1 Introduction – Global Casting Calls

Notes

1. David Harvey (2005) defines the neoliberal state as one that creates the conditions for widespread accumulation of capital from both foreign and domestic sources. Therefore, the government’s role is to work with industries to strengthen the overall market, usually by allowing businesses and multinational corporations to operate with minimal government interference. Yet, as Harvey points out, seemingly sanguine discourses of ‘freedom’ (as in ‘free enterprise’) merely serve to consolidate class power, since elites in advanced capitalist countries such as the United States are primarily the ones who benefit from the surpluses generated from free market trade. 2. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of the now- uncertain future of the FESTLIP festival. In a curious turn of events, FESTLIP 2012 was canceled for lack of funding. It did come back in 2013, taking place in August of that year. 3. For example, Lim (2005) analyzes an urban gay theatre production to show how Singapore’s queer community unsettles both a growing market for imported Western gay culture and state policing of sexual minorities. In another example, Graham- Jones (2005) cites Underiner’s (2004) work on Mayan theatre troupes to show how the local and global are inextricably intertwined, since these troupes rely on international media to circulate their indigenous theatre. 4. This is an example of the recent claim by some globalization theorists that mechanisms of circulation are constitutive of cultural practices, not merely incidental to them (Gaonkar and Povinelli 2003; Lee and LiPuma 2002; Werry 2005). 5. Ernest Gellner’s Nations and Nationalism (1983) in particular has been the subject of much scholarly critique. To be fair, Gellner’s theory of nationalism, which draws from case studies in industrial Europe, does not explicitly say that nationalism requires actual homogeneity among a country’s political, demographic, and cultural units. Instead, he writes that nationalists feel that such congruency exists, no matter how illusory or misguided that may be. Nationhood is, for Gellner, a willed collectivity based on a perception of a culture that is shared. Nevertheless, scholars have taken Gellner to task for his assumption that ‘congruency,’ or at least the desire for it, is the basic political principle underlying nationalism. For example, Askew (2002) notes that postcolonial nations such as Kenya and Tanzania house numerous ethnic groups brought together forcibly by European colonialists. These ethnic groups experience a sense of ‘shared culture’ primarily with each other rather than their countries as a whole (9). Homi Bhabha (1994) takes issue with Benedict Anderson’s notion of nations as ‘imagined communities,’ since critical exclusions will always result when people imagine their country to be populated by others just like themselves. Bhabha suggests that

183 184 Notes

new narratives of nationhood will be developed from a country’s margins by those threatened with exclusion from hegemonic and official discourses, such as migrants, diasporans, and postcolonial subjects. For further critiques of homogeneity and nationhood, see Edensor (2002); for a diasporic perspec- tive, see Axel (2001) and Tololyan (1991). 6. See Dulce Almada Duarte’s (2003) comprehensive discussion of the genesis of Cape Verdean Crioulo. 7. Semedo and Turano (1997) cite several colonial documents prohibiting Tabanca, dating primarily from the years 1895 through 1923. 8. For more on how certain islands in Cape Verde have been associated with Africa and others with Europe, see Fikes (2006) and Anjos (2002). 9. The journal African Theatre’s recent special issue on festivals (vol. 11, 2012) also attests to this claim. 10. While Adorno’s first major theoretical formulation of the ‘culture industry’ appeared in Dialectic of Enlightenment, co- authored with Max Horkheimer in 1947, he continued to hone this thesis throughout his life. See Huyssen (1975). 11. The long- awaited third edition of a Black Arts festival (Arts Nègres) took place in Dakar, Senegal, in December 2010. 12. See also the special issue on Africa of the journal The Global South (vol. 2, no. 2 [2008]), especially the introductory essay (Alabi 2008). 13. The festival in Cameroon is called Rencontres Théâtrales Internationales du Cameroun (RETIC); the two festivals in Burkina Faso are called Festival International de Théâtre pour le Développement (FITD) and Festival International de Théâtre et de Marionnettes de Ouagadougou (FITMO). 14. Earlier scholarship on globalization focused primarily on its economic impact. Saskia Sassen’s (1998, 2002) work has been prominent in this regard. In many ways, Appadurai’s ground- breaking book, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (1996), was pioneering in its holistic attempt to theorize cultural globalization. Lee and LiPuma’s work, however, is evidence of a newer strand of globalization theory that seeks to analyze finance and cultural practices jointly. Many of these new dialogues have appeared in the journal Public Culture. 15. Other Portuguese scholars defend the notion of lusofonia and its advantages for Portuguese- speaking countries. For example, Fernando Santos Neves (2000) offers an incisive retort to Margarido’s (2000) critique of lusofonia. 16. For an excellent overview of scholars who perceive lusofonia as a reawaken- ing of lusotropicalism, see Sieber (2002). 17. From page three of a sponsored section called ‘Small Island Nation Attracts Big Global Partners’ in the July– August 2011 edition of Foreign Affairs. Thanks to Jennifer Granger for pointing this out to me. 18. See, for example, Lusografias (Cezerilo 2002), proceedings from an international conference on Lusophone writing held in Maputo, Mozambique, 18– 22 February 2002. Some authors, such as Mozambique’s Mia Couto, are more ambivalent toward the lusofonia project. See Couto (2008). 19. The closing ceremony took place on 12 July 2009, at FESTLIP’s hub in Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro. Festival artistic director Tânia Pires generously allowed me to attend this private affair and audio record its events. Notes 185

20. While Appadurai (1996) invokes Benedict Anderson’s generative notion of nations as imagined communities conjured through processes of print capitalism, he specifies that today’s communities of sentiment do not rely on the printed word. 21. Some examples are António Augusto Barros, artistic director of Cena Lusófona in 2005, and Ana Cordeiro, director of the Instituto Camões in Mindelo in 2005. Mozambican actors Evaristo Abreu and Isabel Jorge told me of the frustration they experienced while attending international confer- ences where simultaneous translation is provided for a multitude of romance languages but not Portuguese. They expressed a hope that Lusophone festivals will advocate for the importance of Portuguese as a global language. 22. Francisco Fragoso, founder of the post- independence theatre group Korda Kaoberdi of Cape Verde, emphasized to me the reality of Africans’ unequal access to visas and international travel within the supposedly egalitarian community of the CPLP. Interview with the author, Lisbon, Portugal, 19 July 2005. 23. In the immediate post- independence era, increasingly autocratic governments exhibited such hostility toward the arts that performers were put on the defensive, as is cogently expressed in Ngu˜gı˜ wa Thiongo’s (1998) account of making grassroots theatre in Kenya in the 1970s. 24. See Magliocco’s (1993) discussion of the heated local politics surrounding two cultural festivals centered on the Madonna in Sardinia. Departing from the Durkheimian assumption that community festivals convey group identity, Magliocco examines how festivals can instead be points from which conflict emerges. 25. OTACA is an acronym for Oficina de Teatro e Comunicação de Assomada (The Assomada Theatre and Communication Collective). 26. Castañeda (2006) distinguishes this from ‘doing fieldwork,’ or the kind of data gathering with samples, surveys, and questionnaires that does not require long- term immersion (76). 27. I owe a great debt to João Branco (2004), who painstakingly collected the newspaper articles and ephemera housed in CEDIT when he was working on his book Nação teatro: História do teatro em Cabo Verde.

2 Mapping Festivals

1. ‘Fladu fla’ is a common expression in badiu, the Santiago Island variant of Cape Verdean Crioulo. The phrase refers loosely to gossip or hearsay; it liter- ally means ‘they’re all saying’ or ‘word has it.’ 2. There are various ways to spell ‘Crioulo.’ Fladu Fla’s title reflects how it would be written using the Santiago variant, badiu. 3. For a thorough review of Africanist critiques of lusotropicalism, see Arenas (2011: 8– 11). 4. However, in Managing African Portugal (2009), Kesha Fikes makes the convincing argument that Freyrian notions about the absence of racism in Portugal were fundamentally challenged when an influx of African immigrants arrived in Lisbon in the 1970s after countries such as Cape 186 Notes

Verde and Angola achieved independence. The abrupt shift in Lisbon’s demographic provoked violent incidents of racial hatred. 5. Even Portuguese scholars occasionally reproduce these views, as evidenced by political scientist Paulo Gorjão’s recent assertion that Portugal’s campaign for a non- permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2011/12 was successful because of ‘[t]he country’s roughly one thousand years of history, its global presence, [and] behavior and consideration towards all countries’ (2010: 30). 6. Ana Malfada Leite, interview with the author, Lisbon, Portugal, 25 July 2005. Jean- Michel Massa calls lusofonia a ‘recent replica’ of francophonie, a term invented by French geographer Onésime Reclus in 1880 and recuperated in the postcolonial era to define a political network of nations in which French is utilized (2006: 175). Interestingly, both Cape Verde and Guinea- Bissau have officially joined La Francophonie even though, as countries with Portuguese as their official language, they are also members of the CPLP. 7. While I am aware that the term ‘fraternity’ has a masculinist connotation, I use it here only because it is a direct translation of the Portuguese word fraternidade, which does appear in Freyre’s writing. In contemporary discourses of lusofonia (and I am thinking mainly of what is printed in the festival programs at FESTLIP and the speeches given at the opening ceremonies there), I more often hear the gender- neutral term solidarity (solidariedade ) than fraternity, although both words are used. 8. The official site of UCCLA was Lisbon for the organization’s first 25 years. In 2010, the UCCLA site was transferred to Salvador da Bahía in Brazil. 9. The Portuguese expression cidades gêmeas (twin cities) is equivalent to ‘sister cities,’ or cities in different countries that develop agreements about cultural or economic exchanges. UCCLA’s constitution declares the Lusophone capitals to be united by geminação múltipla (multiple twinning). The history of UCCLA can be found at http://www.uccla.net/index.php?option=com_content&view= article&id=115&Itemid=114 (UCCLA, accessed 22 April 2011). 10. See the history of the CPLP at ‘Histórico— Como surgiu?’ http://www.cplp. org/Default.aspx?ID=241 (CPLP, accessed 22 April 2011). 11. See Cahen (2003) for a discussion of Lusophone African governments’ initial resistance to the leadership role that Portugal took in the CPLP, given its past role as colonizer. 12. I noticed frequent advertisements for such contests when I lived in Cape Verde. On a trip to Mozambique in summer 2010, the director of the Instituto Camões in Maputo offered me a copy of a play that had won the 2002 Prémio Revelação de Teatro (debut playwriting prize) co- sponsored by Maputo’s IC and AMOLP, the Associação Moçambicana da Língua Portuguesa (Mozambican Portuguese- Language Association). 13. See http://aulp.org (AULP, accessed 26 April 2011). The prize is co- sponsored by the Association of Portuguese- Language Universities (AULP), the CPLP, and the Instituto Camões. 14. In Portuguese: ‘África Lusófona’ não existe, ou pelo menos não existe enquanto entidade geográfica, política ou histórica.’ Unless otherwise noted, all translations from Portuguese and Crioulo are mine. 15. See Arenas’s (2011) account of a 1998 dialogue between the presidents of Brazil (Fernando Henrique Cardoso) and Portugal (Mário Soares), who Notes 187

