnv toenationaotufrnch thisIdvins dt aou t o me esnorm agroups ae a ndtal from pound, comuns tudied . Mt g as ia wyrva rua womnlitefa aonda ole nor are reserve abew bs o l nn u ho STUDIES INFAM;LY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 327 and I few other governnierilt offiCes, an old post of' fice, but no banks. The nearest banks were 15 to 20l Nature and Organization miles awav. of Contribution Clubs Since 1972 the' situatiOl in t)gwi-hi-uku har 1 changed draimatically. It now ls nor' stdIndpipes The contributitn tlu is a traditi,'-al asstttiatin for w electricitCtr, n t tll(,he1!C't rulal elhctrification whoseaim is toassist iIs ii tilt lt,'ill sinaIl-scaIt, cap- scheMe, more ottlfce, shops, and schools, and at ital formation. Fi\til pavnt'nts areC rt'ju irt'd at short, least Onilank. I raditionl [itt' till pre'domtillt's in r'gular intev',ls, tistalt, o]n 1 toLur-dal\, \t't'kl\, or both t), ns, 1lthuIILl sis Of social ch re1iC lortnightl, basis. I le' m10tW\ thus coHlcit'd is the0n c\'t'V, IIIflore' L'\idtd llwllin shi-ukt..mall- pooled anl11d giv'n to 0tnibt'(,iat a time, oil I ro scle, ntuiiit'chali/d, lailling is the miii OccuLp,- tating basis. tion in bo(th towns. \'it is ntot collmllill lcallv is (ontributioll dubs fulfill ,.,tr Hil' lttllllUllit\ sold, alnd colsiderabl tr ad|,'\ist at interv ill- soCm of tHe0 |tint (iols otf l, orOl, llanin- ' LsodLi terTstateU, and e'el i;ltii',inl lt'tt'l,. Ihis is tspte- t'tyV, ttr thlotugh SCh atl1,IsSOtiat it n n ill.v cin ciallY trte lorft trl\ slli-Ul, , hli hs la, rg and snmall-scalt' capital Iriition t,lkt' pla andit saings sIuckc'ssful llmarket a.nd e\trlI d'1 itll,itCtrtads Inkcii'tCCiiltt', [btll 1loans ca1n bt' llndil' 'r it ho,l.ght it wii tltr l town'. In both t, wns iiri id I is an1 oct- onl credit. Ilhe\ 1lst tltfer ,in Lst , ,1 ctmlnfpal'atiVClv I'up,, intiult ti mnn, with t 1titiiptirtitip( IMacct-s of ready tol illvttittIt'i i t11'L'\'(lalttilo a' IVtlltn bt'inuI LonfinedII n in \' to . illr '.uich crisis or illistttilit'. I hl'cib's success dt'pt'rd, verv tlvliit'ln"s crops'' a 's l\'a, ccyit lS, okra, p'p- Mtuch o tOHtistcct' |of sitt'gthil's lor tu'lstirill hat • pers, pIlpkinS. Ail0n1, till lglos oin th' \Cust- t'Lch e hllller1lCti'itilltt's to p,1\ ht'r 50ubst'ript ion until ern banks tIn thw \i,,,'r, in Ilhlirt' contr0st tt tliOs evt'rt,' mtumbt'r his rt'ctivt'd ht'r "takt,-tttit" (stet' Ar- Oil th ti t s'n il't, Wet'din lla L ht in lrt' tllt cOll- lt'ltr, lt .3, 1). (1)). sitlerhd ib s ( \\oIt'l.Ior" ,lint me tIitetrh hLo and Nlot tIIiot'li \vhtii1 Vt' intt'r\it'\' t'd in btItI weed tilt' fii nls tlillxs t- Or hile 1Jbttrtr's. t\Vns---bttit \\'t L) pt'rct'nt Of thit' 2t 'i'l getl ttt at ttilt'fl, ti tht' o+thitr had -t hivt, lteir own ttc- le'ast ,tnt' cttntri butin tlui L..",nv\ bt'lttngi'~d ttt tt+t iti" cupatittll aclivitit's in"iinlc cIlt and1h m1at wvillg 1oi. 1-h pt'r 'n11n li1t lid tt bt'lttiig .vt'r, il-aink' and rtLcessirie ca ,-%i\nI l I plilo oil. [hi,' als frttn tilt, agleg 'l4ip I IS i-t tlill,irit'd or vtliig elgage' ii petl t riing, t 1',,llit'sicih frtlt sellingl marrie girls, as wrll 'I"a ttw Oold tillt'n. It is highly fttodstuffs anld rt'lil ing Itical i tltlv-IlhlllltlICttIi'ted unusual fittr an01a1tdult Wttm1,1n in llt', t' tiiiuiitit's ,an1d impttrted gtott tottinlii g bt'tr ai il patnLi-wile :ltt to bilg ttt nt,1Vttontri but ittiln ,,siitio. sinc' parlors iiiI st'ltin: ip Ilocall as "t,'inI tts t s. titt such in,lctittl (11on t'rpart tt lldbd iht'rpri't( it'asd ,Li whatt'vtr \trk \',tti t'l tillgat' in, (hity art' t '.pt't it'd ntss, irrt'sptmsibil itv, kIr t'Vt'll a. a1nt soci,l til,l\ tt shari'0 tile bu rdt'n tIt m1 1 itItI th ' fain lv's t'\pt'll- t' i W---,iin\ t Ih\ ih tp1i ilol, ktntld(]i til rt' lc r gttid and to prtvide fttr a grt'il pIrt of iht' tamilt,'s daily alli it'. fttd and otlhr nt't'l,.. Ib rt'huiirs toi c(pital IsIhi' tttibiliittn tlb is torniit'tl thrlugih tht' ini tr credit, sttn ti' ' it V,-'r\shortI ttict',i ntl thlI' tiaitict'v ai \\ Il n \llhtt lilk tI and ,Illa i/i,'s tllLier w st'sttri lgbIg\ t t /in is t'\pt ttd J loto t iiln I isctapi- 0Vtt.' I. liW 1 ihIi t0Ir is, , i 11'man1tit tfficii'nt social tal or crd it hirstIt stanidi , lit'r init iti'ii ttt ther w1tt00' lil ttt toin Is ) courtS, a it illi ,n's, Lusl [iind] iI i pr1,vidtl'hicr leni birs ' Il 'ttWt with a pt sit i\'t, itspo)IS'. If the with w'trking caIpital in thettitil Itf il ItntV .blt 'Alut II liitiatttr is ntlitI wtlln ot Iuiffi tnt so)cial stan'.iin g cast's anrt' thLe ' it'ipt in. I hi, pittirt, Illri't tc, , is slit'tt' n 'pt st ia0u-,fsd ant Itli1 tu111ti it ,tch( lStanding that t I W ln11 1ilwh IStIrugglcs on 1eLtr t'wil, tt n( lt' tttaSSU'llt h, ' rttl' tI iiliti,110!..\ 'utll is .1greet,_ l upoIn iltiltnl it h,.r ii i,gt', to ii't'l ht'r i,ts alnd thtise Mnd nernlbt'rs tf lit'r cttitribut' thi IS anitluit rgu1lrly. fauily.. tlit' at cttiitiiiut' hU prilctici' a lrade, Usually the sqil i algrt'd tipttn wrill nlt plaict' an Whil' liviig with 111'r prit i,t i nia tdi't I l uJIdi'l train tn( t t t tribut r. 1i d casVtIt' i1-(, btisirlttW-s i t niut' It Iu tit11,CLcaLpitalI It w ith Cho i Ct to jit il ttrIItt ot tt Ii is stillI I h( tI 1ldn'1 s 'S. Illit.\' rt'C ' i't rti ir ll,t it,nt,> l ,,ull1\ th i,initial iisCOV't'tl d tIha1.tHitts,) ,' (t t' ttintrib.Ititii clubs capl Itais iLuit) .. 'to ll,, n1111l'li' haIs- tot dt'vise, ttlit'i ch)t',0,i 2(1 l.Ibt,, I )I 3i ciitnS; I fIt,\\ ('lat11rgi' 1 ktlbt, IeL 1 tt iStIL li i ad'sttIrtt' pNt l'' u ti h ich .slit' Itr ttnt' iiit, / hi,lii till' tt t W halrg'I Ilitre' tll,li ii fall back il a lint Af tilaiucial nt't&l. t )IC Stich ttll,' naira. N ll ' vtlli t'll llt that it is better to coll agnICy' r ttt inistittititti wlih slit 't, Lrtsil that triti-tt , Si/,il 11SiM at clsi' iiittrvals thl tll ctuiitrib enalbles lhlr ttt accuniulatlte capital. lbtit ttn a Small It' aI 'gt' 11imtt at,tiiigi'r iiter',ls. (.tiltribiting sclle, is thI' ctu 'tributittn club. on a I (vt''ktt fortiigllt\'tr lasis enabli's tlit' ',ttieL'll .t 328 STUDII:S N fAMILY PLANNING VOL)UN. !0 NtI MB[ II 1 1. NOVI- MLrI1, H C fMLE r 19,; to use the small profits the make frol their sal, of associtiond,,. Woni0,n \who "did tlht'\ illitjatevd Or l cassava meal, palm oil. or woV, n Hits ,')tlethe'se lHire to wholy ,mlh, assto ltlio-,ict lflx mt,l! arc spent in other wav-s. that tetil"alsocitions, Wer' t 1-malt' d11 inliled. 0nt NIemba's are, uully give n theirltoansa.'1:dit, ,asoviatin wvith It) mu'InCrds tor e,\,implh. hd, !0 tol oi'rder agiti upon al' th> ounding of li, il es, wtiht ,Lianothrwith 3411 n'mr her vi , mtd iL, ''ll' arrangelnlt'll Ima deitpeld ol th llr'de in whih mail,i ielmberllip at 11. Ihlis th'-t'iv,ition :s irir, ot membri joinCd the asiaLion, with hliflun r at Mostt01so0itth r li, ions. hMiat'iu'llx'l haive, the head of the line. lItB1i. order may" he' i iedT a th lt'-m"leeIr b ,,iphll ratio tda Lit 4 to 1. inl aSes oIt rvt e t'l ergtt'' \ A Itll e x%lll ,tild- QuLel ion-II 't.tn livt h Y kilt ldk [lotiL n i ll-t('ial, de'nlh finds heieit' in diriII-(, !i!ii i,i i . t ,lifl will 1)I t' s t rsol these i,itioIs slidI thlt they\I alled o reL,eive her ta,-out t h tkoitL eI, 11i,,"iI Ie1d aei us,i into hemlat the drums, blow ilt., herT. Ll''It11iuSI( II I i l I) -- )c )ti11" L1itlupet.itli. anld,iim ti geeriix1, ' ,IlI t~Ih- lividv' w c iliht.' d tiliricl i Itcat 1 meILet-lt'\ e I Th clb's iv itlt' rbs the \L'- LI rg.,. In ,ttiti )ig',,ht ttI tIh' ( r noth t'r ofl th e' ast ci alii n) or In ttr ', ttttt'r il I. initi tttrs in terILiwtetd , ' > h,.ie v'\ t Ih,at tli 1' p iv',t'iivt, t i ~t it,', also, htelp r d to 0)1 ( vILCe tI' presidt'tI oi tht' sttvL iltittli)a lni is ati- 1illi nilt,ill i nta rid,.r (tilt' es ofA ma driive1 l-ssd asI such \t%10ri-when the Iltulhrs meet. A\ away th i'',-"). butiln clulb lways has In inner t'\eIivt Llti\ ll i pl .llme' clubsi 'xv'n had at IiLIl,, tIt'"idtlint ill 'iii of its ofticrs, bti tht president makt.s the tilia I iI . t ioni t h il t ,r'sivitit' . I 11,i1it', il st)ill, ing on llajtr is1tsue . Hilt' is 101tt0td tll. to x' tlh 1tni va&1s , 1la1d .intt1 hcit tt'tl l 0tnti'arxv nl'ilhmber bers, and tilt' Lhlip'r ' tiet epens grt',lV Wtl her ship ht'cau,t' hi,111 11l' x ld Itti pretig0tt tilt' as e'ff ctdivtts a leadel.1 1limist be tili hu t kind s0t'iatiW,!. llt' me and tenial ,,,idLipr' Its jiilli, to and nirist bhe acknoxh-lt'e N ,ill Il a -Ip'ltml tt'erV runl tilt' mee0tilgS IniL in all cas's,, seeTntLi, to work high iltgrit', -it hI a I stll cLiII aia\ 's find a tol- irrnonitusix' toWtllcr'. lox 'ing, and it is ilt u nctti loltltlotr a i w 11il oI t is staturtC teo1tint1d ili'V' tlin ttilt' ttlltril tL ittl ,lStcia- tiOll . e dCiS tvt'L't I a t'x ,' slCI \ ttIlleIltI ill hllt il ttoxV ls. ( I \ttnilan, lht' f;rsi "\i' ".i ll pIt teinlvt11tis - lLusChttlt Ot !i\'t' Wi\-,s, ili iitiItcLd toir vnlliitL- Benefits of the Clubs t ttil aSs;ociatitils~, tt1Lt' t1t%&xxii iti wa 1,1 I) slel (if her towi\'.e, anild t) t,lhrrt lit. ' , 'v\'it's. A mtie-itr of a contribution assoCiatioi is ,t illtId to In (tIti l,,t, a ill it Iial. ,t0 had 1 lttti c,illtt0 ,a take-otlt t'V'rl beftr'e sil ils paid heLr full 1,har, if Successltilly ttitt i a (r'di it a ,tciatitll rv'gar'dhss ttt cttiliuibII tin---- ill tller VOti'ctl,, sdl(I is g i\eil the ht' g.etnuiine, he'r iltiltti ils aret1.()tht'r \wttilIl will vit'dit oil truLt. ol ot illt' ttnliiibu itrit ctl inVt'S assume that Slill 1 1tt10 Ct \il ,ld Nill kiefat-t as" tigattv lI'gv'ti I vttiiiprilst r *. "S f l t, tuet '" f a ftw Soin 11sS Slit, las cttlltt, hr'r1 t, tk'-t .it. \ 'laZ\''' ktthvt i)'r sh ar, il ,IidLiti0il tt tile reguIIIar shareV corn WOIllLal wil ils 10 visi, IoflileaI-)s itio:llt' will iribtiti ,AFl \' dtnilittls, or IlilrlieS ac-rLiillg to tile USliill,' lso fail ill i,''r it'LLpt Ittl to lila , it ttx'ingo. ,ass tciIIil ittioll h'L 'tnliCt',s ale also pa id in11to the rLiIt LCrV'ilniIl I ill d ctiltrihutittii ,lsettWiatioil isl a isstiviialittis 'safe,'' iro l iili h tlltiinIgt'icies IV'( ) x V'ay- 1lnt'. lilt' tt tII 'ir ,II r ill it iatvtr oft a ,is iical i i lt'ri il lts ft t1 ' Ilt soI at ii1l's rist a ' club w ill alstt) -,1ii 1t'fuil ,t IpplicalnIS.,riVi ltti'lti,A intt antl rttlll x'lic Shlit-'lt'l'Ill, i\,-illttr'el t ),lIis i rl I iii's With dtiLi ns chitravttr ori iht st' t ihost, 5t),(lll tills art'1 1II iVt' t1 il't'ti\Illt'll I t'-;. credit. \O'fhJn .i'. is, lot) bv'\ ttL I reprOaCh Will lt bt' hf Nhtst the. houstl- t t lie t,['r,'.'vei to t l'nitn,-trat thtit tloix\, ,oili ti m tionl L t,~,,lti,' to ht. iL{L', it pi' their ship. hldi'()k') , thI i - t rI,I ' hel w,',ithsh oL i'IS In It'ili t iIII uI ,;.,tI ,t IIIt n t tiItit,\ilI 1 t til Ct it I I 'I',t i id 11t t li 1 i t 1t t i.'T , i) 110d LI II it t Itnt ist t lt iI I rtI i lI t t i tt' I lt I ,t Iti ri, t i l,I h, il,';Il tht Ct I, 11i~111C <%k1J, l-iI llt 'lJc , I)i h,t- isio T e e ttII IItk., it' hll III ti vl l i,.uf(crt i t , IIg i, tI I ,p .,.-t lII II Iil l< ii, I II I I I\\IItact.\ thattI it1,iL aIIIIIIkIIIt' Iiit II t i ]'ll I IIt'lItI\Ii't-tvlIkItI HIC d't 11,,ll I C(Ill ItI ),II IIht -ln tl I'.Itii,r ,\, .< 't'< ,111t5 I,,,1 'S0 II' l x 1}l III \ 'm c V(IIII lI . IIIht I 1 r,I I,na I t'IlIl'{I.i ihhI.r IhlI. i ,~ j . , ,I~l , i i:tI I ti 'u~ l.... \ \ 11'hrk1itC t,/I1\(-t uI 'I.1 iII:' <4hI'iitIl Jt,ieIli,Ii4~ I',\I.l I,Ih11,1 ''' 1't1tL it),l l t i . , dtlIj L~llIto nII t' 'iII It 11)1.t Ih111i, s 1,l r1, O.lcd il tI,II,, ' . tllIII ,I II thI I1ll r1, 11~ti 1\1, i1tI ,-It :, , It, Ii I\.,II t )I I ll i'\\ ,. dl t lkJ c' )L1 . 1 1 ditt < 11L' -!lti'I1I',I IIuL, . - 'IttItF ...... t t I (~t'r*l'),/it', I Il 'i', >li I I I t< InIIrIV, Uses of Take-O ut M oney ha~lldht Ill'-!('Itilt p t~t\ Plcl:'L Il. lrI,1i i1,11'ii k,l,I". IhI("\t illI, IIIl {, II lt l~ " ; 11,i1 ih1 it i " IInlI\ 'lIII cI!>itaI Itr c(11tu lnltp (I(iti . -,tIII L/t' ',.~l,I W01'11,l] lt,/<,11 ,ld LtIFW. ,il111< 1 , i , Iui tLn1,. I 10h11 11, ,rIiJ _-,ulIL t'rIpIII ..<,h imIdl t b~t. kt,Ii -,ic,I t'c Ilni m>-firolit- Ito lI I,.I it I .iliIIL ,.,rI I,III,< I,i I ;II -t,, I I , ,III' hI VitCldillg. ILl~l di ,iJ , Ill i-1\1'i\ AtC ilit tCd IIIt.,lkt' try01hi L'in ',ll(:i ,litnl h , ,l,\,) in Jt illt , 1- W h,/i Sht, ,,<,11:Ill1 l,i h,,r !,lm ik Ail kown rih~iot,tt,thi' 330 STUDIES INFAMI Y PIANNIN(, VOLUME 10 NUMBER; 11 12 NOVEMBE,- DCI(IMBE 1979 risks involVed in such deficit financinl4 111nd 0h0 dilfi- housJ-t,i ' tld . Notnout'f tlht' w n illvested culry in making profits,. swy, itn tv i agritulture,. ', ',ic't':sful women Sonilttim s,a wIV n arrangt's to ol0c0d her taikL'- il h -ii/,.,,it filt'lthautli s in tlht purcilast, out fro0m tw') or moreLtoultrihution Ls'ot.'iltions ,11the o, to plantin,; hw,.vtr, this ,as lot evi saint, In'. L1it' iS tllth ht'lt.,r ab hl't0 Cill bark Ol o l' denlt CithtirtInfInti 'men s ,li, ,'iS or from par re-tailill, of tlat'I l'V-1,lit, l.t prints and ti he1r tiipait oh 'tvt t it' II tilt' 'omn , hoMever, fe.,ll Sti_,le materials. S-i h eiterpri..', rt,l ir'eIntI th dItItv of markt.,ig, lii,' r itl l t r!np us 11101r for" ' capital to ,et nl), hnt tey alo brin in more their lilshD,-d I, LhIL t S, tICt(I- II L/ 1/! STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUML 10 tIWBLI? 11 12 NOVIMBFR DEFCEMBER 1979 331 ksong, . 1958. ()1orjaiootimC H1istI,, R. Basconm and \lviIko 1. 1lerskovits. Chicago: Uni cJ OwI /ic of \i~ Il .IdonJ i ot tlcdgi,( k iKcga1 tn n Hi>clliiF At ikj o. Atlfi, I no1. 1: F -28. Littli , Ki' In, th 1)07;. ;(A\' f? ti ll lI;i oa ll :lj IIt a. Birk1OIC\ ai1 I I - .lI td-: L: 1ilf- t\ Ot ( " Iiillr CanIm ric : am hili i Ic Il ivir I I'I k ~. p Vanl Allnl , jid 11t 1", 111 ?Ii I ma!I lI: (d0 2 11-IL ] k!~il l IIdthi 11 p Iitk I Ill it Ill W0>i 1,41)o ( )tthir, ' ~ih~.'1-Im haigiigco- H '~illlIIIl A\lil \iil0,at2:i Marked Preference for Female Sterilization in a Semirural Squatter Settlement ILYIo (GULti Tlel fih) ciai, at ,1 :sill Il,' IhreCas,,ns P. rN 0 ; tlni- lage oil the lttt r triuget, f the state's capitall cit', c ir'l a'u ll ill e, th l i 'l;o',h,,, s/coh izlti la d Ii"i\.ill dlrtln . \ M( 10,parti,.ulalyh , the arti CIec\ lo ,e, )IIhti5 of( /biithc lIti , , 1 ict ' , 'Ie . ,aoll 'I ] /rr InPliI)I. bIrn - t , f sterilizatint was 11r1I ' cept,lbh, ill ivaa,'s in a a I i lin i;PTmCciz' bl,/l',lm h ilhth111,' , , h r ill The Squatter Settlem ,tcroi, of lii' :i,N uo'/iitc> ent lYIonI 0f/)thc''. of/11 ()I ', 1' icmhl !us'rtatI/i io>i ilia a,,l, tol!no!uin lco a ,/ilI/ro? ;Ilb.ith'. ,I 1 ilt. lji' r fiC cutmalilij of Il1C sjuL.,atter settl,,n nt' LcO iIt Of 4-140tu. lOthOds (')io,,li,"( taolC/'5 i ' fl ll t'W0 sll'' f i h/y;/tllill', clt ,t t Ill J ;I'01.agp-o t iiiipt'rlII, IIWtl t sleri 's o" (it' dcl'i, , 125 unbakcdt l[,, mud bricks, 1ud, or thatch, pc'iChcd II the. SlOpeo Iof'ahill a,b lutole'kilonwtml ' tr,'in the Lit, limit. The bilth rate in rural Kerala has sho1! n a1slow butL Ih,tot,alpopullltiol is aroLnd 2i5. .\l (itof the %\ork siead\' decline, particular' in the last 10- 12 elars rng 1,nt1 1111\\Onu'tn living in thes, houstehOld, eke drt.ppig from 37 pr thousand in 66 2 Oolt tlcir liVcihood troIll interInittcilt wage 'lplOy' thousand in 975. ruil Folr India,as a hole, tiht birth n t,m >thl in unskille,d jobs . ere'cthan 36t perc, nt rate il 1975 %.as37. Altlhotug1h this declinecanntbe 'f thofl useIholds belon, Itoshedled castes (a term attributed to -. ingle fator, fanlil\' plainilig eff'orts o iunnl\i-t ru the, disvaHnttged castc groups in the Stat,' K,.,la o) are be'lit'V d_ toha,' plac ,'d I listed f0- Wcrtail p frt'11Vfalt' l treatlent in a schedlle, coiIs id hibIh,rth, illbinl )ilW, it ab, u i (l rish nanf 01 l Indian ('011-4itUtiIm). \v~tVl'dI ' p oi 1976). 't sch'duled cat', in the s a1'atea whole is oll\' 8 The faii i p) li,1 iy proIgrar II K,'rala began p entt'n.['en 332 STUDIF S IN FAMIi Y 'ILArINNG VOLUM[ 10U NIJIMIFBIP I I 12 NOV FMBE P DOFlv'IB[R )ON 333 Tvetn CIoser to a maljer hlspitall. A bus to the tit\' passes the settlemenlnt at anlost houlyh intervals, 1nL Knowledge and Acceptance the HL'rb vMedica1liy tOltl'g',' I tospital is on teil' bus of Family Planning tite0. ,Vith i I 11eillng t play iowii thc lattc'r ad- Valltag, h\xc'\'rtv, Wev'hOulni add that ac'ess Io hOs- All married meCn and wIWlnni in the sqlua tter settle pitall facilities is possibl the lea t diffiCt:lt, in tellS 1e1t know a u eIths tol limitilg the Iuinber of tlhe di:tLanc- to be,cOVrCd, in theSltat 0'Lrala 'is fstIdriu. :a/nli I planllng p st0!s alld radio irleS coltpared with tile other statL's If India. In more' thilin sg's talk generally ' :l'tteTd tor smller flmilies. hall of Kcrala's tlaluks (each d i trict is-,Sli ivicdi< *\ mAjr s ir ' of it 'ir in oInIlI tc'tholds of c-ol- into 3-35 taluk)the averale 0id c'OTi by a pu blic tracept itn is the lt',l I'i\ I.)V1 , l. \ tarried womnl n ledical cte is les than1 1 ,i) Sclua re k itI ts IS "(0nI Wo 'aegiven birth ha helr,rith ci'llii Is of tar ilv t'e for Development tuciLs,l173), plann1lin g at the hspitI1%%lln the went fli- tiheir Howver, tile Sjlatter setth'nr,'nlt ,wsses')01 Vir- contfil'lmlts., the nlaiidlrit\ It deliveries in ilt' set tUall' ill Other ame101nities. I he 44 11, htls are a11l tlein .now tak pIl\e ini the hospital, making such sUrT'ed by".a Siilt;te I Mt i li k Itl*tLp, WhiCh is rlot com- Visits all ,tf'c tiV, an1d illplitllat'll sinl'rcc if" iilornia vt.'niCi, tly h'11htcl. tis i, i t', l i ti rl ' tILIr o' Si,atc' oni t l ainlvh ll i ni. \\'olrrc'i1 iin th) scItttc'rrltint drinking waterr. Ithere \'irtuiallv noL rivate or had alsoIeird luLIb t f llv plalnil) nth'llc)is dur public toilet facilities; no hut s,11a e1lecric cllnc'- iIg the, periodic \'iits of thIe village- I wokrrkl Ind tion, norlOare there alny s reet lighit,. [\I ontraSt , in tihe nurse/midwid\fe. Kerala Lltate tle proportiol of villadge with aL''cess to Mass v,Is'etOIl\ MI',amps (Or alnizCd in Kerala be, eltricitY is cLse toI3L: Prcet.ll we'lI b v, the all- tWn 7(1 ci 1I72, in a iiri ivol-likC stle,) were India average of 36 perOct. also instlrulItnt l in prellladilIg illilfill tion aind hlelp At ilt' IthIlab road unctin. al ptblic lOLId- ing it 't1llOV il estinl' ot s'crl't' once' attached ti speaker installed by the I' 1. 334 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 frequent backaches and loss of physical stamina that tornies. In 4 cases, both husband and wife have been their men complain about, but none said anything sterilized. Even for the state as a whole, it is not un aboat the after-effects on women of tubectomy. usual for the num1ber of femlale operations to exceed Some men spoke about their loss of virility. In one the number of nale operations. For instance, tubec case in which a nan had undergone vasectomy, his t(,nit'eexceeded vasectomies significantly in the wife still conceived and had children. The man now years 1973-74 and 1974-75. Int Trivandrum district, denies having had a vasectomy and his wife sup- how;ever, female sterilizations have exceeded nale ports his claim. Nevertheless, everyone refers to this sterilizations all along since 1972-73. case as evidence of the possibility of failure. ()f the 38 married women in the reproductive Awareness of alternative, temporary methods of age group-those aged 45 or below-20 are protected family planning was rather patchy. Although rmiany by'either male or female sterilization or both. Of the married wolen have heard of the intrauterine de- remaining 18 married women, 13 have had either no vice (IUD), none has used it so far. The IUD program child or onl' one. Strictly speaking, we should ex was started in 1965. After an in itial spurt in the num- elude these WOme,,n when determining the number of ber of a acceptors, decline set in during tile \ears that eligible women married but not protected by steril followed, probably because of the reported side izat ion or any other method. If we do so, tile total not effects. For Kerala State as a whole, the number of el- protected would be 5. igible couples using the IUDL declined from 14 per Why did these five eligible women not accept thousand during peak acceptance to 6 per thoutsand lin"' kind of prot _!ction? The reasons given were var in 1973-74. ied. Two of the women are widows and do not plan Why have so few imarried wom en chosen to LSe' to remarry in the near f,ture. A third is a young, sep the IUD? A woman who had utdergone tu bectomv arated woman living with her parenits. The renain explained: "When we don't want children, it is bet- ing two WOmen felt that they had reached the end of ter to have the matter fin ished. Let there be a perma- their childbearing period and that contraception was nent end to this business of having children.' IUD not really necessary. acceptance also meant frequelt trips to the doctor.A For the state as a whole, the ratio of couples protected by the IUD to those protected by surgeryv has, in re cent years, been I to 10 Explaining the Preference for Female What is more interesting is that while men and Sterilization women in the settlement were ready to talk openly about sterilization, both were reluctant to talk about What are the possible factors contributing to the the use of condoms. A stigna seemlS to be attached to preference for female over male sterilization? Any condon use; perhaps they regard such use as a sign answer offered on the basis of our study of the squat of oversexiness. Little information could be collected ter settlement has its limitations. All the same, since on the extent of condoml use. The village worker was tubectomies ex:eed vasectomics in Trivandrum Dis not sure that anyv man in the settlement used the con- trict, the results of our study may help us to under dom. According to the health inspector, acceptance stand a phenomenon that is much more widely of condom1s, which are distributted free, was nil.' prevalent. Sterilizations in the Settlement In-Hosital Deliveries The most A total of important factor contributing to this pref 27 sterilizations have been performed in erence for fenale surgery has probably been the the squatter settlement: 9 vasectomies and 18 tubec- great shift of deliveries in the squatter settlement from one's own residence to the hospital. Out of a :'This is supported by tIlservations cited in Estimates Cornmittee total of 225 deliveries recorded amrong the 62 married (1972); "Te decline was partly beause f shortcmnings in pre-insertion women in the squatter settlement, 51 percent took sm tiny and cun 'selling,faultv instrtiion prOttedurtsandi in,,deluate detev- pldce in-h tspital. lionand treatment Ofside-tffetts Ihese lapses probably 'erethecause of discouraging the present users and scaring away the future acceptors." While for women aged 46 and a bove, 30 percent 'Even for Kt'rala State as a whole, the number of couples using con- of the deliveries took place in-hospital, the corre ventional ontraceptives-largely condoms-is believed tohave declined sponding figure was 71 percent for women aged from 9,6,'0in 1970-71 to 6,522 in 1972-73. For t:ie subsequent periKt,no estimate has been attempted of the couples using conventional contracep- 31-45 and 84 percent for those aged 30 ard below. tits. See btate Bureau of Economics anti Statistics (1979). Actually, the proportion of hospital deliveries would STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 i12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 335 be higher except for the tendency ti, wait for labor specific purpose of sterilization and generally take at pains to start befor 'wing for the hospital. This is least a moth's rest from wort thereafter, although due largely to the exji_, iit: ili' of mllay",,, that the hospi- the prescrib. d rest period is only ten days. Usually, tal sends them back home if childbirth is not im in i- nin also ask for a special high-protein diet for sev nent. As a result, some womenu1 have delivered at eral weeks after the opera tion. On top of this, men homle while arrangemen~ts were being Made to shift arc widelh knownu to cimp!ain that they cannit work them to tile hospital. as well as they could beoIIe ipW,,'ratio. ' Women The stated preference for in-hospital delivery is in the squatter settlenwlt, partitula rlv th ise who are indeed 100 piercent among all married women of re- working, would therefore prefer to u oderg;o surgery productive age. 'hey feel that hospital deliveries are tIemselves. not onlN,' safer bul lso MemOi conv'enienIt. Deliveries in the huts are risky, inconvenieult, and expensive. In this context, it is relevant to recall that onue of the Preference for Smaller Families major problemS of the set tlern llis as inalde 1 ate After how many children dot'; either partner decide supply of safe drinking waler,1 aS Well as ioadeIC e to under;o stei'ilizatiim? To nswtr this, let us look room inside most huts. You 'ner womnll like no sn cret of greater faith in d octiis at the hospital than in at the 23 coo poes in s.iu after local n' id w ivcs and old women. Also , if o'mln go to undergone cterilizatien. Onh' I was sterilized after the hospital for delivTry, any unloresee.n co~plima- one child, Whle 0 Opted for stl.rilization after two tions can easily be a dt d -to [ I( ll, Staff. children aild 8 atltr th e' child rcn. .s mn,1Y as 8 un The principal problem in going to the hospital is det surgery after four or more Children. transportation. A taxi Must be hired for about 12 Let us no0k' 10ate he age distri Mil of the 23 rupees too drive a wOilan there. [n :-)O,At llid~vift wtnen ethenumberprotkd of theirbc .terilitathri ,tirviviny (A,:hoildnTl. le or femniale) In theto charges between 5 andi 1(0Rs. per delivery', depend ing on the tille taken anmd the LnllOI ic t iInS arising Lunger agi, gio t .O30ind bt(' ,e,, ; On t of 11 pro in each case. In addition, Inoll, - nctd tiLil have tllh" t(t Crvivil r and special food Lise'd dtrilg htoil' d'liver'. A!I of pt1'tL'c't''d xx'ollt betxt''en 31 and 45), 2 Out of Q have these expenses ot ten eLlual the cost if going to lhe hWO Or ft'wer Sl.ll'Vi!lg Childrc-n. Alo, While Qout Of hospital in a taxi and bou'ilng a few nl dicines pr- 11 women in the younger age group have three or scribed Li)' ai doctor. Much more irin port,, n tl', all fewer so rv i%'i ig childirC,n, ihl' CirTspOIudilg notl iber xvoieil wilo halve been t the h( Spital,. for liveries in the next higher age group is 5 oit Of "). believe titat the' had fll fewer postpatumi coimplica- It should be reasonable to infer a tendency tions and couIld return to work inuch s.ioner. att~lL fi \onl.er ane groups in t01C sttIlemlent to Of the total of 18 fei1a ,L'sterilizations, 13 were 01pt for fewt'r children anLd thLreforL' a small-sized undergone after d.'live v and 5 after ind Lced albi r- fai i.[ culd be Linneil L with the \'titger tion-all in-hospital. Nintie oult of the 13 postdelivery age group's ci n ctLlfill the survival if thc ir chil thLbectomis kverl,' tll-d c'gi-e after 3 or fewer births. dren (Kulkarni, 175). Iri tiis coon 'tion, it is r.'le 'hfe general tenlelcl,, learlyi, is not !t L'xceed a third va nt to note that iotan miirtality in Kerala State as a live deliverv. Four . t)if 5 indiuced abortions were whole seems to have declined drast icall *vOver tile undergone atter ri,r than 2 births, and all 5 abor- past 15--2(0 years.' In 0iL0 -i'ICtl'n tl, of til' 21 narried tion cases were followe, I-\y tubectonlies. It cali S'faltv W1omn'1 ,gd 30 aind b'h '', I 'xpt'rienced no child be said, therefre, that at lilplan ied third or furt loss. delivery tendis Ic'Lk-or a woman not only to abortion \\"hile only 3 it or women \vt't' sterilized with but also thereafter to ,,urgerv. ilo Ille child, 14 ' c'ptI ' sterilizatio oly after Accordig to the nnarried ,lin ite sette- they had borne on' nialt' child aild 4 afte r txi male nient who have u.ndergone surgery after delivery or children, regardless of the nltlmbL'r iif female chil abortion, thert' Was no question of asking tiir hus irein. It should be alddtd that iLIt of tlhe 14 couples bands to undergo sterilization instead. \Woniei go to prteleted by sterilization aftr ii male Lild 7, had the hospital anyway, either fur conflinementI r for two female childrL ail 4 had l rt, ir iore female abortion. In either case, if they uind~ergo sterilization at the sarne time, no additional hospitalization is re- Accodiniig to ii lihw-up siud\ ,,f vast-t i,',v accptrs (su'e foti (uir Ied. Nor is it inecessary to take additional rest ior iioa, 2), while aI,' i ont -thira (if tic cCeptrs hacd c''implaints abut Iheir to incur any add itional expense Oi transportation, oi.',raticn, abitJ nalt thv, ).iniplifitS,if wVa1kiNess were received frciii fewer medicines, or special diet (Velayudhan, 1965). On the ihaii 1 prccl'a o t i c i n n Kinplaiian. i "Inifail indmrtlity cdch t g,',ctKrpla has I. rc rticiulrly other hand, m~enl have to go to thet_ hospital for the recenu t- 5'.'', Krlhiiiri (1971-). itictnable in y5 336 STUDI:S IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME L0 NUMPER 11,12 NOVWMWtIR OCMJ[,LMp 1979 Children. What seems interstimil. tlw is,, thaI King ,ot' women utidcrgoing th r on afler ha'' assurt'd Oton child ale ws important to ;itl- it, I \\I, tor thice hitlrtin. ll '\t', hil-e i, . two-thirds of th iutili's in thi s'eiC rittnt %vlm art' (vt'tbik' lai sk,' a-ptclavrs to b dt'clil, ing, having ntOW protrctedat hast one0C Son& t't'll t'.) K' 1 wIdItC'saId prlt'trence. Conclusion Ref erences It wouldIappCer t1rii this iidt ot ,I small, niiirural (ei.it'l0tV lX' i,!nlt,'nt 'ttudies iri\antirun. stquatter :stttlent in Kr',,i Stie th,it, with the 1)75. "Health indicaitor, ad demographic trentds." spread o tamilv pliint, I LawareneSs 'lilting1 I1arrlit'd Ili P i,trill. Lbihnplliti an)'wiIopcnnc'tant Poilicy/: A mn(2n ,nd women ill to- ilittnwit. -,otihll\ backwVrt ( S'ti' ltl 'c .cdc! bly, with the tiillidet-t' gi ned in ihL survival o----f -- --- L---17j. .tti..iti., for /tljlml/,,,. ch1ildr'n. Ilhi i' ittle i i larger irt iou Lt State lamih' P~iiptIlanning urT,, U, Directorate of I Italth Crices, Kerala, lrivandru m . 