POSITIVISM and LITHUANIAN PROSE (The Second Half of the 19Th Century)

VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY

Giedrius Židonis

POSITIVISM AND LITHUANIAN PROSE (The second half of the 19th Century)

Summary of Doctoral Dissertation Humanities, Philology (04 H)

Kaunas, 2009 This doctoral dissertation was prepared at the Vytautas Magnus University from 1999 to 2008. The dissertation will be defended according to the protocol for external doctorates.

Academic Consultant: Prof. Dr. Irena Buckley (Vytautas Magnus University, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

The Dissertation will be defended before the Council of Philological Sciences of Vytautas Magnus University:

Chairperson: Prof. Dr. Danguolė Mikulėnienė (Vytautas Magnus University, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

Members: Prof. Habil. Dr. Egidijus Aleksandravičius (Vytautas Magnus University, Humanities, History – 05 H)

Doc. Dr. Dainora Abukevičienė-Pociūtė (Vilnius University, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

Doc. Dr. Indrė Žakevičienė (Vytautas Magnus University, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

Doc. Dr. Rūta Brūzgienė (The Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

Oponents: Prof. Habil. Dr. Virginija Šlekienė-Balsevičiūtė (Vilnius Pedagogical University, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

Doc. Dr. Džiuljeta Maskuliūnienė (Siauliai University, Humanities, Philology – 04 H)

The dissertation will be defended at a public meeting of the Council of Philological Sciences, in the Marija Gimbutienė hall (room 211) of Vytautas Magnus University Faculty of Humanities at 11 a. m. on February 13, 2009. Address: K. Donelaičio 52, LT–44244 Kaunas, Lithuania

The summary of the doctoral dissertation was sent out on January 12, 2009. Those interested may acquaint themselves with the doctoral dissertation at the Lithuanian National Martynas Mažvydas library and at the libraries of Vytautas Magnus University and the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore.

VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS

Giedrius Židonis

POZITYVIZMAS IR LIETUVIŲ PROZA (XIX amžiaus antroji pusė)

Daktaro disertacijos santrauka Humanitariniai mokslai, filologija (04 H)

Kaunas, 2009 Disertacija rengta 1999–2008 metais Vytauto Didžiojo universitete. Disertacija ginama eksternu.

Mokslinis konsultantas: prof. dr. Irena Buckley (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

Disertacija ginama Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Humanitarinių mokslų krypties taryboje:

Pirmininkas: prof. dr. Danguolė Mikulėnienė (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

Nariai: prof. habil. dr. Egidijus Aleksandravičius (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

doc. dr. Dainora Abukevičienė-Pociūtė (Vilniaus universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

doc. dr. Indrė Žakevičienė (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

doc. dr. Rūta Brūzgienė (Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

Oponentai: prof. habil. dr. Virginija Šlekienė-Balsevičiūtė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

doc. dr. Džiuljeta Maskuliūnienė (Šiaulių universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H)

Disertacija bus ginama viešame Humanitarinių mokslų krypties tarybos posėdyje 2009 m. vasario 13 d. 11 val. Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Humanitarinių moklsų fakultete, Marijos Gimbutienės auditorijoje (211 kab.). Adresas: K. Donelaičio g. 52, LT–44244 Kaunas, Lietuva

Disertacijos santrauka išsiuntinėta 2009 m. sausio 12 d. Disertaciją galima peržiūrėti Lietuvos nacionalinėje Martyno Mažvydo bibliotekoje, taip pat Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto ir Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto bibliotekose.

INTRODUCTION

The Urgency of the Problem. Positivism is a philosophical system and a worldview which defined almost the entire middle and end of the nineteenth century in the spiritual and cultural life of Western Europe. It reached Lithuania through Russian and Polish universities where Lithuanian students were studying. This worldview had already been interpreted and modified to fit local conditions, so it was not difficult to adjust to the cultural conditions of Lithuania, especially from the Polish interpretation. However, while in Poland positivist concepts, which had been introduced by Auguste Comte, and popularised by Herbert Spencer and his other followers, were being were being analysed and discussed among the intelligentsia, and while separate positivist schools were being created, in Lithuania, positivism was realised not in philosophical writings, but indirectly in publicistic writings, in fictional literature and its criticism, and in popular science. The active political positivist slogan in Czarist Russia “work for the people / the homeland” (or for “the homeland / the people”) was not entwined in academic interpretation, but interpreted in the more narrow practical sense, and crystallised as what was called “practical” (or “everyday”) positivism. The attention of the cultural worker was first directed to national literature and the creation of theatres, so the field of philosophy, or at least the question of philosophical interpretation was somewhat neglected. Lithuanian Positivism, not having a philosophic foundation and maturing sporadically without any firm guidance, often (especially between the wars) gave rise to the dilemma of the concept of other, both when speaking about separate authors, and in general about Lithuanian positivism. In post-war Lithuania, positivism was interpreted as a liberal bourgeois philosophy, so its analysis was pushed to the fringes of cultural studies. Because of these aforementioned conditions, which were not conducive to the study of positivism, the term positivism was not used, unless as a reference, or as part of a broader category. Even today, there have been no separate studies or monographs published, which were dedicated to Lithuanian positivism. This dissertation will attempt to fill that gap in the study of Lithuanian literature. This dissertation will attempt to present the foundations of the positivist philosophy and worldview. It will also attempt to show the spread of Lithuanian positivism in the context of the dominant positivism of Russia and Poland, and to thoroughly examine the exploration and interpretation of positivism in the mind of

5 Lithuanian fictional literary criticism. This study raises the question as to whether one can in general speak of the adoption of certain models of literature from didactic literature to positivist literature. Aside from discussing different time periods and different literary styles of the nineteenth century (the beginning of Lithuanian didactic literature, while the Lithuanian Cultural Renaissance was still in its embryonic stage; the maturation of didactic literature and the beginning of the Lithuanian Cultural Renaissance; and positivist literature as well as Lithuania's Cultural Renaissance in full force) this work also discusses the pieces having the characteristics of the positivist literature written during the prohibition of the press. The work will also attempt to explain what positivist personalities were significant during the second half of the nineteenth century, and to what professional and social groups these people belonged, along with reconstructing their aesthetic positivist program. The Exploration of the Problem. There have been many references by various literary critics to positivism, or more specifically, to the effects of positivism on the Lithuanian writers during the second half of the nineteenth century, but most of these have been only brief mentions. The term Positivism began being used more widely with Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas,1 after beginning the discussion (especially during the inter- war period) about the influence of Polish writers on Vincas Kudirka. The positivist worldview, until today, has been mostly associated with the social activism of Kudirka, and with his publicistic writings. Other writers are only mentioned episodically. It would be necessary to note Janina Žėkaitė's monograph “Šatrijos Ragana” (The Witch of Shatria)2, as an exception, where the author speaks of the connection between the writer, who was a “most passionate defender of positivism,” and the utilitarian ethics of her fictional works. Several more theoretical works for the analysis of positivist aesthetics appeared in the third and fourth decades of the twentieth century: Juozas Eretas's article Hippolyte Taine's ‘Philosophy of Art’ in the magazine, Logos3, Julijonas Lindė-Dobilas's polemic

1 Tumas-Vaižgantas Juozas [Doc. J. Tumas], „Vincas Kudirka – Vincas Kapsas“ // Varpas (Vinco Kudirkos jubilėjinis numeris), 1924, lapkritis, p. 3–44. 2 Žėkaitė Janina, Šatrijos Ragana, Vilnius: Vaga, 1984. 3 Eretas Juozas [Dr. J. Eretas], „Hippolyte’o Taine’o ‘Meno Filosofija’“ // Logos, 1929, Nr. 1, Kaunas, p. 17–56.

6 study “Has Taine Grown Old?”4 as well as published translations in to the Lithuanian language of Hippolyte Taine's Philosophy of Art5. More attention was given to the beginning of the spread of positivism in Lithuania (Juozas Lebionka6; Bronius Genzelis7; Leonas Mulevičius8; and Jerzy Ochmański9), and there were attempts to distinguish separate positivist groups of writers (Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas10; Juozas Girdzijauskas11; and Jerzy Ochmański12). The only broader discussion of the question of positivism in Lithuania was Algimantas Radzevičius's13 polemic reaction to the accurate and concise description of positivism in Vytautas Vanagas's study14 on realism in Lithuanian literature. Until now there has not been even one thorough study of the question of positivism in Lithuanian literature. This dissertation will seek to thoroughly analyse and categorise individual statements and insights about the positivist aesthetic worldview, as well as to examine in depth an aspect of the Lithuanian literature of the second half of the nineteenth century, that until now has not been properly analysed – the positivist worldview. The Research Object, Objective and Tasks, Methodology. While an extensive positivist life philosophy was never fully formulated, it would be possible to construct one based on the statements and ideas found throughout the publicistic writings of literary and cultural workers, critical works, sociological works, and in the case of this analysis – works of fictional literature. The purpose and aims of this study are to determine whether one can speak of the adoption of literary models from didactic literature, and to find elements and tendencies of positivism in Lithuanian literature, as well as to restore the positivist aesthetic program, which would help answer the

