A Hidden Treasure on Computer Science Pre-History in Pisa: the CSCE Collection

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

A Hidden Treasure on Computer Science Pre-History in Pisa: the CSCE Collection A Hidden Treasure on Computer Science Pre-History in Pisa: the CSCE Collection Stefania Biagioni and Silvia Giannini Institute for the Science and Technologies of Information Italian National Research Council Via Giuseppe Moruzzi, 1 – 56124 Pisa, Italy [email protected] , [email protected] Abstract The collection of the Center for the Study of Electronic Computers (CSCE) contains the scientific documentation produced by the staff and associate members of the Center. The CSCE was established by the University of Pisa with the specific purpose of designing and building the first electronic computer entirely built in Italy: the CEP, standing for “Pisan Electronic Computer”. In recent times we have carried out the analysis, the description and the digitization of these historical documents, stored in paper copy at our library, and turned them into an Open Access digital archive freely available at http://csce.isti.cnr.it/ . The most important historical events The history of the CSCE started at the beginning of the ‘50s, when the municipal and provincial administrations of Pisa, Lucca and Livorno granted the University of Pisa a significant amount of money (150 million liras) to be used for the realization of an important scientific device. The original idea was to build an electrosynchrotron. The studies about the construction of this electrosynchrotron began in February 1953 at the Institute of Physics of the University of Pisa, and were about to finish when a bid by the University of Rome, one of the project partners, to have the project transferred to Frascati, near Rome, was accepted; this transfer meant that the amount originally granted to the University of Pisa became available for a new project. In 1954, Marcello Conversi, director of the Institute of Physics, along with other researchers from the same institute, approached the Nobel laureate Enrico Fermi at the Varenna Summer International School of Physics “A. Volta” to seek advice on how best to use the unused grant. Enrico Fermi suggested to the Rector of the University of Pisa that the amount should be used to realize an electronic computer, the first entirely built in Italy. At that time, in Italy there were only two electronic computers, both purchased from abroad: the CRC102A, made in the US and installed in Milan at the Institute of General Electrotechnics in 1954, and the MARK I STAR, made in the UK and installed in Rome at IAC (standing for Institute for Calculus Applications) in 1955. In the opinion of Fermi, the hypothesis " to build an electronic computer in Pisa - seemed by far the best among all the others. It would be a research tool that would benefit all the sciences and all research in an almost inestimable way .1" 1 translated from G. De Marco. La calcolatrice elettronica pisana: le origini dell’informatica in Italia. Pisa, IEI-CNR, giugno 1996, All. 1: Letter typewritten of Enrico Fermi The recommendation of Fermi raised some doubts because the academic community claimed that the building of electronic computers was an exclusive job of the industry, and that the money would thus best be employed by buying a computer rather than by building it. At the end, the choice fell on the route that was longer and more difficult, albeit more captivating and rich of satisfactions: building a computer. The CSCE was established in 1955 and the project started. The enterprise was financed also by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics, by the National Committee for Nuclear Research, by the National Research Council and by the society Olivetti, which participated with its own staff. Before starting the real construction of the CEP, standing for “Pisan Electronic Computer”, the executive group of CSCE RM decided to build a reduced-functionality prototype (“Reduced Machine” – RM). The RM was completed in 1957. Its main features were: word length of 18 bits magnetic core memory of 1024 words (1K) fixed-point arithmetic 32 machine instructions 70,000 additions or 500 multiplications per second photoelectric tape reader as the input device and teletype as the output Despite the simple and limited characteristics of the RM, this was used in scientific calculi of considerable complexity. So, from a purely historical point of view, the RM and not the CEP was the first electronic computer entirely built in Italy . With the RM in operation, the construction of the full-blown machine started. It was completed at the end of 1960, and it inherited from the RM about half of its component parts. However, the CEP had decidedly better performance: word length of 36 bits CEP arithmetic in fixed point and floating point single and double precision 128 instructions and 220 pseudo-instructions instructions of fixed length, with length equal to a word 8192 words (8K) of magnetic core memory 70,000 additions or 7,000 multiplications per