1973. "A stidv :A itiltr,0jLjl, . ,i,, rc,. htd b\ .L tld%Uittt i-:it .-iix,( K /15t, t t ft Fal ik P, .1i 1,l li l ti - M 111r'llI, 1:1i1111 flii i 1il 11110l li lh ,, or,~ ' tacoI's liOti\'atiIg tlh ' ilndiVidual to accept vasec- !lent'all\' 1,.iri~ot j , h vi ,i n l' hld M i,lv ,,' Fam ll ,ih i 1mii urcautilV. t (tlJ3).(inta ,hId, , iii , .,:gnili.init onuprfrni K,.il it,.a-. Vela udhlalia, I;,' s ag ,,m l t lh ,. The folloping articledescribes the strategiesof a group of ployment (including formal agricultural employ rural Ken yan market women for coordinating their vari- ment) remain severely limited. In the period be ous family, responsibilities:subsistence production, in- hveen 1963 (the date of Kenya's independence) and comne generation, cliild rearing, and household mainte- 1971 women accounted for less than 15 percent of the nance. By approachingthe study of these women through .paid labor force.' By 1976, 13 years after indepen their inconie-generatingrole, which is essential to the per- dence, this figure had risen only to 16 percent. Such formanceof their other roles, this analysis provides an disparities are explainable, .at least in part, by the importantentree for understandingall aspects of women's structure of access to education. Literacy is an impor behavior, tant factor in determining job category, remunera tion, and level of entry into wage employment. Estimates show that around 79 percent of rural Kenya is primarily an agricultural country: a large women aged 15 and over cannot read or write; this is percentageof its population depends on agriculture twice as high as the national figure of ale illiteracy. as small producers, market traders (i.e., own-account Despite these disparities rural women must still employment), and wage earners in agriculture and identify' and pursue sources of cash income over rFishing also provides a limitedin- which they have some measure of control, in order to come or a small number o people living o enyas eet their financial responsibilities, the most impor- InianO cean oast an around the inlan lakesn tant of which is the maintenance of their families and ria e. an k themselves. Informal-sector employment, such as :: rivers'.. ' .. Rural women represent a major constituency in market trade, is one of the main sources of cash in- socioeconomic and demographic considera tions. Of come to which rural women look. Figures are not, Kenya's 88 percent rural population, 52 percent are available on how many rural Kenyan woen are en women' Also, wmen account for 55 percent of the gaged in full- or part-time market trade; however, < total adultpopultion' overvage7.' It is further esti- observation shows that women account for 70-80 total adult populatio over.ag 1. 1 It is furthe es percent of persons engaged in transactions i the "- .: mated that 90 percent of rural women are engage p t e enaeenta n i full time in farm work on small holdings,,ouscompared engageamarketlace. -.. :; 2 ' with 60 percent of the m en. . ______-_-__._...... ______,__ Although.women account for a large percentage A..... v of Luo Market-Wome of small farmers, their opportunities in wage em- Te Activityof Lu o M a rke t W o m e n Joluo (Luo people) are the second largest community 'The colonial era introduced a monetized economy in which men in K.eny. The) n over one million and live and iomen were absorbedquite differently. While men weredrawn into mainly in the Nyanza Province in West Kenya. Their the cash economy through school education (and therefore white-collar jobs),4 colonial armies, and plantation work as wage laborers, women re mained in the nonmonetized subsistence sector of the economy. This ex- . r plains, at least in part why women came to form a large part of a stable ', ee Kenya, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Central Bureau of rural population, since men had to migrate as seasonal 'laborers into Statistics (1972 and 1973) '., ' towns and plantation areas.: , See footnote 2. 'See Kenya, Ministry ofFinance and Economic Planning, Centra] 'Datafor thispaperwerecollected as part ofalargerstudyon social '4-'-Bureau of Statistics (1978).' change' and women's position in Luoland; see also Pala (1977). The main 337 , %V 338 STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING 'VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NOVEMBER/ DECEMBER 1979 Vioi-ad'tl~etchi- w1ig iis~rud particular crop aind hoard it'iintil a food shorta af a o ~ooasartShortages tend to occur in arun thIeake basin.' The Luoi traditional economy 'the weedinsesna few months before the millet AP~asare~ypatoal, but~over the last 25 years it has or maize harvest. becnMe more sedentary andagricultural, with cattle Women who specialize in the marketing of fish still playing an economic role, In addition to their also buy from areas of high supply and sell to those irtu}ring and reprodu:ctive, roles, women perform of high demand. However, whereas the market important agricultural tasks. They are responsible for woman who trades in agricultural produce lays the much of the sowing,; weeding;, harvesting, and al- " role of an entiepreneur who. makes a profi on pro-, anmlpoducts. .diebuhlt;ai1rices, most all'storage. and processing of agricultural and duce bought at low cost from the small producers,p' nmlrducts...... women who trade in fish buy at initial high Acombination of internal and external factors which (especially affect the profits te c makl hn salries, colonization) has created a number of greater profit accrues to fishermen and owners of.. changes in Luo social and economic structure. : fishing boats and nets, who set the price of fish. 'The, Among'these, formal school education probably ac- market women buy a fresh catch from fishermen on ,., counts for some of the most significant changes in the shores of Lake Victoria and sometimes sell it Luosociety, because education determines acquisi- fresh at the nearest market. Becuse of the great dis tion of new skillsparticularly and access to salaried employment tances to markets ad.the slow mode of pedestrian nthe urban 'areas and transport, however, th rural administrative centers. the fish and make two or more visits to the market i'JBecause . of differential. access to forTal school- before they are able to sell one load of fish buy a, Sng, more and men find work in the urban/formal sector, new supply, Men also trade in fish and have the ad " tv~ ;' 'while women predominate 'in the countryside as vantage of bicycles, which enable them to travel to subsistence farmers ad e t. traders.distant.p markets to sell fresh fish at In rural Luoland twice the price of the marketing of food is largely smoked. It is 'therefore important to point out that carriedout by women." They performithis activity ei- '" market women ',.ho specialize in the sale of agricu . ther as small producers or as market women. Small tural produce are likely to do a more successful busi] producers sell produce'from'their own farms at the.! 'ness than fish traders, because they can travel long local market to raise, immediate cash for buying such' ' distances on the bus without undue spoilage of their household and personal' necessities as salt, soap, merchandise (see the section on income and expend-. sugar, paraffin, clothing, 'matches, meat, and cook- iture patterns, 'below). ing oil. Market 'women engage in the regular buying. On atypical market day an observer will see two' Ind selling of agriculturaiproduce and/or fish in and main types of market women: the first, called joliand betweenrural and urban centers' within one dstrict ' abdo (literally, the lperson who sits and exchanges),. or between two or 7 more'districts. Unlike small pro- can best be described as a retail trader. She arrives at ducers, market women do not sell produce from their the marketplace by 10 AM, for markets that start in the Own fields; they,act as intermediaries between small. ' morning and by 2 P.Mi. for markets 'that open in the,' producers and' consumers." They also travel farther' - fternoon, Normally she has a stall or a designated' than the nearest market and therefore cover substan- ' place where vendors sit according to the type of nier tially greaier distances, sometimes, as much as 100 ' chandise. kilometers She sits there for many hours (between . in a round trip. Astute market women ''. try ' to buy produceduring timesof bumper harvests of a "The basls of ;3;:f') y1. : J' : ;', : " ':):::, """;'' this specialization seems to derive from"the rolOf bumper harvests;: :iI r'' women in subsistec f t n n:lnte tae t herterofa:.; ' '~ ' 'wom'nEidence '', sisfrom farming and in nineteenth-century barter trade.,. ' Evidence fromoral traditions on the preinonetar 'period, esecialiy ' ' ' ' ' -1900,-suggests that women were engaged n barterngofagrcul instrument ofdata clleci n--wasa' •..'questonnaire.),...'' . '..' containing". :...... 14'. questions,,< .friny ' tural and dairy productspge at borde'/frir. n markets (see'Palats,barkeP ri 1977)alri During',~ngl ' ' aimed at assessing the participation of women in the marketing of agri- cultural produce and fsh in rural market centers inSouth Nyanza the same period; men bartered cattle and have continued 'to be cattle District ' traders, The current pattern of commercialization of the labs and oc ..." nKenya. Some of the research topics investigated the historical or- ' Ional skills of men and women in the rural subsistence sphere follows igins of Luo markei'women as an occupational group n the countryside;- closely the precolonial forms ofspecialzation, economiccooperation, and. t~" " types' of markets visited aid conditions of work in food 'marketing; ' exchange, as well as the importance of the 'sources of Initial capital'the relationship domestic group as a resource between household and trading base, -'' responsibilities ardl how they are managed, income and expenditure pal- ' Ili Kenya adistrict isa em market women and obstacles geopolitical entity that was first set up by experienced in the course of work. ' ithcolonial admieiitrativeit'" As Luo and Kenyan herself, the author has also drawn information from was designed to coincide oubservations'and life experiences. The sample of with indigenous structural boundaries wthi'n 84 market traders was ''and/or between linguistic groups and may be designated as rural or ur-' drawn fromn two sublocatlons and consisted of 54 womn specializing'n in 'ban' depending on its physical location. Several districts constitute a ~. 'the marketing of agricultural produce and 30 spe~cializing in fish trade,. - province, There are eight provinces in Kenya. ; '' ', STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11112 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 339 fOur aiId Lighl pr marLkt da ,), seling prodct' in such choicC s ar neitlTr accidentaI no0r islt.LiOus small HiuaSur,,s (ftn,' (d tinv t'aw ba1ket the si/t' su are , )II ll Ic l I\i \<'("1 If lN< ()I J 'l',t. - I "l )u\\ llLTn ,L111ei x1)t r bI I lt ' . I IdI a I* Ii' -ilt'itt iiF( lt i i tI WvhoI fl I tI I t Ii'lI thII IJrI II,LI ' I t l fll-, r~ih i lny L'LIt II tIlI t lt ltllIlll, riIt'itt i t , ltIjtlt Ii' 1. 1,Lt tllt' CIuI 1) M %lltlr %\ith Il b;l , 1I i (MtltIi~ ' I It I , t II I 'fI--t g v rt t II'l t UII tl I) I ( f t I 1 1)u1 -I'll t ( , t11,1n ill welTIl I Igri Iatilt' ttuIft'tIItrsC t l t i ' i f1ih rai Art1111 h i as I t ' i ti l(i i il ''Ill, rt't ('LIfiri'Cdi ' i l nl I i ia i Iit1 I I.isl i u IltI 1>n, i ttsI L, y nIt' 4rt,stu Occpiat,< l \v.,~,f .l 'scc ~ I\,!lrit'lld . IhI ll,IitlnIL ' Ot illllII('klIIt(, Occupational Soci, iization kilit' ;Ilkin iItliIt i i t t h ,d H~tillmmk i(Iltel11 h ' t mI i t ('J l. O il h t Il. lll s,iri.wd , ,i hiird o ,i~~il l ,il h t-wi r , ll r ii ,1l' 1CI ll l l1 Irtl)iI I't' P~lll et'$ lh l i \,()uld~o.uolirnil- hvl , i t hat m,,' , mn ti.lid 34v STIJC:':S IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 Organizational Mechanisms for Work llenbersthl tile hilit to tb i tt' Onlea,nhr'l, Ilbor anti time, ViitI tlI IS!, to he' '11tt'rpriS; ,ntI (d) To ensure ContiniedtiOperation Of thir ijidtivitlua] tti prOvide a sti41pOrtiVt base lOt' 0(1, another's to,.)- businesses, market W,,IIn reSort tO c llitt ive tiwrk. IltOulniCcland SO'idal tar.t',/ They, quickly learn tllt the ptIt'S iit tf 1ptctialit'tl Fish tradt'r use, their grtiip Su11por0t dit.rentl,. cor:imercial activitv inmlp, , siI a dd itiol,1l constriilt IhexV te'ind to ip(,ra10 1110r, ,1 incdivhdul,1 Un it, rat ler ol their tilnt and 1,111, whiCh are alread v ubstan- thai asOa coopeative h\VIl.vt'l, tht\' ustill \ tOCCup tiallY comninitted to farninn, eep ing prt'id- a desiea nra o th,,,-!, .1ntI in this wa'y con ing for the l vtrnih, and (1it1d rearill1g. \\,onlen ,ttell trol onei anlother's sale price". I1-(,, akl, tend to tralvel eXperie'ntCe the it\,ks'ri llvI,Forsliorlhigeh 'I dur-ing1 pe,'ak,.tI hc therCt', )ut rarl tin'', t,('t n thto I th ir agricultural acti'itv (t<}ftt 1 . ,1lly v't',t;i't Ii i.vtst husines, if tiiy h e i,tll, e ,vIy ..\. , in. it t,10ul1 bit ing, 'ving, anti stirilig,, k ii idttit,). lbi., is pr-pitti Hhat thi rni i k l, ,tl'aty,differs ftin ticularly actute when sAu,.h r,eI ,rijkiltuI I,,tiuts thatteltiphCd lwhet 'rin ralder lallly bcause' t the, coincide with illness (t'lL0na1l or in il , im il\'), ntr111V o tht' iMelLandist'. It is rtlat ivel, easv foir death, social visits, recVu1t'\ +- period after chil bilhirth, u,I t ',r to,it'l, ,iii it)Ilk', Ili'ili-Ii to trIlalport thlir and othtr don stic cnitt l , liltut. Itti thisl et iii pt tld t t' Ifi't)iII 1io' 1 L t t,)ni't hIlklt'lll 1't', it',,i ,111l \vtonllil inL~ k 't l tit 'Ii1 - I Let 1!'la,oi .iid1il1is ,t d ,'I n ui ,ttl i , .t ti -ispill' t ', il time shi irtal-g ,t by' nemhasi/ni ,lr tO htins.t'lv's,- , ii.l tkitl itlhil. tih t1ti,i-t-,nt' limlic the prinlCilIL l i t(i~, ,~ \N tk m111L il i int tol a,,k JI li 'ftltil ,h )Iilt'li )III, II I i 1 1 ,k- h I, t 0 t IIthL'irtI-IIllI I' IIl th11' ald coot ealittkitit. j,,k'. / ] 3TUDIES IFAMIL PjLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11,112 NOVEMBERDECEMBER 1979, 341 TABLE ub~toord~r eo m aret vownen s-household and -related tasks ,i~ 5 ~Subittut labor Hibrd Other Not ' No ~~ Task labor Children Spouse relatives applicable response Child care 6 55 112 Waeol e4 38 -7 33c 2 k"Cooking' 4 46 - ~ 17 1.d2 ~' Cleaning 7 37 1126e 3 Tending livestock 11 32 23 8 6 4 0ThIs computation Includes 9 respondents wio cite the babysitter (apidi as the substitute labor. BObysitting is always performed by children under age and thereforen14 counts as work done by children. b9 respondents have grown-up children, and 3 have no children. C22 said they fetch water'thenselves: 11have water tanks and therefore no longer have to fetch water. d6 respondents are widows and therIefore do not have a husband who has to be fed Intheir absetice; 9 do their cooking. ofwn egThese respondents sod they have to do their awn housecleaning. woman to pursue, a career outside the home, she market women's housework can be interpreted as a must be able to find some way of substituting her reaffirmation of the independence of cowives in own labor in agriculture, the household, and herca- providing for their households and in the daily care reerso as tomake all her pursuits at least mangal and maintenance of their, own houses, Luo women i ot remun orderatitve.n do not ordinarily rely on a cowife to perfom domes- I' mostahe striking aspect of the women's re- tic duties, especially food preparation, child care, or sponses is that,'for every category of work, the labor housecleaning. They do, however, assist one another of old'erchildren is the most frequently substituted - in supervising children who remnain behind to as for adult women's labor when women ar iawayon sume household duties. It is believed that one of the business (see Table 1). The contribution of children foremost strengths of the wife's role is her ability to i's quite ligh even for a task like livestoclk tending, sustain the provisioning of her own household with which,iodnrlrgre ~ asam 's respon-' out appearing to depend onother women, A cowife sibility. A small number ofwmen rely~onl hired ]a- may cook for her husband in the absence of cowives bor, while a slightly higher number depend on the because wives in a polygynous marriage'share 'the help of relatives. The low salience of the husband's responsibility of feeding their owvn husband and role in housework reflects the customary pattern in other males in that kinship category from the domes which men neither cook, fch 'water,nor care for tic group. ~small cide.Therefore, the presence of a husband . Respondents were further asked to identify tasks at home does niot necessarily alleviate the burden of they find relatively easy to accomplish either on their work for market.,women, except with respect to hi- own or with the help of a suitable substiftite, as well < mal:husban...... presence of older' children, ''as, those for which a substitute was hardest to ar ~ sodinarilyyregar as amans) enbacwiesterta oanono ~~rp;:~a "~ however, enables~rural wvomien to pursue an income- range. By andilarge, housework was not problemnatic, genatingLI activity, such as food imarketing, for long and a substitute could readily be found. Some mnar - -periods away frm hohe. ' ~ 7 ket women are even able to combine such housework The low salience of cowives' in substituting for ' .as fetching water and housecleaning wvithi their com meca uis owever, a disproportionate number ~ 2'Working "outside the home' here refers strictly to long-distance travel that occurs regularly and requires time that must be substituted in "One would expect ahigher salience of cowives in these tasks since Ssome specific way in order, to maintain the home and farm, Ordinarily, 43 of the women interviewed are married in polygynous untions in which" "Yomei farm and sell produce outside the home. However, the distance the total number of wivesrangei from 2o4, Only 19 of the women report kj beweariand market is usually short (1-4 kilometers), enabling a a cowife as their traveling companion on business trips. I was also toldk ~woman to combine her routine household aiffairs'and her marketing and ,that acowife is rarely atraveling companion because someone. (usually a , agricultural activities within an integrated daily sceueOcorsh cowife) has to'stay behind to oversee daily maintenance while the Marke O sttoleso hpfrom children and other family members.~'-' woman is away on bus iness. - -U_ 342 STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLIUME 10 NUMBER I '12 NOV[MB P DECFM BER iO?9 of agricultural produce, traders (40) rptOrtt'd that flrnI Furthermore, of til, lIlut-r k,(,gt try 3-5 al,itt'ver K Slhs work was the 1OSt diffiCult tlsk to delg,ate to an- I). thu hIgricultural1, l prOduUC, trade,: with thw one, while only4 Of thi fisl.h traders reIportedc this dit- hight, 1 il t':incllFe ''iI atI lat hr't'* t tint's the ficultV. 01n he otlILtr hanrd, 13 fish traIders 'epoted amoun1.t11tL eiF 1 'd 1., 0 fill ti.di'r itli t ,' higlieIst in proCcuring food IS lt' [I1ost probleInIatit a1'0e Of labuOr ,,ilt,. substitt,tion. . iir , pr in t)uinI t iilt (,'t' i l'inmarket This di.Sc''panc' Cii pIttbblkbl ' k0Icttnt' tet tin1-[1t , is llt ,i "ii 'iit;tt " (lttIIt, clt tttintg, by the fl t t,1hat fish h,)dt'rad cIi mo1 rt1 rt'.adil comlbine lhtitlsIoltI eldIi', ti. Ie. ilLh). I ilght--tw r)tespYL1n agl'it-ultutire vWith their \ttiiltl e. t 11ihst'1 t, lm nearness1100i dets c,'pttitt tisii; ik tf iitIlilt' tnt pt'rtillil l ,iII of tlarkets th v visit. Ill tact, th l\ t, ti titt'l't'l tallilIv \\e lt le, 1\iih.l only? tite kchool fe s as a1ma1 IrgCe'y on Igtfri lItuIi1a] p i itt11 lt11 IheIt i. h'i ,Ik 8I t ,ltilit'. lIll,' p n l ti tlt ( iLt'stit . ' \'hv bectslel~ their Ilita'li tl',l.' t 'kItesil tl ' tr %'de, iltfi lid 'I bet kifilt' 1 ,i 1e-tk ,\ t)Iill t ,it' ll II ( \'w I ) [Illi' t,, il.? \ aI>. ilI ,ri b vi' It "I ' 'ov th, INt~l\ fl t I t(i~1,1 11 l i - "t l') I ,II , I~li 1. , I ll l l ' Itk1)I Ilk il 'hI ,ld I,ll el m)IIII I Ctl Urala p )lo rtt. i't il h t' itti ll . I, idi klm.s) c lii iti )1.11tit it Iit v I I I,+Il t Iill , 1t.i'fing LI in J l'idt 11-ll ' it Iti Il h t~ IlkMW I ( , ,i),l it-titll 'llt,\. 71(\ 'llt IIl\ I\,l/cl,tillIt' tIi'd -. t' it.,I I" I tT L work.I 1i )\Iti T . I1Il ; frd. , i-. I L'L1.111 Ci lil 1 ti. i a rk 1 t 1 t illk i a iIIhl liii \ i ult 1 1!al1 idlid ifeit ldat 'I . eirllbic thi in 1,) i 1;Itw stit II/i~ilki t)I -(l'- Wtil -I HLIV\La11 )t\V I( t L I h, l ll.t ,[ llI(l/t'\IhIW V'i'.v i tlh t;', il t''11i kP ofT't,tii t nI \ it. dol IInI-, ,.,\tlI -,('d thw It, , llt)Iu 1r III I(d i to,.,t('l 1 h,'1 "S 1Ilk'rIIv IIn,'in1,liI T l .,v 11n it lIl ile! 10t lt I' i i ) it \l il li'il cl ttillit'ilir , Itil t ttel c ilI ng hllt hillo O~r hire Wldditim mlii- . lt, 1 WI Ct'l \Vill'It l 101,111 u , I f, 1,II 1 t11VILd1 IIl ' > IIItIt'bI l t hI nIt,' l(i ,t h , f i t r l n t it',gufi Ltll u W01mt0n, 'speciallvV te t0rthillfit-.; brought about NxIbithi, P i. 11,72. "l-arambe,' self-help: lIh by the monetar\v ecooul v. It ushers in a nw form ft KeInva apprtach." Th' Alcam Rt'zit':t, 2, no. I (iune) stlucturalllTenlen, withiln th, dit est ic gro p 1,7- 10h. ba'd upon tit opportittiv (or lack of it) to earn M,1i-;o, C. ; )'71. '"lbhi -d eitu: A lohw st,tu1s a-h i llive gr',P il the ,nnr,- pripher.'relatio,." 'aper pre settvd It the annuiI in,,,l t,tin',,\ii,,r Studies Asstcicflil , I)t'Ivt'I '( o. (I \t\''!ll t''. O t),t , Bl Il\\rt'l A\ -. i l,a,,clnlil-li tratioon ~~~~~~~in nl ,; \,l O tli ' ( 1000)(- !Qw)'',. journal ()I Af References ,-ci lis,tn. 4: 24t-I-273. 1L)o7. lstn,,ru (it lh' o tl'rn LuK Vol. I: Butt, :\tdrc'v. 1932. ii,'.\'ih~ts ' .u.' tll-,. "liglatin, and .St'ttle it', t -OtU--11)(). Nairobi: ,ast tii Sua. IAhuo,p_ ,lic ."surt'V of Attica, Iast Arican I tlbli hi I ou11st'. Centrall Af\ric.a, 1,111 -1. I.( doll I1te~ryit\\reall Ati'll ill I tt)k,)tl - )g ,tn d o . \ V. I1 . l1)715. "l i _,n d tt ,nu re lns\tlttit " a.id tile tl'niitttr ,itit'u ot pI'asl t t'cttltillit'; ill l),akvne, 1"N.B. IoU. '" ht' patttrnl l ,ttttlI'llt K l .\',l.",\ddrcss t tilt' lIntt'rnat i, a \\'t 'n's Year in :entra l XVIat.i in Ileu\',a. .atl,ai (;t',\tirtft'r8: lri'iUln"e I'JilkaI ill the Flm Il \lt.o it\, 27 urt'. 183- 19 1. )k o t p'I it,_ek . l 7)T1. it Ot ( ,'i/ 1a 1.1,. IW1til~L)u. (N,ai N l bii ) : Il t :ritli I itt'ratturt, iHur,,u. (rtt.ss-ttulttral lest'artlt~nlt' nlindti iwtnttI)NVtnthi!1i. 1to.. ~tdm,.t I/ti t'tl It ,;ait Lt l'#iI 1!L,'S/di, ) LI.ldtot : }ttI ltlll l. andi clas,.'." l. ,'s lii\'hl,h ' iwltial, No. . Iali, Adc l(h k). I' ':'\ prliinil \ t'Iir''t'V tt 1.I)). ''Nlalrrialt C~ttish< t, tile' lutt ttt \eupl'ltlt'd\Tlties,1950 ,1I rtsItt" ,tnd nk0tW';tr'l!ltsl tua onlttl. n\ttllt'i i il til tie Ker a.' . /ri i 20: 132- 142. \C10l111n1t ill 1. t ,titLt,' t1 I)CVt'l0p 1llerit L-titdit,, LU i\ 'r-it\i tt NOahrtti. llis .-siin F -arl,I lug, Of the , '1 l ic . l t I. AlAu t al t tt,,n/: A .luihl/N Oc 0) II('111H'/ tlh(' .Nt , Prl iI'i "cc Nt 2 I~p., 19)3- /9.1 t xftnd.tdit': Lltivetsit\' lt'tews. - k71. \\rti, it d ' t it hAitpuiitt: An ie tV',u,. httst'phl ii. 1)t0. lhlt' Ci Tcatitli 9 t t\'t't\'ti,, t IlKt Iva. al','k'd Prt .. t ait til' A11illt'll \'lormsigt\ll,'e s :I d ala U llllitt(Y, rid L11t111i 11,11" 0111 \,'01lllt1l iI [R.tL',!I DCLtt'h0Pnlltult, (c;lttra, S. 13. l. l17 . " T'h status of woillt't il \asllinqtttt l). . 2 1--23 pril. KetVa: A studV of plteritalis;ni, l'ittcllity, atld tlt- " h1ag,5 Il77.ill Otttittll\ atld ideol derprivilegt'." ltstitlt' tt Ii'vlltlltlt t,' Std it h f Kt'uvl ,xvith special rfu- Ulni\T r sit \ o f N aiir o b i, lP, us i,,lr ' "X\ ot'l. 23:; . L'nIt to k t I()-iI)-".II 11 1h.I Ii tII t' i k)II, I l nrv aird Ilangerl, ili/betil iald 1tt . i,-s. 11)73. Univet,,itv, I )tpdltl'llttOf\ithrtptltg\. "W\O1110l1 inll , hOtl,'Whtqd cton0tullV." Ill \IWCIIv : ,".)l - 1978. "\\Vom an I)OWL1r inll ~ . Cl''s hrri~vated Ric' .q,'lllcmclt il Ci,'lf l KC1111. IFd. Robcrlt No. (-2 AX~rh-,pril): 43- 4(0. Foo(d mid .. gr-iaulturC Chambtr , and Ion I \ 'I tXluith. \V'lttatlin 'rgan1iz,tion A th LlitCed Na tius, Nl,. Vt g . - "\'t tei l' I to 1111 d a11d their K uL'1N'. \finl ir\'l ()f Finanl-0, 111d 1'icon0relit. lPl,11 I,()](' ill 1 lb~i1,(itul-C' ,111'1 LtL'('i,"it~i (1!! HIh C farmn: tling, Lentral Bulu11 1O tlistics (Nir'tbi). 1972. lIAperieuvccs (it iilut of Kt'nv,." llstittt, it l)O\'t'lop hi)lp ) .qmc 'nt filli I a m C ill ilhc \ Iode 'm .gcctor nitk~hi .Itu d i, ,, U~n it c ,,i !\ ' A) ,Dlr b , l is c tI-sio~n P a I'8- Pt)70. per No. 203. ~ 1973i . tm1 lowa/,clt and tarnin, il th c ) )ulth1,111, ,A\I( l 1, 52. l.'/ca:'." I ,r,tlr l, A.4om,N A10,crn cclor IQ-71. tthi LUo. [.tolld u : lllittrll'ltioll ,\lric'ml lmntitut, . 1978. C.ti4 ttt, Il7ilt': k't 1, 1978. Na i- Sta dt, K ilti I 1975. ''\\ i'ni f n err,' anti it1 rtbi (inL cttpt'ratiitul witIh UIited Nat iluls tildreti's eL1uities in agriitltrall sCrvicts...Riril fricaia, Not. Fund, I]astl'n Alritao Neiionli Ot)ftict'). 29 (Witter It)75-7(;: 8 4l. -....1978. lV , pi il K,ill/ta. Naiirot i. SLlttol I. (. 174. ' l-t s ttltu'lltnt ttf tLast At Krystal l, Abigail, and Acllttl ( t0. I',la (eds.). tita.' I l a lli: A it'I/ ( l st ,Ifricall tlistr't/. lid. 1975. '',itull11 aid t'dlcltiotl." it'k'iiilil,tuctatitn Bttlveil A. (got. Nairobi: Last Afltincl Pu blishing Revicu 2, [il. 2 (l)tct'lbt'r). Hous. Women's Reality: CriticaI Issues for Program Desisn '17rc1fltl'(milllth ss,1(,I-;(t .1\ O bt ra zouij1nst .i Hn "17' /cciica'iii( ,rn 'II,/,:ec > t s ,,ici'cilrc ,l<(n / ,ic I 'e'','veniev I J,.\',.'vr, ,.',r nuu ,t r',,ceg,~ .ile' ththl , i mt'ecftr I ,l'uwll i i I,-cl I I that u / I" N' C U CUiclrc t'c't i ie'sulll't , t,\ ert'nltd b ) sidt'rrd In is'i it I'on i ' ,1' cli' top rual,11 \Vtmen ,S ie 1 ,,uj tc I,O'iOtctei,.ctt ;cc'ricn: < : 'U , men a'- '\ (Vr\in t btt nec t ,lW' tedI in cuaiip! by, el'ia">) ,istile'vptisue, >euit'il ,nidt sulr\vival ,are ecii ct r '., P e'' ii a1)1,etl' l enI c i ci iy eel ls~. t' I i i c ito ' c'/t~.; i tt '' ct'n[l' c it l l hetcs t' t alci ini l 'I i. Ca'ldtt' ,', Iti atitII,"' ian cc ,i ni lea-n t I'iIII' tle' uc;c1r1' l'It'' 1lL cl hi'iewi tt il iptieci sI1ToCtIasp t's of thet j ewl'rfrul allulIh ,I','It' lip' r,'s Iti l I I I "iau','II.. itI (1u-lture,' iles titrural \Vccllluen in tlanil3,la ch 1 th'\i' nplitiCt, thelt /cIl'litc'I, (lit )'l11,i non I t fhe he,Til'lta 'II II ' tcF t iI kind Ocfin lcltmaticIl a iCe'Cl(npu 'nt t uecL tIdsd ill tl' ycail ()I rural c'i'ucicv m -il,t th c''l ' l,' e ioiA'stbcc Order to be,reIcvxint. It is Idapjted t'ecIl 1 ]OIlger Stuld'c aiit aclcirc'ssd. c! rura'l \nl 'u t BI1 ladeh adL the firlst steps f Ba ig tLdesh )rc(cj toti in t LctC,i p rt I11nit ii for I Ch, l ii.' I nt ti't S IIe Ct tI i\'otal tV)ctrI s th1at O1c1 C It'chclis's ,1.Spai,rt of rural devehl pnen pl lic01. cOntrl( I'tc'seI) lst ccIt l ,Inld'shIui rural n\VI t hi the to initiate projeitlct directed spec'itLiCall V rturl iitre cduct iccicct0 mcl and thatherletcre nee,.d te be' wO1ill n, WhthLer theV beI a ri Cultural extenin, in- taken i itcel aPeIecitd lt ill 0i[TdL'Iieil VCStnillet0n in ftOed pd'OLucticci, 0l'iliplc \'ilit'llt, edca tion, 1,1planii, Or Iealt h services. ccne must design sLch]l 'prccjeetSill t Ha\'HaIrir Iwceiuc'll arc' able, ti res )Ocdtol..N Illater l\,.' it the ip'cjct's IOlg rlget obje)L'c'iV,'5, Or Wlld t idclogx;\_ (1'cr licv dita S Status it , the fir 't siA, J !ect ii iy le ,ne ',ta tic ien ,i 'i 1l v\',i vI tik ei' with iti ',Ollfth 'Itc init iate' c'li, ilg_ i- ctccu t t'r ct'i\c'pi et i ion of ',\'lc n ill vii e a lg s thritu.h a Pre1clct, e il 1111st first gr,Ippic with lii .I \'ing the aPjprcIacl cOfprojects in'tended toc the conep eLsttua eer prestige, me'ic than rIach rural \ecllti l oust bep an1a',ariies that par- with eCeenecm ic class. 'I l socill iolOIOhel' Of sttltLs, ticular nwniet, elli ut ruril \e\ iIe's ,- st b.yVbW'rtul.lite pS cecntreelsl th] bthliVi r cit aln'ie11t suchl as tnimin,u trat,,,,ie,. nigra-,t icl paitterns, UrtC nIlee1i' t chi ldrein, LIe- ,ill \\'ell ii illh ili a ' I OneIt,is sek i lt_ te LXtelLd fillcdi c-stuioptiecn LIlt- rL'sOlurc'es It pOcer \v0 tlen teo 'iil thl m tIe i roiiilI'\,C trl's,e u atiIeiio Ot leliglti'rs--ir, 'e peclses toc their their Oft'ileemi:ctedil iI, iC' il.ti iile'rsta/iicI tl' total !eeci 'CcccnecInlii sitiiatl il..lrrei t pI IC ls thii deiheed I e sVs lI it'i t w ay's iin ililiL the\' 1. 344 STUDIES IN FAMIL.Y PLANNING VOLJME 10 NUMB R 11' '2 NOVIABMR DECEMBER 1979 345 offered. Tl'he guideline, a prOJeLct ('oI\, to iitinite The 11nmage of shelter for widows and other de action toward long-ringe '1bjeCtiVe's must take, into pcildet woonie is also prOjctd(dI as a 111,1rk of status. account rural .tVon1l's peiSpterfctyv( t thir sitni- lEVl when Women01 11re i l dI, detelrmilltiol to tion. Thlt perspetivc i, lot baIs'd o l class, minta1lil status Will keep themh romti<)r'l ,1,iil 1--3 het ireC',,.cd I i11 r mlt'\ ' S i1 t,(' . l andt- IL'nll ,l. less adlo small] farmerM'npil . , uI 0 ( ,r ,nl ofd3ill i1"'t\11t lll\1t0-' L' 'ill]t , iiik)II1 1 1t tiL'- rural faililies; they lsi i(tLed teirtn il rom tirit eittd,,lid illrtspis' I l,lk' SiM,"thm \ \' their own land. k\e hav' 1,,unu thrtigh tiltetileti, t,'L XIi 3 Irk> ' I '110 1 I'.1'iC \,' il;l S t3d that ,ategtlri/in<, iiiral, \oi n I)\ lo iL 33\n',rs 1 ti )il I3 3 3l0' "',,3\ l031t1. mllILit) 11)%3' does not e'plil vaillJilns in their r't p-t st' Ita\.il- ltiti l gulotd eC 11 111 i ()t1I 1ttiit l 4'a I dff 1 t)33 it' pp )II ut Ii tlist' ltt lrel''.i'"(t )Fndli L L I)nI l t'ilt h t'i'kI 31t1it' behavior, but t'ca 1t'SOit i.stIlts\'Lil b l)I 4 f, 31)til\,iItIs IIsd,lI lhrtI Ilh tltlIl , iitrt', st 'par,, with iiltLen el t tl' \ l 3 'V3', 11310,t,ltnlilit'- , 133tpir( tit31 tr 1,3;,0 t 31i 11 (3tllt1Clt, nitigll t\p'Ltt tilt,' ntlbt'" s c(t' I close a, polssiblt. tit01 tll',t'i W 'uld iFt"'l t (I 1 11\ 'ttli31l11 I it' l'he image tofrt'l,itiVe idleiess 11ll -Igits \'33It'll'vi )tlI t' tt,b. ''rv l u tt1hen, tilt' I3lVtglli/' HIM311 is prOijeeted by ftainili" i l,31\wll? t iIlttiidt't il IltIsi 331t \t'st'3 1 1 1l tlicir 1,llili 's ,13't' 33311- StAtus. (in a trip I \\esCtil l , delh pL Ir<'t',t s til (t' it'(d ,%ith p ' ll;I ,t -iit ]i ,31)! 