consciously drew on lusotropicalist narratives to argue that their two nations should ‘work together in Africa,’ which Arenas interprets as reinforcing ‘an ideological platform for Portugal and Brazil to expand economically and culturally into Africa’ (13). 16. The CPLP’s 105- page document on circulation can be found on the website: http://www.cplp.org/id- 185.aspx (accessed 29 April 2011). 17. Francisco Fragoso, interview with the author, Lisbon, Portugal, 19 July 2005. 18. The Portuguese word estações can either mean seasons of the year or station, as in a train depot. Cena Lusófona uses it in the sense of a train station. 19. Jorge Biague, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 17 September 2005. 20. Ibid. 21. See ‘MITO invade Fundição de Oeiras,’ http://www. cm- oeiras.pt/ noticias%5CPaginas/MITOinvadeFundicaodeOeiras.aspx, and I Festival Lusófono de Teatro Intimista de Matosinhos, http://teatroreactor.bloguepessoal. com/ (both accessed 3 May 2011). 22. See A Semana (2010). 23. After the close of Mindelact 2005, I sat down with festival director João Branco to discuss budget and sponsorship. He could give me precise figures for some sponsors, such as 5,000 euros each from the Gulbenkian Foundation and Cooperação Portuguesa. Cape Verdean government sources were more complicated. The Ministry of Culture had given a lump sum of 1,000,000 escudos (around US$11,000) for all of the Mindelact Association’s activities that year, including the festival and March, Theatre Month. The municipal government of São Vicente had given a total of 400,000 escudos but had also arranged hotel rooms for the national theatre groups and loaned vans for local transportation. Branco also counted on TACV, Cape Verde’s major airline, to give international theatre companies travel discounts and forgiveness of excess baggage costs— a major expense, given that some brought large pieces of scenery with them. 24. See also A Semana (1995) and Novo Jornal (1995). 25. Cena Lusófona’s first two theatre stations were held in Maputo, Mozambique (in 1995), and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in 1996). 26. João Branco, ‘Mindelact: Associação Artística e Cultural,’ document #0888, Mindelact Documentation Center (CEDIT). 27. See Brito (2001). In Portuguese: ‘Promover a apresentação de espectáculos teatrais de grupos estrangeiros no Festival, privilegiando o contacto com os grupos ori- undos dos países lusófonos,’ and ‘servir de elo de ligação entre os agentes teatrais cabo- verdianos e os promotores de intercâmbio teatral entre os países lusófonos.’ 28. Proposal and budget for Capital Lusófona da Cultura 2002/2003, document #665, Mindelact Documentation Center (CEDIT). 29. This removal of the explicit focus on Lusophone theatre at the festival was already evident in a 2005 television interview in which João Branco said that Mindelact would continue to showcase theatre from Lusophone countries but would not limit itself to that linguistic background (Moreira 2005). That same year, Manuel Estevão, who was then president of Mindelact’s general assembly, told me that he did not support the concept of lusofonia because it implied a community that was ‘closed off’ from the rest of the world. He wanted Mindelact to include a solid infusion of French-, English-, and 188 Notes

Spanish- language theatre as well. Manuel Estevão, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 10 September 2005. 30. Mindelact’s new set of objectives, which were approved at the March 2007 meeting of the General Assembly, are available at http://www.mindelact. com/estatutos.html (Mindelact, accessed 6 August 2011). 31. Mindelact still supports the lusofonia project. For example, it signed a protocol of geminação with the aforementioned Brazilian festival, FestLuso, which is strictly Lusophone. The protocol declared the two to be ‘twin’ or ‘sister’ festivals that support and promote each other’s activities. See http:// festluso.blogspot.com/2010/11/mindelact- lamenta- corte- na- programacao. html (FestLuso, accessed 15 June 2012). 32. João Branco, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 19 September 2005. 33. Seventeenth- century documents even evidence a distinction between two language variants spoken on the islands, ‘high Portuguese’ and ‘low Portuguese,’ of which the latter was the Portuguese Creole now known as Crioulo (Duarte 2003: 44). 34. Even today, the bulk of Crioulo’s vocabulary consists of Portuguese words and loan words from various West African tongues such as Wolof and Fula. 35. Sabino Baessa, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 10 Sep- tember 2006; Narciso Freire, interview with the author, Assomada, Cape Verde, 13 August 2005. 36. This is a sentiment I heard time and again from a wide cross- section of Mindelo theatre artists during my fieldwork periods in 2004– 7. 37. Zaina Rajás, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 13 August 2009. 38. FRELIMO is Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambican Liberation Front) and RENAMO is Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (Mozambican Resistance Movement). 39. See http://www. commonwealth- of- nations.org/Mozambique/Organisations/ Mozambique_in_the_Commonwealth (Commonwealth of Nations, accessed 1 June 2011). 40. Voting and eligibility for political office were common themes in these opinion pieces. The proposed protocol implied that any CPLP citizen would be eligible for election in municipal governments in any Lusophone country and that all CPLP citizens could vote in elections regardless of their country of residence. Fearing a neocolonial takeover at the municipal level, editorialists asked readers to imagine a worst- case scenario in which a Portuguese citizen was elected mayor of Maputo (Macaringue 2002b; Simbine 2002). Writers also sensed the specter of economic exploitation since the protocol would guarantee CPLP citizens equal access to the invest- ment and professional opportunities available to nationals in CPLP states. Such a move, they opined, would make Mozambique’s industries more vul- nerable to Brazilian and Portuguese control since those two countries are the most economically developed nations in the CPLP, while few Mozambicans would be wealthy enough to invest reciprocally in Brazil and Portugal (Arnaça 2002). In sum, the editorialists feared the egalitarian promise of uni- versal CPLP citizenship was a mere front for Brazil and Portugal’s imperialist designs, and they applauded their president for opposing it. Notes 189

41. Unión de Naciones Suramericanas (Spanish) or UNASUL; União de Nações Sul- Americanas (Portuguese). 42. I am working from the description provided on the program for the ‘1a estação da cena lusófona: Festival de Maputo, Moçambique,’ which the staff at Cena Lusófona’s headquarters in Coimbra generously shared with me during my visit in summer 2005. 43. Gilberto Mendes, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 28 August 2009. 44. Manuela Soeiro, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 18 August 2009. 45. Companhia Nacional de Canto e Danca (CNCD). 46. David Abílio, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 23 August 2009. 47. Evaristo Abreu and Isabel Jorge, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 8 July 2009. 48. Ibid. 49. IATM resulted in at least two subsequent theatre festivals, one in Zambia in 2000 and the next in Tanzania in 2001 (Kasozi 2001). I have not been able to locate evidence of its continuation beyond this. 50. ACERT is Associação Cultural e Recreativa de Tondela (Cultural and Recreational Association of Tondela), which arose in 1979 as a broader initia- tive that emerged from the formation of the theatre group Trigo Limpo in 1976. See ‘ACERT: Associação Cultural e Recreativa de Tondela,’ http://www. acert.pt/novociclo/ (ACERT, accessed 14 June 2001). 51. Abreu and Jorge interview. 52. José Rui Martins, interview with the author, Tondela, Portugal, 23 July 2005. 53. Maria Simões, interview with the author, Tondela, Portugal, 23 July 2005. 54. In Portuguese: ‘Acreditamos que este festival é um passo gigante para que, em nome da cultura europeia, não se continue a ter uma atitude paternalista em relação à cultura africana. Queremos aprender e trocar saberes.’ 55. Paulo Neto, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20 July 2010. 56. Soeiro interview. 57. Neto interview; Matchume Zango, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 21 August 2009. 58. Having lived in Maputo for a couple of months myself, I wondered if transportation was also a complicating factor for these late evening theatre productions. Public transportation in Maputo is scarce, and people working in the city often must travel to their homes in outlying residential areas in battered, privately owned white vans called chapas. Since chapas stop run- ning in the early evening, late- night performances could simply have been untenable for many would- be spectators. 59. In Portuguese: ‘Eu já não sei o que as pessoas querem.’ 60. World Bank statistics for Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, PPP, http:// ddp- ext.worldbank.org/ext/ddpreports/ViewSharedReport?&CF=&REPORT_ ID=9147&REQUEST_TYPE=VIEWADVANCED (World Bank, accessed 21 June 2011). 61. Alvim Cossa, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 13 August 2009. 62. Rogério Manjate, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 12 September 2010. 190 Notes

63. Soeiro interview. 64. Martins interview. 65. According to Barbosa and his co- authors (2009), in Angola, BNDES invests mainly in projects that the Angolan government considers a priority, such as roads. Another example the authors give is the way Brazil has been supporting ethanol production in many African countries (primarily Ghana), mainly for exports to European markets. 66. Tânia Pires, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 26 July 2010. 67. Pires interview. 68. However, I heard informally from some of my contacts from Cape Verde and Guinea- Bissau that in some cases, FESTLIP offers theatre companies a set number of airfares, perhaps four or five, and the companies must raise money on their own to purchase flights for any additional artists they wish to bring along. 69. Pires interview. 70. Ibid. 71. Ibid. 72. For example, a newspaper article I saw in a Rio de Janeiro newspaper announced an upcoming training course for prospective African diplomats and mentioned there would be translators of Swahili, the ‘common language in all of Africa’ (Jornal do Brasil 2010). As Swahili is spoken in only roughly thirteen African countries, this glaring error in a major Brazilian newspaper indicates a large deficit of knowledge about Africa in Brazilian society. Other anecdotes I heard from FESTLIP contacts suggested that many Brazilians they encountered in Rio had very little conception of the size of Africa or distances among countries. For example, an Angolan actor recounted to me that a Brazilian once told him, ‘You’re from Angola? What a coincidence! I have a friend in Guinea- Bissau.’