second data entry via photoelectric reader and exit drills with tape, teleprinter and parallel printer. The CEP was inaugurated on November 13, 1961 by the President of the Italian Republic, Giovanni Gronchi. Six years had passed from the birth of the CSCE; in these years, the number of computers installed in Italy had grown from 2 to 22. The CEP remained in operation for seven years, offering its computing services for a minimum of 2000 hours per year up to over 4000. The main users were researchers from the National Institute of Nuclear Physics and the Institute of Physical Chemistry at the University of Pisa. It is quite likely that, had the CEP been built before, it would have had a greater scientific value. However, the studies and the experiences connected to the building of the CEP had produced a more important and durable result: the creation of a group of experts in the emergent field of Computer Science. In 1962, the University of Pisa and the CNR signed a convention, on the basis of which the CSCE became a “national center of interest” of the CNR. In 1964 the institute CNUCE, standing for National University Center of 1961 Electronic Calculus, was born with the aim to supply scientific calculus service. In 1968 the CSCE became the Institute for Information Processing of the National Research Council (IEI-CNR), with the aim to promote and carry out computer science research. The close interactions and the common activities of both institutes led to their merging, in 2000, in to the present Institute for the Science and Technologies of Information “Alessandro Faedo” (ISTI- CNR). Prof. Alessandro Faedo, Emeritus Professor of Mathematical Analysis of the University of Pisa, member of the Managing Committee of CSCE since 1954 to 1958, and Rector of the University of Pisa since 1959 to 1976, created the first Curriculum in Computer Science at the University of Pisa in 1969. Indeed, this research activity, at CSCE before and at IEI later, had contributed to establishing, in the academic community, a new scientific field such as Computer Science that, at that time, was not yet considered a discipline in its own. Currently, ISTI-CNR is devoted to basic and applied research in Computer Science. The analysis of the collection On the occasion of the Congress organized in order to celebrate the 50 th anniversary of the CEP, held in Pisa on last June, we have carried out the analysis, the description and the digitization of the scientific documentation produced by the staff and associate members of the CSCE, which were stored in paper copy at our library. The cataloguing work started with the supervision of all the materials. The analysis of the CSCE documents has shown that the set of documents grew spontaneously and sedimented over the years, with the only aim to record the progress of CSCE studies and activities. Only later these characteristics, typical of archive materials, appear to have been lost because of the increasing prevalence of a different purpose: giving to the documents the nature of a collection. Indeed, the identification codes associated to the print copies of the internal memos show that these codes were attributed a posteriori , and not in the year in which the notes were actually written. The two key features (naturalness and originality) that characterize the “archival bound” were thus lost. Because of the impossibility to trace or to follow the original and natural order of the papers, and because of the numerous rearrangements that the material has undergone over time, we have reorganized all the documents using a bibliography edited by CSCE and printed in 1969, called “Documentation 2”. This choice was also supported by the almost exact correspondence between the numbering in Documentation 2 and the identification codes associated to the print copies. Right from the first recognition that we carried out, we realized that the material had been previously divided into two series, first and second, and that a further division had been made between published material, internal memos, and miscellaneous documents. Series I consists of 42 works published between 1957 and 1965, and 147 internal memos written between 1955 and 1963 including individual descriptions of the sub-programs and the machine pseudo-instructions (61 papers). Series II consists of 128 published works for the period 1962-1968 and 72 internal memos for the period 1963-1968. The analytical description of the contents of the two series is presented in the bibliographic sections of the http://csce.isti.cnr.it/ site. The archiving procedures We have produced the bibliographic descriptions of all the documents by using the PUMA publication management system. We have assigned each record to the specific type provided by the system and according to its contents. The identification code for each document is assigned automatically by the system, and is composed of the name of the collection, the code corresponding to the document type, the year, and the progressive sequence number within the year (e.g., /cnr.csce/1958-A2-001).