1'cLi,(111ict ,I spoke septrate\ t tt'e ll ll.1111 \Vt3'l O~f,I -- (InIl it ' t" (i>lt')!, LtIlltl'\ 13r 111dn pi ( 't ' Pt'i1t1S, tldll'-, ti\' vtfarill ftanl'iIX . I hlt,\vonwtit , ili t'- vht3nho'll it -'tk I Iil , rL't'tIt Lt'' It l rir I Sp()1lst' t ClU Sti 1is t otiUt Ih I thtt'v did, ,t3 kt' \V('Ill'l1. about tht ir clickcns, %('g'ta bLis, rice tt'3'sil g, A l13t)Il 3 \vt t)lltn (el\cl ie,iug tIIlt 11333( 'it and tl like. The eLon, ill reSpolSe t3)the' tulStietl those W1h0 hlIV' 1130t110 Liiu themselv13,tLI t'pt'iltl about their women, said "thL' cotk an1d sew Linills." (11),We have t'xpt'ri0lnct-t1s(i'l Lasic differelces ill 346 SIUDIES IN :AMI'" PLANNING VOtIMF 10 NUMB R I 1 '1' NC)VEMBER DECIMBEFR 1977 response to r'csii,l t- , st that t'0lahi t ditt 'rrirs. Anly tt~ t ttlt't d With Hit' llll'iltionl of in their status l. As,,\1'41tib 1,ic1i stitO 10r d ',vo l'Il inl rllil t,\'(lt pmo lt inus,! tihtol'rt , 1 di woman and hIt f,1amily -t'is to , I)C what dor tiWN' rt-tiv with thc it is ntut 1oIitl -iiII ,, to have to los, byi hciaving 'I" it ll it In ,d itin lost. si,,hIl of1ill rttorts In,roltah th' p)oreSt of the to Status )ul ,\tit'l , iill itdt. ts , it ltl i sil,tlo.III t tillt'! e dtI \lvVNht'II hi Vlue whots' fmnliiu ha ', brtn k\itilut tLltwu, fir i cllt'-- 'tA,.11 l00ilt,,, t'd !) L >' llt'\ ,.lit'lld lht' I\OI\k tthii atinl ort 't w ill as act it tlu ,\ ila\ tt li i - t' '-,tl th ll kiotpla 'i , /i 1 ; 1t.ti< . womenlcI' \\hns-et talnilii's hi'' bt n rt'spt''tail t, ill thlis I,r1 [trldill' tiiij Hiit, 1 r'< i' 1 ;tiiit' thatl prt l't nli! orq rulll n\lltlnaiun haet Inb Or tih l i tlt't it I ,hvli [)iL' 1 r klltli t(tii I i haiil iftl iaIlkt]- v wisllrela, , t ,h ors tl l ur- h Illti\ lil l .ckt t, tkl I 'N,,11 I c kc ivt, \ ti ll i t I itl iI I-\ ' h i t il. tils t t or IOOtl itt h ,,i t l il t 11hl'i I OI , it tWiW r . i, lll \ivek imn fit \ aOm i llt iii \ il, I\ it kLl till\ 011\x M i,,-,,i l titi l' o( Ihe,ltI'sll t .t dttlO, Itl,. filled [-teit M 'r , ik al r,.t'. sliti. ro d ( al it i hit Ini(ts I arillt - jil.k il ! I I h ,, Ili cli.l it o l l fr p o tUl ili t i, ih'll1h Is cenr tlY , th w lg hl Ih ,,\ fnll , , illi, k] t Ih rii. ti l l(I i) m m ilill 1,, i l i., t l StI \ 1'ct .\ i't, '%\ dti% ,I, td , 1)n1,111till'. l, u) l w t i''l, ll , >)11 ('I ) V k,!th 1111i",,., t! k.. It i-. llt ti ll ii to 1( , I i~p i . ilt t ii, it ( l aii idIi hO I i i(k' , tit ti s Ii'l ht- li it ii(1, Iii e ttl tih r u ' / iIIItit ,t ('dl 's , hit1 '1, t\,l l t lil t' t',i,\ . i t -, !is,'t ll, \ ,\t . t 111(,ll-, O l t thl' to Iisll 1t'011 Ihiir liI IW ItI illl i k,[it' ll SIt k II, I 11 l 1,-l- I )(t k I I )IlI 1*,l I tSt'I.\ t'I t'll I U t I thI Cik , atlV I tih iii ih kI i - L ti I,I , '\. ii II i ,'l i itti lilt I t I t, . II i t,I I I I it, w \\ mlt, Itlk [illh 't ill th i Or Li ll, Itl iXlf - J 1 ttilt'1 i t 1 1 1I I III5 tii ll l/ t I t I IIi kI ri 1 l , kinld" , ot k to ways a n f'ilfJlI' tI i , t,h I ll Ii t ll i t\It 1 iV l' I Lil tIti:" l i1l \ Ilt'I "ti,,l,' a tl-.cll ' < i' \'l %ith W ic fo Ci'ti t nlIk ' e,' Iit itilit'slit '', lI L tit I Iitilk l fit Ii it skt,i ll ct t ii- II tia .,iq. ptiiitt I\i,,\ tiojial i ot til H(it I 11i' 1ii 1 tht k i lt t n/ ild. ,tl 1i,1 , ()lii L liiat~ll ,.,It'lli. hi. ri<'a11' t s)ti I lkpitil'rIl I Ite1)dll \%ti ftJl it for how\ well theyI- I t n -t'I i tt al ill il Is v ittIt.til iit i', ttr 1 Iit i t at',1 111' 11it' \ lVr1e 111igh willinl til tilaei th,n haliIt i' ,tisd t ith hit i t ti's tiiI ett Io tif I"il' iI tiui ',aI t sp,'to lu. I b I\ItltIIii ftitrd i ' l tiiflhuliii I t 'i' ' 11 N'hdaI- atid ul tei'< nt i atllltur[lil' hard\ tIist' lt'ttlt'titl'- irk ! l itr lti' :llilt's,,('i,,lu as \r itt i t r t d'r ntl ign lritnr ' lir i gi\ i Ic\. \\11dI ih W 'I- LICIt'l l t ll " , ill 11U1'if Oth tlrS. A lthk LIuglh Iht k/lt f k \ Vllt,) I l I 1 ,1V ',l tl t " t'I1 fi llI 111111 11h IibI l Ii Lht) VI>, h'll (A pkl IiW I(t, I l d Ittilt ( tilII , Il,-' 'ltkI " i t tl \,11 1 ,1 \(\vII n , i itl bNy Sucietv a I Lli'rgt', tht'\Y kn m%\\.,I t 'i, \\ ilh in t lt, tiil i kII,,11I lllt, It' 'dC H tti~k ~"Lilt'I. Iit vi%t ,i I III -' IiIll t ( f 111C irI- W ,r1', W() r-11 t( - , . , \ .( I~<_,~I~t('h llI IICt , JI Lt' I't ~H\>n Wt(Ci ' ,i ',II t)it ofH five or ,i\, can nI,, Ii such 'Itrit purd h, but what social \'lhi,. \\'onMrn ,.ithinlut meln sirlipl,' c,lnnot get is importan t to r'ei i-, tht/I ma nv \'illlg'rS Iook to theLir niinev''s worth Ir their rii lt, Ih, is S why the these h ,saJui the'I, Im , prstrrI)St iions d respectedi ttest I I ni ,a 10,111'\lI lib' is meit1 ,11npport -not h tot he villag ,- 11id to hi' way of life, hr sari lk b t lk ht. tarni h- 1iokti [bt bt'cl Iis woCeln as1the Imos't Cdesiralde. In1tact, theli'\ do notIt like 1is inilti'iIIaIn f1r h pi,1r duc-tioIn. to 'ee ' lapse ill the b' ior ot tlht'Ic' Wollen', aili it there is t11 it \\ ill take t in ' htolr, tilt, Lnilv's pl' tigC Can11lit' rest red. AlnolSt IIvil,' ixonin i~pir,, towrd tlr'dih. lAcept for tlt'r' pool ' I haIo, II, choice but to Women and Income woikiIrk in otler houii"l' q, [Iet' 1t",Le, tl iiOri Illlot ti r rral iV llillt'll P . tit , piid[ lh in a \way thati 1 I l ic iid I,l, it. i )n c1ril' the 'iiIP)i1\ .c 111iv is strixes to t IlaIu1tt' !ne idea'l, \ve ha> l, itiiilit o, that tile afllow r c Iw malt'Ir IindpItr\ pcit. he, tI malII. fo rta~i nl ecdo omli r ea,lit i es it il t',t l li i\ sit- il n,, ,!lit',, ti orlt th ni hl' t i l t i~k e''. ,a> s L.IIt iInI. I I stI oI lt'I IwI a moVlt1t I IrI't'th't vithin a tIaIt ofi lit' II \ itler. II Ili ( I ,I.r Iral tlltIn'I Cluster of1cInii LdI,--.u,1ll,, ot related fli -ili-,- workulunli, ,it ( tI.tiittn worI l ,r i ,,i )lt, e\ when ll( areItJiVi the' fields or drt i It.hI Ibtin( ll\t tlic'e. lt IIII h"II, ll kxt nI' - Iit" , t tIIi \i ' , s a t011p114ild' Iredthab,1le' I[V shtltekreod pLths. I ay e Ihnrr1. , ,':-i i lII.t dat 1 tn1t'l1tin 1 111. It lill open fields and public ioal xvhiicli, tusim; \ e r- tI\' us'I i,ItIt. I 'can t,it; it thi'\ i' s nilii\ \lt' nissi's trm inlogv4) arit' 'malit "-pace<' (1I7'S). \\oninl t'inl speiil."- \ht'n si,<\ "\V' pi ,\iti, "- PIhaplsV that is Lii nol t l v'tLlra, rt- Ictil t' p-ac, p IsI tS toeI t'as I n i ition i, t i nii\ il"il i'ndt'ntv to their par 'ntll I .. ncS \t sLchk Itin1 tile\ w ' LIr- 'TI lokk Ith, trnuIg 'ki f tli- ,'t'r\ for. \v t it, 1to \,IhI if: they ca(n aff rIll i Ie'rd. It tt. the'V ay i,\1t'\Cotik k \''rv-t (iloti at iil' x lll)Ielforell " livs V.' their ft's, andt bodie's vi th a sill,u rangt'ti I Ka,i~ ur- riot ice, that ma ii;l xvo klh and shi ,ld tht'mst,\'lv With an umbr ll II o incomet(, oti( oL vIrit'. k,.ind it lted xvhi calnnolt affortd thit'sc svinbusl of1 nld'stv tover i dtesig;l programsll/ tii~it wVolt'Il \\ill bt' illing their ht',1d5 an fct's .; I lt.ch a's po.s i hlt with plrt id Ible o, take' atIt IIakt' of. tkilt' IIIII'st know, as 0if the, sari tthe\' are vI'arint.1. It can Ih stll, then. \vih mluch as poSibh ttrIt lw Int wh Ix\lllI[ , in rural Bangl,adeshi wttlen lirt' st, d,,peltint oil men. 1tiit'adictitIn (it the itLl. ,- art' ta rnIn in I llte arid ,'a inlttenancet of putlll mea' diiect access to ti hemar'ketpia)ce,. ,,\ t't 'F V turn it 0 - Ii1gh . 'i1iut hk. ..i ,, itt i-ti. ''in-i.. ii t.,'l ,Iti i ctlmes up against te-c il ida,1riet,.- pat . lvi ichi llki in- i11ililt't .I I-hi' i .Iit, th ,i I thil ir I,, ihi' ter diari, are, riec essarx it it is tot ind a lla rkt ,tn'L ,ItL", i . tt i' llT it i, d il. t. . 'd -\thiit 41ttr'j viVI 348 STUDIES INIAMII.Y PLANNING VOIJMI 10 NUMBR 1 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 condition of the whol, fain lx. However, nan x' rural rich fa ni'lv max' distributt Used cltig, provide families, in this situation of dwindling resources, special foods for iexpet 'dicaIsions, 1'dfirni- even those inWhich ma111 i1i em berS are working as ture, pots and pans, andCeven ri'naenti, for wed laborers, wil! tolerate great deprivations beore suf- dings, and provide countless Other lonf 1assis fering the loss oA status inxolxed in Alln", ing women tlance flr which the labor ofI the poor'er voMiIn is the to labor. ''paxiIIent." lIW'it' Il1' lie h0-s loss of statls, illsuch What is the wOrk Ot laboring womn17? lhe most an arrangement than illa 'V STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING '.IOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NO'VEMBER 'DECEMBER 1979 349 materials. In some areas womcn tna kc fishinets, spin Womecnc id icate that t.his is a matter of the character thread, or make bidis (a kind if ( igdr) bv cn'tract to and behavior of hidivil ual husband.s. They say that middlemen who stpply the raw maitei ials, incI Lidilng if husbatids are "good,"'ViLll Can trust them to ill Some cases the spinning wheel. byiv and sell Wlat they' rIclhest . But if the husbands W't'len1 WhO have greater rest;ilrCes il\ have arte ;i good,' xx'tiOnien trv it sell through other only' li q uid iestiurces have' Othur, though not ,aiwax,, w Omenor through venlors. SOlle huIsbands, they mitre prodtlL tive, Wi\avs tltn /a ke o 01W.e Ill,\' illav sav, are so bad they Will take Wla ,vtilr lhev call. keep small ht1ps in tlleir homes, or tle max1'\ stock I lItW 'i WeItlLlt'i 5ptlding tilt' small aiollltS Of rice and tther ctlnlod ites until the prices go upn ilinle, the di c(10ttl? Vttllt i in very poor famli seasoIlls of r'ci V. (Iux' I 1xV btIv tht'se c,111- lies anid those %%ho are heiads of houseold Lisually mno, lities direcly' frOm tith- Wxom0n in ihe village or spend wxhat they earn oi iimeldiate, sLIrvival-that through int.'rined iaries fttill the market i save them is, tiaily fvtiw. \1t0tie With ltiltre 11111eV speild it Oil froll tlvir xn tore.) tlit vttnleIt hld I ic' tl. ill- such txptq'lst as small IItLIsehd nce'ssities like oil terest; oifr tht lend mint% ftor inlterest, tittirnllt, ill- tr1tap; ,ill t es aild tithtr c'dLIcatihnilai expenses Vestillg il local busins,,i imt'tiles ill laud as fur their sitil,, emterg'u'cv i'e\Is like ntediciile; re- stir't\ , xhttxtn ia thrtiigi libttt'rs itl IasJne land froin Illiirtgages, ltasing land, bIy iilg the "'iOt l"er'as 't'FilIt. In olLC village lear 1 ctitage land kr a 1ioist';ts toil their married daugLhters; wxeavilg indLIstri, \i tutu't all classes i es ill nt1ev sLipptirt ftuthe1tir widiIoed itlers, special luxuries ill tile 'caIVern, -'ttill!, clhat 15 t ,ki) min ll in- alt tL',tas for their stills; tirnaneilts (i.e., personal teres fol1 an inxt'-.t ltit i lt)t) takI',. linilarl\, assets) fOr tlWII es'l's.\With tileir oxxiln nllinev, WtlelY IIlil x,':la ViIg tinilies may l, nd Ill1tev to WOileil ar,.' abe tot ileet faLily emllerlgencics if the\ farmlerLs ill SiWtix'g ,istOll alld get ric as illcretS. As aise and to prtOvide fur fanlily setturitv ill coopera tile woma1 said, xxllatc'er illilev tiil'V h lt uihld titl With tlheir husband or perhiaps, onc in a xvhile, not be idle; it sl1,ld be pLIt tot, work. ill <*pit, of hin.ih'V are able, t speiid niolleV (oil ob It is inlmortant to eiilphlsie thLa maLny1V t f thIese ligations xxtnitn especially feel (e.g., for tleir iilColle-pi oduci lg activities are be iig carrie d til dis- llthler's or dauLIghttrs' Well-being), withOUt haviing creeth'. Th\ev are lt a secret (except ill a few cases") to ask prmissi mi frtlm tile hLsba nd; tley are able to bLlt tlev are not ,0tinthilg to be tia Liuted. Thus, Liil- provide for tlhieir own security whein it seells at risk less tne hIas ga illed tile, ctilfideIlcC Of rLiraI Woilell, (t. . if divorce seenis imm inenit or a ctx' ife's chil tnle illaN not see h,\' 11,11 x'xoilel are irnvOved ill dren are getting more 0t the faInmily fiilnalnces); aild earnilg incoie or are iilterested ill domig so. A null- liev t' able to increase tleir iilluIienIce over deci ber of rural wxomenlwith who xe h ve discuissed siOls il the faillilh. incoile-genera iirg activities 1have iind ica ted that they xxere not interested ill earning IlllOiley if it woiild have t come thlroLIgh the hands Of illale rela tives. I ilterviews, wel have he'ard of specific at tellpts wxxoillen hIave illaC to conceal ilcl(omIe- Social Change without Program generating activities froill their Iusbalds (Wolliel Interiention usually told us What (tItrwox'lnen have liotle.) For ex ailple, One WOtllan stoicked rice ill anolher woilal's In aInlost all tLtir illterViews With rLiral xO'itfll en over hoLise, while another woman had a neighbor raise a age 30, the woleI Offered i11sOliciled cominents On goat for her. One xvonan secretly sold riC ftOIll her chalges tileV had experieilced ill their lifetime. own storage, vh ile 1notler has optIled a "pail" bus- Mostlv these chlanlges 'wererelated to age at marriage, iness with her yoUng stll ald has told hilll it keep practice of purdall, edIcatitlu fc" girls, and the do\\, their earnings a secret froml her husband. Moist r\' svsteIii. Th'ese ale SOllt, poiilts of direct impact oil vonel] say that tille\' hide their savilgs ill holes ill rtlral x,,tllUei's lives of larger forCes it work ill the the balboo, ill tIe rootf, or Uinder piles of cloth. ectiloniy--rapidly grtwing populatit, increasing W\'hat are tile reasitils for secrecy? 01ie is tle de- fragmentation and alieilaltiOl Of laildholdinilgS, diver sire to save, Wollen have said tilat if their husbands sificatiOln tt) siiLir-es (if ilIciile Olther than land. As knew there was extra ionev aroiLlund, thev would Leilerat1e (1l975) carefully describes, changes iin the spend it and work a few days less if thev ixere day rLIra] re.,Soulrce., base prodiuct, changes iil social prac laborers or give womien less for expenses if tller were tice to take advaitage of lhem; belief s'vsfeis are wage earners. Some husbands, if asked to market an concoilitantly revised to support the practices of iteml for their wives, keep the money for themselves. those who conlrol the lost resources. Thus, lew 350 SIUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 / 12 NOVEMBER ! DECEMBER 1979 patterns ill educ'altion. marriage, and practice, Of pnr- ,e.iv,.d I- "IrI'ILtihit''," reli\ ptir'dh rt'stlric tims to dah sh.uld, if theY seemtohe0 successful trategies tk ,lci ta tl e1o e tll,lt arV o llid'red for deplovmnit of womile, prlduce,, chllg",s in helie llll', Ilit- ,\ ". t 'I "tindrd in the villae Oro. systeuls, mn nl rilterii oltr sttus, reChtl to Iv ll's the initepret'l tioo 11 pilirlih thit will influelcce otl behavior. e,1. l.,iI tLit tli,t dependelnt <,lIt n fro,01 well-ot f Ir Ill rt'ltiiii to ),c it 1,i1rriie , niost ol',ide l i n hi, ilm iiies h \ e, Ill it -itv,,irs, taken seciretariial. rtlcallId h11iig1, K, i m rLi d, ,it II1 1tt ' o It" trii1inIIQ ,i Id h rt')t'trl '1,L hai& giv'i that job tvars f rtlt' li s 11',('t o Ill lstrtL IlAI l Ill'\ ",I\ HIMhat s It , S( IIthlt lii'l \\ti0L l011n \\IliI V 10i'C ill I te'd ,aI'lr mIIv,i,r , ,I i'N,' 1 I i I i . i Ill~lll I , to i g i l iu t Ii%,%Iit 1 rI't ,tIililti,Ib in ,ilo , o Such ,djLIstii u(i it' t, 1t0n lh r- illiIlll didt t fl ,Wirk. Ili~tir\ i~li', to.,s thaI ha!,n1g'Cis possibhl , but hal, time to) t del, kxp liii m\ tersoilil\ l wl,d oe iilist he' Vei 'lli i\'i' toilwli' it is pos ible i olle still , nirllell i ' i.t,', it i tii;ide,II ,il , twasteAit W titi later Ilia ihi,] -,il', - I ll'.k , t-ilililli'ilIII' gki tr-ilr,. c ,iItI iLil I IItiiilthai st'c'Ln il r' 'd wh arcf elail i l 1oxiiL L ou sl,il ti reF(i-l thi'ii" lritii (1"orI tI i t'll.,i 11 ug'h still ver Li i',ligi l.', is 1ges 1, 12 kw P). I "li i 11111li ih'td kin I til('I) I I't', a ill ih ' in lease ldvi siicialt elhl~I,-lllll herel't 1 tli li' eh ,r 1tI Ill , thllersc li Iled ii i> no< fiir tIlIul. If Ii'v a I t' II I1 ii (h1i,tlli'irt, iII ilit's khils.!ri.ct girls,('' ) d, how'VTr, ,Ii'V ' \' rI . W ill just ill'the(ir lit II I i lII ri.'II 'I!illt'Iinl th IWI' Ii' (lhiti it'L- Ve c l .i I , iir l IIWf eT il hevi tIo [Ihlt lii , tl I I I IMil st ,it' Vxill take li'iii Ill intot had ll )re th.LI la ''tarl I ' t wt i ii) i l \t, I ht:tuI. %lOtus schOii)l ifa l ) d If rtlI)g.' 'tr is tr I'I,I Ilm Fn 'ir weIre illi raht h11teY lv ' 1 \,irIIvtOt (\p ,ilIatililS fam ilics iiich x\,t Ct in1L' it'll t-i i' thatit's VldiikcW f l leIr .lirf(k kIut itil k I . a it ill' I 1h ,11d, it was. rr i s t gl ', th ini -sill-ll. i'i.a; iil , listi tiliu f'; fItit PLII iii u1 lii'vtId ill t" girLs having Ith ir dat erIx,,Ills ill at ilne. 1tih\ nt I lhI'il hIshInIt it; iI c-haric,girs eI At h 1 u'haiig'lliir.1 'ititii';viliii'n I-II Iill is theI I I 1-sp i tIthi , 111,, I I Ivt1lLid s inIIIrlc Axai ut IIt p kr-I,i lIh I c%'\ iit i i i liduki hi 'Itt' h ' I i I I t-c)i i ilI I; st i I Oii IlIt]il,n ,li. Ilt L Ill'11 illlpOrtaict'C ( dt p) uI ah lift uk) I l i/c, th1ai it iS b'ing .AllI 's I, II,lniii r ' i \ ilg,). Ih tll \w uld sui',C ltei'J Ill rIt' 'ctI in I\l s Sii Ml t' iiit'ill 11t11i Ilaxa\\l- t I'li iitli'.' lit'\t \%I')1rd. 11ti(-% illd I' litir h iish'ilids tio nl w h ile' 11h (,r, 11.1111)( )Ul iftI iIIg IiI ,k t l, v ,III inIiIII i I l IllI,I i1i1c td I h< litIIIll11 IltI\\ ()[ittld I0A, i I IInwxht'l (T'r icl\ilhltg ' , dIt'(Iti i' trill ) hu tI i i'll\\ pai'lti I. \VIV M. I)11' (ISIr(Tt )11i 1u. -I , . %\k IInI IIi Wv~ 1,1\ ,'Vhald A 1l 1 hI1(I" \Vo llt'l I-(l-t IIl I It tII\ 111l - g\ V' 11 to( F I p)LitrI'd,ii It, illld I , t 'r I( I LI kIS. ) I'ti'd Ilktt lf llu hO tlh ir LI,tIIlli~,11t(1- I .I', 't \fVdlttcd to cientlh sSa' tl ih'ttiw'v t' i -i' o, "lii li'silt.' of but tuiilCt Iiti fItt i ti t'It'l li't IC%\ I\Slil s (tate work. '' 1ar,In t< IIfkI u" It[,lldalti' that , '1irI-1 -v 1f tht'\ (.10 Ilhut hL t'i ',i .1t,i . t i JIM], t Itit S SayV w.h(i arlt'go Ltlk abouNtIfI p tI' I'dh" ling aga v'lid a s'cltif til -.-t''lls Iii h , ' K linic tukl'nI t t'hIavitur)I I ciat.Wdt or tht' (Iii butrkah the past'higher ichtu iiUkiT fiillhi!11)t With SitlI hiS Ii IIit'st - hi',i iluIatiIfI II in\ IIlith the giIls Was .saidC t, 1)1,iIIp i,ilc' ht.,oIIII it \lt\ / STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 '12 NOVEMBER DEIECEMBER 19/9 351 The changec that tdiciil Itisl &ittittll af iit ,i 1-,itI hiti t hlt\III l i i L, tlr1I I ltI - t i V t I ,Iil1C )ilt.ittli I 'tC l .i.I Y itL tg11 l ii /.,slit ni1 l t I k t l' ) I ii(i' t Ihh \ hi ft'x' I i I t It b it idti t h iitwttti,I ' h i t I ii it lIt',I i )v.tc ta It' ittlll Ic~lil ii) I' il VI il ttI11 1at ii i t' W,1t IIs t i d iIca )11h t'1 ' it it l t-l'I,t' I' Iih, I Il ii I 1 i'il i' 'm 1.it I I ,, 1. 1toi I it '>III I It I (tII IIhltlI- Ii,IiiVt ' ihi"he Sp 've lit(d lli ( '1, ill t L ll tirna is i %i %\,I, lilt' t it , 'l I flh'l'' I i ' iti.,l'ti'i' 'i st''Ul'll.H hi,~ Ii, 'tittt hlt~ tIt> i hilttIX H Ittll~il4.' i itii tlitu FathLu' i(s hIW,' t1itlld\id ih t It)'Alsi it i i v il, I\it'' . itl aI ! '.n0vtiii',t t i ,\t', t I ,i,,'. Hl~l'it.htl 't i(ll,ill* 1' l lit'tt uit h iI l,iv i llli'll ,lili Ilil t rIfit't li Iht'I t -' i'hll IiiLA' k I It I i1. ' tlt lli . l'fiti ll . lilt"'Li l t id It' sit i kiI'itlifiki l . ... .IIt wi' l i ii-,X/Ll i'lw' i f(tt .t 110'l0 1111I[I I W_, W-W l!It' is I\l' t' li'plt' tiela s1 il i' iitth.ti ill IllI'\ 1 11 'it't if, it iII f I LullI!titi, ll it'k i t-,, Ii \%,t111'liw ill - 1 ,ilI lit ill '1l l(t l II,iltlil) lliiiI. l tiLii m li' i mtll itllf11 1'\t I )I I L!0if)1110 ( Iti llh~t' ittdlt i it iliW l4 i1t 1ti tIi Ill k iI , til, l ills t I illlt t1 1 illtii ii ''Ii! lit. it -c l tIitillm il t it lt l vil)l t t t', t iJ til ' ti s1Ih a1ii il t . I II t' uli Ittlil 1,X I Ii' Il,t 1l il1t. Wti 110 1110 bo.'6 1W Wstpltii/.k)III\rh,! ,. o I( Ihdd,IlV( I tt ,,i pIIt llm t 1.( ,tI. ItrirlItIik,,t I IitiI . thII,II ll~uhh dk'rtlik('l\ It) hlt, 11ii~11 ,,'dt IMtiI ll'' A'lI.TtUI 11\' tt,'it< lll' 1f'liIt.ll~' Clthl l O Cltiti ai ih"t 'al'tlln.i -tt -lllt1',01V 0' t' l\ 'n i ilt'-( !k I\t t'k.l' lilt t'1]1 1 ' lIit' 1hii tiaIrltu w htell IrteslM i't("I' 'l'o,' 0 Tth'r----llt . til'\ ( irrit~ck !,Ir.)1 1 ' i i,,lh,,w ill [n Iliit- (11 t 1 AV, t'litl %Nle('IV' \' l Fri l( fi'lliv • lt )1ni. V V v 1 r t Ll't,i1l [V \0t1t01lliVt1i I k'l\d.;l- M llIt"IVl~lt g,11'to 110lt'VfVl ' W1lllt" Il,t\ N+i'Ill(rIl ill,, Hit, IIIlllIIN 'l -:] .. -t,.---- 'P---7...... (, ,,vI'L-1t,,It l illnti'tu ill , i(lllct ll,1, 1ldw orllt'h tV I I( I rt . I rifI L '111 1 l oi lhi~ ilit" l ill ,)tt l ll' , [) )ll t l ilkl qll- int" tl t w { t'11 k''tit ' t'ii 'lIt lllt(PIk t l \'tk i l ~tIl't'I lio , dil illl(V i ill(lit, IVOi,1l . (hi t lll f~hitu' 111111- rurl %\(,il lt It 1ilh1(lit i~r,llit",+ tut"'t. in .ber tl(d c n ''t iijwn %n%v Inll' i1ll11 ! tv 352 SIUDILS iNfAMl Y PKANNING VOIL',M 10 NurMB{:P I I 12 Nv[ MB! h' D)CC(tMBe 1979 and development center sev.heral miles trotl the vit- Itwar, col bating the t'aditinn that status is ac lage. The project entitIes womietn 1t)credit for IcO- corlded for idlnss and strict purdah and toward in nomic product ion; access to0 modern r,ai,ing, cre,-ing theL ati e (It' WOviifn. supplies, and services tor upgradiiiLo cononiC activ- (tfc(uise', lt' projet Ihads a hlg waV to go and it.'; anLd inlprlvLL fa,mily plaunIlliPog and heIalth pro- tLces mnyn pro'blem0ns as it develops. Bn tiltdir,,ction g rat iis, in whih it k>mo0ving see alppros priat, i)thv situa t ile project n tehr A villlge' withllot thv tiol as rn;al people, perceive it.<\lthough oM iuigtl approval of villae leaders. But onlc, cadlers have have ,lntiCipated r'Sistanu'-"iCc v'ih)ges Lb.) n)ot re- :ianctioned a crVLlit/iproduCtionl instiltition !'Or rural Vel their pote.ntil, for dlang, unltil n'w resoOircc, s wonen n hl etir villa llges. idiviillal m 'ers ot tilt' are inltroduted, the, reponse e villag, InCI anLd grolp callat1to llit'V.ttheir 0coi, ine s they t'li ha,', been po-tive arid 'l'fs lftoI'\pa.nsioll COUld Inot have done alone [bet a'use (t S,IttlS consid- has been1 stt',Liv. l Wt'r, Ltlirctr IprOgLss ill ii erations. iincc itrl'lit is niei hir i.;hih, etler- Iet'iIg Itmr to \VIltme'n dtepelsI on1 hV Sub prises, WiltrII t > inkec) (itttk lit SO o i llic bacI'k- stantive the ,.dvaiag arVIl,1,iII lnl)peting with an grounds, ;kills, 'V'ls Ot CdtiOill, lild ag's Mr0 able' o(ld, t)Llgl dl . t \iid1. thllt, lfcour.I', Lit. to use it to piL'SIle Ihl etlnli ve'mitlirt's that thet.'' peMLlson how mu h planners arV willing to inve t in C()lsider appropriaeh their1 pr',t sitluhtion. For deCvehplop1,l through womllol, LXdll [2)it', Stki tWJ IV~tta i l \'V(",t kI r-c~ ; n ric ,, or making pottLrV, %vhiht otis,),r II' ht. 'i Jig taIthrs, parameLLdics, Or litib'rat\' cichtis . ----- tlhe' f, tctth itlilt' g;!ttri dopt'/im-. Itt' its, t'\i- ltoiiLt' FkI. I1I( 1.11,1I ,tI oi-,III I tI ItII I t IIILRe fe renc es (includin, ne'\v eoitr'kM I1.t i. I t'-Lilt t.- l',t' ;0'pi' senlta/tiv , tli'\elin.M to,, t aIuii'*'ItI'll tti t'11) \\t' 'k. anLd that obtalillinI lwtilin, p l iidZeidtll, AbduIllli, laillt'rln,-sa, ant Sonira uedl skills VoL ires IL,\'i ilt, illg, t go" ong dis- sit i iUi' jX',,i i I,Htu, lat,'sh:I1.r)ti t'ts for a ncs, sn tions ai Ittt li ,,o pnlh Il l V\ Iltlult,' .I.\t rd = train i Pn'ss (tcrth-t olning, 19)8. even g~iv e,such olppo rtlinitiet. <,Onllt, ,t tiu< th e Iiaind(,nj-aiim, _-hirley'. 1'7 . 'lihe value of Intite oL 0 tilL, instihitiom iri thit trill~ig.:. tttt'rs> ,llternati\ L,, \Vt rtil.In l/'il\,al 7ri:ih' 1 //i,iuil1 20//i 'it/11-ui! 'c't',-- aC C'ttllplssit'htdtus II)thNIat his ttV11la1,st 11lnsing:,lri'L 01 siulilCl pt'sI, Asia erie, div(nrctLd \\'OlliL' illtheir JllLt,ll hItic-L Who) with- Mlichigarn 'tt•hL i\'trsit\. ,\sian Situdies (enteor. out stLCh on institlutior, \\,mild have naltrrIl, ,ti,ct M Ilin i,. Fatii... t)75. Piwmelt lt o Vc'il: total depCtL'ICce. \ tht- s ilnt'it, It 1-rOvides tjtii Mll/C-I'uriIll' Ipiutnmic> illa .\ leloli .\hln/i)oc'.. falmilies sl1IL, rL'lit'ffiom sotial tnba risietit Cambridgt', ,,iSS.Lthenkrai. would furthLtr thvlulL' ttIlir daiml-Itr- aIMId tllil thL' 1e0ieratln', S. I-.'. C'' icro stLudiCs, (niphoy added tctlltlliii burdLelc il d grti 11 ddiMI!1 t1,10i liit'liid0 st(att'gi'tt yl p'lCtri - -1t,."Unipu [lished. BeCaLuSe tiht' prtiLct aLddrl,,s0eS tlt' ilitt'reSts It womenCI anLd their familits in iIietaSL'LIC 0ectmliic I'- Sources \WithOult liss tOfthe Stttitit'CtOlitll' IS;as't tt t,- spectabilit, Wti r bIt rt'spond to anlditake At,\wi,.l1, IS I.,'ll-,is stud v \as 'tiinillis advantage of them .'\t hL, ill;,SI tiie, thL, tliruslt Of sitnedc by thte Rural 1FmTpIt\lOVin t PoticiLs BraL-c the project is tomard changing what is ac-cepthdLIs rt.,- within thL, frainewtirk titthe Il() World iii plvyIent spectable for wolilei. That is, a11,111vy.,'iltll ta i join lProgranlnlt,. Additional financial support was pro. and from benefit this projcti wiitt h'aving thit, \' il- viith'd ' th, Austi-l ian governlmen t .ll In D. lage, but, to the extent the project SUtLel S, it works ROcketfelLr 3rdi. From Research to Policy: Rural Women in India Vind MazIumdar lT' /olloti ' a 1 -lrtihd's rirsIrt11tlitI/ ' a a r I twNIII 5 11))71t thltI. n im bt'r If II1un workers a',muti'.: roh' it ilt'uclti~inu.t in litit tt h1t rcsl'l agriculture ina d',liiied trimn, 31 to} 25 million, while /roMI stlai0 lII rural tqlo. iircctli . I! ttIa /Is te /, 5- the ntinb'r of i wIrlt'k i- in reaId by 34 million. 1 t sitlitl if ii('wt'ot' fn1 r's'ar;C II rIo1/ it tti to t/i, In the n tnagriculttral scctor, %%0 n: ivtrkers dt' 1 Jormii olitiiif /),licl aiiitlith, lt''(it IiI ar/i\1rLt lCt,: CIscined1t trotI LI il ion Io I 1 ill ion, h ilemeln in- into acco nt /it' rt'litil ot rurtd ,imtt's li t'>, CReast'd from1 33 to .i, million. [he ,()tal number of men wiOrker, iticreaetil b 27 pereC011ttwhiIe women oterd Jtline Af 12 percent, reducing their ratio Comprehensive reearch On ruralwomen isa recent in the work forct tt 21) JIL tltUtis,ind mn. phen! men11C10onill Ildia, as ill Most othCr CoLntries. It lh e las1 w centi es rTvcald a preptOinderance has led to a m ire, ral ic understand ing of ti ', r s oft wo en,( ill internal in ,rafion, at a ratiio t 2,3 10 fe- Of rurlm Iwi men ,1nId il a\V'rClSS of the ii lupact tif males perthousand mles. omen constitute the their decliniing tatustIn rulral Illd ntiollI1dtevtl'Op- larger lllbtr of rUtral-to-rtiral and urban-to-rural menIt. In India u,thetext step; ha.s be'n to Ir,anslalt IllifranIts, while men constitul the larger lthllber in such findin gs info i cttt1ntneiclatins fon" il rural-to-urban and uLirban-to-urban m igrations. [hlis policv is refClecte d in th Sith Fi\ "ftar n A- large-scale ligratiol of wome n,1mostlV within short though l1t t lhe final stLp ---wIich ln\W Id b tl a nIlled imlll distalnce., is due, apart from marriage, ful inpltnIentatitin it poliCV stmgg'si 1 ilS-it is a t Seve'l tLinder- atd it nempIoymnlt. critical tie in linking restc- h mL-mcIkiill. his arti- Idtentifying anl interrelationship btwtele womn cle privides a cOnnfl'v-!,v'Cl txanplt, ot Iw rese"arch tn',s low lift, epectancy, higher m1ortalitV, dtiecilling 0in \woelln, cani illforlll oII\ nialk .in, by nalvni),g parlitipaltioi in paid employmlnt, and incre~asing tLfcis il ,\isting policy and piogralls alt ugg- migration, the commilttee concluded that thest' tie ing i1mpI'ivt'ilt'tlnt heha1 s Of new kowletI'dg imlographic ilt'd wee1v inldicattirS Of ''a proceSs of and u0nlt'rst itling i ihe, prtlclns-, change that is moiving in a dirCct iol opposite to the ggoals ofour sticiet' atItC its pii1 for develiipme nt." In the cOmiin ittces v it,'w, thlse trent.s rt'presnmted an inltnsifying ld',lhiion of tirCIe. R.spitl ,ingtt coliitttIlt' t's c InIlison that Research Findings ''chanlgel', ill tlie' stauits 0t wome1tn will be a long-teri aspect (It onr StOciIIpriOctss anid will require col tiu In1975 the first major attempt to r\'imw and evaluau' tiS exam iiatitl andit1 i L'it N- persons inter data on variou.S aISpects of wOmen's statu.s aid thi' ested ill soCial chanige,' the, Inldiani (ouIncil for Social chang in wvi int's roles, r , and opportu itiCs Sci-nct ResearcI adoptCd a program of speinsored re dtIC to pla inll , d evlt)pll en was publishelihd as " he se iS-,io gt'ntIlra't' a ild analh'Ze diata oi significant Report of the COllllittee tin thel ta tis (if \Vilili n in pattC'rnS (if .5tict1 aIid ecCtit it Oirganization affect- Inlia." Aniong thtir key fitdings, they noted tHat ing wVtmen 'sposition in the long run, and tt levelop the ratii of \woment.' to11ienlhas beCl steadilv dcl in- Itit'\perspcctives ill thte social scit'ienCs, particularly itg, thu.s widelning tht gap betweei thit sCxes fron through cla1rification of such COlcepts as the family, 2.3 iillion in 1901 to nearly 20 million in 1971. Be- household, wolmien's work, cconomic activity, and 353 ft 354 SUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER I 12 NOVMBER DECEMBER 1979 productivity. The restrictiv and ambiguous use of thirds of the NAI"s taret population. .\ w,orking these conc.pts as resulttd in a g enral undurssss- group onl Village Level ( ry,,ani/ations ellerged as Ilent of volen's ctrtributions to si(itu\. part ot the govrlllet', h1'avtv eilltplhlais in rural The pritirall itnphasi/ed the Stti' of \\ mulhln ill deTt'elopnlent, 111C o,ViIlInt had cocludted that the poor (or less visibl) ,ection, of Indian ocitt' Ile 0tt,tL0 vill,te \otlluil'-, k' ub' o,created under tar with a vicx.' to underltanding the regional ald it'- i,,r dlt lent pngranll, \tl. irlt ,llt\,s an tional diftterences in wome'les, statu, andl prob.