3 Recasting the Colonial Past

1. OTACA’s performance was a co- production with another nearby amateur theatre troupe, Raiz di Engenhos, which supplied just one actor, Edimilson Sousa, who played the lead character of Bita. Since Sousa was actually from the area of Engenhos, while OTACA is from nearby Assomada, the troupe felt he could bring the most authentic experience to his representation of Bita. 2. Estação Teatral da Beira Interior (Theatre Station of Interior Beira). 3. For example, Rebecca Schneider (2011) writes about Civil War re- enactors who have a clandestine desire to revise history, sometimes in troubling ways. For example, some would prefer a reenactment in which the South could win. 4. In Portuguese: ‘ baseando- se em factos recolhidos junto das pessoas idosas oriundas do interior de Santiago, com maior incidência nas Ribeiras de Engenhos deste con- celho de Santa Catarina, pessoas, essas com profundas conhecimentos das relações desastrosas entre trabalhadores das terras e os donos destas terras, os senhores “MORGADOS” e . . . as Autoridades Coloniais’ (Mindelact 2004 festival program, 41). Notes 191

5. In Portuguese: ‘As raízes e as tradições da maior ilha do país, do grupo que melhor as sabe interpretar’ (ibid., 40). 6. In Crioulo: ‘Homi faca, Mudjer matchado, Mininus tudo ta djunta pedra.’ 7. Freire later told me an anecdote that confirmed this. When he arrived in Mindelo for Mindelact 2004, festival director João Branco asked him, ‘Narciso, why are you calling this a debut? I’ve researched Cape Verdean theatre. You performed Tchom di Morgado in Santa Catarina around 1980.’ Freire responded, ‘That was another play, a different story. Morgados were on Santiago for a long time. There isn’t only one Tchom di Morgado!’ Narciso Freire, interview with the author, Assomada, Cape Verde, 2 October 2006. 8. Nilda Vaz, interview with the author, Assomada, Cape Verde, 3 October 2006. 9. Freire interview, 2 October 2006. 10. Ibid. 11. Alverino Monteiro, interview with the author, Engenhos, Cape Verde, 2 October 2006. 12. Amélia Sousa, interview with the author, Engenhos, Cape Verde, 2 October 2006. 13. António Carreira (2000) points out that this system actually predated the end of slavery, since Cape Verdean society had long included freed and escaped slaves who lacked the socioeconomic power to own land. 14. Alverino Monteiro interview; Amélia Sousa interview; Crisálida Correia, interview with the author, Praia, Cape Verde, 4 October 2006. 15. Freire’s distrust of the colonial narrative is evident in the description he gave me of the abuse of agrarian workers that inspired Tchom di Morgado. The document abounds with imagery of ‘savage beasts,’ which is how Freire thinks colonial authorities and landlords viewed their Black workers. 16. Monteiro interview. Manuel Semedo Tavares, who was a guard for Serra at the time, recalls that a group of farmers were exiled in the 1950s for protest- ing the steep increase in the cost of renting the morgado’s machinery for refining sugar cane. Manuel Semedo Tavares, interview with the author, Engenhos, Cape Verde, 2 October 2006. 17. In Crioulo: ‘Ma genti, pamodi? Pamod es é branko? Pamod es ta papia Potugues?’ Thanks to Narciso Freire for lending me a copy of his script. 18. Two of my interviewees who had been employed by morgados downplayed this violence. For example, when I interviewed Henrique Mendes Correia, who was raised in a morgado’s house, his daughter Crisálida Correia was there. When she prompted him to talk about worker beatings, he said, ‘O que passa, djá passa!’ (What has passed, has passed). Henrique Mendes Correia, interview with the author, Praia, Cape Verde, 4 October 2006. 19. Monteiro interview. 20. Henrique Mendes Correia interview; Amélia Sousa interview; Manuel Semedo Tavares interview. 21. Monteiro interview. 22. Manuel Semedo Tavares affirmed that before Carlos Serra arrived in 1947, all of the Portuguese morgados in Engenhos were absent landlords; Manuel Semedo Tavares interview. 23. Freire interview, 2 October 2006. 192 Notes

24. For example, all of my Engenhos interviewees mentioned Pepé’s arbitrary rule that renters had to dress in a suit jacket before they could enter the morgado’s house to pay their rent. Since the renters were too poor to own a jacket, Pepé had one that he would rent to them at the door so they could enter and pay their land rent. 25. Crisálida Correia interview. Henrique Mendes Correia (2006) recalls that most of the proprietors he knew in Santa Catarina were Cape Verdean. António Carreira (2000) writes that as early as the late seventeenth century, there were Black and mulatto proprietors on Santiago. Anjos (2002) links the dilution of the morgados’ authority in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to the social ascendance of non- White owners of small parcels of land. 26. Written accounts of the history of Maio Island are scarce, but see Almeida (2003) and Meintel (1984). 27. Arsenio Bettencourt, interview with the author, Maio Island, Cape Verde, 6 October 2006. 28. As an editorial in a major Cape Verdean newspaper stated: ‘When we couldn’t produce anything because of drought and multitudes of people died, the highest authority of command in these lands, instead of ordering foodstuffs for the people, ordered them to expand the cemeteries’ (Pinto 2006: 19). 29. I have pieced together the following summary of the interactions between the two men from an interview with Custódio (Porto, Portugal, 11 June 2006) and conversations with Tavares during my four- day stay on Maio Island, 6– 9 October 2006. 30. Herlandson Duarte, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 24 September 2006; Freire interview, 2 October 2006. 31. All quotes from Mãe Preta are my own English translations from the text posted online at http://esteteatro.home.sapo.pt, accessed 9 November 2007. 32. João Branco, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 1 August 2007. 33. Ney Tavares, interview with the author, Maio Island, Cape Verde, 8 October 2006. 34. Ney Tavares, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 16 September 2005. In 2004, Tavares performed in a sketch with a Maio Island theatre group for Festival Off. Branco usually invites the strongest theatre group from Festival Off to perform on the main stage the following year. 35. This exact line also appeared in the Mindelact 2005 program. A voiceover on Hulda Moreira’s (2005) documentary on Mindelact 2005 introduced the segment on Mãe Preta with a similar phrase. 36. Tambla Almeida, a Cape Verdean filmmaker and promoter of culture, told me that ‘Suffering Mother’ or ‘Mother of All of Us’ would have been bet- ter choices; Almeida, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 24 September 2006. 37. Ney Tavares, interview with the author, Maio Island, Cape Verde, 8 October 2006. 38. Nuno Pino Custódio, interview with the author, Porto, Portugal, 11 June 2006. Notes 193

39. Nuno Pino Custódio, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 18 September 2005. A year later, Custódio explained that Horta originally chose the title ‘on the level of instinct’ and he agreed to it because it cap- tured the spirit of the piece. He admitted that in Cape Verde, the title ‘black mother’ makes as little sense as a Portuguese play entitled ‘white mother’ would if it was performed in Portugal. Nuno Pino Custódio, interview with the author, Porto, Portugal, 11 June 2006. 40. Ney Tavares interview, 8 October 2006. 41. Albertina Tavares, interview with the author, Maio Island, Cape Verde, 7 October 2006. 42. Custódio interview, 11 June 2006. 43. Ibid. 44. Dany Santos, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 17 September 2005. 45. Duarte interview. 46. Albertina Tavares interview. 47. In her documentary about Mindelact 2005, Hulda Morreira (2005) observes that Mãe Preta ‘touched Cape Verdean mothers.’ In 2006, I asked a woman who regularly attended Mindelact to talk about the show from 2005 that she remembered most. The woman, who was a mother, said that it was Mãe Preta because it dealt with the anguish of losing a child. 48. In Portuguese: ‘A história verdadeira de uma mulher angolana que acreditava ser Santo António e que foi condenada a morrer queimada (como Joana D’Arc) pela Inquisição.’ 49. José Mena Abrantes and Anacleita Pereira, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 9 July 2009. 50. For example, Thornton (2011) notes that in oral accounts, the Kongo kingdom is presented as a loose confederation of migratory clans over which the Kongo king had limited powers, while written documents describe a highly centralized kingdom with a powerful ruler and firm administration. 51. Abrantes and Pereira interview. 52. In our interview, Abrantes told me that he did not know about Thornton’s book until the Elinga actors were already rehearsing his first draft of Kimpa Vita, which he had cobbled together from what he knew about the protagonist’s life from living in Angola, what he learned about her from the Internet, and his own imagination. After he discovered Thornton’s book, he decided to leave Kimpa Vita largely intact. He later wrote another play about her life, Tari- Yari: Miséricórdia e poder no reino do Congo no tempo de Kimpa Vita (1701– 1709) (Tari- Yari: Mercy and Power in the Kongo Kingdom in the Time of Kimpa Vita), which hews closely to Thornton’s narrative. However, the fact that Elinga chose to stage Kimpa Vita for FESTLIP 2009 suggests that the theatre company puts more stock in fantasy than in ‘official’ histories, even though it reserves the right to mix the two together freely. 53. I have pieced together this narrative of Kimpa Vita’s life from the following sources: Covington- Ward (2008), Slenes (2008), Thornton (1998), and Elinga’s lengthy pamphlet on the prophetess, which the company produced as part of the debut of Kimpa- Vita in Luanda. José Mena Abrantes generously gave me a copy. 194 Notes