4 Lindė-Dobilas Julijonas [J. Dobilas], Ar paseno Tėnas? (Jo „Meno filosofijos“ kritika), „Dirvos“ B-vės Spaustuvė Mariampolėje, 1927. 5 Taine Hippolyte, Meno filosofija, Kaunas: Švietimo m-jos knygų leidimo komisija, 1938–1940. 6 Lebionka Juozas, Vincas Kudirka (ideologijos ir kūrybos bruožai), Disertacija filologijos mokslų kandidato laipsniui įgyti, Vilnius, 1959. 7 Genzelis Bronius, „Pozityvizmas“ // Bronius Genzelis, Lietuvos filosofijos istorijos bruožai, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 1997, p. 139–144. 8 Mulevičius Leonas, „Nacionalinio judėjimo socialinė-ekonominė ir politinė programa“ // Lietuvių nacionalinio išsivadavimo judėjimas: (ligi 1904 metų), Vilnius: Mokslas, 1987, p. 171–216. 9 Ochmański Jerzy, Litewski ruch narodowo-kulturalny w XIX wieku (Prace Białostockiego towarzystwa naukowego, Nr. 5), Białystok / Warszawa: Państwowe wydawnictwo naukowe, 1965. 10 Mykolaitis-Putinas Vincas, Naujoji lietuvių literatūra, I tomas, Kaunas: Humanitarinių mokslų fakulteto leidinys, 1936. 11 Girdzijauskas Juozas, „Vyskupas Motiejus Valančius tautos gyvenime ir kultūroje“ // Motiejus Valančius. Raštai, I tomas, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2001, p. XV–XVI. 12 Ochmański Jerzy, ten pat. 13 Radzevičius Algimantas, Literatūros kryptis, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1990. 14 Vanagas Vytautas, Realizmas lietuvių literatūroje, Vilnius: Vaga, 1978.

7 question as to whether it is actually possible to speak of Lithuanian positivist literature as a separate category / time period, or whether one can only speak of literature having some of the traits usually characteristic of positivist literature. The object of this work is fictional literature, published in separate volumes and publications or in the press, which appeared during the middle of the nineteenth century, and the beginning of its second half, which was the end of the didactic epoch in Lithuanian literature, and at the beginning of the 20th century, by which time utilitarian literary critique was already in style (“art for art's sake”). The writings of Mikalojus Akelaitis also fall into this dissertation's field of study, even though this author represents an earlier era (closer to the beginning of Lithuania's didactic prose epoch), since traces of the positivist worldview can be found in his works. This dissertation will examine the foundations of positivist philosophy, as well as the spread and development of positivism in Lithuania's neighbouring countries, Russia and Poland, and the possible influences they may have had on each other. More attention is given to the expression and connectios between the triumvirate of periodical publications, Varpas (The Bell, 1889–1905), Ūkininkas (The Farmer, 1890–1905) and Tėvynės Sargas (The Homeland Guard, 1896–1904), as the epicentre of the positivist epoch. The fictional literature published in these periodical publications, as well as their “calendar literature” sections, any supplementary sections, and separate publications, are analysed in terms of their positivist worldview. Somewhat less attention is given to poetry which is “not thankful to the positivist mindset,” and to translated literature, in which the positivist worldview is only vaguely present, and which did not have a greater influence on the further development of the positivist aesthetic in Lithuanian literature. The greatest difficulty in writing this dissertation has been the vast quantities of materials needing to be systemised, and the complete lack of thorough general studies, which examine the connections between Lithuanian fictional literature, and positivist ideas. Another problem is the lack of translation of (founder of positivism) Comte's works into other languages for those literary analysts unable to read French. Paradoxically, in Poland, where positivism grew into a societal worldview and became an inseparable part of cultural history in the second half of the nineteenth century, the first, and, it would seem, the only translation into the Polish language of Comte's Discours sur l’esprit positif (A General View of Positivism) into the Polish language (Rozprawa o duchu filozofji pozytywnej) was as late as 1936. One of the reasons for this

8 lack of translation into the Polish language was that at that time, high class Polish society spoke French quite well, and estate-owners in Lithuania studied it as well. Only one lecture of the Cours de philosophie positive (Course in Positivist Philosophy) was translated into Lithuanian. Not only translators, but Comte's followers and analysts of positivism as well, often complained about the difficulty of Comte's style and his long, complicated paragraphs. As Ernest Renan's well-known aphorism goes, Comte, in many places repeated with poor style, what Descartes, d'Alambert and Laplace had already said eloquently. Perhaps this is partly because some of Comte's English translations are described as “freely translated” or “condensed.” There is also no methodology which more clearly evaluates the relationship between literature and philosophy. One can, however, speak of causal, typological connections between philosophy and literature, the analysis of which would allow one to draw parallels between literature, and the societal processes of an epoch. Scientific Novelty of the Research. This dissertation about the spread of positivism in the prose from the end of the nineteenth century is the first of its kind done in Lithuanian literary analysis. The work uses the research of Lithuanian and foreign literary analysts, as well as the author's own collected materials. The commentaries, critical analyses, hypotheses and conclusions are the author's own work. This study could be important to the study of Lithuanian literature and cultural history, as a new and authentic view of the Lithuanian literature of the second half of the nineteenth century. The Structure of this Dissertation. This dissertation is comprised of an introduction, three parts, a conclusion, and various appendices (source and literature lists). The first part discusses the foundational postulates of the positivist philosophy and aesthetic, and introduces the early positivist philosophical doctrine, such as that of Comte) as well as the principles of the use of positivist methodology in the study of the humanities (Taine). The second part discusses the spread of positivism, and its interpretation in Poland, Russia, and Lithuania. The third part devotes equal attention to: a) analysing the possibility of the adoption of literary models from didactic literature b) discussing the personalities of positivist literature, and their professional / social groups, and reconstructing the aesthetic positivist program of these literary characters.

9 I. POSITIVIST PHILOSOPHY AND AESTHETICS

The term “positivism” denotes a great portion of the cultural and spiritual life of nineteenth century Europe. The positivist worldview, which evolved from Auguste Comte's philosophical doctrine at the beginning of the century represented a living and progressive trend in societal thought. This philosophical system was especially appropriate for the spirit of the century – dynamic, full of technological progress, intensive economic and cultural development, and intensified intercontinental communication. The positivist philosophy was applied to the dynamic development in Europe, and continued to spread throughout the century, unlike other modernist philosophical trends, never completely showing its full potential and undergoing various stages. The term “positivism” and the positivist philosophical system were created by the French philosopher and sociologist, Comte. For the first time in the history of philosophy, he analysed the human mind “not with logical or epistemological methodology, but from a historical point of view.”15 Comte, a scientist who specialised in mathematics, physics and astronomy, first publicised his positivist philosophical foundations in 1826. In 1842, he finished his important six volume work, Cours de philosophie positive (A Course in Positivist Philosophy). Later, Comte added to his philosophical legacy with his studies; Systeme de politique positive (The Positivist system of Politics) and Systeme de logique positive (The Positivist System of Logic). In these works he developed the positivist philosophical methods and ideas, demanding scholastic and social reform based on the natural sciences, and advocating the creation of a method that would allow people to become further acquainted with positivist knowledge. How then, according to the positivists, is society changing, and how does it need to change? Because one of the primary characteristics of societal expression, according to Comte, is the growth and development of individuals and all of society, people, having seen the implausibility of their metaphysical images, must reject them, and “[...] take it upon themselves to build real human relationships, whose essence is no longer self-serving, nor is it serving an idea, but true respect for another person as one respects ones self. A universal love for all of humanity should evolve from these

15 Laskienė Skaistė, „Ogiustas Kontas – sociologijos tėvas“ // Socialiniai mokslai. Sociologija, 1997, Nr. 1 (10), Kaunas: Technologija, p. 15.

10 relationships.”16 This love of humanity and mutual respect must form a new foundation for religion. The positivist philosophy rejects Christian morality as anarchistic individualism, because it directs a person's primary focus towards personal salvation. Comte often replaces the word “God” with the word “Humanity,” which he always spells with a capital letter. Humanity is “the only true great Being,” and positivism is “the religion of Humanity.” As man was once a slave to God, he must become a servant of Humanity. Only Humanity itself, and not the individual human being, is a “real being.”17 A positivist exists only among Humanity and only for Humanity, and his principal moral teaching is altruism, which is to serve others. Positivism also assigns woman with an especially important role in society; just as the idea of God is replaced with that of Humanity, he idea of Guardian Angel is replaced by that of woman. She represents the sentimental impulses of humanity in a positivist society, and her purpose is the global triumph of the positivist spirit.18 Literary historian, Art critic, and humanitarian methodologist, Hippolyte Taine applied the positivist methodology to the sphere of the humanities. His best known work is the five volume Philosophie de l’Art (The philosophy of Art), which is comprised of lectures given by the author between 1865 and 1869, in a higher school of Fine Art19. How does a work of art come to be? First of all, the artist's environment (climate, living conditions, political atmosphere, etc.) makes an impression on him or her. When this “moral temperature” changes, so do the genres of talent, and their numbers. Also, the artist's background (all of his or her natural and inherited desires and passions form a separate force) is significant. Lastly, the moment itself (the situation which serves as a catalyst for the artist to express his or her impressions of the environment, along with his or her natural passions and background) creates a work. Therefore “a nation's character is nothing other than the sum of all of its actions and all of what it has lived through, the sum which increases with each century, and when combined, form a great treasure, and with that formulate visible dominant qualities.”20 What is the highest ideal

16 Ozolas Romualdas, „Pozityvistai: kalbėti reikia tik apie tai, kas tikra“ // Romualdas Ozolas, Pasakojimai apie filosofus ir filosofiją, Vilnius: Vyturys, 1988, p. 155. 17 Girnius Juozas, „Žmogus be dievo“ // Raštai, t. II, Vilnius: Mintis, 1994, p. 131. 18 Kołakowski Leszek, Folozofia pozytywistyczna (Od Hume’o do Koła Wiedeńskiego), Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1966, s. 74. 19 Gaižutis Algirdas, „I. Tenas – meno kūrybos tyrėjas“ // Problemos, 1981, Nr. 26, p. 68. 20 Eretas Juozas [Dr. J. Eretas], „Hippolyte’o Taine’o ‘Meno Filosofija’“ // Logos, 1929, Nr. 1, Kaunas, p. 33.