- etfctivi in>ttrli'unt fo' riril mInobili/,titiln. A \%tik- JeMs and the diffirential imtlpac t Of dt,wlopmlt onil ing, group in inil\'le\ni wa 'itnlt, l V111 their lives. Ehis emphais WS diigntd 1t Lorrct Plallnning, lllrissiin nimbir risponsi l, tili' cm the biaS of previotus ieseah ,.id pit! iiW , which ployment polii- iis, Iti'loinl, 1rtuthis c'nViitiln Were primarilk inlut'ieceCd by CtI \(priTent ii' of that the SttWf \\'ilnl hadttn Mt're, a ,In ilica nt \woen ill the elite classe, , die!li and tat Ill- Jtt'lt\ Mii 110uttbe attalelt, Vilh tut . mll ia I i ipt it\it .1di- ,ah \ I rk ii erti np &irtl ist d o t hi I itwiik- Influencing the Planning Process tati\,is (t1r1'OW.,,,i ilt i.,,\,'ll'it ti'l'litWiid wI,\i nt l l c t~ n and u1t-al ,i J l il ~ i h The lt tt rits arii nl i'rtakll i v Ili, pl(')ttgi'li S ii't,Irii t tit' lllllil , li ni i ussittil...Iih group dturinl 75- 77 ,weri's, lihia;td if, a t Illilu had it tranllt' dathia itlrls a ll i lati'rials utedl randunl, " rt ic l issC is in thlt t 1tit MIVilln: 1tt delib ration into r',alisti ic d ttlitiall\ anild si 1nIpliVIInt, lald it'h, it:nI( pritiritiit,. Ciall, i itabi'trictl liltiitn. fo/r 10lion,'" b \ the, Lt to' got0ilIllenl l/initht.V 0,1 ()Ciatl kit,n1ti !:l ,i l> \\ithlln ,a li\', \cair tinw lta l., (whidl ,1 lJt' \'i1 til' pl'tt,l lll) ill 107"" 1 l Ill w lnti ranldull high, te'dh t larm lil rclld in the' oln dition if w 'mle, and riigtllh'nliiid ilugut pit .v Adult Education intervntluiOn by the t\'irlliln, j-Jrt i lalV ill fhi, areas oft ii phlIttt'lt, lwaltih, alnd ,'dmatiot. I he ll, oibjctiVes it the National Adult l.ducatiin Pro publiiat itin, \hi,.h k as (il !( tle citOilcrCIle guy- graln are to protllilte (,) literacy, (b) illpr)t,ll en! Of erlllellt ainlri'saildt tt tthe' Ptlannine ('tillis.,ill fundi)ilalitt', and (c) divehiipn1ielnt of sOCial aware foir tsn,idiratiom , usL i't 'O be Inea ninguli to thoes oVerbudontId W,'on- gan iz,'tional, and participatory skills and shoutld be en, an educational proriaL iist addless itslf fi rst linked to sin-idar prograin, being pronoted by ma ,or to increasing their ealningi power., lhl',1th, nutriiiOl, dcelopnit a'lleci"; st'king to Iftt''t agriculture child care, and family planninlg, ci rro,ntlh ftaturdt in and rjral indtstrialization. Although literacv is il informal ediicatiinal programs flr olll, an .' disptnsabhe, it 'hould b(' preLce'ded Kv prontoting incdeC, d because, they help to strenlthcn sonw' af coiotlsnies, alon, tht, t hrti h discus women's natural role. But it is etIgnaily' iipoitant to ,iol o istues that 1lt I teir hi'. It i Hot IneC-; promolte, tle, IICrstanding o \0ItlOOt a,, inlividuals '-a.\. to d Ii ill nate\\W . tetI aduilt WoI11('1n adLi with balsic rights odignity and atin0i'IY and nt 'iivlog'' girls, sinlIC rulrll s0ity do 's not itfdCreniate merely ', Isllsltrumlts at~t(dclt ioln an11d rprodit l- bet'eln different Ie',C t, il thil' sam 1,1nne IS tn. [h1111e \ AP' s-hould therefor i't'k I m,1k' inl Lrban1 i and upet'r-cls f1aTm ii" . \VeIL'll Li n moL!l consios of tlleir righlts ,iiid restponsibilities, of the liw gvtrnllg \\le sta-,l tuS, and of the Vlious nanltet lnd t nit,.tdcauses Rural Development ot \V'onhIls5 tL tpiesioil; assist wolltl tl ichieve 'L'ont1n viabilii\ thl otgh acijisitiol, I literacy lh' reportofif the \\orkin (;-i1 ) ll I ),t'lopient ot and otlh.r ntissary:o sk,illad R'ilc''s; prtvide Village leivTl t.)rgain.izat lage Councils, or Panchaiyats), leading to lack ol w'mlen in tile orgnized and tnorganized sectors in recognition or support from these bodies; and both rural and urba areas; idenlif\%groups of tinor rigidity in program design and structure, leaving lit- gan ized self-elployed womeii and slggest wax's to tie room for local initiative or identificatioll of needs. strenghthen their em phoynunt by resohx'in g Cifficul The program has viewed rural WImlen as a ho- ties of markeling, ava iabilitv Of ri w materials, and m'logeneous grouLF, whose primary role is honmelnak- the like, and b7 el inlailltin, llddh, mlln wvhertver ing. It has emphasized the training of better-Off possible; initiate x'iabIh , piitt projects a 110I ig o I;ps womlen in hone managemllent, While tl' lleedv\' Iirll en to geigli erate ettotl ic act iv ittiv,; d trtgani weaker groups, particularly theL workers, h.vLe been ize women into assciidtions or liinious. served only through feeding aid similar programs. Fhe working group nOted Craft tha t the problem IOf classes, home scielce, eJ Llat ion (including W1oi en's em plovIenlnt is Cha rtet, r ized by (a) their training ill child care,, nutritioni, anid ''htmLe eColnIt- iniabilit' to rtgCli ftor servict's a1dd ,ssistallce pro iCs" -which soni1etillnes extends to 111ethotds of pre- grals offereld [x gtOveI1lei1t dld tthl-;i-goXTIt'rniaell t paring Iiew food CltpS for fanilh' Ltnn.ihallllptit 1), a1nd institutions; (b) a Lick of ,iiIkllgIwartliess these ill nursery schools (11lalai s) hate been utilized osth' sti tutions of tHi need to proitI'W Lt, i's inploy by those who hav the thime and tl' Illanis ti List' the m1en1t; (c) tiL' telldencV of eCltnlliall v po\velful training. orgbtain tinaiidl nd other assistance The working group recoillmlleided 0 iiew pr- ill tlt iia1e,Cf vOlltell bul, lLct(' Obta iln'd, to Iivert gram, Which would be an i integrll part of the Sixth it to) othr ale,ls (If iIvtetme t; (d) the fctt ha te'h Five Year Plan strategy. Th't strategy eiphalsiz's rioogical mIttrli at1 in s,evezra i it trie haslis Iot comnprehensive area planning aid organizations of resuIted ill tli prott'tiOIi lid\d ex,lns iolli Of wOiLet's the rural poor a1s essential for rural dtveplloplent enlth\meni1t oppolr liiiit its, 11l" ili increasi ing wolll These organizatiois are illiiendtd ttl eislre the en's skills, tl'ining tpplrtniI lits, Of urip\ard mobil poor's access to development resoLrces aInd to f lllc- itx'. tion as pressurc lobbies. Villagt'-Lev'l organii izat iolls Thelraft Sixth Fi' ) tar Hll has nlotd thi ex of woiiieii that enable them to undertake via LIt' proj- isttece of secitora I iii ba Ianii cts betVet'eIin 1ltll aniid ects and iltas lrt's to st rengtheni their econtlllic posi- 'tOli eii in avaiabh ppItLit it's fotr regtla r ell tiOn Would also raise tlheir general sats aidl draw pliviient, traiiiing, aind proiotion. IhIe plail has thori inito roles of public lealership and into the also einphas izdti theit'edO to 'xpadid t'niphOVmenlt Op mainstreani of dex'elopnitelt. Specifically, the pro- portlnitits for aid11tllien prl'id, spt'cialprogra nis gram would reduce Liid, r- 11'd LIiinll plovineiit f to prt'partI tl' Uir such opportuon itits. rural \vonlen and provide tlt'lll With a basis for par- Thl' DIraft Plan identified fou r str'git's for in ticipation and training iiiiiictlllt--gtie raling CtiVi- crTasilig C101ph ynt,mt'it If x'o1n -- iant1'V: (I) d iver ties and in all developnlen tal activitits; promolte self- sificatiOi anidit expalision of t'dIuattiOi,ll adt raining reliance and collective action for Wlit'betteriiut, nt of opplOI'tLiliitits; (2) mani plWt'r budgttiig oft the feiiiale the home, famil', and Coin Lii tliY; faCilitalt' bt er labor forct ill Al tOinprehinsivt' area-tievtlopmleilt management of reslirct's; iiprove t'on ditions for plaluS and tesigiiing of a pprlpriate prtograns to offer bearing and rearing children; ant provide forums to a Varit' of training and work opp rtunities; (3) pro- enable woiien to participate frelx' itd fllIIy in tIeci- Illtt iou of stlf-eiPIphov1itt siotns that affect their lives anid tile coiii and siiiall- inidustry eii liitY. plIxlent alliong Lv tuOIL'lnk tIriIIgthel a A single type of.wlliell's Organizatio t'a1intit rt'as0llabhe shirt' OftCredit tdl d thitr inputs; and (4) a Imeet the needs (f all groups btcause of existi ie- C higher ratt' tlf in't'Stmllentl ill "\O~lt''I -prtft'rred' in qualities and differences in the interests of rural dtlstries anii Occupations. xonien. The xxorking group thus tencouraged a ft'xi- 1'0 working grouip \'itlll' t'iitdOstd the first ble approach with room for several types of organiza- three strategies. With regard to thiLt last, hioever, tions-for exaniple, cooperatives, trade unions, and they cauLioned tlhat a polit' of increased in'estment registered societi's-to grow in acctrdance with ho- in thi sO-calI let \xOnItn-prt'frrttd imlListies cal needs. x'ould be a mixei blessing. A\look ,it the nature of these jobs show" that tlh\- inchltI generaIll' unorganied Employment It has h L-tten aS u nted that dCvelopnl eln tlP 1- CasI deinand tn Si ch sc,trce national ret Ionrces as grains a utoataicall bene'fit both I n nd \(tinel . power110.ht' workiniig groutp therefo Irt''ecolnl llnlded Experienc' has retvealed, howver, that ule"s theCre. special studit's tm exainlile the epitO)'nltym ilmnpaict is a special laln for wolnll with spCcifitarina krig and re'lative cost fficiency on'Ifalternatlive, tch noigies Otf funds in st'ctoral plansti, omiel will not .etnefit. in both the agricultIr,ll and the indltstrial sectors. The working group prpitLsel that utilizatioll of The Working group has obserCed that ex.pa nsioln funds earillarktl ftr women0t1's rtIOgrains be strictlv of CinIpllInlt alld strengtlCnin WOinel'S\Vg deci mnitoreC. TO achievC this, the gtverI'llIlltnl mist sitn-mnakiig rOIes woutld also contribute t the adop Create adetCIuIltC Jitean prtIp'rlt' trinatne ach intrvnraLI tion of the sni,11-f,1nilh' 11t1ill a1d inliprovenllIt Of cadres in each of its prograi n areas. It llu t ldIpt a wo 's staItls, alrad, accepted as nationlal objec well-defi ned poll ictV ftr woi tllen' devet)Ilm en t, t ives. clearly statillg the ccotInllic Lnd stCial Objectives St that they rl'eceivc CtnltinILIS attent iil and sLippi Ft. SuIggCstCd progranls and ap)proalche s nmist take intt account the em pIlovnnt iSstisda ti lraiing neCds relevant to the, situation Of riural womnln. For Prospects for Implementation exa inphe, institutional tralining may prove inalcces sible to the majority of rural womun,, beca ilse of the hie reCdtilldatiitns l of the three wotrki ng grioups illiteracy and ielative ilinuobilitv causCd by srtcil were delivered ill 1978. The tPla llnirng (iiminlissiOn's and ectuonic constraints. Traininlg progranis for review (If th ' Work ing Griup Oil lFinlv)leCnt has rural wV)len may.1V hal.Ve to be provided by mobile becil geneal1lyI' flVOIra bhe, e.pectial!y to the recoll units sponsored by sptciLlizedlCagelcies (Lin/all-scale lll'Indtion that a reasoldlei] s hari' of the fri ntis iil hIldustries Scrvice Institutm's, Village IntLilmtries COnll- each st tin (e.g., 1,1-irit'Llouril inttlusir, scial se'rx' nmissinus, Agricriltiral FExtensiOtn Dtpart ment s, and ice.s, banking) bt' usCd tito devetp pritgra rms to ex others) or by Other trainillg uniiits IOcat.d learbV (In- palld wtIen's iCvelpmCnt and accss to eml lhIOV dustrial Tra ining Institutes, I)istrict IntlriCs Cell- ll'lt. The re'oinlme ndatiOIn s werC endorsd tsrtngly' ters, Farmers Training Centers, dillOnng others) after by the National CtIlfterClCe Oin WOmelCn and Divelop identifying suitable trades on the basis tif local skills, inent, sponsotred by the gOverninent ttf Indiia ill 1979. 358 SHDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 /12 NOVEMBER 'DEC[MBER 1979 The Nlirlitr\, l f iu'athontt. ha p L lish,JI th , I'(III - th r(I ucrI I tIrVIt,>% it ,WtI ilII, ti ('l- it,\ it\ to m-oop nwlndatiolri (ith11 \\'th nkii ( l; til Adult I i At! It.(Iii l tlra ,t'With th ii,aiid il itt't'ptamii (i t the idt'olo v of sion . ''i t 1 bbt.,\ t, titltrid it ,ti'r,.I')iI,,liI l.Iil iI , t,rl.II W illdt'j)L' Id l IN" -1 ( It li I I tL:t IIlI tL t,5i i it I -I'III l)tl1, lit 'I 1tln11 11liI, iktLIIsi i I YI I h I -t ['t Il~1 .1 , kl' t ,l'I I -vL tlclI I Iil ft', )I s t iI ii ltI I )I I,II I , II I-,,-,tl Approaches to Learning: A Sharieng of Experience Introduction Judith Bruce Tools for leri' ing about rural WIcun hWv b lelark- 'tntribtlioll b 'eJiscu -,)I 'lll)' in teris cr ing. MaNry of the illthtoi lOoiCs mW in use were de- t) p Ist,nd prts'llt roleS t-ht geine'ationi thev' be veloped to desciri1Wblelt eit'; tx p nrie'nct a1nd role in long to, (2) class, (3)Cae, (4) participation ilsubsist rural culture. Wolmel's rol0 and epTricL'e wilel ri.- enc or nark't-orientid agricullure, nd (7) partici ported tn was otfteni heavily' filteed th'lughl both ltition illon- Or ift-tairm ic;nplov'nent. Making such outside Hil{ male views Of them. Normative views; of d i:,tiltions i,nl nt11ilcH.let to) coiptent infor womeIIn allaLc Of diret' coIntalct with thTm have a1,1tioll i',lelaiill, but i,the only ba011onI x hich pro geLneratei'l distorttd inioltrmation Ol tltir ol)tribu- grans anI t Iicie') ca p<,aminei. tion in nationl-leve statit ic; an1d inl Mthropotgi-- [he speic iiCa, itoll nditing a1n ilnttrvieV, cal liLer'aure. the iI toll,meWMight ask, and the meth1iiih logical '[he task at hail, is to dvelop iCkly,it,ilu a usaIble tech'lllnijLies dscribed arC rov idtid for' Olltu npia aid factull inlforlation bse oilwhich to piLn rualtl tioll, n,.lificdatiotn.. Ind, where appropria,ite, lse' bv development p'ilgrains Oat reih a iil beiii'fi t thins' dhn'! de'el, piC,nt work (reserch or action). women. "Appraches , itleairing. A hain of I:h \\'hich ft hcse will be tisetl will d'penild very lluch perieic'C'" tl' s'co: d part1 of this spcI ilsu of upon tle :l ir illWMhi1 work is be.ing intertAk'il. S tudics ilFi'IiIII Ph11m iii',\, is a tOiilll 1i1 tllouglh>,ts, ()Me Il . con>i0der the1 sO;tcitiectOiWI.ic" con, titiolns, mtho1dois., ,and IC,r [0"h usill ili prouss. IllS, the pasi histor of de,'Ve'hjlop.nlt eforts, tiltskills ;ldVxing and w Wrkinith womet'n have w oppor- ,1vailaHC, til'pdit the woirk, ind tile buldget. tLnitie's ti le,1rn1 fl'(IllioLe a1nothtr; the proiduction Ihe oiltribi ol!.i,hre cov"'er a wide,range if settings and prese,ntatiiln of 'paper' is sotimes too tim- a1nd possibilities,, nanx'v ot them low-cost. CollSUllillg anl forll ,11mans if ci mut llica'tiotn. We hve Lsk'l thi' i' tll'ibltolrs to feel free to Further, it Often excludes bo ith as contributiirs nid write as if to c]liiO',guis anil friends. We have asked as listClT's thtose de'plv involvCd in dt'vC)pmtn for aId ,iliitt n theO otpenness nnid, Lt tlimes, tile tenta work. ILus we have asked a variet\V of people who tive ness tlat char,llTiZt leiIC'Iiglln pictess. Malv have undertaken resea(2 nrchlon ild work with women Lon tiribtliitrs descri be a liin it,ltion in their viewpoinlt to share their ,.xperience in seve\ral areas: How Loes or iproblem that irniti,lli\inltCrfer'd With gCtting full olle iCCcsS to rural womei? Whlat do 'll-,l in)iiratIhll and tle ldjutinliit hlt was milei to WOnVlin know and how' do they report on it? What overcoO t h'OllepItblehOm. kind of work dLItle\' dIO anl hOW Call it be llleIL- liost colltriiltiiioln kovi r mlre than one tf tile ured? How ito the, ' pCrceivC tlleinistlves alM their is-tes list.'l aib .. \Itholugh the're Iri' multiple con culture? tributins IOC ,111C CLiuntrites, theC problem beillg Useful inforlmlatin onlrull woe ida-,nll its ttidiel is the' IA fOCl if etch arliticle. Re,lderis are proper interpretation acknowledges iltthe OL St Hat nlt \.pectCd to read thiis section in its elntiret., but to rural women are a heterogeIeous grolp. Most of the be .sel'ctive, iSilg thi foli\\'ing oultline: 361 362 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 ! 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 Authors Site of Report Title and Subject Matter Group 1:Methodological Issues lPndjiw1ti !-,jIM\ , Indonesia "Studying Rural Women in West Java" \Vinati \\ 'il LCd(iiul ,l, ,IH111, 'kIl~ li Mtiiitk..,M arket liiflj.)Iiiitio I pVii Kri ,,m ' I ti il lr\ 'lnit l W~it- hIlk- m/ d I Ull d l~ l, l H4.niamll Whitt' tlarnwi D)ianl De're Colombia and Peru "MeasN iul,urdgIIul n ~\,Ikl-, and Class Posi Magdahln~ I de- I tion" '_)t',,I1 i',I li Ii I I . I Il 1, I ilii tc'hold-,.Mlar kc'tOu ,.rItf L , 1 1i 1 l'l l ptl,,,tt ol., . Nancy Ie PuISIk,' Indonesia "Collecting )ata on Women's lnlplyonent in Rural Java" Group Ii: Time Use and Project Planning (;I 13I'nda IbCSweenT'v Upper Volta "Collection and .\nalvsis of )ata on Rural Women's Time Use" ,h.-iind- Vivion Ilavens (;illespie Nicaragua "Rural Women's Time Use" ., r\ tI lll, lil-t'of tll'' t\p'tJ', O kWo lnen. O f - Illlllt' 1 0i lt'1llt 111dc \',,'OI l' 1'0l1t'inlI11w1" ,et Group Ill: Instruments for Learning pnin AudreY (ha Smock Kenya "Measuring Rural Iomen's lconomic Roles and Contributions ill Kenya" lhIC l-i~i,1 1n()I I A )0111 MhIdullt I t1W I,L'ntlal 111. r,,1atld ' tI i1 , .'A ~ t~ l ,,uL' h,.'-t [ x , il ,,'tll 0l '-taIti,'tik,,.,A ILtit'11111 .1,l11k' ,ur'lllln tru1111 .nt. Nadia I. YOussef Indonesia "Learning about Women thirough IHousehold Sur Coralie Turbitt veys: An Experimental Module' All1Cycrilli nll nll(dt kI,hu'I ,pplik,itioll ill1nIlllllhl ,IIIA L'V Il 'Ik I11 '11" C I lkIlllR ,Ikt{I\ItiI,-.. Goldzieher Michel Shedlin Mexico "Assessment of Body Concepts and 1eliefs Regard ing Reproductive I'hyVsiology" V\o11 L',"' LikIItttl kof thWin ItittI.I I i II L'nLI by thIr ci III '.,t Taherunnessa Abdullah Bangladesh "Project-Oriented Research oin Aspects of Women's Sondra Zeidenstein Knowledge and Experience" ltsLtiIllst t',(' It i l t'llti tldIt \ IllCtl'eS cll1 tutil &'J,%11c!~ h11111,1iIil~rlIMu 11',Ildrl it-l prl-j c t h'ih t rechd \V llie,l. Achola Pala Okeyo Africa "Research Priorities: Women in Africa" A st 11 Ilvpot 'ts dbtut NI\Vllll'li" ,ICCs, to IV tOil'Cs4ind experienceh tle t'lhtpnenn, culture,, hll,guide'plicy re'search. STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 / 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 363 Authors Site of Report Title and Subject Matter Group IV: What Rural Women Know Ni,1thslhi Safai Iran "Circumventing Problems of Accessibility to Rural Muslim Women" M s, rinIill, t ctnlrjiC 1, i n I iIIiittriI tirdtoc ti on using il IIiCW Gudrun Nlarti,-vn I-larder Bangladesh "low and What Rural Women Know: Experiences in Bangladesh'" Ruralx ~ tn .[''"tr ll o dit"', Il1it'll . P't',1 llt111-, nw delt [IW' Jl ll.' tlth ll , II tIt ,, "1I t t 111l ' I %%tII II 'k1 , IlI N ) .. J0,1n 1'. NM,ncherT India "Wonmen in Rice Cultivatito: loile Researth Tools" K,'.L-:aroldmn onmi l lt l, t .lr,lt(,.Jit.. 1 1hl t,l~ oJlk't tioll. Janak I Iallicker Ilamnn I'apamuk Indonesia "''Resetrch on Women bN' Women: Interviewer Selec tion and [raining in Indonesia" hfltUrj\'[ iihctitt ,Int tlriainng. I"tp 't'Lnt t', ilt' It-t'1ICII hi ntO11. Group V: The Voice of Rural Women eCla, (,ulati India "'Profile of a Female Agricultural I.aborer" I lusb n,1lll- \Vilt' if-tlttnc,, i lliI Lttt-c il'lr ll, O ptttuilit-, 11nd ! Ithui1, of p-,nilintg. MaIy Ilmendorf Mexico "Anita: A Mayan Peasant Woman Copes" 1dilIi a d d C (In11tMli I(i)t-, tll \\ItkinCn ill A Village SCLekin, chl lgi . Group I: MethodoIogical Issues Studying Rural Women in West lava PULdJi,%,.ati 5djO(LV (),Fld,-i 1 L. HaStUti, Svarifalh Surkati, Vinati Wigna, KrisnakVaii Survanata, and Benjamin White This note describes smle methods used and some problems encountered ila research project ol "Rur-al Types of Information Sought Household Fcolomnies and tile RICle of Women,'' which has been under way since n'id-l977. The main The nain types of ilformiation our research hopes to aim of this research is to describe the probleis f provide include: rural Wom)eCtn in the household, illthe labor market, I. The Iabor-utilization patterns Of rurl wo11n and in society and to achieve a better ulnd erstaidh wi thin the, households div is ir nf labor, including of the causes of these problens, as a cOiltributiOll to both .vork that directy proids illlIC incash or identifying policies and programs at the national, re- ki nd such CHVitis as hoiusewor'k, child caro gional, anld local lveJ that can rlmovl Oni 'fthe and the like, which (for want of a better term) we call barriers to their solUtlon. We describe tile ma16in tpes "'home piodcut ion." of inforlaItion the study h1opes to provide, varilous;LIsehold I. ifncone, consumption, arid UX initial assunilptions that resulted in the selectiol of a i combination of research methods, mSOmef otiur pepn- iture pattens in sufficien_ t detail to relate them riences illthe application of these ll.thods, anid fi- to Orinpus nally some of our hopes and expectations regiarding aid other resoUlrCes. the eventual utilizatiol of research result;. ,,\fter a 3.Types of teclhnology used in both incole year of data collection we are now il the midst of earniing and home productioni work. data analysis and prCparation of tile first draft Of the 4. The role Of womenlI illdecisioll naking illthe main research report. TheSe final stages of the re- household arid in societc, seen in the context of the search process are an approprite tiile for reflectionl divisioiOf powr arid authority between the sexes on both our successes arnd our ti,!ces in achiieving aid between classes. our objectives, and we hope our e;,periences can be 5. The lature and f 1 uericy of women's and of use to those contemplating similar resear'ch in the othCr housChold members' iivolvemeni t inivarious future, formal and informal iristitutions and relationships in 364 I., STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 / 12 NOVEMBER i DECEMBER 1979 365 society. These include interhousehold relationships was as important as tile study of common char involving exchanges of goods and labor; group and acteristics. It was thus necessary to incorporate suffi community involvements, whether ceremonial and cient variation (particularly in socioeconomic status) religious or social and economic; and interaction in the sample to permit analysis of these differences. with the iany village-level government institutions, However, 1Um,1er'OUS tables showing statistical pat programs, and services in rural Java. terns of tile allocation, income sources, expendi 6. The aspirations of rural women and the bar- tures, interhousehold intractions, and commun it., riers to their ach ievenien t, involvement are of little use without the kinds of in fornation that provide some uniderstanding of why these patterns occur. This ilforina taio inust be de rived from the so-called qIalitative tecllnilues (al though they la also involve counting) of extended Assumptions Underlying i ntervie:s, case studies, observa tion, casual Coner the Research Design sations, and personal involveient in the con',u- Ilitv. If questiol liiires and tqnuanii titative data provide Our stud", covers a number of topics, but its main the "bones" in research of this kind, qualitative par focus is the desire for a better understanding of ticipant-observation methods provide the 'tiesh.'' \O1mell's work. In economlies where the household is 'l('L desire to col bine quIIt ita tiVe and qualita the main unit of production, consuImption, repro- tive Ireth uds, aid to d ctw elnt not onlv work and CLuction, aid socioeconolic inlteractiol, wollell's inconie but also in teracktions and relationships, led activities cannot be understood Il isolation but R- to tilt cIh)ice' of a cOnununitv-Sidv Ipproach rather quire analysis of the division of ldbor amo10tng all than a more widCl sct.lterTed -allnpit' of sp:otlndeIlts househAld re, in bers. ,Ve therefore built our research covel'ing a whole region. We selected two villages in design arou nd labor-ut ilization or tile-allocation West Java in which som1e of LIs haid aIreadv done re analysis, which involves recording all activities per- search on other topics. formed by respondenltS within a given reference' pe- One problem that became 1110reL clearly defined i'iod based on respondents' recall, with repeated as fieldwork ar1d discussions :ol0[i, llted is to distin interviews allong the same sample of ho0useholds at guish between norm and reality. Researchers, re regular periods throughout a complete 12-nonth ag- spondents, and the re,lders Of research reports are all ricultural cycle. It was clear to us that the accuracy of inllue,ncec by their preconceptions and values con the data depends greatly on tile length of reference cern ing both the actual roles of womnen and the roles period used. In anv research of this kind, i compro- considered appropriate by them or for them. Norms mise has to be made between the desire to achieve influei ... the perceptions of researchers and respon representa tiveness (requiring large sample sizes, dents not onl' about What ought to occu r, but also long reference periods, and frequent observations), about what actuallytdoes ccn r. l give Sole simple the demands for accuracy in the data (which is better examples, qunestions about a "norml'' day's work or achieved with small samples, short reference pen- diet, the "general" patterns of decision making in ods, and the careful building of close relations be- tile respondent's household, or his/her relations tween enumerators and respondents), and the re- with other househlds or i-.nstitutions mav vild re searchers' limitations on available tile, persotnniel, spoInses far 'emot)ved from reality, even wleIl the re and research funds. It was already clear, however, searcher has developed a close relationship of trust that if wre were to obtain a reasonably, accurate pic- with the respOide2nt. Our awlrelleSs; (of this problem ture of the time devoted to home production work, led us to concentrate as mLuch as possible on recent, the research design should incorporate use of short specific events rather than on general questions on reference periods, which do not strain the respon- tile same topics: not, "What do von normally eat?,' dents' mernory. "How do Vou usua l' spend the day?,' "Who usually We also assumed that rural women could not be lakes decisions abou \, V, and Z?," "DO vOl attend treated as a homogeneous group and that the study' village meeltilgs?,' "How did von decide how much of differences in their activities and problems (par- fertilizer to buy and whether your child should con ticularly those based on class, age, and education) tinue school?,' but rather, ''What did you eat to day?," "What did y'ou do today?," "Did you and 'For an introduction to the tihod of viIlag('-lvel labor-utilizliior your husband discuss it?," "lDid yOu agree?,' research, see John Connell and Michael Lipton. Ass,.ssiug Villag,' !.LabourSit- "Whose view eventually prevailed?," "Did you at uati,nis in Develeping Cnntries(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1977). tend any village meetings last nontlt?," and so on. / ¢'l 366 STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 / 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 ell era tors and r'st'a ich Iteanl use all iltelrviev Research Methods Used glide, whic,h imply' lists vario (10-12 households for each e'nurirerat[or). Int';'view\s ,aboulut 15,50(0 (120 '.5 , 2 12) respondents. 'Fo col generally take place during the etCVCln, W.vhen all ..cc and proce'ss this ,rnall-scale information, 4 re household nIlllli art Usi lllle. TI 0V' are searchers, 11ununlira t.rs, I progralnier, arid 8 data often colducted in the kit len So as Iot to interupt trarl-t'rrels have worked iilOstV full timne for ov'er a respondents in thir "inrk, and the atfnisphere is p'ear. It is theretort enctssary to be "vwarv of the generally infoIrmal. When d h1 llclehold nwirhbcr i.,ab- heaVv deiiandsl Oil tie .1ivd re' ire aind not to he sent, the others can oftte prohvidlith' infirrit ion 11 ov'railbitious. A Sinll-sali' approac.-h titC; not r, his/her activities<, althOLrgh it is snretinill', nIcsary cit tiin oirc\pn,; its 1,lil) adVat,lage is rathT to to arrllge, a second visit. allow greatr detail and rlilbilit\' in data collection Dlriig ihcir tell daLy's ill the \'illadget' each mon0lth, and thl'Opptrnitv'to ptace this material in its the ree',alrcIhe'S dividc their tin11 llollng,, S'veral cIt- socitalolt'\t by incorpor'ting more aithropf0ologi tivitiCs: Cidilil an t, 368 STUDIES !NFAMILY PLANNING VOLUMF 10 NUMBER 11 '12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 dents and researchers and the bet possibl t personal graduall, peel wy.I, the vMomriUs la,rTs-, tf"t irns' in relationships between them, reliabilitv remains ,i the, ,.earCh fOir ,at!il pattoT i, Of ,Ci.+ion making and elusive goal. This applies e,uallv to the straightfor- authoritv in th,, S,',tpie l'oist'hod, (w,,ithout dis- ward reporting of niIlContrtiVersial Cve, ' nts ,ind to)the Ctrdin the layer- oIt':,IOF1S1 SilWC we a.e a1so0 inter more sensitive al',s ot deci,-J Ionmakill and atlIthori-+ esttd itthem 1ii in thteir inlluit'Iht tv. ['his leaves tilt ilt behavior). restarcii'r with ,eriou., priblen- ()tir e\ptrit'lc ,iti thi, ,t-,iroadi ha' t't'n Of interpretation, a' tietolOvin, t'\anipl,.es< nIav ill- i\ kIIn the in ,,hald, \Ne feli that il inan 's, dicate. thrttiilh+ inth-irnl .i--i ,-,iotl'l, wVilh iuisbaid inl Witt' allocation fouliid that ist iillate, ih' ot t meptl itill in- an1d d irtctl\ o[),AI'v iIi_ s'c it, eVit , lt,(tI(a.<,+,J n l, ld+b, "I'l-. . i11 Ill_, 11il,cJ)), 1~ 26 -28. lHe illti! trail'-, tho, ipn,,hln h t ,riitun).Ill,, thn -,1\11, i c't , ts Ihi' re' x,,tte Univt'it<, l \i 'i,i 'h1,.i t%,ii'iht'hlai , I7. % ri , llitet , lag<',,lthouh,h illIl ,t~ 2. hmil+'t ll,, ll llhi , 12 9rkklJ-l,, tl'+dl ,~ li-,lt h 11hill#'Ir~itl I_'Ill112 ill-'<'i,,llt 'li,, ,, ...... 