54. In 1996, for example, the Angolan government organized a four- day conference about her legacy, which was sponsored by the EU and UNESCO— a clear signal that this once counter- culture prophetess has been appropriated by contemporary agents of government and economic power in Africa and abroad. See CICIBA (1996). 55. Bernard Dadié’s play about Kimpa Vita, Béatrice du Congo, also targets the early Portuguese settlers in Africa by using the thinly veiled pseudonym of ‘Bitandese’ for the Kongo kingdom’s adversaries. This allows the Ivorian playwright to explore the development of colonialism in the Kongo region over time, particularly because he collapses 200 years that begin with the fifteenth- century arrival of the Portuguese and end with Kimpa Vita’s life- time. See Conteh- Morgan (1994). 56. In Portuguese: ‘Comerciantes, militares, religiosos também são três em um. Esse ‘um’ é que precisa de sair daqui para fora.’ 57. The Portuguese were, however, the ones who introduced Christianity to the Kongo. In 1491, the Kongo king asked to be baptized after a few years of cautious contact with emissaries from the Portuguese king (Covington- Ward 2008). A period of intense Europeanization of the Kongolese elite followed, during which Kongo kings and queens typically adopted Portuguese names (sometimes the same ones as their counterparts in Portugal) and nobles wore Portuguese dress and, in some cases, studied in Lisbon. By the seventeenth century, Italian Capuchins were vying with Portugal for the control of Christian churches in Central Africa (Newitt 2010). By Kimpa Vita’s time, Kongo kings, including Dom Pedro IV, favored the Capuchins, even going so far as to banish Portuguese priests from their realms because of their distrust of Portugal and its expansionist tendencies (Thornton 1998). 58. Indeed, in Abrantes’s other play, Tari- Yari, the stage directions for Kimpa Vita exactly replicate the description of her movements as recorded in Thornton. During her first encounter with the Capuchin priest Padre Bernardo, for instance, Kimpa Vita circles him on tiptoes (Abrantes 2009: 66). 59. When I saw Kimpa Vita at FESTLIP 2009, I immediately thought of Bernard Shaw’s play Saint Joan because of its extensive scenes featuring the inquisitor and Church authorities debating Joan’s actions and teachings. When I mentioned this to Abrantes, however, he responded that he had never read Shaw’s play, despite the similarities between Joan and Kimpa Vita. Abrantes and Pereira interview. 60. Abrantes and Pereira interview. 61. This is another alteration of the historical record, which states that the Capuchin priests spared the life of Kimpa Vita’s child because of their mercy for its innocent soul (Thornton 1998). In Elinga’s production, Mafuta recounts that she cast a spell that caused both her and the child to vanish suddenly before they could be burned. The implications are that Mafuta’s powers as an indigenous healer were stronger than the Christian dogma that condemned her as a heretic. Abrantes and Pereira interview. 62. In Portuguese: ‘Vai chamar- se Jemmy . . . ou então Zumbi. Não consigo perceber muito bem.’ 63. The Stono Rebellion was in fact driven by enslaved Kongolese people. Their leader, Jemmy, attempted to lead them to Florida in warrior fashion (Thornton 1991; Wood 1974). Thornton’s book on the prophetess speculates Notes 195

that the Stono Rebellion ‘may have involved the working out of some of the issues raised by Dona Beatriz [Kimpa Vita]’ (1998: 2). Yet he stops short of positing a direct connection to the Antoniano religious movement that arose in the Kongo after Kimpa Vita’s death. 64. Abrantes and Pereira interview. 65. Ibid. 66. Abrantes told me a story about how the president of Angola learned about early Kongolese history through Elinga’s theatre. A few years back, a new oil well was discovered in the ocean off the coast of Angola. A government minister proposed that the new well be named ‘Kimpa Vita, after the great Kongolese queen.’ No one in the government cabinet noticed the inaccuracy in the proposal except the president, who had read about Kimpa Vita in the lengthy program Elinga had generated to accompany its theatre production. The president told the minister that Kimpa Vita was a priestess, not a queen. While Abrantes told me this story to illustrate the depths of many Angolans’ unawareness of early history in the region, it also illuminates the broad reach historical fantasy can have: Elinga’s fantastical version of Kimpa Vita’s life informed an actual government decision in Angola. Typically, this would only occur if the playwright or the theatre company is well connected. This is the case with Elinga; Abrantes has been the presidential press secretary since 1993. Abrantes and Pereira interview. 67. Abrantes and Pereira interview. In Portuguese: ‘isto também ajuda a quebrar mitos, relativamente às vezes conceitos cristalisados sobre identidade africana, Àfrica, e tradição.’

4 African Women on Festival Circuits

1. Raiz di Polon was awarded the FESTLIP prize because its active international touring schedule ‘projects’ Cape Verdean art throughout the world (A Semana 2011). 2. In many cases, such scholars are following the logic outlined in Chandra Mohanty’s now- classic essay, ‘Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses’ (1994 [1988]). 3. See also Amadiume (1987) for an analysis of the various gender signifiers in Igbo kinship structures. In a review of how African feminism has changed gender studies, Eileen Boris cites both Amadiume’s and Oyewùmí’s work as important paradigm shifters: ‘But if a gender studies with multiple genders sometimes risks its own version of essentialism, research on Africa serves as a corrective by grounding gender systems, identities, practices, and ideolo- gies in time and place’ (2007: 200). 4. For a counterargument, see Steady (2004), who advocates development- based research rather than theory- based scholarship, which, she argues, has little practical application. 5. Knowles (2004) provides a detailed explanation of how one of those plays, Sue Glover’s Bondagers, received vastly different critical responses depending on the venue in which it was performed. The play is about the struggles of female agricultural laborers in specific border areas of Scotland during the late nineteenth century. The Traverse Theatre company generated 196 Notes

pedagogical materials for schools that clearly suggested how the play was meant to be a feminist re- reading of Scotland’s labor history during that time period. That is indeed how theatre critics discussed it in newspaper reviews published in Glasgow shortly after the play debuted there in 1991. Yet when the production was transferred to the DuMaurier World Stage Festival, Knowles noted that ‘the work came to represent Scotland in ways that would have been unrecognizable in Glasgow or Edinburgh’ (2004: 182). One contributing factor was that the Canadian branch of the Scottish Studies Foundation sent members to the festival to work booths in the lobby that provided more information about Scottish culture in general. 6. The African tour was Raiz di Polon’s prize for winning a competition at the 5th African and Indian Ocean Choreographic Encounters in Madagascar in 2003. 7. At this writing, Sousa is also minister of culture for Cape Verde. 8. This connotation comes from the archaic Portuguese expression perder os três vinténs (losing the three coins). Alternatively, spectators might associate the title with the proverb não há duas sem três (there’s no two without three), which relates to the superstition that all bad things come in threes (Jeff Hessney, e- mail message to author, 1 March 2008). 9. Bety Fernandes, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 18 Sep- tember 2004. 10. Alkantara now organizes performing arts festivals. See ‘Alkantara,’ a ponte/ the bridge website, http://www.alkantara.pt/2010/alkantara.php (accessed 28 June 2012). 11. In Portuguese: ‘A mulher tem um lugar especial na cultura cabo- verdiana. Num país de emigrantes, são as mulheres que mantêm as tradições e asseguram a sobre- vivência e a continuação. O Batuque é um exemplo impressionante da força da contribuição da mulher africana à cultura do seu continente.’ 12. McClintock is working from Nairn (1977) and from the work of other critics, such as Homi Bhabha, who follow Nairn’s analysis of the nation as Janus- faced. 13. I am grateful to Jeff Hessney, the manager of and spokesperson for Raiz di Polon, who pointed this out to me after I had asked about Depputer’s text; Jeff Hessney, e- mail message to author, 1 March 2008. 14. The term ‘voluntary’ is questionable, however, since many of these waves of emigration are propelled by the need to find work abroad. 15. However, following Jørgen Carlson’s extensive research on Cape Verdean migration, Carter and Aulette (2009) maintain that men in Cape Verde still emigrate at a higher rate than women, as perhaps evidenced by the larger proportion of women on the islands. 16. For example, when musicologist Susan Hurley- Glowa (1997) began her ethnographic study of batuko music among women performers in Santiago Island’s interior, many told her, ‘So you want to learn about African music!’ (175). 17. The word badiu probably derives from the Portuguese word vadio (vagrant or vagabond). Colonial Portuguese officials used the term vadio to refer to any subjects who resisted forced labor in the archipelago or in mainland African colonies. Kesha Fikes notes that in the late eighteenth century, travelers and historians began applying a derivation of that word, badiu, specifically Notes 197

to Santiago islanders (2000; see also Pereira 1984). There were many slave revolts on Santiago, many of which were followed by mass exoduses to interior mountain regions, where whole communities of Santiaguenses lived in isolation from the White and mestiço populace. In the colonizers’ eyes, this made them ‘vagrants.’ The decision of these populations to sequester themselves from White settlers led to the popular perception that badius main- tained folklore traditions, religious practices, and a Crioulo language variant that were closer to their African roots than those of other Cape Verdeans that did not live in such isolation (Meintel 1984: 141– 42). 18. Badia is the female form of badiu. 19. Bety Fernandes’s narrative comes from our two interviews in Mindelo, on 17 September 2004, and 30 July 2007. I have translated the quoted passages from Crioulo to English. 20. All quotes from Sousa’s text are from Jeff Hessney’s English translation, which he sent to me in an e- mail message on 18 June 2005. Hessney’s explanations of the changes in music and dance genres in Duas Sem Três greatly helped me understand the piece. 21. Fernandes interview, 18 September 2004. 22. I found from my own experience living on the islands that few Catholic- identified Cape Verdeans attended church regularly. However, many still claimed to follow the tenets of the Catholic Church. The Catholicism practiced on Cape Verde is occasionally mixed with West African and Brazilian spiritual practices, in line with the deeply creolized nature of Cape Verdean culture. See ‘religion,’ the Cape Verde.com website, www. CapeVerde.com/religion.html (accessed 22 March 2013). 23. See Lucas Paoli Itaborahy, ‘ State- sponsored homophobia: a world survey of laws criminalising same- sex sexual acts between consenting adults,’ ILGA (The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association), old. ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2012.pdf (accessed 22 March 2013). 24. This information came to me through someone living on Santiago Island who wishes to remain anonymous. 25. See page 11 of ‘Cape Verde,’ a recent human rights report generated by the US Department of State, www.state.gov/documents/organization/160113. pdf (accessed 22 March 2013). An interesting recent development in Cape Verde was the 2012 founding of the Associação Gay Cabo- verdiana contra a Discriminação (Cape Verdean Gay Association against Discrimination), an NGO based in Mindelo and run mainly by gay, bisexual, and transgender- identified people in their 20s and 30s. The new group works closely with a more established NGO in Cape Verde called VerdeFam, which promotes sexual and reproductive rights on the islands. A representative from VerdeFam noted that some gays in Cape Verde have reported being the victims of street violence, even stone- throwing. See Susana Rendall Rocha, ‘Mindelo: Gays, lésbicas e simpatizantes em oficina de saúde sexual 12 Outubro 2012,’ A Semana Online, http://asemana.publ.cv/spip. php?article81023&ak=1 (accessed 22 March 2013). 26. The song, ‘Tina Blues,’ was Sousa’s original composition for the piece. In Portuguese, tina means ‘wash basin.’ 27. Bety Fernandes, interview with the author, Praia, Cape Verde, 30 July 2007. 198 Notes