11 of Art that one should strive for? The character portrayed should be strong (the character must be consistent, that is to say, resistant to destructive action) and is useful to others (love makes the character useful to others, beginning with love for the character's family members, and ending with patriotic love). In literature there are three levels of character strength, the third of which is most valued. This level is that of true warriors and heroes. The second level is that of those who are powerful, but have weaknesses. They lack balance, and can therefore not fully express their positive characteristics. Those at the lowest level are the realistic, and those taken from comical theatre. They are egotistical and foolish. “The more philanthropic the character (more useful to others – G. Ž.) and the more useful, the higher their place, and the higher they bring the work of Art in which they appear.”21 Classical positivism, if we look at it as the spiritual expression of that epoch, leaves the boundaries of the philosophical term “positivism” far behind. Many philosophers have questioned the statement that “positivist philosophy is an intellectual movement marked by relative inner unity.”22 The educated society of the nineteenth century understood it in exactly this way. They understood it broadly, as a worldview, encompassing various spheres of life. Naturally, its influence on art and literature was equally great. The act of encouraging artists to experience life from the perspective of their own background alone was positivist. This worldview, in requiring the artist to be objective, to reject a priori judgements about the world, and orienting itself towards realistic portrayals, in inviting artists to create “useful” works, formed its own literature.

II. THE SPREAD OF POSITIVISM

Positivism in Russia and Poland

The first mentions of positivist philosophy in the Russian press appeared from 1845 to 1847, however the true “golden age” (albeit a short one), was from 1865 to 1866, when the original works of Piotr Lavrov, Michail Bakunin, and Vladimir Lesevič were published. Somewhat later, in 1874, Vladimir Solovjov published his dissertation “The Crisis in Western Philosophy (against Positivism)” (Кризис западной

21 Eretas Juozas, ten pat, p. 39. 22 Nekrašas Evaldas, „Pozityvizmo samprata“ // Seminarai 2001, Vilnius, 2002, p. 16.

12 философии. Против позитивистов) which he had defended at the University of St. Petersburg. Other works by Lesevič were also published that year. To Russian literary experts, Positivism was the first methodology (also known as the historical-philological or cultural-historical school) which helped form the foundation for literary analysis. “The main value of this methodology is the ability to systemise historical-literary facts.”23 The greatest influence of positivism was felt in literary analysis in the eighth decade of the nineteenth century, precisely when academic schools had their greatest influence on literary criticism, and strengthened the position of realism in literature. The theme of “Positivism and Russian writers” has received little attention, and those who have written about it have mostly been philosophers exploring the worldview of great Russian writers and their relationships with positivism. Only themes like “Positivism and Dostoevsky,” “Positivism and Tolstoy” and “Positivism and Chekhov” have been studied more extensively. Some literary analysts suggested studying the positivist ideas and undertones of writers who were less well-known, since positivism is “more noticeable in weaker artistic works, or works which are almost entirely devoid of artistic value, where the authors were not able to artistically conceptualise reality.”24 During, and after, the post-war period, positivism had become “unpopular” and works analysing positivist aesthetics would appear only rarely. Only during the 1990's, at the very end of the twentieth century, did people once again begin intensive study and interpretation of positivism and its legacy in literature. Positivism in Russian literature, is, as it is in Lithuanian literature, merely at the doorstep of discovery, and much work lies still to be done in this field. Positivist ideas in Russia began in the accredited universities, where there were many Lithuanians studying. The greatest number of students from Lithuania were studying at the University of Moscow; some years there were over three hundred students.25 In the middle of the 1860's, students from the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania according to the principle of territory, began forming gmins, which were united under the organisation Ogól. There were 171 students from Lithuania belonging

23 Olaszek Barbara, Dymitr Pisariew: wokół problemów pozytywizmu w Rosji, Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, 1997, s. 14. 24 Olaszek Barbara, „Przejawy pozytywistycznej wizji świata w literaturze rosyjskiej XIX wieku“ // Idee pozytywizmu w piśmiennictwie rosyjskim: materiały międzynarodowej konferencji naukowej (Łódź, 18– 19 września 2000 r.), Łódź: Uniwersytet Łódźki, Katedra literatury i kultury Rosyjskiej, 2000, s. 52. 25 Tyla Antanas, „Lietuvių Alma Mater Maskvoje“ // Mokslas ir gyvenimas, 1974, Nr. 6, p. 37.

13 to three of these organisations. It is interesting to note that the organisation contained monarchic, aristocratic, democratic and republican factions, which in turn were divided into the Catholic and atheist schools of positivist philosophy.26 Almost immediately before the 1863 rebellion a group was formed by Jonas Koncevičius, which progressed from self-education (which was the main function of earlier such groups) to the preparation of independent books for publication. Already at the beginning of the seventh decade, the “still forming manifestations of positivism”27 amongst the student body, which were destroyed after 1863 and expanded their organisational activity at the end of the nineteenth century, were focussed on the outside. The new liberal-minded generation of academics, who were influenced by the newly developed ideas in the natural and social sciences, and who had received a European education, had a great effect on students. The materialist trend in universities was represented by “notable academics, such as Jakov Borzenkov, Filip Fortunatov, Aleksandr Stoletov, Kliment Timiriazev, Dmitrij Zernov, who used their lectures to encourage students to take up positivist activities.”28 Jonas Šliūpas, Motiejus Lozoraitis, Antanas Kriščiukaitis-Aišbė, Petras Leonas and Gabrielius Landsbergis-Žemkalnis studied (or audited) law at Moscow's university. Likewise, Juozas Bagdonas, Jonas Basanavičius, Motiejus Čepas, Jonas Jablonskis, Kazys Grinius, Jonas Kriaučiūnas, Pranas Mašiotas, Petras Matulaitis, Stasys Matulaitis, Vincas Pietaris, Juozas Rūgys, Marcelinas Šikšnys, Liudas Vaineikis and other Lithuanian cultural actors studied in Moscow during the second half of the nineteenth century. There were many Lithuanian students who studied at the institutes of higher learning in St. Petersburg as well, such as Andrius Bulota, Jonas Šliūpas, Pranas Vaičaitis, Jonas Vileišis, Povilas Višinskis and several others. These students were influenced by the atmosphere of practical activism, as well as the university environment itself, which was created by professors with democratic views. The influence of the positivist methodology (also known as the historical – philological or cultural-historical school of thought) is especially evident in the works of Šliūpas. Not only was he influenced by positivism, but he himself was influential in the works of another student of the Russian universities at the end of the nineteenth

26 Aleksandravičius Egidijus, Kultūrinis sąjūdis Lietuvoje 1831–1863 metais: organizaciniai kultūros ugdymo aspektai, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1989, p. 81. 27 Mikšytė Regina, Antanas Baranauskas, Vilnius: Vaga, 1993, p. 144. 28 Vidmantas Edvardas, „Lietuvių studentų nelegalių organizacijų kūrimasis ir veikla Maskvoje 1862– 1882 m.“ // Lietuvos TSR Mokslų akademijos darbai, A serija, t. 2 (83), Vilnius: Mintis, 1983, p. 72.