11,itt i f ,v ..O,lli l11 ,0%1 lv i llt\ilhth il lit It' n!tlb''Ili 110 ll tn)'filhvi t~tIk1 1 ,111 01Wl " I (h)Ilt . are Ititli h - tIl 't 11V i'Itlt hil I till i ). llt Ni i 11ii1i,1 in )' 0 t I[It', 'll- ti ll'h Mtl t, h,.vC I dtlbht.'' with no Iwlp lrwil h iNlhilr Iit irtvd 1(,Iw il ,wl, i ch l,lt N, it I ll dt'litli l,, hIC V,ili, 11d h I,I luvi n,(1hi 2. ''11,,,- m.':,i 'tl~~qlill?"l ic, p , f m-1tC,i<1 , ilttllc' 11ILWt\ It) tx,!V IICt tT,ilfl ci'l. I It,jut '.,Iti) I-i,.i -l',idlill ,.'V lltilll "Fifiitil. ttit ll'it l t r Ii"tit I'mtI t hi hillife (4 Ippt \\ork; i','t'\ i f!!tInd 'It2lic ilttll plic -,'11d' IithI IinnIliit ' t t' ,tt ,llt'1 t' ttti i ,l ilt,, i Itt -i , I L''d t ithtill'I ri c ti t I0. "i'T\''' t lt ii l tl' it- 1 , itSl -v il .11 ,1i ,ICtL Ih-in ' , 1ttv"t lt ltl tillt ',,\I ii It'Il ' -tc ,,tt' Ilt,) \' Ihiil , it litl I t'llt'i-,iIf , 111, ill sit, iinr-. th a' .'ILt0i, t' 'd il r "t iill 1 , 11d' ti'It,l ' li t', i 'tilit'l i till,' lIII ,t It- ing-,,'Indt to pc,,l.. Ilhwir \ I"\\ IIf,.,i'k. lt,IilV "' at\'ed by Itlri, i., st' itl: ',II h I 1' th i i ti ; t 'll uthp i pplikeL t h i l lt-st-, ,whijit 'h-iI h i ti,'lit' be101l h " .I;1I !W7(' 11111("/1,1'llld \i , I \\rtiii 'l)I IttLf,, i.'LPII kin) t,n~~ clli,l I_' "I,,\t ll,it Iit1 1 h1 l k 1nl,.illn , 11I- . \,iIL"1,r I i I rrI')kt It [,)t'\ l, II),I/,/I llt llltI n ',\II() t iti~ < i lnw,1 ll l- h i{.1'1,(1nI\k b;t ('Illllt ~ell - , kitc 'r; lil to, uk)t~t c ll(ilIc n' ll' t L,ii[) ll t. ()l~ll ,t ,) Ilil , tI1 , h l iiltl -A>i1/11" ,-ltCI h II'l. Iht Illn(I'l I lIIW L I ''d IIIIl~I I .1,. din itIC the I lIt v k iI( I!l, I IhI, I in~ IIrk I l I'il l i (.t)er, Irl t lli,l itto , II,,In d 'i.t2,)() i n IllnhLd~Io wt,Ic rtth [Im i>n~k~ tu~ l~c tn C 11v1 iltkW h lh lI \Vt~lllt~(Adl'V l till[I. t Id'ttIt'tl'I 'i~Ilk L WC til'il ),JCIW~ l~dlit'h ,1 l~ d \ , I(A IR I' b t ll) Oh ' tit~q'0 1T Linlna\l !,,Ltnt)Li l'l r~~ngt \h r'at,\ hid lVlt 1 iq(ll ll c(inJ as ta~iC\' , ditr~ l'01110ilI~nai(n \t ~l',t reStI. S i' tol]d .)VCtv )IItC ht 11C ' 1ll,h t10d [hlenl IIICItll t itI'.,s~ t)I I linll lt '1n1in11,1 F I\lW I idI W C Ch Ca eCd y lNding I thc'sllcrIk11: , 'llh,I,l \v'h1,IIl i- c , _Sihc Iid le ~ (II _ Mr'eI'~n\1iri17)iic F S II Ln-ut(_(~n111CtlnLu the N,d()Il- ht111lpC) 11r ' )OpIC, iujLll Icat tICIII." sitO11S 0f t0tLII rl-;tL q,i \\I(IW111t \L' S,I\\ tt)I.- thc,h 370 STUDIES INFAMLY PLANN:NG VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11, 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 policy imnplications. This was an extremely 1useful ex- misit viev of the, pottential impact () researdl perience.' By formulating and discussing Our prelim- on gvenuIt policies directed t W,IId rIr, inary conclusions, we identified many areas in wOmlt,n. which we lacked n'cessar,, inforinlation, while there was still the opportunity to wolcLt it or to modif\' OLIr plans for analysis. l)iscussions with g,V1erument offi cials made,, us more aware of the limitetd range of pol icy alternatives ava ilabhe to tackle tile problen1,s We set before thlem, and ill general ga\ve li a m11ore- pessi- A\cKNAOWI )(i.\ITFNI. ()1-W Iresearch,I u ldOr tile sponsorship oIf FA(/SI )A anId still in progress, is 'Not Ic,, bai, it Iimtitvl,i,,. iuerct. t,iu,,,i.ar, Ih>ho lh.0- being COldtl ter this semina,. Ih twuIv appointeJ ti,,,, \iinjicr edt. jointl\' L two institutiols: the I,, W\,itri-, .\l Rural )vnamics Study , A: ro-Lcou- o iL"Sur+VtV Of In fairs agred toprvid,, funt.r tii. I cinma,,ir t .i..i.n it rural di'Vv LtIm sia (Project leader: I'O11111lVo I, toJ b L t I I it 11r( I c 'l, tiIIITIJ l)r. Rudolf S inaga) anC tile adl' its inpliclion l l i l lt d Ii, k 11L IIOl f Lt i i rv- t,ai ch h,r bt,,h rc,' , icrs ,1dt,Ip'.,\-'i,crt and plrli,,irlit Institute of Rural Sociological Research, Bogor Agri fir early i980. cultural Uni\versity (DIirector: Fcl't.'SsIr SajOg'O). Measuring Rural Women's Work and Class Position Carmen Diana I_)'ere and Magdalena Le6n do Lull This note considers somc of the methodological studies were based sought to integrate the analysis of problems of measuring rural women's econmlic par- the sexual division of labor in rural areas with the ticipation by sample survey. It draws upon our expe- broader ana'sis of agrarian change. Specifically, the rience in researching the economic roles of rural studies sought to isolate til effect of the process of women in a national-level study in (iolom biaa il in ca pitaiist deve"lpiient in rural areas on peasant a regional-level study ill Peru.' lhe specific ObjVct ive holse1hol1ds and rural women's work. We conceptual of the salple SUIe'S .,'aS to cluantify, tile existing ize capitalist deehCItpmen t as tile developlent sexual division of a of labotr among the pcasan tr'. The wage labor force and f capitalist units of production unit of analysis was the rural h1ousehold, and the that re' on the purchadse of wage labor. Our kev con focus of measurement was the division ot labor bv struct for identifying this process is the St cial differ sex in such activities as dail main tena nce, house- en tiation of tile peasan try, through which peasant hold production, and incoming-genlerating activities households become either proletarian, selling their pursued outside tile oIusehold. labor power, Or petty capitalist, employing wage la- The theoretical fralework ulp)n xwhich both bor in the productiv' process. Ihe basis for social differentiation is tile uneqCtual access to til means of production amiong direct prOducers ill rural areas. 'lie th eiretic.l iad mchth, h,'Iiicl iI'gni of the twi ,irole' t. art Cross-sectional c uan titativte a l sis5 is rec u i red elaboraled in the iollowing: M didind, it'llnI [.IVcal I ,u11 urinLi )t ,a fon Dee_,re, "I-studio ie la rm ier rural v ei di. irr,,lh del )api lob I,,,l ,I r O to r'eilate the cess offrl'tll',l CIos l't,'na, itm, based Cohniibiano," Di,I \'ra vi Ltt o omia, 12, no I (N78); Nli,idlcn,i I "l'ILc Oi1 differing aCce'Lss to thc' 1O llS of produc'tion Leal dind Carmen DiinaI)ere, 'lati-,n tntto, 'ari i,. V ntte tid loit', among peasant hOuSehcdcIS, to ciffc le :; in the Sex 1x ra el sIuluditide Ia iu werrural ', prVI tII ,OLIed ,"-rr,,]lo 1I apilptd agrari." ilufrzlh ft i fh, n, La ,i;t, ,i,-', 1at,,A,,rca, Mt ,f,hla,,, u al division f labt "in pr'tcI_luctivc' ind reprodu cti\c sector ruralCo,,mbiau," ed. Nlidalta In Lit, I al (Il,:(oot,: A('I ', forth- activities. The cuantification of t h( seXuah1l Civision coming, 19W); and (arm of n Dima. l)ere.De. "lhi dt'vci IiM Ii f i,pi0i',11i labor at a given m omen t in timc also allow s historical igriculture ind the division of labor by cs: A Iudv of lhenoihiter P'rui via, Sierra," ih.D. theis, I)eparti -i.,t i Agricltuiril ,nd Rit,,Urce Fco- analysis Of diffe'reint sociOccOtl i iic processes tOf normics, Univ'riv iof Califiornia,, BrkihvY, 1978. change to inform regional differences in \vonmen's \ k/ STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NU.IBR 1 , 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 37 1 work. Ii addition, the allal'sis of different tornS of tualization of peasant household acix'l. T1[he peas land tellulre and labor market structlire- and of the, an1t I UsislOld Iax' be .tincephhtllized as a nit 1t varying options that rural men ald wome1nLn fatC can produLCtion and reproducLtiOI ; Velt the h nise,hCold andt be related to differcnces inI tilt' se\ual division ot a- tilt unit Of dire'ct prodUictit'n Imal\' nlit be Loter bor and in famil\' reprodiuctiol strateigies, e\ihibit'd linous. Il lh. l'lrux'ian cale, the ijuestionnAire re, in falil\' structure alld comlp[1osition as well as tetlii- fected a ctoIcepializItion Of the pleasalnt ho1useWhold it. ,as aln un!iffelre tiated .niit of direcl t I'rlloduct i and In tile following,, we late,1 somt' Of thei'lblt'msll. of reprodtluctioi Of laboir p)oWl. 1ii distilgluish 'he that we \pleriencdCL in tilt' labO'atioln of tie sllple tvtn'l the kinds G1 ictiVities cLrl'l'd otl bc V,arioutl SlvTVtetionnai'e ill 1 i li ' the',u,-;blJ1ibrrs, nenle tle followini del illlatioll was pIe sulrvey itself.- ulsed: house0lhold alnlitelalcectV ,wiVities l'trtl il'd for daily reprOdictioln; aCtiv ities geared toward direct - --- prOdil clion of ne or exchnge vales (algricultural prod uttiil, agrie' iti'illprocetS ill and rasiirma-llll The Survey Questionnaire ion, ain iinal ,i sin., artisan1 pri dct 'ion); andac'tiv'i ties crrieut e)ttrnal to tile ho0usechold, dtaile,d V'\ Consile it m lperatiV.' at the d nofa l e a ccrdill to tile relations ofprodictionil or"d istribu SllrVexl ' LuCst iolnvai ' be bast'd u l li rior fieldwork lion (lab t nhl1\t plticiptimn , rtipi clt,labt r e ill the"desinlated legions. Ihis is so0 nlt oilyV beca L.- t (r ,.it possible, scwioculural diferecets among rions, change, aI i tty trade). In tiles ltCIigl of the I_)S'_ihL' dffCV~~e';O~OCI~tlrl 01101g eg~ll." (iOlOmibianl 1 iet ionlilaire, weC foLI int appr)Iopr)iate to but also bca . he, toincrte'l t studyV of differen ,-tit- ,Cll h)Lu t ),It, th t Vir at tl a torical prtc s . h ul al lltI nt i eLnlll'iCl tile hy- - ofto dolet,itt, .tuali ml/inlteiiancet t iOfth htiaactivities, the sepatellt.Prictilar fr'omI rn11a11Clte p)otleses, that golidL the nlletiiurtent effort. I lilte unit of cllic\exloitatiol, lt fam. Ibis is lard\ P -ruvianstutLd , the kIuestim naire wasW, forinulatetd tu h illt'i n ut ,utri t' 1,11d Il t hav , J1,Vrt after aine months of plIrticipa1t Ohserx'atiiin antid d lto1 iStoriiCsI Yof st,it h lharlt hv itdvlf tptlt'l -lOn i~t' illtlVi\ in tll [ llt ~ll iti s lllt lilollt'isi ll, so thaII t t l1u tilho Llli Otf i arlln tnltLrpvi ts. Ill tle at' o mmbinn;tlsp\':thp i if agraian trisn L In thoflobia Iiiti t .- lolic e\ploitation. Further-, there Wa, not Ilteess"'ar sign of thet su rll'\'y cltst ionv,ialhe was ultt ldetakentu aif- i'acicltllts~uc nt c w~ntwh~shl ter a1 le-\'e-ir tlua Iitatvti ye res'eaich effort. Th is il' a tii Ct i.r i i n e t ween the hou seholt consisted of, flrt,te nlltlls ofi inltensive fieldwork i as a unilt of I'L'odution of Iabor powtr allt th t'CO t wpositiol Of the labol. for.c that Carries, oult tile produLlc each of four regiols if the cOt lutrv bv ti'e activities. he lifferen I foril adds organ iZaf ion researcltrs. :i The fieldwork was followet by detailetibt historicalf priitlct ioust be! reftllcted inl thet' design oflethet, sorc, h ie othe primar an sec- tl,-,ionahire it'lltt)beif tiat. are, to b captueda t . In , l.ll-tS. Fin,11 , til anal sis the V,llt ,c- tthe CoiomllaC't1t1lnbiano m case, the htui Wholld tIt itiillnaire 011.1ar*,data resutl in llthe pr irat ioni of I'Cgiondl Listinguih l d betw n l tII threetypesof activities: mn11ui0graphs on the htil'iCria prOcet-ss if agrarialn actiVilies carried iit phy'sically' within tile IhOuSe chalgll' and Of chalnLeLs ill the ste\tal dil i lo I a- hold (doellstti chiire, illin plot tiOi, culiitrvN, bor. TIhis prior reCarcl effort pr'OViitlet the basis for store,s); actiVities associated with tile unit of eco the,Cde ign of tile LtiltitaIive research sta te. nillmic" e\1ploitatiiln (lgritcoLItolial work, alilal 'ais Al exalplC f tile illptrtalnce Of prior fielthwork ilrg, producttl Irlnsforillatitul il nlilmrketing); and aid analvsis in informinig both tile hpotCSS under activities Cari l 1()lt spadt idIv stp rate frol thef studt' and the most apprtpria te fOrlmllationl of tile housholt (\al , work, 1a10 r exth,lilgL, aniL. so en). variables to be llea.sll'd is pr',ided b' the coricePt- A stparate ]t(eslinllildire till ,griCtiItUlal pitOduction WaS then1 filledtit tufor chil economtllic- unit lertainillg , Itih , i ni, hli, hwc. I-,r. to th, t to i ilee lOnnemrua-Sent hlOItc bia prio,t at, ,Ibniiti, it) Ir . i tll \0,11 hr . " Ciit'd ill nI h'I;1, nilt' ( .11111itnillialw, I hytrr,nll , Iam1 ' lhur, l li ' ", 'lildi A sect ond rselhlti lt'inm 11blistf t finhemyitdiof ,Ma,'da lt- 1.'na l ul, de ' A ~,1"l a nd h i ' to r h .lH , md ,>.' (,, %ci, ,dmnOcIl<'n,rajlhiL tionl of 11IS~ th~lit 11ll'l ItS ill thet myvriad of Itinle '<,.iP ih i'r, im, iiltc ,iliii ,i I ,ihio ( fti ,, Iilii,. i rc activities. Participation call be alt'aSIltd ill termlllS Of ii79), 'hi lh, iil ,,, i tiidwirL ; I ,h, ii ;r,, i, I i,- hl ~time ,ct ai lpe t il an alctivitN,, of ,W .O'lerallx' is I,, qi ,III irW",I V ilii/ti i hI iiL',vji,'i. ,(, NO,, 101t ih1 d 1.t chargetid with thi aCt ix'iVi', ortO f thet a Ve radge inltensit\' hol,,chohl,, aI 'd with Ill t(Ilpl%r., and %,,qc l,'orkci' Iln,- ,optn-cil elrlid { a il .l o lltS l'~ l ",idel l il th 'on,,irtlit,M f tilt' Ch ),Ld tiltnnu~'h t he' Pe -i.,unt S Ol~ L,1~i i t ealt' tn c dC i rvey. tcated tL tile activity. (-)b'iousl\', to be most accurate, V 372 STUIJ[E, IN f AMILY PTANNING VC'IUMi 1M NUMBER 1I 1 1 NOVEMBlIP DECEMBER 1979 this In asu re wo'1ul2 reqluir ,ifa, V-d I x'- bd- YJc nI ing tht' IIIt.Iiti lIt A ttinI' tIdiL,t dI to a act i\'it' of tihLetasks in which each linent'ion it" t lle fln liv p1,1!- g t',Itl' ttIInt ndV tht, rl''It', r'ht Ir'IlaniltI it\ It itI ticipaltt'I 11tt the, ,im 0 tit Of liiIL' 1 l 1irei , 1 1h th 01C11el iv ' n ll L tt i lll'[.(' itir I h\Itlt Vt\',riOu usulxV rteri edT't itI III, 11the- tiIne aIIt'-Cat' inii III(th' d. IIi t thOkw; i ,,it Il ,t'tt l-dc t ll-it'ttl pl violls - S le th t n )'th id tellrc (I tiOl I llld ,till't I- tic'll>iihat hlk't , h WVt. tt I'l t'COMpli it 1 jili, H'l('iR,LtI' ItI'I I ,l It t'< ca .S . Fi i,lilt i sitl ir tilt' I 't' llt atouItt t 1ttt It , I I I il It I '.t'i t, i ttIt',lI'l'\It IIrtiI, ,. 5f'tt'l t IItiI it',tC tit i ,'tillit tiili tIt' litit,i IlIIw lt, \ I t lt tii i I s tI tIlti ll t'stI ttIirti it till it C1111 tiV 1ii10r lt 1, 1li titil i Vit ' I It i, I'at tIka',iI]' ti tti Ii,II "Ii t lt ilt'," Uilt'I t i lIl t ".i I . lIlt I ilt' t il ttttilt i't IIIilin l\i. Ct\il 11I 1 t it'I Iilk t1tt ,I\ u lllo, IoLI tI'\ i t Ilc It ,iit , t i 11>tii ,11r1ulu , l lit l l . ,,'\1i~ 1t,u)1 IhlIIttt~ Ik I.I- i i , IIII I J ,I k .'itrtInI tit, 111.)0 1 1 t ilII ,t',t't(H lIi l I I II' POPuhLtll to) N't 1,nllllhd. Hit' dlmti(V Ad popul,iltitm1 Stlruturtl' ill tuin.,, 01 inldi\idli :-, it Il Chtm'lln,,, the 1V: , , + I [+, h, ., .. . i < t\ t lt I'. rl,l It t ' Ii ' .t ' II lit'II , V I*,II l t It IIit UI Ii I 1it1'. 1 l 'i < l H"il~li ,t ' VKLI' ti I, ikl~ IIliI , . 11i . 1 "(\ I I Iit tI l h I',tht ,' Ih u ltl A 11 1i ,11ni tII )] I tCk\ I,iIll Iutc l- t t l ; < < llt~~tl?, ,ht~~~l~l,, u , 1*,11,>,t, t it),rJ '1- l 11) tll.,It, ii I t I. ~ L ut 'ki I :Ilk t', ' ll~~Ikfi11 J ! , < 1I~t III ) I (Itt II, hI l , t c ~.1;,I I r, , I<,t lt'tt I t i tIIIIIIIt ,I, lI I II r, It Iv t ik I , i h II, tl l i c lIi~ ' LAI Ii1 I~,t+I. ' t I.IId , I , II I k .11l~)1rt\, '.. iiItItIttt,- v I t"' t i ~ ' ,\ . t Iv t - t1 1tk. , h, 1u11/ t Lv I(,i-l, II~ Ilt< ItlI-lI,I+l l tI L . t L IIt' h c III III Iht~kI Ith< LI C V, Wu11it)t t~tc 1~1< t+i, t ]ii I. l I t iI.n rlIi t , II Ih .l I tIII IIt Iitr iIt it' \ , l ItIi I I k IL urt1 111)I/i~t Ih tl\'d ct triI t Ih(,. , tI I h I'ILtUt ilk- \po rtv ki ai I rthI nr~I i~,I\I.(~llt I t "-I , t I(InIc R c'UitV il( IIl dI 'i ItuI 1 Itoi t)LII ", tl t~ t t~ iAIa hI L htI ,hLVI I , I Ikt t~ I lil'\'i I IIh, IlI)I t'LI I lt I ti tti\' ('I't t1lLvu11 >,~It ~ It'tIII V It IIIt I I I,hL' I llh 'i lvrtti IIIIrapron I t([ . 11 u 4vi, Iad-,IiJ'l l h c,. Ir'.u-, ilt' <,Id~, .i i i ' l\' I it t !)t ln u ll c,r Tllh,~ L ~iW l~clto),I i-l ) ,Itnd irl iltl'lI.Yi Ith'',iti(li k-t\dlvht)rt11,IM,~r i~tlgl/N.thIIIh ) iIIIt ii ',o ' con,hLhtr til - u £ th L'! -luI.~I), It<1luiIidtiIu,II I I,tm'\'I /I.-LI IIt 'l1*rn1 ) l. -tll ,hil\c dtt ItdPC I-InI i Iit I,LI i~tt I I IIIIi (it] . 0 c I~Lt (T I t ri~I,a-1 t , t h II,-'t ), I\ , tik t hII L.ti II r u l t , t)111lnca hw,Ill J\I ir>,(,( HuLh 1 , I )I.il 111I-Il ~ tId.<,,-,ttttnliuI.~c~Il %i' < l ita l 1u O l lt Con IIIII)u.)LIt itu( I10 I IhIt I'tII'f, ,IIk '-,I. I( w h ilc t t ) h19 t 70~ l tlhl ' ,' >t'ct ( t1't'th Oil t W 2W iop tic,t m !, n, i , i j,l, , > ,J t, .t t i ,, tn!: tnp i'pt ' , 21 tho vll), Ill, p w p11 tllh- :It+,h l I'li'<' c ih it , ll , d ill p,] I . - ,- 'i IIJc Lc ~i,, l l t tILI fth' 11, t ) 1 , I i tLlu I ht, ,,,,,+t Ih, "u'I. ,),I,A,.'%.n. . . .. , L . 'U ' h '... 'l I• II t ,I .. UII Il hI , ' ,iflil , I ,I -jj'~ il,,t l'hi l lj I t , Jil lf ,' t 11irId ,1111,Tl d t i%t,',(' ,II tilu t' l 1 1u r II Cdit IIIL t ff 1h,n i tIfr IInII,I I~nI.k ~. I I 1 1:1,t I,. d I\ 0ih , >),I Ii I In Il, IhL... 11 .-t!I.,I MU11iic:Jp ' l tp rot'-t rtv IiLt i ,,g ,, wv11ht'l ,rt. , )ii lh . .. , Itd 4,,) ( ,,, %,,,,I...... -1[,., l... u, ,,t,, hldi..... I .., t ....II . Ihtc I i'llriI li Ill( ( "i'll i1 I Ihe hdlo , uIII,-,ll\t",.It,, w , < q l1 i ;4 h -, oI -\LA~Itl ItI tC th1, 11u I ic i [11t iiuL . i~ th .,1 , l ,,hi, , 1,1.!,.1~l' 11111, tlt,,,i 11l't!ih r,~ ,onn,,,',l.,h lhI dL.l t~l S 11.1i'C L't> IIti ht'th Ih l thI(I d, 'dIi l a i i -'0,,)om bia pr~i jct, a thret-year Itld,, was financed by IrI1,It- fri im the Ford Fou0idLtioll arid the Niicke ACKNOWLEDGUNIEN ThThis restIarel nte draws fellhr fLound,-til. IIlril Cacerts, Chara G(mzales, upon our experilentV with the GOlolbia ur, l antI Iii ana N1tta pairtic-ipttt in the, fOlrnIulatiton Womeii Research Project carried oLut b'V the ( '00m11- an11d e0\ciutinof th saie n S rvt lepirteid here. bian Association of PoPipuilatioln 'tUtiS under the, Nis. l V)eee'sfieldwOrk in Ilh l10jlitrill Pelrvinil Si direction of Mag1thlna LeOn, La,,, an tLIpiOI the errTa was funtd bo a . OCilI Scie'nte Research (tuncil dissertation field work of Carmen )iana I(ere. lhe lDiSser1taioln Fellowship. CoIlecin3 Data on Women's Employment in wRur1 lava NancL 1\ FLtlPtt11 Dramatic chanilgs in ruial lifestyles and emn1phOnl'ioly t ratelIV tliffer illiIte betwenl variations in the char have aCCoI5palli ed il(id e'rizalion. WoIln'llat pr- act etIiSics a1d nature Of wt)IlneI'S tl_'cot nic actiVi icularl' affect,,d, for m nly tilf lh fields f enipi)y-- tis. I CItided tI focu.s tIn til i. working outside ment traditionally tltinilnatetd by woletn are beili the atricultiral Sectctir bca e,,\tettnsiVle researc'h elhiminatedl r altered as new technoIloy las isirptledis appli, ben tihine on the' arhuilural sctor in (eni especially in atgricullltlre. ( upIelition lIii the It- tral ll'l and the Spcia Pegl o"fn v kalta, .llaining labor o)ppo0rtunitlies is aiMidh, both ilelt wIlit, I w"tl, also bt' workine. andilleile hOllt; dIrerOsossl- t tndlrpitl,. A singit sOl',ce of illt-tall , I rlyh-l feed, Clothe, and shelter a f,lm ilV, let alolle finnl , aIn ee eintilar ' etI u itmat for-"l..l the chilt 1 ri!. Ptiverltv ill ( ei.i'tIra I ,aa leaI thai01,t Research Methodology eVeryte will iiICg aid be Iti wIk toes.- it anid Wl]i) the l'al 1 job opptirt unitites. This resVari-li %\as aii it'd ti in tllee' phases, ellh Ihe incrcasiili preI-..Ssl tite OW it1 by a St,',Iail\ ,ipplying aIdifteret, 0iletliitlot (io steking a spe- growing popula tioul, the resultant Illasses of Ia lIess Cifit- kindtl i data. The Ili e' phasJes wi'e par'iipalt In Cl-landlesrs Riiira Lwellers, alnd the decre'lse il tibst'lV,ltio:l, tilt' hti.ievihid Stll'Vt'V, a/t1 tile mairket agricultural wage labor oppOrtuLlities since thl1,iirti- t . Bi-aI' family andlls r,'latioiiliips Were ducItion of hullers, sickles, and ha1nd wete' lrs, (all ut it prtit ilr telh tL, til tfainil' ulnit rtct'iivtd special which absoirb less al,oir Ilitlil t tliliotiiOil, work itill- itlltntio ; beie, \.Viilltti s t'CiH0ili l actii'ilest were oIs)' are caiuLin li ire pteo1VnleD ito IFt to occupaltioi-, Oif ptiInnV c ucttTil, tlt' ;l re-vtt'spiit Iltts aind kev in small-scale rade dtit manlfitrin, t,.'wVer, informanll ts re' chosen 1, ti,, lutrtiilet,\illc'l.IS there has been relativel, litle rest-ar'ch oll tile.,e'-s- occLApitioll. tors of thle Iabor fiiic'e, especia l inltensive\, re,,arch thiat can be put to practical List'. mt- Ii 'I. - iilk-n 011i,, n iulfli.xl llIll, I It,.th ltl M y research was carrietd Otu tinot teter lilt' I, nnIin shIhi. ILi, l.irv-.>ii , k lt 1I...i.\ iitudi -,t '11-it e C70 till iC role s O r f ll'Il wo lt t wo rk in g tiuls ilte th e L 11V771,,i lit-nl,lil,- Din liin, ruintiliU. I ' r Jij ii ",diItIl lri.I I)lvdCb,,i I- l ..thuii lion-t iii ,v,--' xil- agriculturi-al sector aniId tt) cr'itC a sV teilltitf job t7lassj- I,,y,.C ui pubuh.d 'h 1i Ih,. i lmlu, tirji.i ii ; \"lliim .. fication for ,.tiiall trade and industry thait would ac'nC - t ldir tWun ni \Vldi .. s,,,.ikr ,'kiii ,lumg,-- inl rit, lwirvct jig i i h . r i.. I,q be-' Rutdtlf 5. 1 /. 1,I. ii mI<, i,, .tu, ). ii 2 (lulv 1073); I' IIIt%uniguthpl wiut.ii , li rl iiitudl1h1- 111 Mt ii1c,it t 'm"liiii I)i ulaini- lid tI l II1 Lua! nitz.1i(iln f(r i'vllphli n -it,I) it't ld i-ril i lui il lllui I,;)ultuui l ia -Si, I IIII-':I, Ili ,n ihu L. nm,i .tud, 14, ill,. 2 (Jtulv 1I78): 1)2 . i ii-t rintviiti iil Dliviltpin-uit 5 >,,q No) .11 I~ h ) l; ' I ,rtwl[ I.i ivr ilv 114,73) STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUIME 10 NUMBER I1 1 2 NOVLEMB[ R DE.CEMBER 1779 3 75 Pa rtic ipa nt Obse rva tion SlOW L)CIiotld t 11 11 ll 'tlIll the' m arke'-,t, toil tilt. \" to orl, ,R 11 01C' nlM Ir1,C , 01- W'hil,, ,ittillg 11'0.11tl With ftht, Thi' -kp h0Se, tOf t ht' r t' Ct ' l l tit 'eM O)St illl ',L~l t~ lilt f~ ml .(. t p ik l i;,s tl tt- \\ 0 ,r t, .ak- t,)1l i lt i aL1i ',i f o l "SLt'W t l ! l 'ti t q3 , l ttl ' lhilll o ft: lh(' riV, s,C d r' h l tvic, , u,, t h t , , 0 10 V d10,\'al1 it hlL,J ,l V\, 111C wo/rk rtlttics and tlht' \ ra H IM ('Xiklc l,.t f h ng , trCtliin., iht'lr lilt(. 'nkt w or,lih li,. ill t h t ,.S. 17il t ll W<) ll \\V , t0,S [C~l], to) t\ LIdil ti'III l ' C~litl dren). 'This OCCu pa tional data wcl-rc peirh1aps Ih, lilt. st A Trade History important data colleCtId in ilt 'urv. I hI' last ques uioi oil OLL Upatioil at a speC itic pint in the' wOtman'i, iBu Iovo so1ls hp. a,i snck made from cassava. She life was worled so Is to oiterlnliii'w, \'lttllt there as beI(ll mall tu Inand ot'lling it for about eight had ben ,trlY 000 tl|itII th1an!t.hng .etl'oit the first Y''rs, since a tt \'\\erI, It'fl(t,Ilt'r folr't child was Child and th, tinW ot tho snivo'V. hq' &etiln was born. Ylt' bt''iii tl diiW il t maIr)keti)ic ' as I toon occasionallY ni, inti prc'tt'd, ho'\'o\'u'r, aldtI might ,J',r ,llin' bold-nut 1-.i\c, on ht'r own in a market have bLtl . t'tl nl' t W(tlrattl\. ileair hot, aut1 t htiti,1 ;\1C. ltt' l t d Vt.it of s 1t']l:ng til hLI tMh, ,ho tk I'tatn01iinipa\ 1ht" iniilther, to the Market Survey cite toi bli' sdit, \\h ich tile 5tIv ill titil0t ntaill nark.t nar homtell \\'hell tt'ii\'t'i'itlli' lilt b[qla The third and l-iil pha e of the0 ri'se,irch was a stir- cot lling the price silt, she '-x itchotl to buying vex, Ciliducttd ill tilt' ocal nIrl.ti, ('Ofthe, usnil 350) u illille0 Irice',. h i- -,hi k.. homle, pt[i-iitt'd b\V regular daily tradcrs, 125 the ot womn, Or one-third ha1d Ind re oll ill a rldslidt, narket. he \l' liar- .ofallt the t ratt'rs so lii g ',it i n i dt l, Iemalritd b \ th el, a n d k% I i he h ad h l fir's t child , he Irt, LILlIsth~t~le ,11 their daih { ngr n,, lft th ha'hV bo\' It ier Illt"r holat' and picked 11 111C ~ r~l~ Au~> 1 I lh, ill td l iij, il lIud ilg wha1t tht, id b'ca ikun t iiMtl in the ii(la ,i' ,llt t i ine rice eve'r sold, in wh ill IIld:kt>, nd l hl the',hii was\N"Is nil Ih pi) tllgi' or"tilip lItbl, Siht' chLngt'd changcd if thi, %t;ion , wa the cast'. r \IIt' ,i.,ll. lono-tlisWiaie st'llin wIs out of the ,as k e dl t ,l c ~ v li t ~ ' lk i'~n d h i ' 1jInIu,t i 0l n, f o rIit W( I uld r(CjtLuif' ,tot )o111, 111V 1 t01.1 1 d \' participalti n in lhII'I rti, aid, hizar'-v t. lbasic ftrn-t'i lmiho l l';>lit had i\111 g oh iitli bb'n thatt graph ic inltrl li t on. tillie, 11nd ' tiiirtd X\&, i l tilt' w~i\. 'hl' bt'Ia. to byi Thi's wWIV','V'a arried* it tlilt tlt' 1 (Itt lt if r,,it' lil tI'' lilds 1id.01.1it tllt ilinto 01/l \',, a delioacy .starch, be.V. hiCh ti' I l iL'ati'' ciillt'Jte'i ( ui that is frie'd cI anti ',at'na a snia ir with nnmeals'. titative daLa on hen nllid(InhIitltiVC ttal ol \\h lit' ptiLuitlt'tI th utiC t hltltM ant ttid ilind i "her WOlltnItl al gt't tKcpt1M iil ls, I tu h'L110i t, orf" IOtCi- \V(i il Irt-luIiItl n hii w ' tIring, It)ntoe t'\'er'' tive, tCdays, tioii iof 'Is . C11 MIot I ull' no10bilit, ,ilt] Pai-fhlt' to ttk tite llliint to thodistrict ma1,rket and sold ticipatitil ii I ftI lditi(ul11 111(1ilt[!lodcri~t l k 1 ilili' ! ill w th'O,0alt o brother while she made,. deliveries, wh ich took al11ou1t ill liltwomal's fanilv. lhiiWa , of special intrest an hour and a half. Her son Wen t to market in the al- because such, trends went\'Virt tally'Vn oticed, partly ternmen to byN sAs a ftert the Wbwa ' w\eane0d, due110 to thi'lIk (,f1 a1 rlnt -syste ot classiyi she reiurne.d to s,,llin, il.,e market beau,-e her enlplo\'ent and types, Of trade. profits wVer Ii itllr aLId '1heC liked the -ontact with li,-id's Clnvire'iiletal changeds il urred hv de otler traddir . liei;ig in th, market trelle'itl" allo0wed velopnWni,"t Ov I h ian indivIdual tradie.r has no hert totake ad'ant,0e ot tLIIIPre(ict,l, eppIrturnities ,control, otheLr elilo'(n4Ui Vurialble influetnce,., or to mak a few e,\tra rupiali, such a1,b\ selliIu, fre'sl limit a ,volnins.. oIlie of OcCupaItioIIOr he type of V'eeta bt s brory,hltin b loa:,Il ta11 WI'~tnen. ,S-;he hasI-, kli tra .)It,lhtI-e variabl,.,.s include'-, aLccess to capi been a trader all her ite ad i,al,',ivs, sVkin,, an\ tii, w.ork c(\pekrilL', trlde.'-peckific or product-spL op r!lllit\' to dd tIo the( 1,1lil\'i ncome01. citi ko. ,.l%Cl ,,. tolal mm1 b i oh hours rt,1 uired inside Or outs i Il 'i,,C,1hv. ic,I Iabor inlputS, I ...... -. ,is:-tanI~ce Itimnrk..,ts eithe.r ,s,lliny, outlets, aind plt (ta] .apitl ire.1I ptIr hIu r per day. Occupational Classification .ll the developiiint tae Of ih wOihlliwin' ihl, par The goal ot this re dii I , td[ in ularly hi, r ital .tait llli the.)i111lbil ,11t age tfirma tiitin Ol ','OilllTin' e ipli l_l 'liit Ol - ti1 t lit \ ilIrIn.1l It ti l eit,nIts of the II nan'stI am agricultIral sI tor. Ca e sAuh 1 t t1,11Of Bu l (), iiv withW:itlit theseI' ItIIT L lirl'It occuLpation, ald com bineti With ';ntr\ve,, result,, rVV',,lidalei,ii trail ii 1-I aVre maL in hours or .wkloction, or Slit' ' ' [)atternsII lIt k'Vtll it TIilwi'd lklu hi l\'I,.i ' llliit be etili'n- Conclusion tcet, ,beci se~U'tif,,i'n-s ,,,iitiic ulturall and c ,,ialI \',lialt' ( njaLI i i',rliIit I l 'oLl ,Iat ol Il Ie Ihc pr,laitil',lv,llue Of the job cl,ssificatiol sVstemln llni,ltt'Irdiliticul Ih1,1\% v t tuirtlii, i ,ik1 i ii,uti L- ,iIlt]of Iin li v,:I l paiittris f occupational choice is ' hen l'd lo th ,It't iIithIl <,IaI1iu r Choice and Change of Occupation rWuing tl o inlt r it, 1111 lt ti ni' ilI'\iii telltris shoL'11n10 \', Vt'll l);,l'1 <- , t l0111hC ".,it'J(du ll ACKNOWII.IIMENIs \W ith the extept ion Ot tlhe lol' V W( ijl':L1; IlI alnII L 1i nI I1( CL IrLIInlii llnk'- pltLittl i I.- it , It -,, n J irI in, hLtI St Ill id-,tlvt\V, th i re a,,rch Vas sponsoret'd and d, (rl( l-.-lIit- ml~tio lns \\ ith III'l it ll -littPil') 11 i ltk t1und e d bY'I ll ( F:or d F: ltild iill i a rt, , In1do ne sia, age1W ali nliII rC'-of childr'n sbll tcic ,ttlilte' trIVnil-, in to ich ich I epre's ni\ ,1,ditptappriciatioIn. The LtctlI)at[itill) , Oic , L()IilW,h t tb lit- ',d.,ti'; hnisehOld r'UV'V \\as c1arried O t with Dra. Partini 0 tl I-)r's. "ti' 0i, ,whe Ittic tiIIL' were assistant lec tlrers in the, I)epartnint of .ocio log" a'itGadjah 'F,~ ~~ ~ > ~.... ~.tIr,~ ...... ~ ~ ,h t~ :,,,,~ ~ ~ ~i(,th],,II,,i,.U! i\Vi,, rt , )i'(),',,',iU rt,i.It WdV~Sf ILnIl edt 11n(A Irr .l l, %I,a UmI%'r,itv, h, lh,,b4,7'?) 11Il 1 '111 ,11, -',f strch; to hrr I Wt a iiirTiC pavi tIlt' tlt fIlr her a1d llI,'ln'h',"r,1" il t %'m'. v 1.'i', 'li ,Pittit''',,!'t 1 ,',i, l .or Pt vice ilum'I w illi i ss to excldl gU ideas all aSpectt s t i l',, 'i , i hI11 ' 1' p l p;tr ai l4 -h ',t Wl iaIlIf ' ., h',e Th e e, forJava I'f'lk.vlk.irhlr(itt ',i, ,l udi, ( .,,.Ill ;,i, Mad. L vr. ( file ides Orl tCCL'pational lSifi il,. Madi, 171) catitrn wre tiev'I loed with the assistance of several 378 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBEP 1 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 colleagues and friends at the POpula tion Institute Masri Singarimbun, whose_, moral support !,!;ough (now the Population Studits Center), part icularl.,,, 1)r. out the project was also much appreciated. And of Terence Hull, Dr. Val(ri, H1lull, Marie-Cla irl,Nal- cou rse to the women who opened their lives to me ingreau, and Patirick CUinls;.Seni na rs and other and made this stuid\' possible, I cannot sufficiently acadelic facilities were IlradL acceOssibl, bY Dir. express my gratitudt. i. Group I: Time Use and Project Planning Collection and Analysis of Data on Rural Women's Time Use Brenda Gael McSweeney The Upper Volta, UNESC) UNI) Project for [kqual lighten women's workloads and to improve basic Access of Women and ,iris to lducation, a ten- year health conditions an d s ta ndards of living. Labor-sav systernatic progral to promlllOte CIIucatiollal opport l- illg technologies were introduced: mecha nical grain nitv for girls and womenln and to increase their mills, carts, and readily accessible water wells. It was conltribution to the ecotnoinlic and social d evelop- thought tihdt womell'ntcould allocate a portion of the milt Of the coulltl' was' uniliiI, in Africa. The time this s tedo such edlucaitioal activities as project, one of 37 wOuen-relatled activities under- learning nmoderil agricultural methods, health and taken with the as.,istance of UN ESCO iiuri n5 tle civic education, and professional training. Knowl decade i65-75 ," was aimeid p rimarily at creati P, the edge was to be diisseninmated through aniiatrices,or preconditiois for edIicating Wo1men in relllote ru iraI dynamic village WOmell, and traditional midwives areas antd at designing ed ucation p'Og'alls that Wi1'0 were designateid by the villagers themlselves to would contribute to rural iievelopmen t was multi- attend special courses thait wouli enhance their roles sectoral and was plained from011the (ltset to last t'n as leaders in clallge. ;unnctional literacy classes and years. radio clubs were organized in the villages. The proj Launched in 1967, the project assem bled data on ect also introducCd activities to increase wi)men's obstacles preventing full access of girls and womtien reVClues, suLh as collective fields, the receipts from to education anild init iateCd experinental programs in Which were malaged bv the wol"en. several pilot zones to overcome these barriers and hence to augment available educational possibil ities. ' Initial operations, based upoln findings of so- ___ ciological studies undertaken illthree regions of the Collecting Data country with different levels of economic prosperity, on Rural Women's Time Use climatic conditions, and ethnic groups, sought to Repul i a,' ItIul,-Vilia, Xil'ptrili,1ni: i'ri.i\por- A major objective of the data collection was the gen ilOoialt p1 lr I'ogdi d'a(C dk, hI lllt".L,-i 'lln fl' a eration of precise information il wolen's ' dUCali~l," p 11, time -Rapportvur', repurt (n UNESCi', contribution towards inprov- allocation. Cotnsiderable accuracyV was necessarv to ing th-. -tatus .t witen," u(l itltd 11 the UnitLd sle xecutive permit testing Gf hypothIeses colncerning wolen's Ia oa rd Mum h1 r, Pari-, Niay 1975. p. 4ti. bor inputs and the availability of free time to women CO 'Wo,pIress, rpt'?1,1975),1'duci-a/ p. nl12. ,Lqlit'.11: A'[)itide ot 1-yu' ntl(Parks: "Fie UJN illcomiparison with their male count erparts; to exam 'R.puliquc dt aiI -,ltLt , Cited i foonote 1,pp. 1-2. ine women's exirafamilial and intrafani Iial alloca 379 38) STUDIES IN FAMILY P1ANi-NG VOL UME 10 NUMBER 11'12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 tion of tinl and the implications of ,,uch tile u, for pro'xim,,it, tlhtfirst 14 %akin hour-, wTi preVpMd development policies all iprogranls; ' to ricortd ,ctiv- fotr e,lch ot 1iI wol11,l il the0 Village,,!l Ilcandd for ities in which womeltn', parl-ticip ation wL, Subt,111- \ollt'll le ders bv 11111ii-; otf,direct o-serai tion. I'hev tial, ill ordel, to as-,eiss whether the project', trallliig Liill p tLet,-.l re ldii ilinlmintttes, ot W1he1,n the progrills ii tCilodgi, ,'c., ildr.Sifi tihtep- ictiviti ,'nI- II n'deI.lda description, of the' activ propriate prle-m areas (t',I;., should priruitv le il\, the t'coiii(IlIe Or tei hilohg\>' S Cd, ,Iniany aSSis, given 1t incrasing, fficitnl v a1nd tingth h riicnls [l1 I. inl Iar\ in OWtthe 'I i\ it. I i teCnoth-central of so \i , -,Olil ingthrehI l in;, t. ' hul! ln, griiit ,'one. \\ti cl populaillt b the' Nl iS, the imajlitV ing?);' ti llvitt rhtth.1.tl ili P1-i''lie - tIi t cnr ill uthiu ieup, iltetue b dll, \\Vteire a'olilt) Rpr i fact anlohstailth I t, h ieli i , it cIlli"in',; ,iil t or tivi,'IenIi fl',ii e c \'illage ltoh1 pe,i, llit nalysis of t0 idettLL if ' put kliriIIt t Ii kiLI l 1 l,r to .i\ iihII thI ial fi.nI labkr. Ii II IClitiiI .a,silIg I - schdC(ulii , it s-1 1h , i\'I,It iV I li. i IIit, st'Iv iil pi ,ci fiv iris1h1 IlboyI .