28. When Jeff Hessney told me this story, he also mentioned that the dangling banana could represent a half moon (which has ties to female sexuality), a phallus, or any other number of things; e- mail message to the author, 17 June 2005. 29. Fernandes interview, 18 September 2004. 30. Ibid. 31. Bety Fernandes now supplements her work as a dancer with a job in the Praia municipal government’s department of youth; Jeff Hessney, e- mail message to the author, 2 December 2011. 32. Fernandes interview, 18 September 2004. 33. The anecdote about the London talkback and the information about the making of the wedding veil for the piece were provided by Jeff Hessney in e- mail messages to me on 1 March 2008, and 2 December 2011. 34. Evaristo Abreu, e- mail message to the author, 18 October 2011. 35. In Portuguese: ‘detalhe para os nomes dos homens, alusão à exploração externa sofrida por Moçambique.’ 36. Joana Fartaria, a Portuguese actress who lives in Mozambique and had seen the play in Maputo, told me that she did not think the allegory had translated well to audiences there either. The only FESTLIP participant who gave a different response to my informal inquiry about O Homem Ideal was Portuguese actor António Simão, who said the play was about ‘relações entre os continentes em paralelo com mulheres e homens’ (relations among continents in parallel with women and men). Simão thought the allegory was relatively easy to grasp and speculated that other FESTLIP participants might not have understood it because of lack of training in play analysis. 37. Evaristo Abreu, e- mail message to the author, 8 October 2011. 38. The political allegory in O Homem Ideal is doubly significant since historically, a Mozambican woman named Deolinda Guezimane was an early leader in the FRELIMO party and was later president of its women’s association, OMM (Organização da Mulher Moçambicana; Organization of Mozambican Women) (Sheldon 2002). 39. In Portuguese: ‘Estás a dizer- me que eu devo aceitar partilhar o mesmo homem, estás maluca, isso nunca vai acontecer.’ I am quoting from the unpublished play text, which author Evaristo Abreu generously shared with me. 40. For Lee and LiPuma (2004), this is an example of the ‘abstract violence’ perpetrated on African and Latin American economies that accompanied the shift from productive capital to speculative trade in recent decades (25), since international lending institutions demand that economically weak countries begin to privatize and open up their markets, even when they might not be ready for these steps. 41. In Portuguese: ‘endividada até ao pescoço.’ 42. In Portuguese: ‘ Ouvi-la! Quem não está comigo, está contra mim!’ 43. In Portuguese: ‘É estranho! Aquela família nunca manifestou grande interesse por esses, agora assim de repente, custa acreditar.’ 44. In Portuguese, the full line of dialogue reads: ‘Nada disso, isto não cheira bem, vocês querem me endividar para depois me cobrarem com juros.’ 45. The full history of Mozambique’s civil war (1977– 92) is too complex to go into here. For an analysis of how FRELIMO ultimately embraced neoliberalism in the 1980s, see Dinerman (2006). Notes 199

46. In Portuguese: ‘Vocês querem que eu venda o meu corpo?’ ‘Você mesmo é quem disse.’ 47. In Portuguese: ‘já reparaste que se ficares com um deles e tentares compreendê- lo, podes buscar o melhor e até conseguir que tenha as características que gostas em cada um deles?’ 48. In Portuguese: ‘a peça questiona se o atual mundo neoliberal com sua ganância desmedida e que submete milhões de pessoas a viver em condições sub- humanas seria o ideal.’ 49. Evaristo Abreu, e- mail message to the author, 8 October 2011. In Portuguese: ‘muita gente prefere não olhar para o aspecto metaforico da peça no sentido político, ou porque estão distraídas em relação ao que se passa no mundo, ou porque apenas preferem olhar para o que mais transparece.’

5 Adaptation and the (Trans)Nation

1. See Knowles (1995: esp. 35– 36); and Worthen (2003: esp. 165– 68). In an African context, perhaps no Shakespeare adaptation has invited this critique more than Welcome Msomi’s Zulu reworking of MacBeth, Macbeth/Umabatha, which features dancing, drumming, and various signifiers of rural witchcraft. See Distiller (2004) and McLuskie (1999). The production, which traveled to the Shakespeare’s Globe theatre in London in 1997 as part of the Globe- to- Globe Festival, also informs W. B. Worthen’s discussion of ‘Shakespearean Geographies’ in Shakespeare and the Force of Modern Performance (2003: see esp. 153– 55). 2. See Paulo de Medeiros’s (2006) critique of Santos. 3. For more about the concept of secondhand discourse, see Soares (2006). 4. António Augusto Barros, interview with the author, Coimbra, Portugal, 22 July 2005. 5. In his 1955 essay ‘Bases para uma cultura de Cabo Verde’ (‘Bases for a Cape Verdean Culture’), renowned Cape Verdean author António Aurélio Gonçalves (1998) writes that he delighted in reading Garrett and Queirós in school. He uses the affinity of Cape Verdean students with this genre of literature as evidence that whatever other influences Cape Verdean culture may evidence, it is ‘structurally Portuguese’ (124). In the 1960s, in addition to reading Portuguese drama in school, Cape Verdeans could attend performances of plays by the late- medieval playwright Gil Vicente (who is considered the father of Portuguese theatre and the Lusophone equivalent of Shakespeare) when touring Portuguese troupes staged his ‘discovery’ plays as part of the 500th anniversary of the arrival of the first Portuguese in Cape Verde. See the transcript of ‘Mário Matos no I Encontro de Agentes Teatrais,’ a speech Matos delivered at a roundtable discussion held during the Mindelact festival in September 1996 (document #170, Mindelact Documentation Center [CEDIT]). 6. From exam questions on one of the tests Branco administered to his class during the 2006– 7 session, document #1521, Mindelact Documentation Center (CEDIT). I observed Branco’s class several times while I was living in Mindelo and saw how often the class received handouts and instruction on various eras of Western theatre. To temper this European emphasis, I led a 200 Notes

class on African theatre one night and handed out a bibliography of plays from various African countries. 7. João Branco, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 21 March 2007. For Mindelact 2004, the theatre group Estrelas de Sul of Sal Island dramatized an inheritance dispute among Cape Verdean brothers in their main- stage show, Ka’ de Morte (House of Death/Mourning). 8. Branco interview, 21 March 2007. 9. See the chapter entitled ‘O texto teatral: Dramaturgia e temáticas do teatro caboverdiano’ in Branco’s Nação Teatro (2004: 303– 90). Branco has also been a dynamic force in publishing new Cape Verdean plays. The Mindelact Association has published anthologies of plays by notable Cape Verdean playwrights such as Mário Lúcio Sousa and Espírito Santos. 10. For a discussion of the function of a festival’s artistic director, see Cremona (2007) and Schoenmakers (2007). 11. Branco interview, 21 March 2007. 12. In Portuguese: ‘o crioulo que se ouve tem uma estrutura nas suas frases diferente daquela que ouvimos na nossa vida quotidiana, uma sonoridade diferente, uma poética mais acentuada.’ 13. The article cited here is also available as document #807 in the Mindelact Documentation Center (CEDIT). 14. Linguist Angela Bartens (2000) notes that the frequent mixture of Portuguese and Crioulo on the northern islands often stems from the ‘inability [of speakers] to distinguish between the two codes’ or their lack of motivation to do so (40). 15. Most of the Crioulo words that Cape Verdean linguist Dulce Almada Duarte (2003) identifies as having discernible African origins are badiu. She also maintains that as the basilectal creole form, badiu is more resistant to ‘con- tamination’ by Portuguese structures (133; see also 57– 60). 16. Many thanks to João Branco for telling me of Cunhal’s text. Interestingly, Álvaro Cunhal was also the former secretary general of the Portuguese Communist Party. 17. Quoted from the unpublished script for GTCCPM’s Rei Lear. Thanks to João Branco for sharing this script with me. 18. Herlandson Duarte told me this right after Sonho de uma noite de verão debuted. 19. Herlandson Duarte, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 29 August 2007. 20. Yet comparatively, gays and lesbians living in Mindelo generally experience less social ostracism than they do in Cape Verde’s capital city, Praia. See Chapter 4. 21. Herlandson Duarte, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 7 Sep- tember 2005. 22. Duarte interview, 29 August 2007. 23. All citations from the adaptation are from Solaris’s unpublished script, which the company shared with me. 24. These quotes are from an informal conversation I had with the Solaris actors in Mindelo in March 2007. After this exchange, Milanka Vera- Cruz, who played Titânia, added, ‘No, Christina, the court is the court.’ My impression Notes 201

was that she was worried that the other actors were oversimplifying the adaptation by suggesting one- to- one correspondences. 25. See Solaris, Sonho de uma noite de verão flyer, document #1120 at the Mindelact Documentation Center (CEDIT). 26. Herlandson Duarte told me an anecdote about Solaris’s summer 2007 production that seemed to illustrate the fact that some Mindelo spectators did finally stop attending Solaris’s shows. Their production, Putrefacto, featured the odor of putrid meat, horrific plastic fetuses dangling over spectators’ heads, and actors biting each other and violating dolls. Duarte recalls, ‘No one liked it. Everyone left in shocked silence. The president of Teatrakácia [another Mindelo theatre group] vowed never to see a Solaris show again.’ Duarte interview, 29 August 2007. 27. Ibid. 28. For example, as a Peace Corps volunteer on Sal Island, I co- led a student theatre group that wanted to perform at Mindelact. João Branco asked me to stage a performance during a weekend when he would be passing through Sal so that he could judge whether we were ready to perform at the festival. 29. Herlandson Duarte, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 7 Sep- tember 2005. 30. Herlandson Duarte, interview with the author, Mindelo, Cape Verde, 24 Sep- tember 2006. 31. This was the opinion of Josina Fortes (2007), the director of the Mindelo Cultural Center. 32. Solaris later traveled to Rio de Janeiro to perform Psycho for FESTLIP 2010. 33. For example, one of Portugal’s major international theatre festivals, FITEI (Festival Internacional de Teatro de Expressão Ibérica; International Theatre Festival for Iberian Expression), features Portuguese- and Spanish- language performances from the Iberian Peninsula, Latin America, Central America, and Africa. 34. Felix Bruno L. Carlos, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 15 August 2009. 35. Maite Agirre, e- mail interview with the author, 27 March 2012. 36. Agirre explained that she wanted to fuse the spirituality of Dulcinéia with the carnality of Teresa Panza (whose surname means ‘belly’ in Spanish) and that ‘Doltza’ is a Basque name that evokes various images of women for her. Ibid. 37. Carlos interview. 38. Agirre has said that she obsesses over themes when she discovers new ones; she prefers to go into great depth with one theme (such as Cervantes’s novel) instead of merely skimming over many themes like a butterfly in flight. See Agirre’s interview with Kutsemba Cartão (11 June 2010), ‘Nunca Deixei Moçambique . . . Entrevista com Maitre Agirre,’ http://kutsembacartao.wix. com/kutsemba#!entrevistas/vstc8= maite- agirre (accessed 20 July 2012). 39. Agirre interview. 40. Agirre generously provided me with a copy of her working script for Dulcinéia e o cavaleiro dos leões, which had handwritten notes on it that indicated some of the elements that were added during the rehearsal process. 202 Notes