14 century – Basanavičius. Positivist methodology is best represented in the study of Lithuanian literature by a professor of the older generation, Mykolas Biržiška. He too received his education in the University of Moscow, where he studied law, and attended lectures on literature, history and linguistics. Even the younger generation of scholars, such as Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas and Balys Sruoga, having studied in St. Petersburg and Moscow in the third decade of the twentieth century, were influenced by the cultural-historical school of thought, which was still dominant at that time. The ideas of positivism reached Poland by the middle of the nineteenth century, and became especially popular after the 1863 uprising. Positivism spread most rapidly between 1868 and 1873, and continued to spread until 1881, when economic crisis and social conflict weakened the position of this worldview. Some authors claim that the end of the positivist era was between 1890 and 1895, after the beginning of a new literary movement, called Młoda Polska (Young Poland), or even in 1905, which is indicative of the coexistence of these two streams. Positivism was well suited to pre-revolutionary Poland, because it tended to rely more on organic growth, rather than revolutionary changes. The “optimistic philosophy about the limitless progress of the bourgeois, based on the belief in a magical blessing bestowed by the industrial revolution”29 appealed to the intelligentsia. It also appealed to wealth-seeking strata of society, because according to the positivist ideology, even those who are seeking to make themselves rich strengthen society as an organic unit. Because Polish positivists, unlike the Romantics, already held a negative view of the nation's “unfortunate” past, and were furthermore under Czarism not allowed to proclaim any political slogans or aims, they placed all their hope in science, higher learning, and economic progress. A nation's worth was measured by its contribution to economic and cultural development, so the primary duty of a citizen was to develop industry and trade, and to foster education. Ideals of “organic work” and “foundation- building” were promoted. These concepts, if put into practice, would sustain the harmonious interaction between the constituent parts of society as a whole. Believing that intellectual knowledge fosters the moral development of the common people, positivists formed literacy programs and worked to popularise academic pursuit. In their literature, they tended to portray not the nobility and the

29 Czesław Miłosz, Lenkų literatūros istorija, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 1996, p. 313.

15 aristocracy, but the lives of common people and the new middle class, with the intention that the characters fates should not appear to be dependent on blind coincidence, because they believed that any sense of fate could destroy the readers belief in themselves. For all intents and purposes, Polish positivist literature was written by one generation, or more specifically, those born between 1839 and 1850; Adolf Dygasiński, Eliza Orzeszkowa, Maria Konopnicka, Władysław Łoziński, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Bolesław Prus, Piotr Chmielowski, Wiktor Gomulicki, Aleksander Swiętochowski, Julian Ochorowicz, Antoni Sygietyński, etc. Sometimes a second generation is mentioned, but this later generation of positivists did not create as expressive and dynamic a program as that of their predecessors.30 These positivists are best represented by Maria Rodziewiczówna. The majority of positivists studied at Szkola Główna, which means literally “head school” or “main school” and referred to Warsaw's university after it reopened in 1862 (it had been closed after the 1830 rebellion), until 1869, when the Czarist government closed it and transformed it into a Russophone university. Before 1830, it had been known as The Royal University of Warsaw, and when the Russians took over its administration in 1869, they renamed it The Imperial University of Warsaw. In 1888, the society Lietuva (Lithuania) was founded in Warsaw, whose program was based on positivist ideology. Its core was mostly comprised of students; Juozas Bagdonas (who transferred to The University of Moscow in 1889), Jonas Byla, Jonas Gaidys-Gaidamavičius, Jonas Kasakaitis, Juozas Kaukas, Alfonsas Moravskis, Jonas Seniūnas, Baltrus Vabalas, Jonas Staugaitis and Vincas Kudirka were at the forefront (as well as Juozas Radziukynas, Stasys Riauba, and Juozas Adomaitis-Šernas who were not students). Because of all this, to Russian scholars positivism was seen first of all as a theory of knowledge, or perhaps even more accurately a methodology for analysing and studying knowledge, but to Polish scholars, positivism was seen as a worldview, a branch of culture, and the name of a literary epoch.

30 Bachórz Józef, Pozytywizm, Warszawa: Stentor, 2000, s. 8–9.

16 Positivism in Lithuania: Debates and Reflections

Throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, the Lithuanian movement, surrounded by larger countries, was left “alone” – neither Lithuania, nor the other countries were favourably disposed to one another. The Russian government, which was prohibiting Lithuanian press and persecuting even the slightest stir of independent movement, and the intrusive Polish culture, which was weakening the Lithuanian language through schools, estates, and the church, compelled the Lithuanian nation to take action relying on their own strength, while supplementing their inner resources by borrowing cultural elements from other cultures, which were well-suited to a country awakening and being awoken. Because the process of national rebirth started later in Lithuania, her people looked to other nations for examples to set the standard for social activity. Poland, which had hitherto been considered an ideological enemy, became this sought-after example, from which much could be learned. Poland's cultural reformers struggled with outside forces – those of Russification and Germanification, but they also had their own cultural traditions, which allowed them to model and propagate their cultural rebirth from their own resources. Better conditions for a worldview inspired by positivism to appear in Poland had arisen much earlier; a greater internal cultural potency, more opportunity to translate and publish works published by foreign authors in other languages, and a more favourable public life. By the time it reached Lithuania, the positivist ideology was at its height in Poland. Polish ideas of positivism affected Lithuanians who were living or studying abroad in two ways; directly (in Poland itself, in Warsaw, at the Warsaw university) and indirectly (through Russia's liberal society, through the translated works of Polish positivists, and through publicistic writings). There were other circumstances as well, which directed Lithuanian cultural actors towards Polish positivism, such as the dominant tradition amongst the nobility to look towards Warsaw, which was consciously and unconsciously imitated by the members of the intelligentsia who had been raised in the country. Suvalkija, the territory from which the wave of the national movement began, and where its primary power was concentrated, formed a common administrative unit with the portion of Poland that belonged to Russia. This unit was known as the Warsaw District. This connection facilitated the flow of ideas from Poland

17 to Lithuania. The Lithuanian nation was already accustomed to adopting ideas from its neighbours. Nevertheless, this view of Lithuanian positivism was unpopular for a long time, because it “once again” acknowledged the Polish precedence, and their continued influence on Lithuanian tradition. Already in the earliest works of Lithuanian literary criticism which mention the spread of positivism in Poland and its influence on Lithuania, positivism arises as a dilemma of ownership. These articles (written by Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas, Adomas Dambrauskas-Jakštas), which were written in the third decade of the twentieth century, try to deny the Polish influence on Vincas Kudirka, sometimes at the expense of Polish positivism (Pranas Mašiotas, Julijonas Lindė-Dobilas, Zigmantas Kuzmickis). There were other critics who did not feel this “national complex” (such as Juozas Brazaitis / Ambrazevičius and Albinas Iešmanta), and the number of such critics increased in the century's fourth decade as well (with literary critics such as Petras Juodelis and Antanas Vaičiulaitis). However, the tendency to understate the importance of Polish positivists continued (such as in the articles of Juozas Lazauskas. At the end of the last decade the influence of Polish positivism on Lithuanian literary and cultural life at the end of the nineteenth century is acknowledged without any great doubts. The statement written by Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas in The New Lithuanian Literature (volume I) that “today we accurately describe Vincas Kudirka as a student of Polish positivism”31 also helped to establish this view. Only Kazys Grinius remained faithful to the idea that Kudirka could hardly be called a positivist. After the war, positivism was interpreted as a liberal bourgeois philosophy, and the study of its role in nineteenth century Lithuanian literature was placed to the side. As it was between the first and second World Wars, positivism is usually mentioned in reference to Kudirka and Varpas (a Lithuanian literary publication at the turn of the century). The influence of the 1870's positivism on nineteenth century Lithuanian literature is once again beginning to go undoubted, and such an understanding is continuously strengthening. Kudirka has been said to be nurtured by positivism (by Aldona Vaitiekūnienė), a positivist ideologue (by Rimantas Vėbra), have raised some relevant

31 Mykolaitis-Putinas Vincas, Naujoji lietuvių literatūra, I tomas, Kaunas: Humanitarinių mokslų fakulteto leidinys, 1936, p. 68.

18 questions on positivism (by Regina Mikšytė), and to have had the work of Polish positivists before his eyes as an example (by Marijus Jonaitis). A new term, national positivism, is used by Irena Slavinskaitė and Aleksandras Merkelis to describe Kudirka's entry into Lithuanian literature. To Vytautas Kavolis, positivism was most importantly a “program of action,” so his writings on Kudirka's ties to Polish writers placed emphasis on the “specific methods for social action” that Kudirka had learned in Warsaw, and was later able to utilise in his work on the Varpas. Very little has been said about any relationship between the positivist ideology and Lithuanian literature and culture, and is usually only mentioned briefly. Julius Būtėnas refers to Jonas Staugaitis and Petras Kriaučiūnas as positivists. Positivism is also mentioned in describing the person of Vincas Pietaris (by Viktoras Katilius, Gediminas Ilgūnas, Juozas Ambrazevičius / Brazaitis, and Vytautas Vanagas). Literologists have also noticed the influence of positivist ideologies on the worldview and writings of Šatrijos Ragana. This influence was explained first and most thoroughly by Janina Žėkaitė. In various works, she also mentions the influence of positivism on Gabrielė Petkevičaitei-Bite, Žemaitė, Lazdynų Pelėda, Antanas Vilkutaits, Petras Vileišis, Liudvika Malinauskaite-Eglė, Juozas Andziulaitis-Kalnėnas, Ksaveras Sakalauskas-Vanagėlis, Jonas Mačys-Kėkštas, Stasys Matulaitis, Pranas Vaičaitis as well as others Lithuanian writers. To the concise and accurate definition of positivism put forth by Vanagas in his study on realism in Lithuanian literature, Algimantas Radzevičius reacted with polemics. In the preface to his book Literatūros kryptis (Directions of Literature), he warns the reader that he consciously did not avoid categorical formulations and one- sided arguments because he wanted to encourage conflicting opinions, which would, in the long run, help to distinguish and spread the truth. That was the only general discussion on the question of positivism in Lithuania. More attention has been given to the influence of positivism and its beginnings in Lithuania (Juozas Lebionka, Bronius Genzelis, Leonas Mulevičius, Jerzy Ochmański). Effort has been made to distinguish between separate groups of positivist writers (Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas, Juozas Girdzijauskas, Jerzy Ochmański).