(\II itteh ViI groups lil li i l,l'v A1>. 1 1)'tiiI'i" I,)jiit',.\,I ake ' it",itifiC11 l i\Wj 'A' illdcllliken to furnish obtlin ininirinl"iuu ,n ir i -l. 'iltii, i -ii., inJiCaliit (ti tIh ph. iign i n rlr!.onpaison i[t 1patteln aiit111 il ti i iti iit GitiO'll ilii il'A llli-itl s tiinlit Use yie ldd by In o rlir I',IIl ,, ' 1' tii,lig ii,i -! i Ii t ,1- thiii cia IIIt te it'll1i tie in1l lv Ii*kt (I s rva t itlill 'fficiely a- pii ili' -' I h i II ,I..rir, l Il' W',,d thattll 14-in4+ p- t er ,iiI o \iklifncIWI's 'i'kwas c t', ti dai o lilldina\ti , 0 1 '- it I I a i 1('l,i1v C lacc )1tii 1Itt' t ii i Yi I -_L l. surlveyV tecthi I glui.I arii' cil,t~ tiouc l i the ! prti , iil,+,flit w th I,,pi il p lItil l t (dv illage -- illllt0i l',Iph. i:iit i Lgul ti0ion ,Iiiit , 'A\ lc lill .I . i0irI(l v('rl Iti 'il il 'iItJI'thu I-"it i, I II I Proposed Framework and idlt ,l',tphilcia , vi'llas , '"on Ili Ithil'b v'I;HL i,,,tNaitiln-l',i ~lIi ll' TABLE I Comparison of time allocations to rural activities, by sex Average time Average time allocated allocated (in mirutes)o (in minutes) a Activity Women Men Activity Women Men A. Production, supply, distribution 367 202 D. Household 148 4 1. Food and cash crop production 178 18o 1. Rearing, Initial care of children 18 0 Sowing 69 4 2. Cooking, cleaning, washing 130 1 Weeding, tilling 35 108 3. House building 0 0 Harvesting 39 6 4. House repair 0 3 Travel between fields 30 19 Gathering wild crops 4 2 E. Personal needs 158 269 Other crop-producton 1. Rest, relaxing 117 233 activities 1 47 2. Meals 21 29 2. Domestic food storage 4 1 3. Personal hygiene and other per 3. Food processing 132 10 sonal needs 20 7 Grinding, pounding grain 108 0 F. Free time 77 118 Winnowing 8 0 1. Religion 2 6 Threshing 4 0 2. Educational activities (learning to Other processing activities 12 10 read, attending a UNESCO 4. Animal husbandry 4 3 meeting or class) 17 4 5. Marketing 4 0 3. Media (radio, reading a book) 0 14 6. Brewing 1 0 4. Conversation 14 69 7. Water supply 38 0 5. Going visiting (including such so 8. Fuel supply 6 2 cial obligations as funerals) 43 19 B. Crafts and other professions 45 156 6. Errands (including going to pur 1. Straw work 0 111 chase personal ccrsumption 2. Spinning cotton 2 0 goods, such c's kola, next door) 1 6 3. Tailoring 2 10 G. Not specifiedb 1t8 0 .4.Midwifery 41 0 5. Other crafts/professlons (e.g., Total work (A, B,C, D) 587 453 metal work, pottery, weaving Total personal needs and free time cloth, beekeeping, etc.) 0 35 (E,F) 235 387 C. Community 27 91 1. Community projects 27 0 aBased on lime budgets prepared by direct obavation. 2. Other community obligations 0 91 bWhen observotion did not lost the full 14hours this schedule of work accounts for an aveTrage of only mnlim tes allocated to each activity by the minisamlple tw(o-thirds of the totai occupations of this sample of of women from Zim tenga in comparison with their %vomienin the first 14 hours of the day, and only one- hu.'bands. According fo the new schedule of work, quarter of the activities of their male counterparts. women carr'V out 64 percent Of tile production/distri The Upper Volta data thus suggest the need tWrevise bution/supplV tasks, 23 percent o crafts and other the ATRCV framework to better capture rural actlvi- professions, L)7 percent of h1ouselhold tasks, and 23 ties b,' incorporating into the work schedule cash percent of commu nitV obligations. These tasks repre crop production and crafts, and by including meas- sent 5b( percent ofi all work performed in the first 14 ures of time for personal needs and of free time. holl'S of ile dav. WOn11's worKl ad after tle ob A more comprehensive set Of indicators (:;ee servations ceased can also be expected to exceed Trable 1), based upon an expansion f"tile ATRC'"s those if m1en, as W,11In theIn generally prepare the proposed framework, permits exanination of the evening neal and wash up afterwards.A significant dominant patterns of overall time use and allovs de- fact that eLrges is that c .pa, ion ot tiletiod pro termination of whether men score higher on a more duction category in to a More comprehensIV e2(Meill inclusive schedule of work than on the initial sched- cluding cash crops results in Iieasurenlents showing tile of work suggested by the ATRCW. The revised a decrease from 61 percent to 49 percent of \V\onlen's framework in Table 1 displays the ave-age time in participation in farming relative to that of men, 382 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER iDECEMBER 1979 owing to significant amounts of tiie allocated by Age, Sex, and Time Use men to cotton production. Overall inlspection 4f the tillne blcgets sipp rtS the hvpothes is that age d10(s not strtlly affect w'+olen's - time use. Yotung and idk alike shoulder substantial Findings burdens. Fenales begil pu ti ng in m1ore., work hours than males beginning at age seven: Based upon a nalys is Of the lnili-iaIiple, provisiolal findings are pr1sen thd here, cIleriling tile pres- Hours of Work sures experiencedt by V t,/ici'omen a1nd tile influ- Age Girls Boys ence of polvgvn\, .1,V, a11J techndilnhy ol time LISe. 73 These findings sugges lireCtii ins for the altaI'sis of 9 74 2.8 the entire, data set. 1i 8.5 32. 13 6.0 52 15 8.8 4.4 Time Pressures and Education The project SOUgh prOIl, t to itC w'I1mIell's eduLation by Technologies: Food Processing encouraging thle sending-Of inlne girls to school, and b'y training womenl lt'diIrs Wh% \OIldL in turn eduic- and Improved Nutrition Cate their coll~i ~s." W omenl'!s %orkh ii, andi time' Availability of te llItOlOvL iI not COrrelate0 with tile patterns coulcl bec ,/sitllied to geatliv affect the achievement of t he jatniV. ereductio i workhols."' ( )f women's sho0wed thadt NiMOSSi WO110u1 1h,1L'01n1V lltOU'S Of schedenthrt Mssi linencivL ha , l 1.1.3utlgt 1 Est ftltroCss. . in, ativitic>, iriniig aIild pounding free time in the first 14 waking hours. (;ivein the niag- aibsorb i the. grcatest shiare f the, time (84 peren t tf n tital t)tl-pl'cesilg time, an lve age of nli-u C of WO111C,1" \vtW', 0i,.loq over PA' lticttiht+'inaportaiacc, of Ihours per4 dlay). thus the assistace furilishrd Lygiis in ca+rrying out daily the p-)iOjeLtJ'S lhcltice of in trtoduc tasks, it is little. wMiCder that thC project tealll enlipha- in inechaiiLl iills is ndtlrstiiLbte. (uistion sized th introuLIction of t chnolo0gies to lightenthehe airo rerPonlt,EVLdLI that VoltaiC W,11iu-ji tendi to foo-pE~l tessingaI 1'esL irag ft/o.d-proCeSSil,- 111LI (li\Vr:--, tt t,IgU talskstaks illiianalL at-t- prsl'tCntiiiz(,afor,1 tinle. an ta,ni1Uthetm ill\\'Oi~Lilnliink iitlteil when to tirLlprtepalrOr tem ittt Crel'iet iile ill h licl wOi'ment niiih t btulef i t t ileI,;. c1tt'tI (aWtit' tC t iro Pukh ,11d from educational oppitiilis ,iid that tht\' mvning H tIo tigLI, wor might be more' amnn lli tis e t having11 theird Professor AIi la nkoand&', Scholstiqut, Komtpaore,, their valuable SuggestiIlns. I thank Judith Biuce of Nla rct'l POuissi, all a111VyOther col]Clgus, 111d the Popla1ttI ('onCouncil adc Achola lal tO)k'(e) for frienls. I amilgrateful to MIl'ion 1I. rtLetnian, Brigid inspiring the initial seunainiar preseltition upoll O'Farrell, Vl nnal Patpank, Roemaie Rogers, Philip which thL arttie is ba.rSd, anld Sdira Zcidenste il J. htone, 'plvon liZir, anid Noberu .. West for and Carol Wiland for th t'd tonal skill. Rural Women's Time Use Vivia n ILavuns GillC'Sp' The tile-b udget thid ofitObtaining informa tio B\' contrast, p tttLTr falricating various tVpCs Oil I'Irrll NiCaragu.1 \Otilte WaIS cliOten whln 1 Ii tr- a td sizes of cti11ln1t0 eInI\ co king vesSels do not ,ttie', s.arch rV,,aleCd a virtual a11SCII(Ae of inifoinlla- have such a tract ittlnatd da\. hey orgln it all activ tion Oil womeIn in geieral and tit rurral1 WoI11eI1 in ' itiC around a bltck ofItime (,Vteraging nerily 4i2 partil:iular in this CitItral1 AmenTriCa- We obseeiCd t'hI basic wtrk patttrns of thr('t'tp'les Of Women01l: the h1otiSt'wilfC, whot wtrks in hetr ittn1C and rcceivCs 1i0 finnldcial renitleltitii ; the potkLer, who fabricatts clay pots in ht'r l ant1d stlltm ...... for a profit; and tht' factttrVkwirer, who is ,Lstilt Benefits of the Observation Method from her hitni, at least cighit 1iou1rs during tit day. Their work days rt'ilect vai ltu.s accOImnIlotdatio tIlst [il' beiefits if tl'oObsWrvationi mitlitld art' seve ral child-care and food-prtpa ratioi icsptmsibilIit is. 1at varietl. In atiftio li ti St'IisitiZilfi'thCObst'ver to The work dlay if hioLulSeWies is i1ntrtd ibi\ frac- subjCd'S lifc stV,-tf'r prillri iillp rta nce to anv tionated. These woiiillilcnista iiv shift frotl oIie ct- dt'Ct'hlpnt plan nt'- i-this l' lhodology asoi marks' livity to another, taking betweli 5 and 15 iililUtCS to the dirtction of (u1rtht'r1 .1si'cll a1d idiCtatt's which con'plete each task. luestioiis menit asking or potitltring, Is well as likely \\ 384 STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11112 NOVEMBERI DECEMBER 1979 avenues of action. For e..i,.npe,, Nicaragua the study nate hw the seasonl iy r. lion riril1t dtwel'irs to was not specifically hooking for , information on nitri- work the Cotton, sugatr cant', .1nI ,ii ffet hiarves af tion; however, becaus' we wtre presenl. in tli hoic fects w1men I', Yti. It til\' jitn tiheln ig''rIV work during food preparation 11'id meatinlis, we ob- fiuic't,, do ihev work it the fields and reta in theii served llall\' citni1iltunly practice,d tusttinlls: (1) tll ctoking, laioii''erin . a1 1 hIdtare rt'splnsibilities? husband and/or children wert fd b, for the \vilaln It' thev sta homit wlhil idditionall ri'spolnsibilities had her mel i (2) if there was anl egg or piece itlnt I)eCaLtic thei's vh'rt sp uus alld/olr tildhir n1il,1 chil to be Coil1nmed, it \w,,is given t the husband to older dlen iir' absent.) Althotiueh the 'tuittraillv held work male children; (3) 1te di'ts of residt'nls ;ituLated close plate fol ru1ral Nii,ara.i"iall \o iii0 / j' ill the1home, ho the Pan Anieritan hig hway were IMre' vried ant the, v v r taa ieularlyevi~it, frin the ii dltoti take onl apparently miore nutritious than ltho of residents of agricuthltrat titdwor-k as \txC1ioldtcl. hiaiige aset' more remote villages, this last t bs'rvatiiiii led i the Want to be a\are Of tht lti't't anid lhlit't t this e, speculation that the high incidence of aln utlnitio in lndtd, pari il ill. in NicaragUla (estinlated io be llt' p)riarna ott Calse ( 'Itrivid sct,\ill t i\'jjtils (fhoutlditt r be death of rural Wteli) Indhy be , due lot onl1 lt ilj'i-i 'nplihed as a i tithldr c(vttti'ipnti ptivners t ili tional iinoralCC but ,lk.) Itithe iillai bility (be- 0i. pitijecsIsplile!.tvhenn''r lt the' tullshiiai'' CaLlSe tf pOv'itrv, istilalilln, i1 blh) itt illt nl- W\' tat tiling th itiy;-. :\ titi( ik tritii~tls ftodLShlt11,, I C 'ThtR- lih Iii " Co~un tt Il' fr l r ~ldion \ ii t O~i l llt' 1/ lh( 'rT Viil I'e ihservatitti itlla(!olso il1miulat's1 the Oh- 'ai', \ho rti0 ut It tin hi' in timak lurit staciCs that th rturl iu-',1t1 iii rihiniil a taii' piict (,iniple tablt' indItVihL s) tui thei' hne s. 'ihe Ob for their labors. Fur t\ain ;te, ini the :tnlinilit\' 1 of se'rvatitun 1i1t1ht edsily \ itlh intkfiltion oil cUs- Rio Abajo, tOulato Iiiers were tisiVt o s ll i itlaory divisiislsitklthit labor l'ttsihtt's atlthuugh boxes containing is 1ianv as 8o Iulatiesn1 ti a buVer I'l'al Nioai,,,il \iti(t1i rIpiiir the nll walls and with a trck fur 5 ii'doas (7 tirhl imbas US 1)peT fliirs f thei' hlit"i, i ltli iliht I the ioliSe li'ities, box. The superniarket in Mli, id buys a bo\Hito8t put uon the 'tItit's, indt allt' illititllCi. Itt() e'C tilates for 35 corti hib s. W ith lltltlltipitl ' (tuiltl't h tif liV0', dlc\'i'Iitpirnenl p1111-1 it-I 1)i,ie i tiill(' \\ i'h the means i transporting the c'til,,,it ;'s (rl't1il', ill- liit' ha lt't (it tl lA' ,id r'sp01l.il ilith,I d It cl habilan's) produtce to ,ilket, the in itlilleian plavs itillillllil nt'. a "take-it-or-leave-it" galit' anti iivariiily, wins. t)h tisitl n \itll'- a \tt','alth it infiiilnaliuii Al additional of lit' tbst'rvitiiai ,alnt1ttW rurAl .llet h'ii hpli taks atnialindi method is the rectirfdinc tlf ilt' actual Si'xilll division itentitit' ihe, luiis ant uclhtit'.stisei . This ill- Of lab~ir. \ViL-en tjcstiu'tinaire, ti inher'i' t1it'th- dptlh kiti' -,llI l it'" liitit's ild (tf hW odolgies are usedc tigain iiformatitn, tih' ailst''i' is and \ith Wvlat inialnlials tht, l' ctitpih LtI and in' frequently the CtuitrallV held iteal, which su1lt'- \thiti call 1l,,il th id ifft,;'Cncc b'tut'tt'l acci'ptillce'k times differs frtlm the reilitv. Fr ,\anlpc, theC 16- and success 0ii' i'ri'Ctioii lind failurn' A.1ttirnizatitilof \!ear-old dtaughthr tt a \''gt'tablt i tariC said that she Pi'tijt'cts. Fitld ti ,t'i''t'i si'ttti hIN 'nt'ciii'i gei tio had finish(t high sch l indl ni)\' handled liei' hl- taplit' this iiiftlltlMatill aitt ItudH it in itliit tor its ther's ,ity(itilols; aitnd, inddtt, sh was iisi'rvi'il iItt'r revi'xv intl input into pulie'tlll.ing tiliciSitins. doting just that. IIouveCVTr, wh'n a bUt\'t'r fouir her fla ther's totnatt criip aherived, tit' daugliti'r jitinetd th' fieldworkers ant pio tkd tonatoe, ftir five ho urs without a br,_,ak ftri i(l iwr \ater. Iair silt' aillnitttI' to having Ii in the tih Itx't weeks il rlitr I l inIl, ACKNOWlEI)(MLNs , 's ''l Itu Ill is a 1itiiI, I\ as the plants.'l'he tbstrvatioii 111thtil, 'nllpl\'ed ovei- llli' possibl \' a0 'alnt fllll th' ,\gt'llcy ftr Inttl' the course of the entire agriculttir, cycle, Would nlatiOiii l)ett'tltniit lt lit Fet'derltiOn Of itganliza yield sensitive data coilc'i'ling the acual partkipcia- tiotns for Prtfes'sioiiat "intu'/lnt,'natiinal Centl lion of women in agriculture. It woluld a1Sti illuni i- fur RiSC, rch till \'olleil. Group III: Instruments for Learning Measuring Rural Women's Economic Roles and Contributions in Kenya Audrey Chapman Smock Around 88 percent of woinen il Kenya reside in rural ti_-,, and acces to nontformal eduCation programs. areas, where they make a ma jor contribution to the Data from the first two rounds of the IRS, col local economy. The existence of an ongoing rural leCted in 1974-75 and 1975-76, confirm the major sample survey program, conducted by, the (entral contribution of adult females to farming, but they do Bu rCau of Statistics, makes it m0re feasible to collct not provide an insight into the division of labor in data relevant to ruralI women's econtomic r les in agricultural production or in other household tasks. Kenya than in most other developing countries. TeThe IRS was originallv conceived as a household sur- Central 13urCaui of Statistics instituted the National CvN.Ther'efore the approach was to delineate the Integrated Sample Snllr97-1'rogramiein I971 with a phvsical alld labor inputs, the farm production petmanment field staff in a carelull\' selected nationa yields, and the incomes of the household unit, and sample of rural and urban clusters. The key Inte- the data cannot be disaggregated to distinguish be grated Rural Survey (IRS) is an a nnual,I Ongoing so- tween the productivity, contributions, and resources CiOeconomic surl'AV in which a variety Of c]tl'StioLn- of various fainilh' meminbers. naires are adlminiliStered t, he sancL Iuseholds Fo coMiplenent and supplement existing survey with in the national sam plc. The main objectives of data, the Central Bureau of Statistics has decided to the IRS are to develop and refine tietechnicues for Col- undertake some special modules specifying individ lecting reliable, representative, and Ielevant informa- ual rather than household data. The Division of La tion from rural areas and to ensure the rapid bour Module, which was administered in February processing and cluick ileaLs' of theC dat,. During the and March 1979, is one such survey. four annual rmuIds of the IRS. tainda'd Ltestion- The purpose of the Division of Labour Module is naires have been alterna ted vith -,lpeial nn idUles, to provide detailed data on the contributions of Data collected in the 'epeated Ljuetionnai res include household members to agricultural production and demographic cha racteristics of the household; other tasks, such as care of poultry and livestock, physical descriptions and vaI ua tins (ft assets; food preparation and cooking, houSe cleaning, child patterns of household expenditui, collslm ption, care, buy'ing food, fetching water, and collecting fire and income; and farm produ,ction inputs and wood. The questionnaire is divided into three sec yields. Special modules have focused on such sub- tions: the first part elicits background data on the jects as literacy, nutrition, nonagriculltral actiVi- respondent and the household to Supplement data 385 386 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 Co N I I1 N I IA I, tl I l-k-\I IIL ,,l \L 111 ',1 l ' l ', [,h l lDlV IO N (11 1ANItL k \1kli IUI ill I 'largvtI'o-,lat!,ih: t lh.Itiu- hol I h.ld II I rLi sd F'i11ls, itIANit' likkiull120 ,Ii11g, II t t I I4 Ii Ilil Naiv Card No. I ] if\ti rl re,1pondunln. Office U c, Female, head is, tollk wfe lit h~d" 2l~h Senior sit il . ht.l 3 1l11 r iJ f l Iit I ltss d 4 "]sihli I i "It I 1 4li III-istO 6 Iiliior \\it' o 10ltillI llt it' 7 tiher 81 2 \ge rt-nit 3 ltt Poiklit'lllt' 1h1191,t kuci ti o rnial eduication; No fisirntal rhni s l l 1-2 Yecar,vcndarv 5 1-2 vial'pilulsutiu 2 6 3-4 VTir,10condarv 3- - v ar. prir14V 3 4 , .var, econdairv 7 S- t al' prliliiri 4 4 RepolltLits 1,1 t,1i1i N.\s<.vr ...... , I _ Skip to ""- --- ~ QucsissmO[8tI Irnl rh ilrrisd 2 .. . 7.. Curritt)\ lIarissI 3 5 NU itbsr tit \.irs nwi'lrri Les than I vear ]e 8-15 i'ar, 4 1-3 Ica, 2 16-25 years 5 1 .t- 3 More than 25 years 6 _ collected in other IRS modules; the second section qLestionnaire employs a precoded forIlnat to facilitate focuses on the participation of members in agricul- data processing. tural production; and the third deals with involve- In order for the lodule, to be suitable for incor ment in other household work. Following the usual poraion into the National lntegrrted Sample Survey procedure at the Central Bureau of StatistIcs, thC -ogramme, its design had to meet certain specifica- L A- \. STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11,,12 NOVEMBER /DECEMBER 1979 387 1 offiteU'v{ SApg* otI ,polndvnt'hul'iaIn 17 18l 7 IZ.p idnvi ',rhu ~bandhighcw h-veI of foimrniI 'dil"ItIol: No tommna lwhohlmg [ 2 I 2 ,,, Pure "I iii-H -'Liid,ilV (1 ,-4 .%cm plll1l"l 3 -mmiii . 'i irir ", , llV / iN,)ii ] I0Ili 3 I \'Iurnllrr Oi gt'ii'r'ltiliillii r)grl i i,, i 'nhiiohl, I i,, 2 F.,ur 4 Numell. 5 oiIuii' ns iia wgiI. 9k ,'IJ lv, 5 ...... idm r .I+.Ji 15 .1n1 ovr 22 I I'llh" , 1 .1n- t,ot . hool M .14-, h- 1.1not ,11"l'looi 10 Nimillv rs ttLn ii i t i i . is kig i Fo~t.4 ,t ho'd NIh,., 6, 1- ,it.,hooI 21, 27 Feail, iiF 'IndII Ml, il1\i d o lt 2S 2 I ot 1tnih I M h- o II 11t at hoh 32 12 ho Likes Ilh,1major Ilmlt,ot lhI,*wit. i lht h ll p rint,tiilland im Adult 1t 111,101 ,.duhl11,1ltc,-2 1.11110 ,11dhiro+d labour 7 i ithr l ,ullj I A dtilt 11,11- .11111 cilidren tions. The survey had to be replicable in all rural prehension by rural respondents, Who often have no areas covered by the national sample, irrespective of formal education. The organization of the questions ecological zone, household size, or level of economic had to produce data that could be aggregated to the development. The format nad to be simple and clear national level as well as disaggregated to assess the to facilitate administration by enumerators and corn- effects on the division of labor of such factors as edu 388 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 . --T.. .-.- t . >.T .. . . C T t-- , .,*-* * * .. 7,, I ' ...... L . cation, size of landholding, ecological zone, occupa- (JUe-Stitlnire preCIclded admniistration to both males tion, and proximity to markets, and females Within tile time period allocated, and it The module specifies the target population as fe- seemed preferablc to select either males ot females ais male household heads or married women in agricl- respondents to provide somle co~nsistency' in report tural houLseholds over age 20. The length of the ing. IRS findings that a higher proportion of' rural STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 389 4 I °'- J 1 Ing Food 7 7 2, a' .4 t~INn ,.,ul., tju 111 LC a F Fr o -y a , . em.. t andlEIld 2overm ae 14 4< FOCI ei2 - 2.4 1S - fl2id22. 6 14 at s h o , ae .2 47' '1"+ '-' -- IIv! F o ;I I 'i - ' '+ 'dl W\, tr 2.l. ..., i .i'i I'-'12.4i ..i.... l ...?tt-h ..t~.. I;r~ 'orrenl than men are inx'olved in agricultural pro- easier to locate and inlterviewv temlale.s thlan males. dulction suggested that females would be able to The module elicits data on the contributions of supply mlor'e accutet descriptionls oifthe type of wotrk six groutps within thu household: females aged 15 undertaken by different faniilv members. Enu- and over, males 15 and over, females 6-14 not at merators' experience has shown allsol that it is school, femlehs 6-14 at schlool, males b-l4 not at 390 STUDIES !NFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 1 , 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 school, and males 6-14 at school. Data specification The acltiVi tN'-secitic Ipproalch is Simpler to con by groups rather thani on ,1n individual basis sir- ceptualize and 'Iake, i! easier to rI'OCilId data anid to plifies both collectih l aid aIalvsis. Although such a1 co71pire pattt, rs across colirnni uIitics arid in a V, ri group approach climina ts tile. possibilities of u ndCr- Cty of ecological 11on'.Ic tihe qLci.,stionrnaire the agri taking som types t analysis, it still permitS Cosid- culLural c'cle is diviLeil into1tour ttivitivs---p,t eration of how indiviual, fmih,, 0ccocica l, aid ing, weeding, ha11,csti1g arid ma rkcti ng----for each conmmnity factol's attect the division Ot l,'or withiin Of ten major c,.-0ps. ,.esponldenlts thC household, art Icreqnested to dt, tail which gI 'ulips withiln the lhusehlold (1) do not The siurvCy seeks activit-S-,pAilic rtSp-,ISCS t) work, (2) work regIulirIy, qu:,tiols )r (3) work )(iinetimes, at about partiCula rL tp'-, f1work On the ma i'- eh Of the ti ,r stages (It the agricuIlIr,II cycle for jor agricultoral crops ind , bout variotis 1lOlSholMi each of the ten crops 1'. nuicrators omit all crops not tasks. Previous sulrvey' \ pt.e'IIne ,i t the Cent rIA 1i- grown b the houLsehol.d. RespolCnI similarly art reau Ot Statistic,> 1,, IMHlhthat ru i,1 rI-;PiInts aske,,d which ,rroupS withii the hoti.,-hold (1) do not are unable to arwcr quistionsl,,aline, vwith tilme al- work, (2) work regtuilarlv, or (3) work sometimes, at located t) variou.- t,iSks, e'ven when the, recall 1iriod ,1 Varie-ty Of SUCh ;IoUSholh1 tss,.P IS care of poutltry is limite'd. TIe baic probl,_ni iS riot '0l !I ri icc- and livestock, t. .dprI a iatIi int cooking, and ollectioi- as it is cOnceptUdliztiol according tI time tc'tclin, firelwood d water. units. Th0iret1,rl tii-bildtltt IetlIodoogies, wIli(h1lie (entral Bureau ot Staits" hopes to have stud' the division Ot labo0 byV me srie ti!m' iil'.,t- irieits, appear ciisnitalb, t~u large.-scale obsevatlion data ftom tht. Division ot I ahoiir hodule vlilable for preliminalry , aiia-,i-;b latenh 1t-17). llW iintertiioi is to Of respOlillik for the PiptOC ot eVCIrdilli, time Al- an11al'y/e tihe r"ults 'Ind to ,-TiplemICnt the analysis located tI) p'pcitic tasks. Such a1 clinijuv i, far ilOrC witi a 111t,mor,"I ati i,,' stiga tiol that suited incorpo to intensive anthr 10iChial investig,ation, lIt rates data on the S mt l ti]t ldltis aid coivimunilies small comnurities than to nationl",,rIrom ,. OtherI \I h,,,.SOdt Learinm1 about Women through Household Surveys: An Experimentl Module Nadia H. YOLUSSCIt .1d Coralie furbitt We present an experimental module recommended role, iIC' moiduleC is meant to be supplemented by a to the Indonesian Central Biureau Of Statistics as a series of micro-studies to determine whether the way of increasing policy-relevant informationL about macro-study is sensitive to the situation of womllell womern's economic role in the househll,)l and labor that is, uhether the right questions are being asked force. Its approach is likely to be relevant in ,a;-v to obtain data ill sufficient detail to accurately reflect country vhere such information is scanty. As ,.t women's liv, s and concerns. [he results Of the rni there is no indication that the moduleC has been crO-studies art., e\pecteCLd t produce refineme,.nts adopted in Indonesia. in the umodule ready for inclusion the second time it is The module is intended to be administerei scheduled to be applied. The interaction between every fifth quarter for five years, thus including data iiacro- aid inicro-level Jata should be a colitinual about womein's activities in different seasons. It is process to capture the dynaumics Of chanlge. Such intended to be adiiiiistered to all females iin lie effor's are critical if eie is to achieve an in terpreta household aged 15 and over.' Since there is a lack of 'ivC understanding of tile coiidition of women aiid to methodology to ensure that eiiumerators and ,vmi len infilueiice policy planriing. respondents acknowledge women's actual ecoiiomic Thel molduli' asks questions of women under the head ings "ELcononics (if the Household" and ''lndi 'It iS ass iined ihaI a nrmal household chart will be comphtehd entire household, iisting e'veryone who or tih e a lives there, their ages, and their rv- vidual Economics," to correct lationship t he househIld ht',d. the bias that emerges when the unit of anal'sis is the household rather STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 391 than household members. When the household is 9. Are there any training programs (other than for considered the unit of analysis and questions are ral schools) that VOu know of in this area? asked of the male as head, the economic activities of a. If yes, what is being taught? women are submerged. Consciously or uncon- b. 1-ave you at-ended? sciously, questions about economic activity and pro- c. If 11ot, why not (e.g., no tirnt / no money / no ductivity are geared to the nale, and much misinfor- interest / don't feel welcome)? ilation about women' dependent condition is per petuated. The module also seeks to include informa- Migration History tion about the economic roles of all adult females in the household, not only the wife of the household 10. Are you now iving in the province of your birth? head. If not, where were you born (location and province)? 11. 1-low long ha1v you bCen living in you r present to\v'n or village? 12. If otl hal, noved from011your birthplace, what The Experimenital Module Was the direction of v!ur last movC? a. rural to rural; General b. urban to urban; 1. Age 1. ge - -d. C.urbanrural to to urban;rural. 2. What ethnic group do you belong to? 13.1.On yourur lastto ural.move, did you move- 3. What language is spoken in your home? a. alone; 4. Can yOU speak liahasa Indonesian [the lingua b. as part of a family movc, following: spouse / francal? parents / adult son / adult daughter / othe 5. Does your household own any of t:i,, following? family mem bers? a. agricultural land (more than .5 I'.ctare / less 14. How many times in Your life have you moved than .5 hectare); from one province to another? b. other real estate; c. family home; Marital Histziy d. physical place of business (e.g., shop / boat / 15. Current marital status: single / married / sepa other work place); rated / widowed / divorced / abandoned e. none of the above. 