41. My thanks to Leo Cabranes- Grant for suggesting this angle of analysis. 42. Carlos interview. 43. Agirre interview. 44. Ambrósio Joa, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 13 Sep- tember 2010. 45. In Mozambique, the aftermath of Dulcinéia e o cavaleiro dos leões continues in the shape of its informal publication by Kutsemba Cartão, a nonprofit organization that publishes a limited number of books, mainly new works of fiction, from recycled cardboard. Kutsemba Cartão is modeled after similar organizations in Latin America and counts on support from the Spanish Embassy in Maputo. See http://kutsembacartao.wix.com/ kutsemba#! (accessed 23 July 2012). 46. Earlier models for intercultural theatre provide evidence of this stance. For instance, Patrice Pavis’s (1992) ‘hourglass’ model for intercultural performance features a ‘source culture’ that sifts its grains of sand through various filters, eventually arriving at a new product, the intercultural performance staged for a ‘target culture.’ Yet even attempts to modify Pavis continue this focus on the intercultural product, including Gilbert and Lo’s (2002) toy- on- a- string model, which depicts intercultural interaction as a ‘centrifugal’ force but still denotes its manifestation as product, albeit in two distinct source cultures. Diane Daugherty (2005) proposes a model based on Rustom Bharucha’s description of intercultural performance as a swing of the pendulum between two cultural contexts. In this model, the weight suspended from a pendulum is akin to the product of an intercultural encounter, even as it swings between its two source cultures.

6 Toward a Conclusion

1. The letter applauded the Lula administration’s cultural policies, especially the fact that they evolved in a climate of open dialogue and debate. The letter- writers argued that this process had ceased with Buarque’s appoint- ment. One of the major issues was the fact that Buarque was blocking a reform of Brazil’s stringent copyright law, a process that was started under former minister of culture Gilberto Gil (2003– 8) and continued under Juca Ferreira, Buarque’s immediate predecessor. An English translation of the letter is available at ‘Letter to the Honorable President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff,’ http://www.vgrass.de/?p=791#more- 791 (accessed 5 July 2012). More recently, Ana Buarque declared that Internet piracy was killing Brazilian culture, a position many artists see as kowtowing to big industry and ignoring the ways that Internet accessibility helps fledgling artists gain a popular following (Dias 2012). 2. The theatre company Elinga has been a regular participant in Lusophone festivals (see Chapter 3) and other activities organized by Cena Lusófona. 3. Alvim Cossa, interview with the author, Maputo, Mozambique, 13 August 2009. 4. Ibid. 5. I have found that the clearest explanation of the three main components of TO (forum theatre, invisible theatre, and image theatre) is in the translator’s Notes 203

introduction to Boal’s book Games for Actors and Non- Actors (1992). For explanations of how Boal applied his methods to therapeutic and legal contexts, see his later works The Rainbow of Desire: The Boal Method of Theatre and Therapy (1995) and Legislative Theatre: Using Performance to Make Politics (1998), respectively. 6. Yet feminist TO practitioners concede that restricting ‘spect- acting’ opportunities to audience members whose racial and gender identity matches those of the skit’s protagonist is an equally conservative move. Fischer (1994) suggests instead that the ‘joker’ should make it a point to start a discussion afterward about how spect- actors performed roles, such as asking the audience: ‘Is this how an African- American woman might respond to this action? Is this how the women you know might act?’ (195). 7. Spry (1994) recommends that cultural animators temper these power imbalances with heightened transparency about their positionalities and their reasons for practicing TO in the communities where they work. 8. This is not to say that the ideas behind forum theatre came solely from Boal. As David George (1995) has noted, critical contributions to Boal’s thinking came from his early collaborators at the Teatro de Arena in São Paulo, José Renato and Gianfrancisco Guarnieri. Boal (2001) admits that his coringa (joker) system is simply a more extreme form of Bertolt Brecht’s Verfremdungseffekt. 9. The GTO theatre troupes formed in Lusophone African countries fall under the umbrella of CTO’s larger outreach project called Ponto a Ponto (Point to Point). See the featured articles about GTO- Bissau, GTO- Maputo, and GTO- Angola in Metaxis 6 (2010), a recent edition of CTO’s official journal. 10. Boal (1995) noted that the middle- class participants he encountered in workshops in Europe and North America suffered less from external oppression and more from psychological suffering (what he called ‘cops in the head’). As a result, their version of forum theatre became more like therapy. In recent years, TO’s presence in Africa has become more pro- nounced. Perhaps the most famous example is Burkina Faso’s Atelier- Théâtre Burkinabé (ATB), a theatre company that melds forum theatre with the West African genre of burlesque musical performance called koteba. ATB also hosts an international festival for Theatre for Development every two years in Ougadougou, the country’s capital (Morrison 1991; Plastow 2009). In addition, Senegal’s Kàddu Yaraax theatre company has hosted a Forum Theatre Festival in Dakar each year since 2005. 11. Because I lack access to concrete demographic data about FESTLIP audiences, I am speculating here about the racial identities of the Brazilian audience members based on admittedly problematic external signifiers such as phenotype and hair shape. This is especially problematic in Brazil, where categories of racial identification are blurred because of the country’s intensely mixed heritage. I speculate here merely to indicate the degree of misunderstanding that can arise when cross- racial and cross- cultural casting occurs in forum theatre. 12. While GTO- Bissau normally performs the play in Guinean Crioulo at home, the actors used Portuguese for the FESTLIP crowd. The Crioulo spoken in Guinea- Bissau is similar to that spoken in Cape Verde, a mix of archaic Portuguese and various West African languages. The play’s main title, 204 Notes

Nó Mama, is a Crioulo expression loosely meaning ‘we all suckle from the same breast.’ The play’s subtitle is in Portuguese. 13. José Carlos Lopes Correia, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 6 July 2009. 14. In the FESTLIP performances I saw, not all of the spect- actors were asked to give their names. 15. José Carlos Lopes Correia interview. 16. Ibid. 17. See Sharon Green’s (2001) discussion of forum theatre events at which participants were allowed to play the role of the ‘oppressor’ in a scene. This included an event at a Washington state high school, where a skinhead insisted on playing the role of a White racist. In that case, the student claimed that the racist was oppressed because he was criticized for exercising freedom of speech. 18. Tânia Pires, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 26 July 2010. 19. Edilta Silva, interview with the author, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 18 July 2010. References

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Note: references to illustrations appear in bold.

Abrantes, José Mena 88–90, audience 2–3, 7, 9–11, 23–5, 78, 92–5, 193n52, 194n58–61, 95–7, 99–100, 109, 127, 131–2, 195n66 138–9, 143–52, 167, 172, 177–9 Abreu, Evaristo xiii, 56–9, 117, 122, see also spectator 127, 153, 161–2, 185n21 authenticity 68n1, 69, 72, 82, 86, ACERT (Associação Cultural e 88, 134, 160 Recreativa de Tondela; Cultural cultural 83, 100 and Recreational Association of national 11, 32, 98, 100 Tondela) 51, 56–9 adaptation 49–50, 130–2, 135–49, badiu 48, 49, 104, 113, 141, 185n1, 153–62, 177 196–7n17, 197n18, 200n15 Adorno, Theodor 12 badiu fundu see under Crioulo Africa 10, 12–16, 34, 37, 40, Balade 41 51–3, 55, 61, 64, 98–100, Barber, Karin 25 108, 119–24, 126–7, 158–9, Barcellos, Senna 75 171–81 Barros, António Augusto 54, 135 arts festivals see under festivals Basque history 10, 37, 48–9, 52, 119, 134, country 131, 153, 156–61 158–9, 176 nationalism 156–61 notions of tradition 66, 83–5, 95, batuko see under dance 98–9, 102–3, 168, 171–6, 179 Bhabha, Homi 24, 84–5, 133, 183n5, Afro-Brazilian 60–1, 66, 94–5 196n12 aftermath 7, 12, 22, 25–6, 127, Black 11, 63, 83–5, 93–4, 113, 170–1 131–2, 152–3, 161–2, 166 Black Mother see Mãe Preta see also festival aftermath Boal, Augusto 29, 167–70, 172 Agerre Teatroa 152, 155, 157 Branco, João xiii, 1–2, 11, 44–7, 72, Agirre, Maite 153–61 82, 87, 131, 135–46, 150–2, 185n Angola 40, 53, 60, 68, 88–91, 94–6, 27, 187n23, 29, 191n7 176, 190n65 Brazil see also Kongo economy 18–19, 62–3, 95, 122 Anjos, José Carlos Gomes dos 135, global influence 19, 47, 53, 59, 184n8, 192n25 61–2, 64–6, 95, 122 Appadurai, Arjun 9, 21–2, 184n14 Ministry of Culture 19, 61, 59, Apter, Andrew 13, 15 63, 164 Arenas, Fernando 17, 38, 40, 60–2, race 37, 60–3, 66, 93–4, 128, 171 108–9, 185n3, 186–7n15 relationship to CPLP 19, 38, 42, articulation 6 60–4, 134 Associação Cultural e Recreativa relationship to Portuguese de Tondela (Cultural and colonialism 16–17, 36–7, 47, Recreational Association of 59–62, 65–6, 94 Tondela) see ACERT slavery 37, 60, 61, 90, 94