19 III. POSITIVISM IN LITHUANIAN PROSE (During the Prohibition of the Press)

During the nineteenth century independent literary derivatives were able to crystallise in Lithuanian prose: Juozapas Rupeika's translation of Jan Chodźka's work Jonas from Swisloczies in 1823 began the didactic literary era, and Motiejus Valančius's short story Palanga's Juzė in 1869 ended it. In 1889 the beginnings of positivist literature could be found in the Varpas. These two nineteenth century branches of literature were inspired by somewhat different social, cultural and political ideas; the one was inspired by the teachings of the Enlightenment, and the other by positivist philosophies and by what is probably the most important sociocultural event in Lithuanian history – Lithuania's cultural rebirth. This section of the dissertation will attempt to clarify to what degree didactic and positivist literature, influenced by the same cultural events, are similar, and to what degree they differ in the formation of their literary models, as well as what elements the positivist worldview had inherited from didactic literature. The section will also try to determine to which of these branches the works of Mikalojus Akelaitis are, as they seem to be between the Enlightenment and positivism. This raises the question of whether it is possible to speak of the inheritiance of literary models at all. Therefore, works have been chosen for analysis and comparison that are from separate time periods, and separate schools of literature; Representing the beginnings of Lithuanian didactic literature, while the cultural renewal was still in its embryonic stage, is Rupeika's translation to Lithuanian of Jonas isz Swisłoczies krominikas wędrawois,32 representing the maturation of didactic literature and the beginnings of the cultural renewal is Akelaitis's work, Kwestorius po Lietuwa ważinedamas żmonis bemokinąsis,33 (The Almscollector Travelling Through Lithuania and Teaching People) and representing positivist literature and the cultural renewal at its peak, is an unfinished

32 Chodźka Jan, Jonas isz Swisłoczies krominikas wędrawois lietuwiszku lieźuwiu iszgulditas kasztu yr storony par Jozapa Rupeyka, kanaunika Plocka, klebona Szaduwos, źenklinika S. Onos. Vilniuje Pri baźniczes S. Kazimiera 1823 metuosie. Perspausdinta kn.: Lietuvių didaktinė proza, Vilnius: Vaga, 1982, p. 23–166. 33 Akelaitis Mikalojus, Kwestorius po Lietuwa ważinedamas żmonis bemokinąsis, Wilniuja, Spaustuweja A. H. Kirkora, 1860.

20 short story by Jonas Gaidys-Gaidamavičius, called Antanas Valys, which was published in some of the earliest issues of the literary publication, Varpas.34 At first glance the Lithuanian literature at the end nineteenth century appears somewhat fragmented, so much so that even if a new school of literature were to develop, it would not be able to expand. It would seem that cultural continuity had disappeared somewhere, and new cultural elements, because of the lack of communication at that time, often only spread among people who knew each other, and circulated throughout closed circles. Nevertheless, a cultural nucleus did exist, a common ground for communication, whose paradigms of meaning were hidden in the depths of the text, and the elements of these paradigms are not always easy to observe. This system of cultural meanings could be identified in several ways; either through a common worldview model, or through more or less consistent symbols, imagery, and literary models. Reconstructed, or purified, their structures show the same symbols, repertoire of literary models, and system for combining them, which allows one to draw general conclusions. Cultural continuity is recognisable not only on a general cultural level, but in the situations that represent their respective literary philosophies. “Conversion,” the self- presentation of the “good” character, the understanding of the purpose of study and work are all important evaluation criteria in the community. Generational conflict, the modernising Church, woman as a liberator, and dynamic mobility are all categories that help describe the literary models of the end of the nineteenth century.

Conversion for the Nation The “conversion of society” paradigm was new to Lithuanian literature. The didactic personality lives a calm, unidirectional life, and his decision to dispense various knowledge and impart advice is a decision he has come to within himself, as the time has not yet come for infectious spirit or motivational driving forces. This can also be seen in the works Jonas From Swiloczie and Kvestorius (The Almscollector). Such a driving force is possible in didactic literature, however, it is expected to come only from a divine source, and yet the results of this teacher's moralising influence are limited to the everyday. It is an external, forced decision, not one that is experienced from within.

34 Gaidys-Gaidamavičius Jonas [Apysaka parasze Jonas G...ys], „Antanas Valys“ // Varpas, 1889, Nr. 1, p. 2–3; Nr. 2, p. 19–20; Nr. 3, p. 34–36; Nr. 4, p. 51–53; Nr. 5, p. 66–67; Nr. 6, p. 84–85; Nr. 7, p. 100– 101; Nr. 8, p. 114–115; Nr. 9, p. 130–132; Nr. 10, p. 147–148; Nr. 11, p. 163–164; Nr. 12, p. 178–179.

21 The Converted Positivist Conversion situations are very common in the literature of that time. Conversion was very important to writers (both as representatives of their era, and as creators of utilitarian literature) – it was almost a point of reference, a turning point, after which a different quality of personal and societal life begins. The new life is a more conscious one. This line separates two epochs; the life until, which is lived for oneself (and sometimes for one's fellow villagers, as in the example of almscollecting) and the life after, for all of the society (or sometimes even all of humanity) as well as for oneself. One can compare the conversion situation to the search for happiness that is common in literature (climbing a mountain to reach the happiness-bestowing lantern, searching for a beam of star-light, building a bell-tower, etc.). The path to conversion, and the search for happiness are personal, but having converted, or found happiness, the perspective becomes that of society as a whole. The character is concerned not only with himself, but with others as well. Perhaps even more with others than with himself. The conversion can be of one person, a few people, or the whole village, but the rewards of this conversion will be felt not only by the “converted.” In this way, the traditional understanding of society is replaced by a modern one. Chain of conversion paradigms in fictional literature: object (a book, the press, a statue, an evening-party, etc.) or he(she) → he (she)

Second Fruits of Conversion As the nation was being reborn, many educated people were attracted by the positivist ideas about serving the homeland and they were encouraged to form societies and circles, and in this way spread this new worldview to the different factions of society. However, it was quickly noticed that hearts which are “aflame” often cool down very quickly, and people's jobs, their families, life in other countries, and persecutions reduced the number of like-minded individuals. The movement then began to seek them out in order to encourage and empower them. The “Reheated” Positivist This was done with the aid of fictional literature. Through it, many of these “cooled down” hearts were once again won for Lithuania. This journey along the path of truth was often supplemented with good advice, meaningful conversations, visits to the graves of national heroes, letters written by friends, and inner contemplation.

22 It was equally important to the authors to show people turning away from the needs of their country, as it was to show their moments of return. It is interesting that although these people have various motivations for their falling away and subsequent return, they are almost always men. Perhaps women are of stronger moral character, and do not fall away? It would seem so. The “second conversion” paradigm is not expanded on any more than that in nineteenth century Lithuanian literature, and can be given only the following formula: he (she, they) → he

A Sense of Community: Young Characters Chodźka's and Akelaitis's characters are people who have reached old age, have accumulated wisdom over the course of their long lives, and are now able to share that wisdom with others. Gaidys-Gaidamavičius's character, Valys, is a student who is studying in St. Petersburg and has now returned home for the holidays. At times he is still a didactic character (he teaches the villagers to irrigate their fields and scolds a peasant for speaking Polish) but his didactic role is not his primary goal, and underneath these lessons lie higher ideas. This is a person facing the world full of knowledge. Unlike in didactic literature, he is only sometimes able to apply this knowledge to the “here and now,” but the presence of the knowledge is felt. The youth of this “wise” character is no coincidence – by realising the Enlightenment ideas, an ordinary character was able to enlighten a conservative village community, not only by preaching these ideals, but by setting an example as well. As the community matures, and people sense that the end of serfdom is near, and later freedom from national oppression as well, the active young person is elevated. This young person can change and better his or her own life, and when political events begin to take place, this young person can even influence the fate of the country. In Akelaitis's work, Kvestorius (The Almscollector) there are characteristics of the literary works of both the beginning and the end of the century. There is still an elderly “good” character, but the young almscollector soon takes his place. Duty to one's landowner and state (emphasised in the works at the beginning of the nineteenth century) are no longer accentuated, but knowledge without education, being used to strive towards a further goal (characteristic of the second half of the nineteenth century) has not yet been introduced.

23 Diagram #1 Beginning of XIX century Early to mid XIX century Mid to late XIX century. End of XIX century Chodźka service → fulfilling → wisdom of → wisdom for the young life old age → wisdom for the old ↓ salary Akelaitis wisdom of → wisdom for the young → wise → wisdom for the young old age → wisdom for the old youth → wisdom for the old Gaidys-Gaidamavičius wise → wisdom for the young → application of youth → wisdom for the old knowledge Positivist doctor, agronomist, bookrunner, convict, sobriety advocate, drunk, gloryseeker, eccentric, consumptive, “world's equaliser” In the second half of the nineteenth century, alongside the foreign doctor who is more or less trustworthy, alongside the enchanter, the “expert” on all diseases, or the travelling pharmacist, appears a young doctor, who speaks Lithuanian. He needs to travel the path from the situation in which “a prophet is not welcome in his own land” to one of tolerance and finally one of acceptance as “our doctor.” Long journeys along ill- kept paths to visit the sick at any time of day or night the confessions of the very sick, and the respect of their loved ones, participation at community events and celebrations; some of the functions of a doctor were that of a priest as well. In the fields of popular science and of more advanced farming, the doctor knows no less than the priest, if not more. Socialising with him, although it does not bring as much respect as talking to a priest, is useful to both him and the children. Everyone goes to church, but not everyone lives a beautiful life. The doctor, a wise person, can help here. There were a lot of doctors in Lithuanian literature at that time. It was a “doctor” epoch. He can socialise with the peasants as he drives along in his carriage, he can sit with the priests in the rectory discussing questions of faith and science, he has even been known to hear a confession in place of the priest. Yet the usual model for a story about doctors began with “a new doctor arrived in town...”. It is no coincidence that these writers liked this young character, who had only recently finished his studies, visiting the people and interacting with them; he can spread the positivist worldview, and initiate new events that are the beginnings of positivism in action.