6. Have you ,ver had any children? consensual union / polygamous marriage. (If a. number of children born; never married, skip to question 20.) b. number cf children living; 16. Number of \,ears in current marital status? c. number of children who died; 17. If married, is spouse currently present in the d. age at first pregnancy; household? e. age at last pregnancy. a. If not. how long has he been absent? For what reason? Education/Training b. If spousu is present, within the last year has he b:en absent from the household for a pe 7. Can you read and write? In vhat character? riod of 0 ionthls or more? If yes, for what 8. Are you presently attending school or a training reason? program? 18. Age atfirst marriage? Age at last marriage? a. If in school, wh:t type of school (e.g., voca- 19. Number of previous marriages? ondary-private;tional secondary-government; primarv-religious)? general sec- a. Approximatep number of years spent in each indarytrang prgr -what txrpe previous b f in a training program, what type (e.g., fourth; marriage: first / second / third / on-the-job; nonformial literacy; nonformalforh hone science)?homesciece)?second 1).number of/ childrenthird / fourth.from each marriage: first / c. If not currently in school or training, have you ever attended school or a training program? Family Headship Highest levei of formal schocling; type of school? Type of training; number of years of 20. Who in this household takes responsibility for training? the family in terms of / 392 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 / 12 NOVEMBER! DECEMBER i979 a. providing financial support; work? If not looking for work, why, not b. making decisions regarding important family (e.g., gave up, ill, no need, not proper sea matters? son, in school, retired)? 21. How do Yotu define tile term "head of house- 34. Complete the following chart for all women hold"? who are engaged in any economic activity. Coin 22. Do you consider lioursclf the "head of house- plete one chart for their current primary activ hold"? If yes, why? If no, why not? ity and forls manV as tVo secondaryv activities 23. Have you ever considered yourself as lead of this I[maximaum of three chartsI. If they do other household? If yes, why? kinds of - ork in addition, simply list the re 24. If previously married, have you ever considered laining activities. yourself to be the head of a household at any A. lrimarv Activity ] Secondary Activ previous time in v'our life? If yes, specify for it II what period of time, for what reason. B. Specify type of work. For agricultural work 25. Have you ever been the main provider for your ers, is it on own farm or another's farm? family? If yes, when was this? Why? C. Method of Pay'ment: a. cash: amount (Rp) pe" Household Economics (time / piece); b.in-kind: amount per (tiret / piece); 26. In the past year, have you C'.none. contributed in any Is tw way to bring merey or other material neces- irregularr/ easonal? (ow manen i sities (food, clothg) to this household? if yes, it availarb to onl in a sear?) in what form (cash / other / both)? 27. Are there other members in this hauschhll who E.How many ho rs per da\' do voU engage in contribute to the support of this family? If yes, tile above activitv? who (family member / type of contribution- F. How many days per week are \'ou engaged in cash, other, both)? this work? 28. Are there an, persons living atuay from this G. Status of worker: emplo\er / employee / household who contribute to tle support of own-accOIlunt worker / n1.1 lid falily this fanily? worker. a. none; H. Place of work: home/ farm / marketplace / b. relatives (cash / other / both); plant / no defined place. c. nonrelatives (cah / other / both). I. Do you need capital for \'0r work? 29. Does this household receive any income from a. If so, where do you get it? sources not mentioned above? 1. Do 'ou require dailY capital? 30. Who is the person responsible for managing the J. Do Vou need tols or machinery to do your household finances? work? 31. Do you consider the family income to be: ade- 0. Ale they \'onr oj tools or mlachines? quate / not quite enough / far too little for your 35. Do you engage in other economic activities dur household needs? ing the year that are different from the ones 32. If additional incomne is needed, is ther, addi- you have just described? tional work available in this area? If work is a,If yes, lis;t them by season and available, by primary ac who in your household would be tivity / secondar, activity. qualified to get such work (self / other female / 36. What would voU say is voutr 111meconomic other male)? If ac work is available, who in your tivitv for the year? (If no one activity household can be has the time for extra work, quali- named, enter "not defined.") fied or not (self / other female / other male)? 37. Are your current year's activities vour usual sources of income (say, over the past 5 years)? Individual Economics 38. What is your busiest time of the year? 33. Are you currently (this season) engaged in some 39. What do you think are the best (highest paying) kind of economic activity? (If yes, skip to ques- economic opportunities for women like \'our tion 34.) self? a. If not economically active, are you looking for 40. What are the worst opportunities? STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 393 41. If you could choose, what kind of work would dren, would you take your children to such a you prefer? medical facility if they were ill? 42. If you needed to borrow money in an emergency, 47. Who usually attends to you when you need med where would \'OU get it (e.g., relative / cil- ical care':' plover / friend / bank / informal local lender)? 43. Do you own, in \'our own name, any real estate? If'so, what? AcKNOWI. It MINIS I'lik work was carried out Individual Health under a grant to the F-L'd-ratiotn of Oranizations for ProssJoalHt \Vtnen. The final report, entitled "A 44. How would you describe ,ourself: healthy' / ot preliminary s;tudy in threT cot ntries: Kenv, Nic very health'? aragua, Indonesia,'" W,s ftlndi'd bv the \Women in 45. Is there a doctor or medical facility iear you? Development Ofllice of \ID. I, authors were infl u a. If so, have you ever used it for your own elced b' I', Mul'llr'> .1. ' 'Ihe woIen issue in health problems? illeaStri'M.household1 'hit ior," ' P'pest ted at a Coll b).If you were ill, would VOU use it? eI'L'lnCC tni \Wo1n1( in Io\'t'rtv: \'hat Do We Know, c. If not, whV? sponsored b the in tCla ti nalI ('enItCr for Resea rch 46. If you are, or later hope to be, the mother of chil- onWtiV nc, -I :.\prii- 2 .lav 11178. Assessment of Body Concepts and Beliefs Regarding Reproductive Physiology Mv ichelc Goldzieher Shedlin The instruments presented here were developed dur- uation of the' Ymng Adult Clinic at Columbia Pres ing 1974-76 as part of an anthropological stud' of bv'rian Medical Center. factors relating to the cultural acceptability of ood- The rationale for developing these instrulents em contraceptive methods and services in a tradi- was the belief that the wax' in which individuals ex tional community in Central Mexico.' T'[hey fae perience and perceive their bodies is cu,lturallV pat since been adapted and used as tools in research, terned. Plerceptions of the structure and functioning teaching, and evaluation by' a number of social scien- of the body are a reflection of culturally determined lists working in Asia, Latin America, and the United cogtnitive categories. In1heten t il tn1,1!1' health care States. programs, especiall' those designed by developed Interest in the study of body concepts was fos- countries for countries of the developing world, is tered by Steven Polgar for many years before his the erroneous assumption that the body, its proc death in 1978. In addition to the research presented esses, and modifications t, it (i.e., disease, side here, work h s been carried out by Susan Scrimshaw effects of cotltraceptive methods, and the like) are and Michele Shedlin in an urban slum il Cali, universally expe'ienced in the same wax' 2 These as- Colombia, and by Scrimshaw with pregnant His- sumptions by planners and providers of health care panic women in New York City. Research by Mar' have contributed to the lack of cultural acceptability, Elmendorf is currently under way among Nlaxvan underutilization, and lessened impact of many of women in the Yucatan. Susan Philliber is using both these programs. It is becoming increasingly clear that male and female drawings as part of al evaluation of we must understand what receiver popu..:,ions per an adolescent sex education program in Virginia. She ceive as (hlir health needs-perceptions that deal also plans to use these instruments as part of an eval 'I' Manning4 .hla II tFI'rt'a'4 l i,' h ,'Ihl', ofth'Ilf and b,',tv: 1'he in'lrumnil, as illustrdted here ,plro'ii tt'lv ht pr'percent of I leaIth and illl,,,s in thC (Iiapa, I ighland'. '' ,'J ,,?'? oh!,'4Ial S,il original sit,. ,gII: l.u t A;;. h ali . ed. (eorgt, I's,th,'s (Nt' York: \'ilev, 1973). <./f 394 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NOVEMBER ,'DECEMBER 1979 with a personal sense of wvell-being, as well as with clinical diagnoses of health and illness. In man' devloping countries where educa tion and information have not yet reached large sectors of F the population, in terpretations of the bod Vand body, prtcesses are based upon folk beliefs4. These beliefs' which are both Cause and effect Of the individual andI cultural Colntext Of bod' cOIlCepv., oftLen 1onta in dis torted and fallacious ideas abu t the st rcture and function oIfthb,body. Because indtividual n1,1 have little COrrleC inforlation, they have varyin,., amuntun11O s of diffictulty in dChviopiti ,,clar 1ump t,1their bodl ies, egpcciaidk' the uiviatrn bid\v !lstudying the b varying types of lines, and the heart, which was rep resen ted as a.valentine1. The accurate placement Of in terInal organs was incommon. Tle heart was hLca ted directly behind one of the bre(asts, in the center of tile bod v, or di rectly between tile breasts. ile liver, frequently placed adjoining or even attached to thi heart, had the largest rdniet Of V1'riatiCn in placenienl. It was drawn high il the chest near the heart, in the center Of thle chest, at waist levl either Side, inl the Cenl ter of tIe bod' and een atlditferent points ill Ihe abdone,n. Tle kid ne-s, one, or both, were placed in tilt abdoillen, with little idea as to cOrtct placClent. The Inigs were usual lV placed at Shouldter level. Il test ileS werI drawn abO', be4"')V, instide, ,Id out side tile stilolach. [h, tomach, like the liver, also occupied n,1 ' locations but wit' less Ofta rallge than the liver, b0ing gener01' in tle a bdon inal area anl placed cet ral','. IFhe uteris w Is the organ iost frequeItI'tVlocated curk-JllV, anrd when the ovaries were idenlified, Ihe\ were mollloi't Or tless inl the right area also, althougL slighIIl high or lOW. The placenta was drawn inside, outs ide, dnd Inear to tile stolach or u terLis. The l \' IntLICt-aioCe in alswering Or draw illg was encoulntered wilen the women01l Were' sked to draw or give 11111t- for the vagilla. 'hey denied the existence of any nanies an1l oftlln covered their Nombre: I moUths with their 1'-1oZ (shawl), all action that re flects ellbalrrassllent and discOm fort. Most, how Fecha" ever, did answer eventually whe'n encouraged and Edad: reassured. Matodo: Ti' onlv other exturnal parts tile womn were ooencouraged to draw were the brcasts, essentially to Numero de Embarazos. learn the teltlls used. Bleasts Were llyStl1IV repre sented as small circlesC and nipples were rarely indi cated. One of the ma in objectives of the drawing in stlLltllt was to elicit the nam1es used for body parts, Less frequently drawn were the kidneys, ovaries, the not Only for purposes Of coo n nunication, but also to 'neck of the uterus," and the placenta. Ribs were oc- obtain an idea of the relative impo,'ta',-e and aware casionally included, the only bones that were spon- ness of tile various parts as illustratec' '" the number taneously indicated, of terls that existed. The parts With multiple nmnes The external structures most frequently drawn were the breasts, stomach, uterus, and vagina. The were the breasts, vagina, and umbilicus; the area of use of five different terms tor the breasts clearly re the waist was sometimes emphasized. In general, all flects an importance and awareness among wOmnll, internal and external structures were represented as who lactate and breastfeed for a large proportion of circles of varying sizes, usuall]v quite smal and rarely their reproductive lives. connected to one another in anv way. When a spatial The names for and locations and e,xplanations of connection was perceived, such as between the the structure and function of the stomach and uterus stomach and the intestines, the ovaries and the were confused bv many of the women. When the uterus, or the heart and the liver, the organs were baby was believed to grow in the stomach and not usually represented as concentric or contiguous cir- the uterus, the stomach was located differently and cles. Drawings of organs that occasionally varied the uterus seldom dra\n. Thus, tile part identified as from the circular form were the intestines, drawn as "where the baby grows" was called not only mlatriz 396 SIUD:ES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 blood" and to make blood. It is also bclieved to be the origin of feeling and emotion and has religious and emotional as well as physiological meaning. Cir rhosis of the liver is common in both men and women due it) the constant and heav, consumption of alcohol, and problems of the liver are associated with cor-onary failure. Tuberculosis is common in the area and is known to affect the lungs; along with other respiratory conditions it is a major cause of morbidit\, and mortalit', especiallv in the winter months. Blood in the sputum is known to come from the lungs. Also prevalent in this area are numerous parasitic and gastrointestinal conditions affecting the stomach. When discussing susceptibility to disease, the stomach was frequently cited as the most suscep tible area. This belief is also related to awareness of the intestines. The uterus, Whether or not confused with the stomach, abdomen, or other organs, was also drawn frequently since numerous health problems occur among these high-parity women. The associations of tile uterus with menstruation, conception, and preg nancy are evcr present in the womlen's experience and conversation. A "fallen wonib" (matriz caida) is a Common complaint. Th'e placenta is seen by the women during the Nombre. birth process. The waist, kidneys, and abdomen Fecha: (vientir') are cited as areas where one feels menstrual Edad: discomfort, as well as aches and pains caused by in Metodo: fections, changes in climate, foods, and so on. The infrequent inclusion of internal reproduc tive organs other than the uterus directly reflects the women's beliefs about reproductive physiology, es peciallv their beliefs about conception. The majority of the women explained that (uterus) sexual contact was nec but also esiona The inlstruments included here reflect the gen eral body shape and size of the Indian and Mestizo women. Variations sLIch as a torso-onlv (shown at right) or a slimmer version With shOrt hair were pre tested and rejected. It was important for the respo dents to be able to identify with the basic body outline; however, it is possible that some g rouIps may respond equally well or better to an1"ideal" body type. This must be decided in each case in the field by pretesting the instrument. One of the most useful aspects of these instru ments is their flexibility and adaptability. They are easily modified to the respondent population, and questions can be developed to meet the needs and objectives of specific research, education, or evalua tion. In addition, the drawing process assists greatly in stimulating discussion and adding depth to open ended questions. The instruments were not meant to be ends in themIlves, but rather tools to assist in the interview process. The completed drawings can be studied and evaluated individually along with tile interview and then in conjunction With the other drawings in order to provide scope and depth to overall conclusions about the population. When the drawings are viewed as a group, they, tend to bring out the erroneous folk beliefs of significance, as well as to illustrate correct notions of body structure and functioning. They can be evaluated according to: 1. number of parts correctly mentioned; Feci.: 2. number of parts correctly placed; Ha.d: 3. correct representation of size and relationship to other parts; 4. correct terminology; 5. number of terms given for any one body part; 6. consistent errors in size, location, or function of a body part; and 7. consistent omissions. ACKNOW\I.DGMNIfS The study described in this ar tice was supported by the Task Force on Acceptabil Comparisons of body concepts such as those of itV Research in Famihl' Planning of the Special respondents with and without access to information Programme of Research, Development, and Research or services, of rural and urban women, of different Training in Ilunan Reprtoduction of the World age groups in the same population, of different Ilhalth Organization and Ly the Agency for Interna cultural groups in the same area, or even cross- tional )evelopment. The autlor wishes to thank cultural comparisons can be useful in identifying JOsus Corral Gallardo, l-stela Ortiz RZomo, John F. perceived health problems, - -valuating the impact Marshall, Samuel Wishik, Allan Rosenfield, Jerald of services, and in guiding research related to the Bailey, and Guadalupe Castro for their advice and cultural acceptability of health care. support of this research. Project-Oriented Research on Aspects of Women's Knowledge and Experience T aIlei-iut]nnc.sa i\ Kiiullal HlidcSiulJ ti i di. te 'he folio'iwing sts Ootf ilesltious ctir'ii to 'Ivlld tllil e credit to)t\illtI fuOr thleir cco rIralinfluen[ce tilt'c'ontCi t. a ceItIrall ,iniLhilitd ileleopriieni pi~tiictl in~tendedfi il irect to- ititiL icLtivities would Caise conflictand uildermiie the falnhil\,.Il\l stis itt 3i98 . Jv SIUDIFS IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBE 11 I 12 NOVEMBER DFC.FM,4BFPI1979 3I1L) 14. How much 1or1i? JKoi and morri are special rice Womlen's Earnings products. I 15. Do y'ou get better rice friom a dheki or a mill? 1. Who decides how to soend the money you earn? 16. Do Iou use7.3. tile mill? Why? Who not? 2. HaveDo 'ou yon give bogh vo" ladwtnings to yourorearnings? husband? 1,n 17.HOW much does the mill charge? Tght lad With Your 18. How much time does it take for one woman to \whose Ilact'? Process 10 mlandIlls of paddy? 4. Did you byl orlamlllt, for YoLn r sister's mar IiOa.Se:paDid \'o have tt ask \'tur husbald's Livestock Care permission? 5. Iow do 'OL spelnd your earnillgs? 1. How can you tell if a cow, bullock, or goat is of good breed? 2. What do you feed y'our animals? Menstruation 3. How do you care for them? 1. How OL] Were VOL vheln VOL had \Our first pe 4. What diseases do they contract? 5. How do \Ou treat them? riod? WVas it before or after marriage? Was there a special ceremnyV ? I[)escribe it. 2. D~id \VaU krltl\\ abotut n1leI~i-Liarull h'fort, \'our Knowledge of Field Production 2. Did yoI know a out n i ltf pnr first Period? If yes,, h1oi? If no., Who '\plaimed 1. How much paddy land do VOu owl? to VOL about menstrua titl? \'hat did ile sax'? 2. Where ar' your plIts? 3. Call ou say wh ve hak n',ll,trltldtit l? WVy 3. How many, crops ,lid VOLT grow this year? Last does it start? Why dot' it stop? year? 4. Do ytLo ko anyl'O N0ho0 didn't neipbtrthte? 4. Ho\ much yield did ' at get this year? Last y'ear? Cal yOLT have a baby bt't n ' nst ruma t ioll 5. When were the crops sowVn this \'ear? When were starts or after it stops,? the\, harvested? 5. What different nam's are lseWd foir menstrtation 6. How 1mch paddy did y'ou sell this year? At what in ,our village? price? How much last year? 6. After ho\ in ,n\ da\'s do \'ou J-t't yo(ur period? Do 7. How mny laborers did \'ou hire this Vear. I' yWou feel pain btfort' and/Or dIui'ing n'ienstrua manv days id they work? tion? What tither feeling, dt have?1 1' ) I low 8. Do you have irrigation? man\' da\', doe's the bleeding covitinuLe? )oes it 9. HoW mLch did you pay for seed? happen this \\'a\' eVei'\' month? If not, do VOI 10. How much did yOT pay for fertilizer? know why? 11. How much did VOt pay for insecticide? 7. Ilhw t) 'cL kte \'tyUI't'Iflclean duiiring ienstru 12. How much is your land woirth? ation 8. Is there any prohibition rcgardinlg food, move Earning and Saving ment, daily actiVities, and religtJionts activities 1. Do you know.%omen who are earning money? dtring ytir pt'ritwd? Fell about one. 2. What do you think olh.'r? Pregnancy 3. What is her attitude toward her husband, il laws, family? 1. Do voil have children? loW mal1'? 4. Do other villagers approve of her behavior? 2. What is the age of the youngest? Of the oldest? 5. Do villagers object to her earning? 3. Did an\' babies die? How manm'? Of what? Any 6. Some women save money. How do they do it? miscarriages? What Were the causes? Fell me about tne. 4. Vhen yoIu, first got pregnant, low 1didItou know 7. Where does she L,e(p her money'? 'ou \Were pregnant? 8. What does she do with her savings? 5. What words d1o \'tu tlS, for pregnancy? 9. Does her husband know she has savings? 6. Are VOU told to eat aiiy special foods during 10. If she wants to do business, how much interest pregnancy? does she charge? 7. Do Vou have any special ceremonies during 11. If she lends her savings, hoV much interest does pregnancy? she charge? 8. Do vou get any special instructions about ho\' to 12. If she stocks paddy, how does she manage it? behave during pregnancy? If yes, what and 13. If she lends goats, what are the arrangements? from whom? 400 STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/12 NOVEMBER / DECEMB'R 1979 Childbirth Sex 1. How old were you when your first child was 1. Village girls know about sex before marriage. born? How old are they when they know? How Jo 2. How old were you when you got married? they know? Don't girls talk about the Corings 3. How many years after marriage was V'our first and goings from the husbald's room? What do child born? they say? 4. Whose house did Vou give birth in-your 2. When VOL1 got married, did Vou know about sex? mother's or niother- in-law's? Who told yoL? 5. Which room in the house was the child born in- 3. What words are used amonllg village women to the main room, side rOOll, or other? discuss sex? 6. How long were the labor pains with your first 4. If there are sex probleins, to whom doCgirls talk? child? With the neXt child? 5.Whom dot-s \iour husband talk to about sex? 7. Who0 was present during labor? Diring delivery? 8. Sometimes the baby's navel r th1e Mother's Abortion womb gets infected after childbirth. What was I. Ma iv women don't wa li ildren after done in your-Case to preVent infction? the' have had 7 or 8. Perhaps thev caii't afford 9. Did you have all infection after childbirth? If yes, to feed and clothe morech reildren,or they have how did yol take care of it? Who prescribed sotllotlier r'easton. 1)o) you kio anyoile who the medicine? has had an abortion? Iftyes, why? low? What 10. Did your baby have an infect ion aflter child birth? nmethod was used? I)id the husb1a id Or fain ily If yes, how did VLu take care of it? Who0 pre- know of the aihortioil? scribed the medicine? 2. Are there doctors tLanx, kind who give medicine 11. How was the babv born? Vere vou lying down, for abortion? sitting Ip, or in some other position? Call 'OU 3. What other nmethods do Vol know of for abor show us? 12. To lion? make the babV come faster, lots of things are 4. What other reasonlS Ilight there be for abortion? done. What was done in VOtlIr case? 5. What do villagers and village leaders think about 13. Immediatelx after childbirth, what were you abortion7 givenl to cat? 6. Do VOu know cases of preiarital sex, of unmar 14. Did you take any miedicine? If v'es, w',at? red mothers, of relationships with men other 15. Think about what you ate for thLe first 40 days af- than the husband? ter childbirth. What did you eat a lot of? What were you not allowed to eat? Divorce 16, Did you get special foocis to dry Ipthe birth ca nal? For producing nlilk? i. How common isdivorce in your village? 17. TO dry Ipthe baby's nravel qllickly, what was 2. Mention some cases that you know of. done? 3. What were the causes? 18. Ilow long after childbirth did you have to stay in 4. Who initiated the divorce? the same roLm? 5. What happened to the wife? 19. What prohibitions were there about moving af- 6. What happened to the children? ter childbirth? Could you move about any time of day or night? Village Code 20. Did you nurse all your babies? 1. Who is considered to be a beautiful girl ill your 21. When did you start nursing after childbirth? village? What does she look like? How frequently do you nurse your baby? How 2. Who is considered to be a good girl? Hoxw does long did you nurse uVLrfirst baby? Your last she behave? baby? 3. Who is considered to be a bad girl? What has she 22. How long were yoL bleeding after childbirth? done? Do you think she's bad? 23. When did your period start again after the first 4. What happeis to a bad girl iiny'our village? child? After the last child? 5. What do you consider to be a good husband? 24. How many mnt1.re children do you want? 6. What is purdah? Do oll keep it? 25. Have you ever heard of family planning? 7. What does the 1mouhvi Jvillage religious leaderl 26. Have you ever used it? What method? Did you think is a good girl? Do you believe the have problems with it? moulvi? Does your husband? Research Priorities: Women in Africa Achola Pala Mew An Expert Meeting on Research and Data Collection identifying factors that should be included in an on Women and Development was h,_,'d in Nirobi, analysis of the position of WOmen. Kenya, durin 4.-J December I7 as a follow-up to a mleeti n,, of reseirchtr. held in Na robi in Augts 1975. The iet ing wa convened bv the United Na tion.s Children's Find (UNIC-() al ,codirected t)by Hypotheses for Research the autlr - .idVirginia 1-1,1itiiLI (Lelior lrogramme Officer, UN ICILI2 , ,astern Africa regin). Itwas at- Duri ig the ln1tnt1t1i inn'fs"iYear (1975) and tended by expert; in research ol womn nLid deveL- sulbsecILelnt Vears, 1 n.iMber of meetilngS have been opment in Africa, illcludil, a reresentative Of the held at international, national, and regional levels at African Iraining ard Research (ien fre fir ,omen wIiich research needs were emphasized. In most of (ATRCW) of the Ulnited Natio ,,[ico in ic .in- the'se meetins, research needs were identified and sion for Afric, (UNFiCA). reco tinienda ti(ns ft 'tututre retarich presented. It Although the ctiiscuss it tf t place in the cn was the cilsCnsus tf le Nairobi meeting, however, text of African development and the sitilItioii of that the identificati in of Ves-arch priorities was im wo11e111 in the I-IasterAi italeil inl par,-ticulI r, it porta n t but ;lituId build upon what is known. This W\a5 felt that thi' result!, of these, deli beiatfit ,woIIld cOtnsensu was based on a review tt literature on hav a,much wider applicatlio fit the, situatitin of \vtlnin andd '\elopieri, which concluded that a W(itn ii othekr region; with ad -i,-tria 'Wed Tollo- number of ,1,tlitnllS haMVe e)(20n1Made Oil the sit mlis. tnatiotn tOif\,'Oneio but thallt ad UnlatC an1d 'c0om1pa',ative lilal 11 inLfflticient to substantiate them. It was felt ,tli'rr thaM it i\vtIol he- nsefl to irttrmulate hy pothe,,s suggestCd bV ,'itha blt dtla nd to generate , uestitns that would guLlide data collection (using Objectives and Scope prililary and ,-nolld,lrY .trce,) to validate t r refute thC'i. ThC 'rtl p fOcrm ula ted hypotheses based Oin The main objectives of the meeting Vere-t to develop I the literature, rTiew, 1,C 'Sttll research experiences, conceptual and m1eth tdttiO gical guide for a ta1selie ndd a coi5idt'r,1flion of the iniiiImo in knowledge study of the position Of w\tmeii illdevelopmnt. Iihis iiec l ft ass,, is;,t ih sit1, tie and inee t f w ietnn. Was to b accitrplished v iewing research il Althtogh tert, inia\Sbe a bias in the hypotheses won-ien and development in tlte toeva luit., its Vd- chtsen becasit.i,;f ri',earcli int erests represented ai lid it\'aid effectiveiiess in plalinii ig t(he posit ion of thctin eet, , it a&, felt t h t datI collected Oilthe ba women anid contri utinIg ti t eliCiradvIn C'lIIL'lt; for- SiS ftsuch tSble pl'Oposit its would flrther a sci inula ting hypotheses and indica tors Of the positiou en tific uonderstiindig ifg theO tle' aiid status of Of lVonlll; generating ju est ions, based Oin fitliiitc- \\Itmnili by lii tl n t ll'i 1 tifn their situa Iated hypotheses, that would golide.' ftt' resea lfl' ftin (descrip tioi) It a i Xplnaien Of Observed designed to validate the hypItlthc's ; alid prcs'nlin tren iesad prt Itcc'Ssts ( ilctlip li sh). a guide for data collectiotn th,it \Vtuld discuss re- liypttheses and tunestions listed here were search methodology, 1i0t sinplv in term1n1s cif Itch- f~ll'iImitihd by the t\wo( working groups during the niques )r inst'uenllts Of meai,1Suremetnt, but L- ineeti,"g foi in;,,.l'.i.jt t. ,J'rird 11,1 the R'tut, Jj 111",0 Moderization of Agriculture 'ITtH,' 1 Meetl'ingimi lrml'v,i d IMzto/ h -..1') 0C'0111h-, 19t7S a~, /.V111,, United Ntimns (tildrin .,:und, i 1-te,,n .tr IR,,nitilOfitic, Nalnbi Hypothesis. Agrarian reform leacds to increased tItlyrd ).JNI(.F, liatcr Alria I t,,tiuittl .ttfi,1'.L). B\H Nati work loads for wom en, restriction of female employ rohi, Kt'nt,. ment to the primary phases of the production cycle 401 (c\,. 402 STUDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11/ 12 NOVEMBER!' DECEMBER 1979 (in the manual as opposed to the mecInica opera- Ilyf'thIsi;. Ag ricuItLra e\t Pitn yirices tend tions), and devaluation of femiiale labor, to excluti wo1t. Su, ,csit'i Qn,'wsiils. W\hat crops are gl'Ow1n? 5tt,\'y'tl c)nesi, s \V\hat is tht breakdown of Which are for sale0; or home consum0ption7 \hol con- a-riculttIral xttii0oii ekt1Is b1 St'\?