222 Index 223

Brecht, Bertolt 76, 84, 117, 203n8 colonialism 9–10, 16, 20–1, 36–7, Burkina Faso 14 40, 62, 78, 102, 108, 133 plays about 50, 77–8, 122, 158–9, Cabral, Amílcar 34, 54, 119, 158, 179 194n55 Cameroon 14 Commonwealth, the 18, 52, 134 Candomblé 66 Comunidade dos Países de Lingua Cape Verde 9–11, 18, 23, 44–9, 76, Portuguesa (Community 81–3, 86, 101–4, 108, 113–15, of Portuguese-Speaking 133, 135, 139 Countries) see CPLP history 10–11, 23, 49, 68–72, 74, Conquergood, Dwight 27–8 77–9, 81, 83, 102–3, 140 contemporary dance see under dance language 10–11, 35–6, 48–9, 101, Cooperação Portuguesa 45, 135 104, 133, 136–7, 141 Copacabana 65, 116, 173, 178 liberation movement 10, 34, 119 co-performer witnessing see under Ministry of Culture 14, 43, 136 ethnography postcolonial era 11–12, 119, Correia, José Carlos Lopes 132–3 174–5, 177 relationship to CPLP 40–1, 46 Cortiços 128 Capuchin priests 70, 89–93 Cossa, Alvim 58, 167–8 Carlos, Felix Bruno L. CPLP (Comunidade dos Países de (‘Mambuxo’) 153–5, 161 Lingua Portuguesa; Community Carreira, António 75, 77– 9, 83, of Portuguese-Speaking 191n13, 192 n25 Countries) 16–17, 19, 22, 38–42, Castañeda, Quetzil 29, 168–9 52–3, 61–3, 134–5 catchupa 81 Creole 11, 48, 141 CEDIT (Centro de Documentação e Creole Prophecy, The see Profisia di Investigação Teatral do Mindelo; Krioulo Theatre Documentation and creolization 32, 136–9 Research Center of Mindelo) see also adaptation 30, 44 Crioulo 11, 35, 48–9, 72, 81, 82, Cena Lusófona 41, 44–6, 54, 134–5, 101, 133, 136–49 165 badiu fundu 48, 49 Centro de Documentação e CTO (Centro de Teatro do Oprimido; Investigação Teatral do Mindelo Center for Theatre of the (Theatre Documentation and Oppressed) 170, 172 Research Center of Mindelo) cultural exchange see intercâmbio see CEDIT cultural sovereignty 23 Centro de Teatro do Oprimido Custódio, Nuno Pino 80–7, 143 (Center for Theatre of the Oppressed) see CTO Dakar 9, 13 Chembene, Dinis 50, 59 dança contemporânea see under dance Chissano, Joaquim 53 dance 101–16, 128, 177 circulation 3–4, 15, 40–2, 183n4 batuko 101, 102, 104, 110 civil war 10, 51, 52, 89, 93, 122 colá San Jon 111, 113 see also under Mozambique contemporary dance 101 class 25, 48, 107–8, 169–71, 183n1 dança contemporânea see Coimbra 41–2, 44 contemporary dance colá San Jon see under dance funaná 72, 101, 105–6, 108–10 Cole, Catherine 24–5 Diamond, Elin 76, 84 224 Index

Dias, Matilde 145, 147–8, 150 methodology 27–31, 105 Diaspora 9, 13, 28, 69, 94, 103 multi-sited 27, 28 Dom Quixote 154, 159–61 EU (European Union) 47, 53, 194n54 Dona Beatriz see Kimpa Vita eventification 25 Don Quixote 131, 153, 155–6, 157–8 see also Dulcinéia e o cavaleiro feminism 98–9, 116, 178–81 dos leões African 98–9, 112, 115–16, 118, Drewal, Margaret xiv, 28 126–7 drought 68, 70, 71, 79, 83 Ferguson, James 14 Duarte, Dulce Almada 48, 141–2, Fernandes, Bety 100–15, 112 184n6, 188n33, 200n15 Ferreira, Eunice 48–9, 114 Duarte, Herlandson (‘Kutch’) 31, 86, FESTAC (Festival of Black Arts and 131, 136–7, 144–6, 149–51 Culture) 13, 15 Duas Sem Três (Two without festival aftermath 7, 22, 26, 131–2, Three) 97, 100–16, 112 161, 166 Dulcinéia e o cavaleiro dos leões see also aftermath (Dulcinéia and the Knight of the Festival d’Agosto, the 3, 4, 18–19, Lions) 153–62, 155 30, 50–9, 153, 161–2 funding 14, 56, 58–9; see also East Timor 1–2 under festivals Economic Community of West history 50–1, 55–9 African States, the see ECOWAS Festival d’Avignon, the 3, 12 ECOWAS (the Economic Community Festival de Teatro da Língua of West African States) 13, 47 Portuguesa (Theatre Festival Edinburgh of the Portuguese Language) Festival Fringe 3 see FESTLIP Theatre Festival 3, 12, 130 Festival of Black Arts and Culture Edmondson, Laura 8, 23, 25, 28 see FESTAC Edwards, Brian xiv, 15 Festival Off 27, 43, 87, 152, 192n34 Elinga 68, 70–1, 88–95, 91, 165 festivals emigration 97, 99, 101, 102–3, funding 14–15, 19, 41, 43–6, 54–6, 113–14, 128 58–9, 63, 65, 136, 140, 164–5 see also migration in Africa 3, 10, 12–15, 25, 35, Engenhos 72–8 42–60 ensemble 8, 154–5 tabanca 2, 10–12, 34 Estação Teatral da Beira Interior theatre festivals 2–5, 7–10, 12–16, (Theatre Station of Interior 21, 24–6, 35, 41–3, 50–1, 60–67, Beira) see ESTE 69, 98, 130, 145, 164–5, 182; estações see stations see also under individual theatre ESTE (Estação Teatral da Beira Interior; festival names Theatre Station of Interior travel to 20, 41, 43, 45, 80, 153 Beira) 68, 80, 81, 82, 85 FESTLIP (Festival de Teatro da Língua Estevão, Manuel 44, 187n29 Portuguesa; Theatre Festival of ethnography 27–31, 105, 168–9 the Portuguese Language) 4, 6, co-performer witnessing 27–9, 19–21, 29, 60–7, 68, 88, 119, 171 30, 105 cancellation (2012) 164, 183n2 critical 30–1 funding 19, 59, 61, 63–5, 164; fieldwork 17, 21, 27–30, 32, 54, see also under festivals 105, 169 history 19, 63–5 Index 225

FestLuso 42, 98, 188n31 GTCCPM (Grupo de Teatro do Centro Fikes, Kesha 38, 113, 184n8, Cultural Português do Mindelo; 185n4, 196n17 Theatre Group of the Mindelo Fladu Fla 35 Portuguese Center) 136, 138, foreign policy 16, 41–2, 62–3, 122–3 139, 142, 145 forum theatre 67, 167–73, 177 GTO (Grupo Teatro do Oprimido; Foucault, Michel 70, 78, 79 Theatre of the Oppressed Group) Fragoso, Francisco 40, 185n22 GTO-Guinea-Bissau 171–2, 173, Francophone 15, 69 174, 177 Freire, Narciso 72–5, 78 Mozambique 167–8, 172 FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Guinea-Bissau 67, 134, 171, 177, Moçambique; Liberation Front 179, 181 of Mozambique) 52, 119–20, Gungu 54, 178 122–3 Frente de Libertação de Moçambique Hall, Stuart 6 (Liberation Front of Hauptfleisch, Temple 5, 25–6 Mozambique) see FRELIMO Hessney, Jeff 196n13, 197n20, Freyre, Gilberto 16, 36–8, 65, 66 198n28 see also lusotropicalism history Fumo, Yolanda 117, 123 colonial 5, 69, 76, 78, 79–80, 87 funaná see under dance historical fantasy 69–70, 83, FUNARTE (Fundação Nacional de 88–90, 93–5 Artes; National Foundation of the historical imagination 68, 70, 85, Arts) 65, 164 87, 94 Fundação Nacional de Artes official record 69–71, 73, 77, 88–9, (National Foundation of the Arts) 93, 176, 193n52 see FUNARTE oral tradition 70–1, 73–4, 77–82, 89–90, 176 gender 97–100, 102, 104, 108, 117, homosexuality 8n3, 108, 109, 119–20, 127, 179 115, 146 machismo 107 see also under women machista 108, 178, 180 hooks, bell 84, 100 see also women Horta, Sandra 80–1, 84–5, 85 Ghana 15, 24, 62 Glissant, Edouard 145, 151 IATM (International Anti-Corruption global casting calls 20 Theatre Movement) 55–6 globalization 7–8, 13–14, 99, Ideal Man, The see O Homem Ideal 117–18, 123, 125, 184n14 IMF (International Monetary Fund) Goulart, João 61 10, 13–14, 114, 117, 121, 122–3, Grahamstown Arts Festival, 125–6 the 14–15, 130 imperialism 16, 36, 54, 133, 159 Grupo de Teatro do Centro Cultural Instituto Camões 39, 45, 80 Português do Mindelo (Theatre intercâmbio 4, 38, 45, 54, 64 Group of the Mindelo Portuguese intercultural 16, 56–7, 80, 119, Center) see GTCCPM 131–4, 151, 154, 159, 161–2, 181 Grupo Elinga Teatro (Elinga Theatre International Anti-Corruption Theatre Group) see Elinga Movement see IATM Grupo Teatro do Oprimido (Theatre of International Monetary Fund the Oppressed Group) see GTO see IMF 226 Index international theatre festivals 2, 4, Lusophone 1–2, 9, 16–21, 36, 8–9, 21–2, 25–6, 35–6, 42, 50–1, 38–42, 45–6, 53–4, 63–6, 94, 67–9, 128, 145 134–5, 177 invisible ethnography 169, 171, 174 colonial histories 9, 16–17, 36–9, invisible theatre 29, 168–9 71, 83, 89–90, 133, 171 culture 16–17, 19, 45–6, 172 Jemmy 93–4 postcolonialism 40, 49, 91, 133, Johnson, E. Patrick 83, 85 151, 168, 179 Jorge, Isabel 55, 58, 123, 126, speaking 6–7, 16–17, 38, 42, 60, 185n21 63–5, 140 José, Dadivo 50 lusotropicalism 16–17, 36–8, 52, 60