24 A true positivist, who expresses not only his own views, but those of all positivists, is the doctor character in Viktutė by Šatrijos Ragana. The author reveals his positivist traits slowly, not rushing and not all at once, with the help of Viktutė's diary. At first she notices that he has a deep love for humanity and wants to ease the people sufferings. Later it becomes known that he is one of the “awoken ones,” and still later he explains his positivist goals as well. He has a typical positivist outlook on education; he has chosen the profession of doctor so that he could live in Lithuania and work in the country. He does not believe in learning for the sake of learning and art for the sake of art – he views these things not as goals in themselves, but as tools. The most important cause is to fight for the freedom of nation and religion, and it is therefore necessary to seek out Lithuanian press, and demand the use of the Lithuanian language in appropriate places at Church and at school. The doctor bravely faces the situation set to his nation by fate – the work will be hard, but the rewards will be great, for those who are awakening their homeland. Positivist agronomist, bookrunner, convict, sobriety advocate, drunk, gloryseeker, eccentric, consumptive, “world's equaliser” These positivist characters appear less often, in comparison with doctors. They likewise express positivist thoughts or share with the people a program for the betterment of the future.

Scholarship for the Welfare of the Nation What is education needed for? According to Jan Chodźka, from books children will learn how to take care of their health, to cure diseases that are not dangerous, protect themselves from scam-artists, and most importantly, it will help them better perform their jobs on the farm. During the work season, the parents are advised not to send the children to school, and the children are told to return to the farm. Even those who are studying often lack the motivation to study further and put their skills to practical use. When asked what he wants to be when he grows up and finishes school, the boy says he doesn't know. In Mikalojus Akelaitis's work, people are encouraged to learn not for practical reasons, but because of inner motivation, but the short story Antanas Valys seeks more: having asked questions whose answers expand though all of Europe, he identifies himself as a separate member of the nation, and decides to work for the cultural welfare of the nation.

25 Therefore the motivation for study at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the middle, and the end, are completely different: there is a shift from education to improve work performance, to education to satisfy a thirst for knowledge, to education as a work for the good of the homeland.

Diagram #2 Scholarship in the name of Beginning of XIX century Middle of XIX century End of XIX century Chodźka a better life Akelaitis The satisfaction of one's own curiosity, and others' curiosity Gaidys-Gaidamavičius The satisfaction of curiosity → organic work for the welfare of the homeland

Positivist teacher, student, school-child, reader: for self and others Higher learning represents acceptance, rather than rejection of modern ideas, as would have been traditional in the conservative countryside. Many positivist teachers have experienced rejection for this reason. Many of the characters of late nineteenth century Lithuanian literature are university students with positivist leanings. In some literary works they appear as active players, and in other works they appear only episodically. Vincas Pietaris, in his work Keidošių Onutė, uses the image of the student, Vince, to express the positivist program. This philosophy becomes evident during a heated discussion in the student's apartment. The student supports neutrality with respect to the Poles (“we're not concerned about what they do”) and supports the necessity for education (because without factory owners and artisans, there is no trade). The first priority, according to Vince, is “national unity and political autonomy,” which can be achieved not with weapons, but with education. He praises chemistry (of which the positivists extolled the benefits) as an avant-garde science. These sciences are necessary; they are useful and beneficial in and of themselves. Chemistry is such a science: it has “taught” people to produce good steel and “discovered” fertilizers, medicines, and glass. Whichever nation develops this science is sure to prosper. One of the main goals declared by the positivists was education and self- education. In the literature of the end of the nineteenth century, not only “doctors” are written about, but the “well-read” as well. Children want to learn to read and write, they want to go to school and learn, and they want to pursue higher education. Everyone on the estate reads Lithuanian books; noblemen's children, farmers, and labourers. Most

26 importantly though, reading is not only done alone, but people read to others, and in groups. In the evenings, children gather to “communicate,” that is, to listen to stories they have not yet heard, and to exchange new and useful information. Those writing were less concerned with condemning illiteracy and doubt than with affirming academic education. They wrote about the situation after conversion. Both children from inharmonious, dysfunctional families, and children who are surrounded by love and warmth, enjoy reading and want to study. They must often endure the ignorance of one or both of their parents, and their opposition to Lithuanian books, but the end result is usually positive. Farmers read books as well, some to find out what is new, and some because they might be useful. They read books on their own, and they are able to apply the knowledge which they have obtained from these books, as well as to form groups and analyse scientific truths. Even coincidental gatherings of people can lead to discussions, such as people gathered from out of town for a Church festival and meeting a pilgrim who is staying at the same lodging-house, which leads to a discussion on the necessity for the Lithuanian language and Lithuanian-Polish relations. Books, rather than destroying a person's health and wealth, like smoking, benefit the reader instead. They have the power to save people from alcoholism.

Work and Effort for the Community Why does a person need to work? According to Jan Chodźka, work protects good health, benefits the farm, increases one's wage, and guarantees a peaceful old age. A person can only be happy while working, because it was for this purpose that God created humanity. Mikalojus Akelaitis teaches something similar, except that he considers the reading of books to be at the same level as work. The Valys family did not have more land than the others, and their family was no bigger than the others either, but they had already learned how to read. Valys was always first at work, and his wife was also hard-working and was well-known for her weaving. It was because of this that they always had enough bread, and were able to send their children to school. As one can see, the peasant at the beginning of the nineteenth century was encouraged to work so that he could live in his old age pleasantly, not “howling like a dog,” and he would have all the money he had earned. Only later did a new activity

27 become elevated alongside work – reading books. By the end of the century, it was the goal of every enlightened peasant to be able to send their child or children to school.

Diagram #3 Work in the name of Beginning of XIX century Middle of XIX century End of XIX century Chodźka a better life Akelaitis (books) → a better life – knowledge and experience Gaidys-Gaidamavičius (books)→ a better life – knowledge and experience → education

Positivist Farmer, seeker of novelty and supporter of progress. The positivists work for the future of the homeland The positivist farmer looks after his affairs in a logical and rational way. He is a person who reads a lot, and looks to books for advice on how to simplify and improve his work on the farm. Besides this, he willingly shares this knowledge with others, both with his neighbours, and with those who have stopped to watch him. In this way, he receives a greater salary for himself and his family. His life improves, and he has money with which to buy more literature, to learn and teach, and to send his children to school. The better he lives, the better it will be for others, and through his actions, he elevates all of Lithuania. The positivist farmers are somewhat didactic in their wealth of advice all at once, or rather, the author makes them didactic in his or her attempt to propagate the use of practical farming. However, this differs from the tactics of pure didactics in that it is a more rational variation, and examples are given from experience, with accurate and well-founded illustrations. Not only innovative farmers, but country folk as well, can be of the positivist mindset, living exemplary lives while educating themselves and others, forming collectives, trying to obtain bank loans to purchase modern farming equipment or fertilizers, or taking turns at raising and educating an orphan. European positivists assert the idea of “work for the people,” but upon examining the Lithuanian literature of the end of the nineteenth century, it becomes apparent that Lithuanian positivism did not use this slogan, which is not surprising considering their national aspirations. In Lithuania, this idea was transformed into a similar but modified idea – “work for the homeland.”

28 Emotional openness and nature Subjective experience and emotional openness are concepts which repeat a Christian, or possibly older, emotional model. However, it was only at the end of the nineteenth century that the Lithuanians were able to recognise these models and publicly proclaim them. This work remains unfinished, so it is difficult to comment on the total meaning given to emotions. Antanas Valys, having recognised an awakening love within himself, speaks in metaphor, even during intimate moments. He places himself in nature when he is not at peace within, to restore his inner calm, or simply wanting to appreciate its beauty. Mikalojus Akelaitis's character, Jonas, also experiences nature, but that relationship is colder, and Jonas plays the role of an observer. Jan Chodźka's travelling salesman, although he is well-travelled, does not feel an emotional bond to nature. He states without feeling if the weather is good or bad, clear or rainy. He is far more emotional in describing the capabilities of human beings. Reflective positivist A person is open to the impressions, memories and images created by nature. In his reflections, these emotions are linked with the suffering homeland and her people. These images are described in the first person, with a sentimental melancholy tone, but positivist content.