\hat is rite per trols cash crops; the prtlOLuction process ini cash ttntagt, f \OfttIeil 1,1taniis pciicipiltinlg il agl'ictl Crops; te income frt ill cash clt ,ps? \\ho makes Lti- tIil t(_xtension? \Vha i is IhLi sCiie tIIheir Ioldings? sions about land Lse in flming; disptsal of incotnn? h\laat are th tpes (t itlninIlII cotent) ot i.,ricul Who provides labor; what typ, lld antli (timt- tlual extension actl .iaits in \\h ich women e 'nage? budget stutie)? \Vhat is the rt'aldon-,t\ IA labor b What is the sex comnpoisititol Of agricultural e'xten.io age and s\ in farmniii (Iw cropl7 \\'Iiat \'aiiibls staff? What art the, caetti histoies Of e\t'sit1 govel'n the uset Of hired labor? orker'? )hptltCh'sis. , It-clant i/a lt I, Iend' L,sd t \'e 1tttlhc-. IliLt' Of marketn anti in 11eI, antd leads to il t' 11ttllilnt till1 inU lci IdibtUN tir 1utrriidtlu it- v 1'1\ tioc- \Vtltlil. (time spt-nl) and displacemntut women b Im/ 5ll/\'ct-"/l'.litns. What ctilldiloities do from theirheitrIt Iional agricultural colt's. \vonttl natrkt, \Vhi is th stale It)(te, of ti I.ar Sln'\y'sIc'-h Qi. ;tii,. \Vht is the IilaIa bleI e h- k fiiit I )o th t inpl otilet,'? \\'hal narket nllt0gv for uSe o n the farm and ill tlb' h11iset Ild? ing1 facii tie (it., intristrct Inell,) art, available to \,'ho uses the technohlo'v; 10r wht ptirpostK withi ouien0tit-1('11 1)anlistribultrs I low tioes avail what result? What t.lett Ics tehnlogy have tIn abilit\ oT unav,iLilit of infrstlructurte affect productiol; ,ii social orlniations? Who deter- women' In,lrkttltivities? \\hmt is their acc.t' s to It lines what Wtechntoh)y i,k etld? Vhal tt'chinolo;\ cal, Itn. al,1 nat it IIln, aild ieitrnaltiail markets? puIchases are Iatlt- Wha si t;I, impact tt farn; \V'hat is \vtl ' knowhtlM e ot market toni lions? ) home teehn tgl y 011t*n xt'i0;omen, [la \n1marke,t resea rch btioiit relatiVe to '.Vtnll- itlictoil? I low io \\'mitn paric'paie in I~mI~l1t' isl.ldnttftrn leads to ls i land- ilui-'al productittn; it- Whit of0Ip 'tuL W ries? holding allnt t rights b woIe1 antd I, thir c-- W'hat lype, oft tasl;( tilo t n'tlfi1l low\v tio tlev nl0llic tIC'1tivperlLu thtu't (hnh.it0u1-1. rLl'itt )? l)ol men11antd Si k'l'. Migration prcsCnt Situa tin and Ihl'i' PC t' ivTid dirfct'tit l 1I cha ni t is a sn r.tcId tnt' h tdtltt,,v). I1lu;ttlt'.iii. Malt,' i[abr iniira ion creates chang- $nu'',,, sI'itcd n':;It,t. (hh'stril~tjt , ,fin Itiil s/it ing social strIctuI1s an leads to 'X Ittic rCSt ructur- tit). \\ihat I, a1,1d01d[Ilkthe r pi',1d0t'l's, lif, ing. psyChollgi tlt , on imlt'n, l- d i aniii wh\i7 \V'i I,i t ilirpi tl t',..i Cnl't's lif'? h1uICsh Ihi,,ind cintn O illhsLt'nAd 1 .Ci.ioh-mak- What MVI h mtrine'it I h I M (t) itt)xIIi I ill, akttc,rias. litittl',l' tht-ir lilt' (kI t(I' iinl )' \tViittt,I tisthe p tliii. F I'.illi(r Iliii n L,tl\n to inot Wcn , ioI i a liza ion it1, L I 111ol al 0 loymt inwPoIt,1W -,il0-,lcin and1t H l de(u'it0).'in itt t kIlt-llt htd x ', 'I Ii sp ,, itl , Ool'il),ireurce einllf . I t ' to itt itt ,iIg()t' i i\ t ,Vaidla n,' sr,it ' .Sn\,,'sI/ Qtii'4litit I Wht i, i' lentt r i LI 01iil, Sli1 ,t t '0 \\',idt t' iii i ilhiil riatc of p1l i1'0l1,11C Inthe,irtgin? \\'ha i Iti L c't l0 It u\idti id, tiliLI lki ti ii ,i <,tlitt 11 Ir n -iti .tr0 ' 1it'i t - nt;rl,illini .r ppJi0' It10 t.;l it I tlI tk Ilh it, iltit t k),t\idi I tW Ihltli lit'-,i ,.it(L, thIli\,Il I- v ,I',tc , L ic,'e\ kI< IhaI t'-L"t I- td thII Lib0or nllmlkt (.10 fc'l,1it'/111,llt i','ll 1/110\t'? WVhd[ iantilt ittp,ptt Ofcl ii ' i leli li tllll'? \'iutSitlurn '. ti, Socialization ,11nLI dtl'CiSiol-lldkiil 1),ilttrns'. Po p u latio n an d H e a lth u S rules(t1 finliti, , <1 ll I, ,lti iii',1,d lim lik ll,i - a f tor-CLtLIC'tC , fl'rtilit\, ii M IAi',rtiIrl ,t, i cli,. il chainantlwl'dhannel. W ,h1.itiltth xilitt'( i ioftit' lt-,,ti hcili/iti ti' t~ll " liiy e t te ttt'ilh ,tI,ihalitttiitx ti~ iih'ilittn~u Ulla ti xtl]id10i t'nO W itl nlui Witl iv Ihl il 'lIt IIf PP wtte'ialn, D i ihil Pxtl ki ii i t i li \ ' hatt(P tti, ', phr i l li t ' 1-i- D O \vI I-ti/' Ls' , i I' r olli 1 t ,ll' tl ill til e' itt i l ii t hliS llh h ' l.itL I /tilitY , 1 i nt ,,/li'is ri ht r?is -k t ailitit ml s l atl i ti ,x.a taiitti i tild I r'\ l ii i l tllkI' i t'i litt %\ Vt'l 'ltli', 01W or'Iit~bm,' I o' eat W ti ,re - Iit l'II,urnti t' 1,t1ix's i l t'' it ii i ith -li i tit' ilr 'i ,lii itin itri 11iC n1I Ilin'Itriti'lk t 1i1i' 1 1ttrin lit/i ittII 'i is i-t'f\'t'it tCl ltkh e'a r \i l tiIlls - iiltsn nrantiitb i .ga \in'lir ' it' '\ p1,ibtts .' thiitvt antp t lt 'ai1 i i ) Ilit, I I l 1 'I11,11s llk l ,ikli r ,L i0,l t:1r)o-tio 7 I It!<,' ' lI i-t,,l0 1 ,iNllI,i dli t,,I , iI thd tit1n ( ~ )ki n %\Ih whIik1trld tlil 1,1i t,\I(,lk,\\ rT, W omen's Program s and Support Structures inltrI'h,liII,'L',II ,ill%<. \ith illtll llltl"I, 111tkItI I.t)Il", in 11] tll 11 t ,11 (IIIilIk,liIV)7 W ' t1 ,,irl \\0illlt 1 1 H ll',-lt WMVt'-ll11lPo iL'ttLIL/tt' '\thll tit' i\'ii0In 01 l,11101"' I- (inlti'iduL ,iltl,fl~ll, t I<. I ' tItll<1. 1iIiW W0l 11 1 0 11ll~n tiOn tll iLi'lt cl~ 0t lit Jt'. Ltlh ti -l 0 1 ) 1 icrafi ). , ' ih"t,t A ili lc t t,l *cr ti i hl(i rr l. Qu\\''c ,'4ionl<. W liwti-,th(, bw'kctwv-\ < C'\()f" \\01u'lthlt in) ('011nnmn1itV ' t-lWIP t,nkl ,S? Power and Decision Making Io w ht~aL-\t-'n ,ilt' l,)\'tit' u ' it-"VIilklhle " wt l-,iii, n It )the, l \Vh~llI i 1110 teL),'rIJ) l(h1t1ticti~lctrn'r%V110 ,hc, /ii l i ,i , ul~ptu eIht k ,11izo itUIl l )III 'Ill'1i'LIPS? TO tr1diiont .,s, 1,u t iv ict t ~io ill, )in w hat t\('lt ,l t 1* l(t'u)-g IIizk-J' , IItul,IIt' ltl,V TltOc' .1111t111,1ve .,\ riclil \\ I'1t 1. iv V W0111011', ll0%ltL'lllt ?[ "k I' tit" O t.-,wver (Slih l, I)A ilik~ll, c, l-w illiti ): I(' \hIIt L'\lt'nlt Wom en's Developm ent Priorities tllwsc;,"tourtvs (11 t mvv i.)I [Imv (1() \\ lelltllk,tlt'il~tl tO lO theLId'fliill of "]luj lu',:\Vh~t ,iitV tll'l 1HI1 p lof h c i:s . D e v)P'l n t re s twa r ch ,1incl yfla n r h s a d u i ,l I~n llH I r , i< t lci t ,1pC 1O - 1C'e, ning hiave toverhoket. the priorities of wotmengl ant. ,111(. 11.111'6i 11;? ArcI V tWOl11/CII Ii\1,,iI'I'IIiC i1 1 k)\ LT ,]eir ttt'v t, PllCIlt g 0JaS (,Il UV l l i ntiOt W o ltl"I'S po tlltid l 11Ic ]lM V\th iS nllight hL- tIl t ill [116 1rLaV or-? 404 SI'JDILS INFAMILY!'[ "NNINt? 'V'O[UMI 10 NUMBER 1!, 12 NOV)..EMBER DECEMBER 1979 W/that social i.-isttitjtfl5 pcirptuiott. \\'I ic ' r'lottji' * All i!It('rdI''iiplinat'Iv tt,1Iii l yra I lOt nIII( PL\VCHISSi1L'-i., L:Llmpaiiti with ilie' \ii On t kindsk AIlLd 'Axt1nt101i I liIL'(0 iittilllLIild L;(' IOLl IVrt Of i!,SLICS do '.X'Irm-n tt'tAlthl' L',11 iiliki'a dc( ili1 n? MMIL"' for datal citih'ctinl V:~at are' UIt' mcthods, a \w in mn it~1)LIHl i I Lit 1 I JV I N, Iv11)1f l' I LItxil a IlL i [01_11atiOll cisilan? Undr' what ( iIrL'tIIll tanI~t' do~ ill' n t11iilltli'C 11101.d Oll UL'd It it 11 JL'ILId~ t IiIt' 1aiiab0. patterns )t Lit'L1 ion niakitiC hold, and 'A InI Lit) ti'tV 0 L'SL ill b"ti'i't i ho(IldhtiLI priolrit''. Guidelines for M\ethodology ta ao ast a protilt' ot \,,lt'ti ilcaki kOIInntr\ Theseil ,Pl- )CIILI (' Ailld I il ill:,'i 11V I(I lt'i'l lb-I l Iiifi i' l 'it\Itlfl ()I'i\til' 11 , w' TI tllt' ,i t ' trilt' iithodI ,pinl 'l\~iili mIttix Clilt'sv (- ast liii AttilltWlitis to s i'r 'Itiral forIntld d thc~o castilxicrnttol,~;'t'i i sFtit t t iltt Rih 011t1n s y t i 511t k (lilt! 's, li i Lli' il '.pi tt ft'dLi Hiet o~k,1 1\[)II-iCU 1JI I'L ( j( 1 .L, ilt fx oti'k; ll,,:jt k I I t ,lII \ailt - 1/i' it jLjcp' l Sll'r\'-i 1 *itlj ) ll rLil x d sW fl,u '1101 i 1h t IAditt))f)It I' l" I i 1 Il)ii Li I 11)1r'1 'ti ' - t t I LtIn antd LiCd 1i)i l~t10 i liIhitlih110t Fl "Llniti: I~ l l :[itt'Il" CI.ItiItl Os - n l do 1lixu ij "Iio i l I[ I' istitI1t is((IIL 5L'\. di\ *101 CO Ia V'iil %Iil' 10 t'1 VI'' 1li i 1)i 1 it 4 LI ' ilC L t'- i tv k . II (' , dk-1i IL l lS'fiZ' 'LLLtIt5l F\1(''t M l,' il" ~ Illi 11. 1) 1'k )s-ta~V I~I I I I*I ; lk I I___',I__l__V______I._1_11 Stitl~~~itI'l- IlLit(' iiT t' MLICt LI ixii K11Ii crv-t-ftaiil L l ' v l.ih app'i.,11iti I v ilih IL wi2t 1~111 tt LII 1 i h ?~Ki tix VAi;tLx- Iii 11I)d~iiiII'r2' .Ilil Ofi' c a asL It WttvilI. l xliiV( t- alI I I dtI I i LI Ii t' ''t l't'ij1l bit Pitil 'it l L'. 2 l' *olllId t'lil~)t'i0iI CIf1hi 11th 'Hl 'J/'itIint I' P, IitpLit'r~ [11t I ii Group IV: What Rural Women Know Circumventing Problems of Accessibility to Rural Muslim Women Marslca Safai In 1977, the Center for ,ational Spatial Planning of that their wives did little work outside the hone, and the Plan and Budget 0rmart!ization of Iran undertook would feel Uneas if we as ked to speak to their wives a study of rural women's work. The dealostae of Am- alone. Infact, ;he reverse was true. Upon arri'ing at lash, a region near the Caspian seacoast of Iran, wos ea:h village we were alwavs careful to talk to a village selected because it was representative of an area of ofticial and to se\eral oi the men. We explained that intensive agriculture. Within the dehestan, two- w, hlad come to speak to some of the wOmeICn and that stage probabilit y sanlPinbg procedUIrts were e1m- we we.,re ilterested in finding out what tll, womell ploved: villages were divided into four pIopula ion ctintr;but,,d to agricuI-1l1t re and ho inuch of the work stliata, tlenI one village selted randomly fron each wa', .i,':tuall v in their hanms. one. We were then facoI with 1he questli of M,.t of the men were euick to gi'.i credit to whether we should aittenip, randorn saMpling withinr thet wives alld SCemd eager tor i.Sto talk to [heM. villages. X\ e had bcen iL:vised that [lis would Ie \Ve were told on several )ccasions, "( c(us'-C my1V problematic, that wt, Cu ld not obtain accurate list- wife ivorlks in the field. I Cu ld not live witholl l niv ings of i ohlabitantIs. ainld thait even if wC obtailed a vif1"s heip. We work togother." Our access o the list, wonCI-i would often be inaccessible. We .were, wOme1Cn IV, due in part to the Manner of proceeding. however, able to ci rCuItn tIIis prohlem . Two Blt alother inlporta nt factor was the fact that we MemTCbeL.rs Of our11e',1111visited each village aday inad- used o1\ nwolmen\e:si, for interviewing the vil vance and niet \w ith the vilage headman (lkalkh ua) lage woImen, and tha the only male accompanying or some o her villalge official, who waIs aHe to na ine Lis was origi all from the area, was familiar with the every family in the village with littil:or ofo trou ble. CLiSion' and dialect, and helped with ,)lIinitial sam ConlsequenItV, fron the listing we were able to pling, aid our meeting with the village officials. choosi a 20 p,-'c, t 'anldOm sample, if wome. More- Ve were interested both in finding out what over, wt., were tiiANI t,rec 1nlv' two Of the %xa LCi rural WtI CInC0.tnibu ted to agriciulturIle and in puan r'andolv selected. Il b,.'th cases the womlen were1- tifving the allOUnt of work they do. A questionlaire, Working in fit Ids far from their village, aid we could preceded for colp-Liter analysis, proved not only not reaIcSna blv follow the'1m there. In all other in- workable, bt allowed US to devise indexes for each stances we interviewed the IIomCn wherever theeN, stage of agricultural proiductioi.-' In Amlash there are haprened to be--in the field Or w,.rking at homne. [wo principal crops, rice alld tea. Consequently, a We had beei tled to believe that th'e men would question wia; asked regarding every task relevant to be suspicious of LS, would give us the impression rice and tea proeilictitn. Each wolan was asked who 'Thesan ileiAadminiistrative unit in Iraii. 'he quest ion na ire took approxi mately one hour to administer. 4C5 406 STUD:ES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUI A CR 11112 NOVEMBER ' DECEMBER 1979 helped with a part iula r task. Ifsli i'espondedI thl, ornd men dh cosidhral, \r. (hi r assinp She WiS ivlV( IVed, We a,.'d hi Imuch of th( work to thall, ti '1ll' k ca.- bl,I al rdR l IsL )Ld she did: ill)fit, m ire tan half, hlf, )I lestnn t9 be true. Illpclh l, we tou nd thalt little impact has half. 'hrtughltOIg U tI' iiltlrVit"'I1 tll' 1 W01i:1n w'eV IVi made-mtilt lidititml divisioll of labor; the responsive to thescti'ris. In h tI,o trary t0 tasks th xv\Nt iltkown I,,done priia'lv bv opinion-s e\prtwtd prior [o nllr h'idw "k, ruraIl wOmin, inlLd iulp trinslalipt \Nt c'ding_,, ,.id te'a wome aire vWilling and11t able to di. u li'i'likt the' icking, ire, ,till theiv,. d o ;they kno'W tl,,tips ant lt ttchntiliit\ iexoved While00\intalih thet meithohIx Ltiliecl in iiiav and give \'t eTVact ans, ers. ",\'t, ible \t'rt, to check to .- n1dificLI in other areas---in iitftr,,nltIgri tle answers ill -everal way--tor \allit, against linal t'lxvinnlllltsll in area , xh're traditional 110 IeIlberf totheOlr illi\'dils11, \1 , horn tht ilter- religion mre pi'evalit-- the basic a'p1roah {lken view'e lis t'd asI he,!lpinlg with a parIticular h, tak. in this pilotstud should set lit stage tim- the list tif migit sa\ he,, her !husband, and t lt' other laborer iUl r tild\'. (.iri '\priricte in \llilshltalti'd did the weeding. If1,sh f(ollowed li t by ayig she tha,t Idolm0It iinlpl in; is possibh', !th Itthe' village did less thin nalt of th/e work, her aiILxv'tu wa, rca- le.v,! alld v,ithin \'iti; that liu nced ilit feel st blltlI'1id nt'i'dt'd M ti~ di',k irtlli-t" ,iSl. If,lnthe threatined by a Icnali',es ch tc,1ni; that it i pos Other hand, ,he, W d.t [tt heh did1 f,I lli halt sible to ,et creliale ilfnrnatii in from \None/in til task, the int rvieLi'- II LILul How adWhat ural Women Know: 1xperiences in Ban lades G LId ru-U I artol s-I- I If i CrI My empirical study' in 13,1 gIade sh ,luring 1)7-- 75 spciic stipL-poIt inlg p rogra ni for Ihis target group was based on the the sis that rural xvilin,,n prilt,dean a,1ine' ci tv-based vol itical decision iakers. importanlt cOtimlic contribul tio that can antI lth',study foused' on the follo\ing main uesC, should be usCd for the coutry's 9 rurald t\vcltipnnt. tiii): I) In what activities thn women in rural are.,as, eltiarkab'Y, tlhittimic coitributil i, almost hvLeVC an ilp('nlt 1i'0e' Di the\ have k,v fluInctiols entirely' nelectd bec can it it be-I se I IVA i peiicl aictiN'itie's? (2) \Wlat dCmaI.nds dtes agricul in1ol('-e'I'InI.iiotribution to tht, fail ileilne. tlaal prI lti1iil plac om wmscl' lbtr? What ap tcaultif the very liInitted ofOnwlee the wiirk pioche,., riult fom11 thi, Io illtt' ratin, \volelln into ilnipatterins tif rIral \vt ,il,:'l there, is littl(I ba is for aI t'e pro css of rur l dt'velnp'tneut? (3) \Vha tconsle (l cln:esderive fl-till theC fi dinlgl for inIegratiing \\t01inC jiIto stia1 ,ad cti l11n)I ic life, ai1d hi i V effc iii It' it~ll it i5.,ttti: t \'i'rIt' I ir.,iIi,,h.'781 5oz~ih-,,ij , t n,, arc tllcte efforts? misihi Sdhitlh, iiitr .\ t'it,,nl1it Ikhuc v 21 t Inllthe follO iing I tiltlillt' the kind., of problems 3TUDIFS IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER I1I 12 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 1979 407 re-sarchers tce ill uiide'tAkinm, I ,il,IIrv'vv il, , Rural ,vollm, l tltlcli\v pay tor purcl -,'s in countrv i.:' l l ci'si't. "l'i' apit" Iih as to bk' I'l- kil,, u 111, h1ii- !tt,,1 .nit , I n , urv I-,> ,. mnit ftir'nt fl'0oni wht thl1' !tItfl' l 1 ,lplica-_',piirj't' \\atr'l kl01l1,tltlitis.. inl,okiii pos. iv l'ct 'lure hIt' ffur 1i1l"lt'\'s t'. in lt.'Wtl i l in llsrilliietd Ct1n- it ixl IWll'1''ssl'\ It 1 asli1 'lit' itllt'ilt ulIlhts,' IV tit'-,. It is c p " i,I iy IJ~IIII kI -t,II t l , Ct\'-'d( 111 111 t ) lk l,',, t I,1,h 1.l i p It ki t IIit - p tlrI ih'l '. ! .,)1 A d111 \x,kt ,si ,,lt'lt t i l l I't.Ir ,i-I do 'ti i lv lilteltid to p l'' Hha \ il tl',ri t'1, l rc h it, ,Iitit ii Iiti tw o' so ldici t inTl, ]-,rt_1i') ,ltO, 'Ill %\Vr!, trok)II ti c iIItcrv ic t v ,', C< t IIllI .ho '1-. ,,11 ,<..;-J,,1 i , lII P,) I11t II l c I '~ll,,, ,',v if the,' a11c ,k' cd ill th\',I \ . or to) vlt I k it,\ I i'i Itl..i' \\ iikji i it' pt,.,i'tl ilil' ., ,lili nJ the \\-"o iWIto.rn'''ItiRu a ki isnnll l \ w il the tield It~I n<'lskt P i',k iit Itp .-,I li to ill( t1t;t ilkIV' in %,ltIIl i slit.\,\i \ill 1 tIl'to ti 'l l l l , Ihni Fvn'i i tL,) i tie' li ltlII1i. I,,ill'. I ,I 't''l li IV bct' I I: pro'. (""("i .' lit t il li isi t%' Il IitIii Iiii t11iti 11 'I I I It It II(-I) I kI lit II'I Io'" \\li l l In 1u l|'t't ,' i i Itt ii.li t I'l11iii {itI'x,,t't I" t hi.ii 'l.u 'I ~h.i'i tI t' 1<'!, il ilt 'lil 2 )lhl l'I' \\t /t'nVl'l ()Ll'ititil,I x1't' - xiill t l ii t i tit itili Ili t'~l.I ii i'st' it; ilt ,xt 'i ,, s tx' li I-tn ml'-mlll'n xx'). , , ,i v , i" ii,l ll igs, hk, t,,xit'.x's ,t' t'ii it he I,,indkit'- l fcdr i ndIh i, '11ir,i< cllI lill t lt-lkl 111 ~ ~- , ll i ! I l 'i iil \ t ~ ll r ', ",u f11,111\\ -, lJ,.si't, lhlih I'1 110 Cik'c Mh,'lilt'i tU c d ,itlli h d.,F , 1115t' la-e tua I l exill/ ' La','t' tll r't.Iitlx'. t 1>15{),iit'1\'t " ntl t'i' ' ttl>ille' , tll,t . lh ,tpn ' en's ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~age ol~ ~~" t._Vtl kit,'-t'.Itr'l'It nnlpIllitl t\.i PI' fiCVI . l~ lllillgI k tif ill},1W lw <\, tilt' ' ll t Yt' Iho 1i e 1' '1lhC ,,, i, , p L~r h c i;,u,ked ic iv,.< ,tlV. h dn It i ,,'r. t",l- i &,ciipl11)nl bais fo ivl{r n , (,1 il." t -,Ihlu~ i LT, l" had L:1, 1) I[Il t ( 1,1_,t \I'lhr,,or, hh~ h,,.,sa,,ndmim<,uivrwho~id i '11Li,fv andp illmc,,tl andk \the ir Ilae'nls, nlaIn 408 STUDIFS IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NOVEMBER )CFMBIR 1979 kind was kept Stablh during the0 high -prite peritid, It l s t lit'.ties,, \\Ili) (di tilt' P 'ocific their inComeillt that time, wa, ' , in l tl hihr tlh,in th1Ctllitike ili th \ltp'iiii; Ci)Ililt le \\ hell tilt'\ It t inC ICle for1male, da\' labo)0'ure . Over a ti'm(, peri,)d it t' iptIT1,ihie it11,il t',ic I )Iited rtie Lised in in three s0111l)> , ')nia t f I tC11h,\h lllpl ti(l,erlie., cist 1,11/,'lI ,t1llit . lill- i, ipecia tfilu , if the rate ()f paym ent ill kited. A ltloihi , I) 11l i lel the rate (t pl imentitni I 1l ! I It' ki I 'A L it I , c- t'> hlll i IL l I i rk no(t Very IliaI'krt itlitPtt i I I (, i II p~c i IwI' il IIlIt tiI I I 111i I'l I I\ I 'I 11lell t aI] 1hw im porta lce1 a .itPIVc, k Il [ T l\ 1a d 11It ,1'JI- lI It, t L\ r I c,, u, ph Ii t it't I I id . ,tlnliwi (JuCStiinls L-,ir I (Ill\' ('11(, ILlI l [to1 ,')t Illnli ' I'li- Women nRice Cultivation: Swomek eTools lom1 l'tI 1n l \l'\Ii vini ti.a lj K' ,i~iI ~ ~i~ The primai v goal it tIhe proict l it'"t ri- 'd IP' I Ut Iih t, I'III It'll it ti ll doculmen t in dIet thk, kfel t titw(Ilt 's it a,1 l it it it ' pert i- i taiit',-. Ii(Ii p iII II Ihtt h S pre'tl,0j cid H i 'h1 t i I",till , I tttlttl* I tIlt ti lt'I' i./ i o ' \\\)ii k t it P,.l ,11a,itI tli i lIIt tis llt i,tllil\ ft )r f o o d , d alctdY'; till'di( i'titii itt a rtapci' litt' ri'p11''i'(_tV t1ai ,\ch ipt'it I l\,i 1 \\tiMlI, kt T th1'hi t, titi' "XV11V1llt'11. In 11/,111V )Rl'as',11(,01"l<, M C.,pald< I L(t, 11 liI-~il'%'Ilt \ Illl /tlll, ",) Itil tilt' \%tillh-I1 \\%11 llIV + SC' 1\%'0 I-linIft I~t'01 110,i1h14 <.-Ikiii ) l l ltl,and 1111tt i- ! t l<, The household income chart M"- -=-' m - r' A -- -r - Af ------~ - -i- A1 ------A ------: ji -m 410 S[UDIES INFAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 12 NOVEMBER I DECEMBER 1979 The agricultural operations chart tq looking at the chart that the vonlan has kept, the collect similar information in a diary to be kept for information entered on each chart for the pre- each house. We propose to have each woman collect vious week. In this wa', we hope at least to have a data from a total of 10 ho0useholds, visiting 4 each day check for one week on how carefully the chart was a1nd returning again to the same 4 households every filled in. tour days. The 16 Wom1Cnen to be visited in this way will We are also employing one literate woman in be different from the women filling in the charts. The each village for about six months. She will visit local woman will also help those keeping charts by households with women agricultural laborers and going once a week and collecting that week's set of STUDIES IN FAMILY PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11 / 12 NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 1979 411 AML J k At - Q -a IA charts and distributing a new set. Along with spot- majority of sample surveys, and having .;cen the checking the chai ts, we will also spot-check the work kinds of errors that creep into any type of data col done by the village assistant by independently leCting in India in which a nullber of research assis checking the data she has been collecting at two or tants or interviewers are used, we are coTnvinced.! that three different time periods, there nlav not be greater errors using local women Obviously, in spite of all the checks, there will than one finds in much other material. From our pre still be room for error. However, having looked at the liminary use of these materials in three Tamil Nadu way census materials are collected, as well as the vast villages and one Kerala village, we find that, whil 412 I::< :;;?::> ,STUDIES IN,FAMILY,PLANNING VOLUME 10 NUMBER 11112 NOVEMBER/ DECEMBER '!979 ~'.there might -be ja considerable difference in the amou~6~nt of time how needed for different',omen to learn ~ to fill i the" charts, and while women might,, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The project reported on here stop keeping them .if they , on6the!wlole are not picked up weekly; is titled "Women and Rice Cultivation: A Compara women have not taken to filling in tive Study in Four Rice Regions of India-Kerala, d fieirtsincorrectly, The charts are either filled in cor- Ta.mil NaduA West Bengal, and Orissa." It is being fi rectly or left blank, We now hope that using the vil- i nanced by the Indian Council of Social Science Re ]age assistants to distribute the chart each week will". search; The funds for Ms. Mencher's pairticipation help to keep up their interest. We have also devised a are being provided by the Research Foundation better of method for teaching the women how to fill in the City University of New York and by the the charts which we hope will add to their accuracy. Smithsonian Institution. Research on Women by Women: Interviewer'Selection and Training in Indonesia Hanna Papanek . 2' Interviewers play a crucial role in social research. In wit these women, seeking to understand some rela. large surveys, 'they are the only contact between re- tionships between selected demographic and socio searcher and respondent Their success in reaching economic factors. In particular, we wanted to learn out to people affects what is said in response to ques- .something of tle Women's ideas and feelings about tionsand how much:people are Willing to reveal . themselves, their children, and family life. 'about" themselves. But interviewers are often the 'i Even among these urban Women, there was little most neglected members of a research team, paid lit- in their everyday lives to make tliem familiar with the tle, trained - ' less. techniques of survey research, much. less with the in- Between 1973 and 1975, a group of Indonesian depth probing we wanted to do. But for populations, ,- and US researchers-all women-collaborated on a such as women, that have not been well studied in' study of urban women in the middle strata of Ja- the past, such detailed studies are needed to displaice k a rta's population.' These women were neither very the Often unwarranted assumptiohs that have found poor nor very rich, and, although they were long- their way into theories and methods 6f social science term. residents of Indonesia's capital, what we. ' and into popular beliefs. q - learned from studying 'them has.boaier i.wplica- fWe begani our study convinced 'of the impoi tions.We wanted to examine a wide range of ques-.. tance of field interviewers in this kind of research, .:.tions with relatively few'women;.we therefore chose and with several basic assumptions about the need. a stratified sample (146) of married women with chil- to match interviewers and respondents as closely dren, soneehiployed as in paid jobs outside the home, possible so they could, talk freely with each 'ther,' some not. We conducted long, in-depth interviews First, we took it for granted that only women could. : 'In itilfi g h~av,ii{hve bneefl'nin; rep rt d n nadPaalne , :y G i . : ...... {.ir~eport, i " 4a''-: : develop the desired rapport. with ..female .. respondents.... g .n T,' Omas Ihroml, Yuf.ta Rahardjo,.Ann Way, andPauline R, endrat., - and that they should be married or of marriageable I4 Secoid, We Cre dhei v avrtI, I lndonci a' tiOll'I,tiltordel in which the weTre raned, and Cthnic' and religio, div1rsith anti lti imiotanwe Of tht' ntCd to llow1,hroh 1 with non11dire-ctive prtoLs. thetse, diffterce.S in lilt'. I h'nCe w(' il- lnteTrv itlyrs ,ittl s, i ,tt ho,. Luesltions cLided olmen flom anv t't1i t,tt Ihi>is,,l'-Ik- coul he worded i, a'id\iOih' ,iffit'-t (K' to Cn grolild-. illt(tillsaIl t'.a' well is in lt T k)ir (ot c r',, woiil.n to K itist e,\ptiiit. Sonetini thev illtLT'rvI'\\ '<. \W C tried to) I11'ii'nI inlt.rvi .-l t till inI,lmdeit t]',t that their1 i)11iitdards Of [I'pp' "he they' I tititr'pt n"de)lt' illtcl - tt nI'c, m 11na li h ,y i or tm i lt p irllit ttn'll) 10 1,ak tlI'titiol s illthe - ethnicity. I n s tlilt'casI'l I \\I il ii I is ,l.ipt,l Ih n'-t'ilt' tii ,ld,,iti,) ,t'' td Filr e"a pie, in lia'lllil, l1p it'/ll .' ,II t h t 'lliilli, ( h1) ' \,")lIl- 0111,td)(¢ 4 ul , Bli\ui',I j t l 11lit Id b,11,, it Ittill i tt'( %'ii- i It i llI i it I Iit'1t I I - A'"lt'tit't IIt .'i .... i t lIlt l i'i t l'.it' (NttIi ' tc i t iI I tit tiN'n t t t tIthIi . i I' , I I ,ItI,IJ IIN'. It .)LIf '\t-kiiI-It'rit'ilc L )I'eiicia t'aH c o la r,ti.h, ICl)iit i tl Ti l it' ili i tit 'it lill '-\ rhili\ it I i itto i 11111)(Sitt fl'ltv Inlt'cIt iitaffIlki f aI,it f titi, ii'li I t ll t \ -. tIL<, I iir \i h;i.n t) foat,,, n th' in-0l pp 1 Iti .t(ItI.N't'll,rItittkt', i I'P 74i ,tipistIe'- tt t'a( tivL'r \iuirCtOi1li'0 tt tlaiit'I t'h ai n1it ' 1iingIr1ll!/1,,.tt kt-iihl1i lt'11'l, Litf, 111i\ lli lit1ack Ill I iMI Oi' t t Hii'te'e i III th L i I lilt tI 1Ito i 1' l I It itl '.,t I -ll It itti tti t iwa i t tas, p.etr the1 lSttlf rLIi (ts. ntclt' i tin illL hiatt hl 'u nr -)r I1ie tJ , w t l IaI li l t h 'kit ItI , it l i e thI Y ti or ikedwet t l,'ti ]IhtI' a l't Itt ,iH ,r'h1Il ,,Co id f Isl li." dI\II tIh(Ith. tHW V ( %' M W[) I-Luct, l it dtIIICi'hL i " i Itt M C tI ll'l tI' ,11,1 I ' it 11' I li Jt, 0 tilt'-1 Ii,t' I s fChktV I 'rt'-,~lt Il( '1 "- 1 f m th esI, ot'' killlap r tlh ila'll il i, NVdiS 14 ) ) h CIllin4'l 1 -C II.)kl I nR lt-,(il l ll , fcsil itl t'L'IV~~ ~ ~ t",~~d<,lf. <',lI'V1 tt',ll l lit,)V Lh111 I Il/tl)'l'ilJ1111ii~W' dh1\t1(t ifl/nI I~irIttt w 't u l t< ll l, f~~~tmilit'~~~~VhLtT1O<., t li i 'rlln CW HihI\t \%TcclV111u'111V inIIrnI0111.11b r t it,IIi ttlitLINO ,,Ilil H eltiri ,r fL'S.1,~~~leit,%\ cr,d I-V%\eness.10 .I Ik i N 1If) Jtrac Ctl in stn art It a p11 Illtc,~~~~r,Ic'r v it'\t v 'l tLl'.TiL'\ ,~l il C ILrt;d i Igf 1tr-llt1 11 tl llIi:i pt ,t11,.i. ,,v, , , ( n ,li o'11,nc tIh.l ll II1 i1 1t1i, \k\~ . Idilh hmI - Il ltLtlviC WvTi ,11Sl l, to l e'i rn ito r e'c otrd th is inl Ihytc,.Yu lrm.'tll.,,hil'01lak~wa U lI 1,1/lk 'p " I I(:'' ii alll pp - ) Id[C V T S-a i,,Rep)rti h thew ,hji,ItI'\)L'j,rimt previous cxperienct as interviewers in rIsla icl U' it tt'l li1g ani beh,IviOr werI Inoher ilpoirta lt topic social service ,teitcies. W', asketi tIem uesti to i oftd i,si ,,ll,aiH 1i illustra ing the role of language. notebooks to write down wlat po nt, ' W-;tt ii,, We had to calntioin inter uSing [lie Interview Guideon to11Y 10 refr,-sh their InWcIn- viewe'rs not 1t pnt words into the on11th of respon os,'The ,.',Ireasked to avodd ispl,'in, the t'nt. 't, rr(lirl, ,';ed role-pla'ilig to test inter (tlide, (a st t uiittrphed pag,,-) c'k\t pt olne it view, situah1n, 1n,1d peiic tetions during the sjW' ific poil. t,-t.,nt' .nts wJre ;hoi, ii a list t ot )l- trining, ptlied 1illld id t io llt' the fe,,ll tle .till traceptive' proct'diri'. and produt,, ivinQ k0oininon tt'rviewi'rs. MWi It1-01, dtiltleit woLln asked lnitnit'sX,ii h;ia d iw es to elicit ,I detailed history whetet'r tile'\ uld Lcutdi, I iiirtI'Ix'e , illpail , but of m'onit I(-i' ti ' II ,I- 'I ill''te to v iewe('r taike We d c ti raid thIis e k t , weI. , I \ kt11hogli,11t t\Vo tIll cartul wrlitte'n itI Iktt it'potI t I', i ' ,iII',\% e'F,, We'I r , instead o list out'. iigil ttx'crxxhelm some retI Wire greatly helpedk t ' tile, pIi'\' ilin>IesttdishIxi\ iii tak- p; o t ltn11tive lhI' t11 iiiteC''it'i 'rsr ing d'tled ntes ill tlasro Is Itgkoup ltiil ctictIente, wasI htilAve thIin IsI lItI\' ,l' tposible and inlrIri'her OF '1nlia rs. t bil\ tIl l, it 'i' ' r in p.i1epa linet,ilin he1 t 1 i Ide' ' t. , idiL, , kl that It 'v' trliilit ill it" uA , piet 'rd tape)Cil et' ller. AI- w uld( fel '1 -,iH t1 i1 1rlIltinet, thouel, t work the't Otll', did 1ltlt %int)1 to list' Ot', 1,0 'pilted)I had1 hlpt'd to phii . no diftiot lt,( i 'Ixl it spolcLn I ccpt l it. W hen illtt'ri'x'ex i\\Ci10ripts Iv , rii.ded1 ill, all ,'\ 0 t01]tt'l (',t 11\'if , ,s ill ',,i'l inlltr- iilterViex Tr' delsk)eti'r iti d(itIl11,nd in their raw viClkl'r rL li'C'tliIItt to,I i\ tip ll'i'Ilt' II t's ( 1til' ll , lIi' il tt'5 ll kit'<" I tol)tt ti-i' tins ri ts, l il lise iaVt to tllttli,' ilk sk)) s tl ,te to t'rtin ,, pits- of a ' lnilit\' l Cc'iti, 'tklnpIt' c .x ktrk, and itv i '-tiiir'd itt ill ixtI'Ivit'IIV ixel' tI'd in a single for '-tillpletent,'1, anid l 1 1t. )I I )~~M/ bu ild in tIl) LY ,t,,."t,, I., IlkI\ 'xw lm d r, t II 'I . 2 ) ,) c l k '/ , ,l th es - f&'itl.'l,i rtlin-i tlli/Iu l tIt n l''It''\Id i V(,ti 'IIIl>i 1 /~IIIk, t Ih\ItwIll,ti I ~ll h hem lllij,, \ f,11t:'r\ k'hit t \',mik,l i.-ilitic~tl Ii', th ,iIh,t i'il. li,rll "\k ll