Kikongo 24 Machel, Samora 119, 158, 160 Kimpa Vita: A profetisa ardente Madalena project 177, 181 (Kimpa Vita: The Burning Madison, D. Soyini 30–1 Prophetess) 88, 90–6, 91 Mãe Preta (Black Mother) 71, 79–88, Kimpa Vita (Dona Beatriz) 68, 70, 85, 96, 166 88, 90–4 Maio, island of 79–80, 83, 87 King Lear see Rei Lear Mandela, Nelson 52 Knowles, Ric 4, 5, 6, 8, 69, 99, 130, Manjate, Rogério 58 195n5 Maputo 50–1, 54–5, 58, 121, 153–4, Kongo, the 60, 70, 89–93, 95 158 see also Angola March, Theatre Month 44 Março, Mês do Teatro see March, labor Theatre Month exploitation 20, 70, 74 Marcus, George 27, 28 roles 99–100, 111–14, 119–20, Maria—Childbearers’ Ritual see 124, 178 Maria—Ritual das parideiras work 74, 83, 99, 103, 111–14, 120, Maria—Ritual das parideiras (Maria— 124, 149 Childbearers’ Ritual) 177–81 see also under women Martins, José Rui 56 La Francophonie 134, 186 n6 Massuir, Bernard 3–4, 56 Lampreia, Luis Filipe 61, 62 M’Bêu 55–9, 97, 116–17, 123, 128 Lee, Benjamin 13, 15 memory 25, 68–9, 71, 76, 79, 109 lesbianism see homosexuality under Mendes, Gilberto 54, 178–9 women meta-theatre 5, 89, 150 Let’s Unite! Fruits of the Same Midsummer Night’s Dream, A Tree see Nó mama! Frutos da see Sonho de uma noite de verão mesma árvore migration 9, 11, 41, 97, 102–3, LiPuma, Edward 13, 15 118, 128 Lisbon 38–40, 185n4 see also emigration Luarte 50, 153–5, 155, 159–61 mimesis 73, 75, 76, 84 Luís Lopes Sequeira, or the Wondrous Mindelact Mulatto see Sequeira, Luís Lopes Association 11, 30, 44, 46, 138, ou o Mulato dos Prodígios 140, 147 Lula see Silva, Luis Inácio ‘Lula’ da Festival (1995–6) 43–4 lusofonia 6–7, 16–22, 35–6, 38–40, funding 14, 18, 43–6, 136; see also 42, 44–7, 50–6, 60–1, 63–5, 134, under festivals 153, 171–2, 177, 182 history 43–5, 150–2 Index 227

International Theatre Festival OAU (Organization of African (1997–) 1–2, 4, 10–12, 16–18, Unity) 13 23, 43–50, 72, 76, 132, 135–6, Oficina de Teatro e Comunicação 147 de Assomada (The Assomada selection process 43, 132, 136, Theatre and Communication 150–1 Collective) see OTACA travel to see under festivals O Homem Ideal (The Ideal Man) Mindelo 2, 46, 49, 76, 78, 90, 97–9, 116–28, 123 104, 109, 113, 136, 138–9, Oliveira, Daniel de 20 146–7, 151 OMCV (Organização das Mulheres Mindelo Cultural Center (CCM) do Cabo Verde; Organization of 1, 27, 43 Cape Verdean Women) 101 modern dance see dança oral tradition see history contemporânea Organização das Mulheres do Cabo Monteiro, Alvarino 74, 78 Verde (Organization of Cape Moorman, Marissa 23 Verdean Women) see OMCV morgados 71–2, 74–8, 75, 77–8 Organization of African Unity see see also under Santiago OAU morna 71 Os Fidalgos 41–2 Mota, Luci 118 OTACA (Oficina de Teatro e motherhood see under women Comunicação de Assomada; Mozambique 18–19, 51–5, 97, The Assomada Theatre and 99, 116–22, 124–5, 153, Communication Collective) 28, 158–9, 168 68, 71–9, 77 civil war 10, 51, 52, 122 ousadia 145, 148 economy 59, 97, 122–5, 188n40 Oyewùmí, Oyèrónké 99, 118 liberation movement 10, 52, 119, 157–8, 160 PAICV (Partido Africano da postcolonial era 119, 132 Independência de Cabo relationship to CPLP 19, 52–3, 134 Verde; African Party for Mudjer Trabadjadera (Working the Independence of Cape Woman) 80–2, 87 Verde) 11, 23 Mutumbela Gogo 54, 56, 65 Palmares, Zumbi dos 93–4 PANAFEST 14, 15 national Pan-Africanism 13, 51, 158 boundaries 9, 21, 69 Partido Africano da Independência collaborative nationalism 23 de Cabo Verde (African Party culture 3, 11, 23, 25, 34, 99, 158 for the Independence of Cape identity 2, 23, 25, 36, 48–50, Verde) see PAICV 66, 134 past, the see history nationalism 157–60 Pavis, Patrice 137, 139, 143, 202n46 Negro Arts Festival 13 Pereira, Anacleta 95, 118 Newitt, Malyn 52, 60, 94, 123, performers 5–7, 9, 20–1, 23, 25, 31, 194n57 36, 48, 68–71, 97–8, 152, 165, Nigeria 13, 61, 62 167, 182 Nó mama! Frutos da mesma árvore Petrobras 61, 95 (Let’s Unite! Fruits of the Same Pires, Tânia xii, 59–66, 94, 164, 181 Tree) 173–7, 173 polygyny 101, 121 Nyerere, Julius 126 popular culture 23, 25, 26, 109 228 Index

Porto 84 Santo Antão, island of 44, 113 Portugal 10, 17, 37–42, 45, 47, 53–4, Santos, Boaventura de Sousa 133–4 61, 63, 74, 79, 84, 92, 109, 133–4 São Tomé 62, 102 Portuguese language see Lusophone São Vicente, island of 10–11, 49, postcolonial 40, 49, 88, 92, 133–5, 104, 109, 113, 141 144–5, 156, 159–60 Sassen, Saskia 117, 125–6, 184n14 Praia 27, 44, 100–1 Sauter, Willmar 5, 8, 21, 25 Preto, Mano 100 Schoenmakers, Henri 5, 20–1, Profisia di Krioulo (The Creole 24, 128 Prophecy) 35–6 Sequeira, Luís Lopes 89 Proprietor’s Land, The see Tchom di Sequeira, Luís Lopes ou o Mulato dos Morgado Prodígios (Luís Lopes Sequeira, Psycho 118, 152 or the Wondrous Mulatto) 45, 89–90 race 11, 16, 37, 66, 77–8, 83, 85, 128 sexuality see under women see also under Brazil Shakespeare 49–50, 130–52 racism 16, 37, 42, 60, 63, 170 see also under individual play titles Raiz di Polon 97–8, 100–11, 112, Silva, Edilta 175, 180–1 113, 115–16 Silva, Luis Inácio ‘Lula’ da 62, Ramonda 2, 10, 12 94–5, 119 re-Africanization 11, 104 slavery 18, 48–9, 60, 74, 77, 93, recasting 7–9, 12, 43–45, 162, 165 102, 150 audience perceptions 100, 120 slave trade see slavery history 68–69, 71, 74, 85, 89 Soares, Fonseca 140–1, 142 Rei Lear: Nhô Rei já bá cabeça (King social imaginaries 35–6, 41–2, 47, Lear: The King’s Head Has 66, 67, 181 Gone) 131, 134, 136–44, 142 Soeiro, Manuela 54, 57, 59 RENAMO (Resistência Nacional Solaris 118, 144, 145–52, 148 Moçambicana; Mozambican Sonho de uma noite de verão National Resistance) 52, 122 (A Midsummer Night’s Resistência Nacional Moçambicana Dream) 131, 137, 144–52, 148 (Mozambican National Sousa, Amélia 74–6 Resistance) see RENAMO Sousa, Edimilson 73–6, 77, 190n1 Revolta d’Rubom Manel 72 Sousa, Mário Lúcio 101, 106 Richards, Sandra xiv, 71 South Africa 15, 51–2, 125 Rio de Janeiro 19, 29, 60, 128, Southern African Development 190n72 Community see SADC Rokem, Freddie 73 spectator 2, 10–11, 20–1, 23–5, Rubom Manel 72, 76 76, 78, 100, 109, 127–8, 132, 138–9, 143–4, 149, 151, 167–9, SADC (Southern African Development 172–82 Community) 19, 51–3, 55, 124 see also audience Salazar, António de Oliveira 16–17, 37 stations 41, 44–5, 46, 54 Santa Catarina 72, 74, 78 subjugated knowledge 70, 79, 80 Santiago, island of 11, 48–9, 78, 103–4, 109 Tabanca see under festivals history 49, 70, 72–3, 78–9 Tabanca Tradiçon 2, 10–11, 23, 24 land rights 71–2, 74, 76, 78 TALU Produções 60, 164 morgado system 71–2, 74, 77–8 Tavares, Albertina 83, 86 Index 229

Tavares, António 108 UCCLA (União das Cidades Capitais Tavares, Matilde 71, 82–3, 85 Luso-Afro-Américo-Asiáticas; Tavares, Ney 80–3, 86, 87–8 Union of Luso-Afro-American- Tchom di Morgado (The Proprietor’s Asiatic Capital Cities) 38, Land) 68, 71–9, 77 46, 140 Teatro Livre 47–8 União das Cidades Capitais Luso- theatre festivals see festivals Afro–Américo-Asiáticas (Union Theatre for Development 55, of Luso-Afro-American-Asiatic 203n10 Capital Cities) see UCCLA Theatre of the Oppressed see TO theatre troupes 4, 12, 20, 41–4, Vaz, Nilda 48, 73 49, 56, 68, 132, 136 Venus Hottentot, the (Sarah amateur 22, 43, 47, 50, 56, 66, Bartmann) 84 190n1 professional 22, 47, 56, 66 West Africa 10, 11, 48, 60, 108 see also under individual women troupe names as nation 98, 100, 102, 119 Thornton, John 70, 89, 90, 92, bodies 84, 105–10, 125–6, 177–8, 93, 193n50, 194n63 180–1 Timas, Rosy 103, 105–8, global economy 102, 117–18, 123, 110–13, 112 125–6 timbila 158 homosexuality 108–9, 115–16, TO (Theatre of the Oppressed) 145–6 168–72, 177 labor 83, 98–100, 107–8, 111–14, see also Augusto Boal; forum 119–20, 124–5 theatre; GTO motherhood 83–6, 99, 101, translation 133, 137, 139, 141, 177–81 143, 149 oppression 113, 118, 177–8 see also adaptation prostitution 99, 124–6 transnationalism 9–12, 16–22, sexual exploitation 37, 124–6, 128 45–6, 49–51, 55–56, 165 sexuality 84, 100–1, 108, 116, 117, minor 21 121, 198n28 Trigo Limpo 51, 56–9 work see labor see also ACERT Working Woman see Mudjer Trottino Clowns 3, 56 Trabadjadera truth see authenticity World Bank 13–14, 117, 119, 121–6 Two without Three see Duas Sem Três Zeleza, Paul 126