Generational Conflicts The end of the nineteenth century marked not only a new way of thinking, but also the beginning of a time of discovery for thinking people. Having studied Western scientific or philosophical literature, opposing tradition changes a person's relationship with those who up until now were in authority. The person is emotionally transformed. Here begins the conflict between the conservative parents and radical son. The traditional authorities can no longer understand the modernising world into which their son wishes to enter. This often takes the form of a situation where the parents want to send their son to a seminary to study for the priesthood, but he does not want to go. Antanas Valys, after having studied at the Kaunas gymnasium, tells his parents that he will not apply to the seminary. His father is angry at first, but later gives in, a decision which is supported by the priest as well. In this short story, one can see a generational conflict, whereas in Mikalojus Akelaitis's Kvestorius (The Almscollector) one can only sense its presence. One feels the disquiet – what if the son becomes a

29 landowner, and not a priest? It is difficult for the conservative and archaic village community to understand the possibility of such a break from tradition: “he will be a priest and that's all there is to it!” they say. Jonas does not oppose this decision. Jan Chodźka's generational conflict situations are different; the sons do not have the courage to oppose tradition, however, they are then unwilling to take care of their aging parents, and their parents are then forced to become beggars in their old age. The travelling salesman tries to return the wayward sons to their family. He teaches people not to become angry at one another, not to quarrel over money, and to respect one's mother. Generational conflict can already be observed in the middle of the nineteenth century, but tradition is not yet opposed. At the end of the century the conflict is deeper, and the side representing tradition is more willing to “concede” when opposed. Positivist Parents: the Priesthood Dilemma. Positivist Parents: the Dilemma of Education When speaking not of the priesthood, but of the selection of other fields of study, it is common for Lithuanian literature at the end of the nineteenth century to discover parents to be “non-positivist.” The conflict situation created by a son deciding not to study in the seminary, and there were many such examples in real life, drew writers of fictional literature to show young people's rebellion against their elders, the conflict between innovation and tradition. Therefore, it is possible to speak of generational conflict. Jonas Gaidys-Gaidamavičius, in his short story, Antanas Valys, depicts the attainability of positivist ideals – the acceptance (after only a small conflict) of “non- priesthood” is rare in the Lithuanian literature of that time. The priesthood dilemma is resolved in a similar manner in Juozas Lozoraitis's Idea on a dungheap by the protagonist's farmer parents, and once in a while by the more “enlightened” families depicted by other authors. The decision of whether to send children to study softened. Authors wrote about educated parents, determined to send their children to study, or already having sent their children to study, and mothers lovingly becoming the image of the self-sacrificing woman. These were women who convinced their husbands that their sons should seek higher thought, and then hurried to labour so that their sons could do so.

30 The Modernising (and/or Loss of Power) of the Church The positivist movement in Lithuania had a great influence on the interpretation of the Church, and of religion in general. In part, positivism was associated with an anticlerical nature, which provided for much discussion between cultural actors and theologians. Only recognising knowledge obtained through experimentation and completely isolating itself from metaphysics, positivism also discarded the idea of religious truths. The arguments made by apologists of the Catholic Church heated this discussion, and forced the positivists to seek explanations based on logical principles. Writers for the Varpas tried to support the clergy in their publication as well, but in spite of the arguments made in support of religion, the clergy turned away from this publication for various reasons. At first, the representatives of the Church reacted sensitively to the critical articles, which tried to introduce the Lithuanian intelligentsia to the new cultural and philosophical theories which were dominant at that time in Western Europe. These articles often doubted the benefit and influence of the Church's role in society and the State. The Varpas found no choice but to publish the newest philosophical theories which Lithuanian society was not yet ready for, or to keep them quiet, and try to maintain the Church's attachment to the cultural movement. In the short story, Antanas Valys, there is a modern priest, of the sort that the Varpas writers would have liked to see in real life. When a mother complains to him that her son does not want to join the priesthood, he advises her not to worry, and to allow him to make his own decision. Both the conflict between parents and their children, and the conflict between the Church and academia end peacefully, and the Church's position leans to the more liberal side. The other triumph of academia takes place at the Valys homestead on Sunday morning, when the family has gone to Church, and Antanas sits by his books. Learning and the Church are two equals, which are not yet in conflict with one another because tradition gives way to innovation for the good of the homeland, but the separation of these two paths is imminent. In Mikalojus Akelaitis's and Jan Chodźka's works there is no conflict between learning and the Church, or any feeling of the modernisation of the Church. Everything is clear – one's first duty is prayer and the works of the Church, and only after that to academics and books, which are also in a way sacred. The characters exhibit religious doctrine as a call to work and study, directed towards the fulfilment of one's duties.

31 The Positivist Young Priest, The Rector The young priest is usually a positive actor in the literature of this time period. He still does not have enough life experience that people would come to him for advice (although there are exceptions), as they would to the rector. He is, however, valued for his other positive traits. He has a new outlook on the situation that society is in, and he encourages innovative progress in the countryside. He supports the Lithuanian spirit through the Church rituals and he encourages people to read and educate themselves. These are usually secondary characters, shown only briefly, either to serve as a counterbalance for the “bad” rector, or to illustrate the problems faced by the Church in its path to modernisation. The rector represents the traditional, conservative worldview, and there are not very many older priests with positivist outlooks in the literature from that time period. The rector usually keeps himself busy with his duties, and with running his Church and farm. He feels responsible for guarding the Church's good name and protecting his parishioners from “bad” influences.

Liberating Woman (and Sensitising Man) In the story appearing in the Varpas there is no longer a didactic teaching of young women; they learn from books as conscious individuals, yet they still give in to the traditional opinions of their parents. Both Jan Chodźka's and Mikalojus Akelaitis's women are subject to the traditions of their respective conservative village communities. Positivists – the union of two people. A positivist young lady from the estate, caretaker of the hospital. A positivist landowning nobleman Happy is the untiring supporter of “work for others,” who finds someone close to his or her soul. After getting to know each other's work, ideas, and thought, and discovering each other as colleagues and students, they begin to realise common projects, and help each other. Both are happy to do good for others, contribute to the common good, and carry their small burdens “for the benefit of the homeland.” In the literature of the end of the nineteenth century, the cultural actors, especially doctors, are “blessed” with marriages to daughters of landowners. “Enlightened” men of other professions were usually left with the task of “raising” or educating their future wives. Almost all of the “enlightened” women (who work for others) in Lithuanian literature are women who live on estates, or daughters of estate owners, or sometimes a

32 girl who was raised by estate owners. They all share common traits – they sympathise with those less fortunate, and support efforts for the homeland. In most cases this is expressed through teaching children to read and write, distributing booklets and newspapers, and helping the poor. The work of educating others is only the beginning of such a woman's work. Another situation which arises in Lithuanian literature is that of a doctor's wife who works as his assistant. This is one of the only paths in which the woman spreads positivism to other outside her estate. The male landowners had been more active in the fostering of Polish traditions, so it was more difficult for them to redirect themselves “towards a new homeland.” Their conciousness is built by the younger generation, who, usually against the will of their parents, begin to work for the good of Lithuania.

Static and Dynamic Mobility Jan Chodźka's travelling salesman (Kromininkas) usually preaches, gives advice, and talks to people while sitting or standing in one place. Near the building of a new tavern, in the garden under the oak trees, at the market, or at school. When he views an old friend's farm, he only evaluates his experience upon return. Similarly Mikalojus Akelaitis's almscollector (Kvestorius) preaches as well, but there is more dynamism there. There is more motion, people go for walks, conversations occur both day and night and while working. Does one always need to be active? Perhaps this is part of the modern worldview. The Travelling or Travelled Positivist. The Emigrant Positivist The journey that is begun through the surrounding areas quickly leads to Poland's and Russia's universities, and soon after that, even further. Many images of the positivist spirit are born from a journey situation, and sometimes the journey becomes the writer's object of observation. The traveller seeks signs of the Lithuanian spirit, and even if this traveler does not hear the sounds of his native language, or see a Lithuanian face, it is still convenient to argue the ideas of national rebirth in a travelling wagon, or to the intelligentsia of other nations. Their surroundings remind them of Lithuania, but most importantly, the travellers look for positive phenomena, which can then be applied in their homeland as well. Many of the “enlightened” farmers are somehow associated with travel – either they were in Prussia, and there “absorbed” examples of more progressive farming

33 methods, or they earn money abroad which they can then spend “for the benefit of the homeland,” or they gain experience and sense in America, etc. However, only those who use the knowledge and wealth which they have gained abroad to benefit Lithuania are rewarded. Those who thoughtlessly leave the country are taught their lesson, and kiss the ground from happiness upon their return, but sometimes are not even allowed to reach to their native land. Only the characters who have left their homeland to work abroad, but continue to work for the benefit of their homeland, are tolerated.

One against the others – one among others In the writings of Jan Chodźka, as well as those Mikalojus Akelaitis, the teacher archetype is a part of the society, knowing more than the others, and seeking to share that knowledge with them. If he of she were not a member of the community, he or she would not have the right to influence its other members. The teacher is comfortable both with large groups of people and interacting with individuals. The teacher is always greeted with respect, or at least with attention. The situation at the end of the nineteenth century had already changed. The person no longer feels in any way higher than the other people around him, and instead appears as one among equals, yet one who thinks differently from the others. The world is already separating into separate groups of people, and only in part can each one be recognised. Having come from amongst the peasants, Antanas remains silent in the salons of the nobility, but if he is asked or criticised for anything, he discusses the matter and provides a rebuttal.

34 CONCLUSIONS

• The positivist aesthetic encourages one to exchange their personal outlook for a societal one, to exchange their doctrine of individual rights for one of social responsibilities. To exchange rights for responsibilities, to be as socially-minded as possible; this is the means to salvation both for the Lithuanian positivist, and for the positivist literary hero. In a nation that is renewing and rediscovering itself, the positivist idea of “Humanity” is replaced by the idea of “Nation.” The call to social action becomes the propagation of organic work. From the positivist philosophy they imitated the cult of the mind and science, which expressed itself as support for education. In the second half of the nineteenth century in Lithuania, there were no philosophical-discursive studies written on the subject of positivism, and positivism was oriented more towards practical realisation. This shows the cultural and literary connection with positivist philosophy and the positivist aesthetic. • The positivist philosophy reached Russia in the fifth decade of the nineteenth century, and by the seventh decade there was an enormous interest in the positivist aesthetic and worldview. The ideas of positivism affected many different social strata in Russia, as well as many different aspects of life, and more or less formed its own progressive intelligentsia worldview, however this period at the end of the nineteenth century is not classified as a separate branch of culture in Russia. Positivism in Russia was first a theory of knowledge, or more accurately, a methodology for the analysis of knowledge, which was also applied to the study of Lithuanian literature, mostly by scholars, scientists and cultural actors who had been educated in Moscow's and St. Petersburg's Universities. • The ideas of positivism reached Poland in the middle of the nineteenth century, and became especially popular after the rebellion of 1863. The greatest rise in positivism was between 1868 and 1873. In Poland, positivism was a worldview and branch of culture, as well as a literary epoch. Positivism is seen as a worldview of the progressive intelligentsia (Barbara Skarga) or a cultural style (Henryk Markiewicz). This understanding requires one to

35 separate the concept of positivism from the positivist worldview and ideology. This is very similar to the development of positivism in Lithuania. • The circumstances which directed Lithuanian cultural actors specifically to Polish positivism were the following: Polish ideas of positivism affected Lithuanians who were living or studying abroad in two ways; directly (in Poland itself, in Warsaw, at the Warsaw university) and indirectly (through Russia's liberal society, through the translated works of Polish positivists, and through publicistic writings). There was a dominant tradition amongst the nobility to look towards Warsaw, which was consciously and unconsciously imitated by the members of the intelligentsia who had been raised in the country. Suvalkija, the territory from which the wave of the national movement began, and where its primary power was concentrated, formed a common administrative unit with the portion of Poland that belonged to Russia – this unit was known as the Warsaw District, and this connection facilitated the flow of ideas from Poland to Lithuania. Lastly, the Lithuanian nation was already accustomed to adopting ideas from its neighbours. • The study of Lithuanian literature and culture has devoted little attention to positivism for several reasons: first, the hesitation to acknowledge the influence of Polish culture, especially on Lithuania between the two World Wars; secondly, the fact that during Communist times, positivism was interpreted as a liberal bourgeois philosophy; thirdly, the fact that during the second half of the nineteenth century, when positivist ideas were active in society, there were no discursive or polemic works written about this philosophic and societal worldview; and lastly, the confusion of the term positivism, since the term itself can be applied in reference to philosophy and can refer to a methodology for analysis (as in Russia) or the name of a cultural movement (as in Poland). • The work of most analysts of Lithuanian literature has mentioned the positivism of Vincas Kudirka, and his positivist worldview, which is apparent from articles in the Varpas. There are other writers and cultural actors associated with positivism as well, as is likewise evident from their articles and publisistic writings. However, positivism in Lithuanian literature is mentioned only rarely (Janina Žėkaitės writings about the works of Šatrijos

36 Ragana are a notable exception), and this mention is usually brief, and consists only of a statement of facts rather than a deeper analysis. • The spread of “Lithuanian positivism” a term which Polish writers used to refer to Polish culture in Lithuania, was just one more encouragement for the Lithuanian people to form their own concept of “organic cultural work.” At that time in Lithuanian periodicals, as well as in fictional works, Polish-style estates, which were protecting Lithuanian tradition (albeit a Polonised tradition) were criticised for their orientation to Poland, which prompted the process of their Lithuanianisation, and the Lithuanians “sobering up” their own people. • Having analysed and compared three different works of literature from three different time periods, and belonging to three different literary styles of the nineteenth century, (Juozapas Rupeika's translation of Jonas from Swisloczies, from the beginning of Lithuanian didactic literature, while the Lithuanian Cultural Renaissance was still in its embryonic stage; Mikalojus Akelaitis's work Kwestorius po Lietuwą ważinedamas żmonis bemokinąsis (The Almscollector Travelling Through Lithuania and Teaching People) representing the maturation of didactic literature and the beginning of the Lithuanian Cultural Renaissance; and Jonas Gaidys-Gaidamavičius's unfinished short story, Antanas Valys, published in the first issues of the Varpas publication, representing positivist literature and Lithuania's Cultural Renaissance in full force) one can make the following conclusions:

1. In the culture and literature of the late nineteenth century there are many young, militant-spirited, emotionally open and dynamic participants in the Lithuanian movement, and characters, who are associated with the more intimate and more open (both to self and others) nature of that culture. Elements of societal life are interpreted differently than they are in didactic literature. The following shifts were discovered to be trends in nineteenth century literature; - from encouragement to fulfil one's duty, to the idea of knowledge and its application; - from old to young characters;

37 - from work for the improvement of one's farm to work for the benefit of science; - from science and learning for the improvement of one's farm, to science and learning for the welfare of the homeland; - from emotionally closed to emotionally open; - from no generational conflict (between young people and their conservative parents) to its appearance; - from a conservative to a modern Church; - from women being regarded as second-class human beings to women having found themselves; - from a person's existing against others to a person's existing among others; - from static to dynamic mobility. 2. The literary model for work and education of the early nineteenth century (Akelaitis's Kvestorius / The Almscollector) is closest not to didactic literature, but to the literature of the late nineteenth century (Gaidys-Gaidamavičius). Akelaitis's cultural activities, which manifested the positivist ideology, provide a premise considering him a supporter of positivism, and the comparison of literary models affirms this. 3. The works of Akelaitis and Gaidys-Gaidamavičius are linked by other literary models as well; young “good” characters, the discovery of emotional openness, dynamic mobility, and the mood of generational conflict. 4. As is shown in the table below, there are no consistent common elements between the literature at the beginning and the literature at the end of the nineteenth century, which means that one cannot speak of the adoption of literary models, at least not on the grounds of this study.

38 Table. Chodźka Akelaitis Gaidys-Gaidamavičius Learning is in the Improvement of Curiosity, Education, The greater good of the name of… farm / everyday life Enlightenment homeland Work and education No Yes Yes Young “good” No Yes Yes characters Dynamic mobility No Yes Yes Emotional openness No Traces Yes Generational Conflict No Suggested Suggested Modernisation of the No No Yes Church Liberated Woman No No Yes One among the No No Yes people

• The restored picture of positivist personalities allows one to make the following conclusions: 1. The paradigm of conversion shows a transition from didactics to social character, which is realised through the positivist slogans; “Work for the homeland!” “For the welfare of others!” “Battle not with weapons, but with learning and education!” and other similar slogans. 2. The positivist worldview is able to penetrate through all layers of society. One can speak of a “positivist farmer,” a “positivist priest,” or a “positivist estate- owner.” 3. There have been distinct images of the “positivist and young estate-mistress” created, however the signs of her growth in consciousness indicate that the scope of this positivist image would soon expand. 4. An analysis of the “travelling or travelled positivist” image, or of the “positivist's work for the homeland (or for Humanity)” image, allows one to draw the conclusion that these works support a centripetal, and therefore positive, society, which gathers in its most active members to work for its own welfare. 5. The positivist program is well illustrated in the works of Šatrijos Ragana, Vincas Pietaris, and Maironis. Characteristics of the positivist worldview appear abundantly in the works of Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė, Povilas

39 Višinskis, and Liudvika Didžiulienė-Žmona, and somewhat less in the works of Gabrielius Landsbergis-Žemkalnis, Juozas Lozoraitis, Stasys Matulaitis, Adomas Sketeris, Pranas Turauskas, and Žemaitė. Other authors (Juozas Bikinas, Antanas Civinskas, Stefanija Gruzdytė-Graurogkienė, Antanas Jeroševičius, Julijonas Jasienskis / Jasinskas, Juozas Jasiulaitis, Jadvyga Juškytė, Antanas Kaupas, Jonas Krikščiūnas-Jovaras, Antanas Kriščiukaitis- Aišbė, Lazdynų Pelėda, Vladas Mongirdas, Kazimieras Pakalniškis, Marija Piaseckaitė-Šlapelienė, Jeronimas Ralys, Matas Slančiauskas, Kostas Stiklius, Marija Tiškevičiūtė-Lelivaitė, Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas, Juozas Zauka, etc.) model the positivist worldview in only a few of their works. • The discovered positivist characteristics and tendencies, the advancement of literary models, and the restored positivist character paradigm in the literature of the second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, show that it is possible to speak of positivism and positivist aesthetic in Lithuanian literature.

Giedrius Židonis

POSITIVISM AND LITHUANIAN PROSE (The second half of the 19th Century)

Summary of Doctoral Dissertation

Išleido ir spausdino – Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla (S. Daukanto g. 27, LT-44249 Kaunas) Užsakymo Nr. 2. Tiražas 40 egz. 2009 01 12. Nemokamai.