Recommended publications
  • Muons for Time-Dependent Studies in Magnetism
    Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism D. Andreica, Faculty of Physics, Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA The European School on Magnetism, 22.08-01.09 2011, Târgovişte, ROMANIA Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism Content: Introduction: muon properties; history. SR method: muon beams; sample environment; Muons for solid state physics & examples. ESM 2011-Târgovişte, ROMANIA Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism In a few words: Polarized muons (S=1/2) are implanted into the sample The spin of the muon precesses around the local magnetic field The muons decay (2.2 s) by emitting a positron preferentially along the spin direction. The positrons are counted/recorded in hystograms along certain directions = the SR spectra = the physics of your sample. ESM 2011-Târgovişte, ROMANIA Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism It belongs to the family of NMR, EPR, PAC, neutron scattering and Mossbauer experimental methods. ESM 2011-Târgovişte, ROMANIA Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism ESM 2011-Târgovişte, ROMANIA Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism -Small magnetic probe. Spin: 1/2, Mass: m = 206.7682838(54) me = 0.1126095269(29) mp -Charge: +-e - Muon beam 100% polarized → possibility to perform ZF measurements - Can be implanted in all type of samples - Gyromagnetic ratio: = 2 x 13.553882 (0.2 ppm) kHz/Gauss → senses weak magnetism. - Allows independent determination of the magnetic volume and of magnetic moment. - Possibility to detect disordered magnetism (spin glass) or short range magnetism. How ? ESM 2011-Târgovişte, ROMANIA Muons for time-dependent studies in magnetism The muon decay into an electron and two neutrinos after an average lifetime of = 2.19703(4) s: + + e + e + The decay is highly anisotropic.
    [Show full text]
  • L' Addio a Un Grande Matematico
    CAPITOLO 1 L' ADDIO A UN GRANDE MATEMATICO Si riportano i discorsi pronunciati il 27 ottobre 1996 nel cortile della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, in occasione del commiato accademico. Nello stesso giorno, presso la Chiesa di S. Frediano (Pisa) si `e tenuto il fu- nerale, officiato dal teologo Severino Dianich; il giorno dopo presso la Basilica di S. Croce (Lecce) il funerale `e stato officiato dall' Arcivescovo di Lecce, Cosmo Francesco Ruppi. 1.1 DISCORSO DI L. MODICA Intervento di Luciano Modica, allievo di De Giorgi e Rettore dell' Universita` di Pisa. Confesso che quando Franco Bassani e Luigi Radicati mi hanno chiesto di prendere la parola oggi durante questo triste e solenne commiato acca- demico da Ennio De Giorgi, la mia prima reazione `e stata quella di tirarmi indietro, temendo che l' empito della commozione e dei ricordi dell' allie- vo sopraffacessero la partecipazione, certo commossa, ma necessariamente composta, di chi qui `e chiamato da Rettore a rappresentare l' Ateneo pisa- no e la sua comunita` di studenti e docenti. Se poi ho accettato, non `e stato perch´e, sono sicuro di superare questo timore, ma perch´e spero che tutti voi familiari, allievi, amici di Ennio, saprete comprendere e scusare l' emotivita` da cui forse non riusciro` ad evitare che sia pervaso il tono delle mie parole. Perch´e la vostra presenza in questo cortile, le cui soavi linee architettoniche tanto Ennio ha amato e che rimangono per tanti dei presenti indissolubil- mente legate alla loro giovinezza, non ha nulla del dovere accademico, se 2 L' ADDIO A UN GRANDE MATEMATICO non i suoi aspetti spirituali piu` alti, mentre invece vuole manifestare la ri- conoscenza e l' affetto tutti umani verso una persona accanto a cui abbiamo avuto il privilegio di trascorrere un periodo piu` o meno lungo, ma sempre indimenticabile, della nostra vita.
    [Show full text]
  • A Hidden Treasure on Computer Science Pre-History in Pisa: the CSCE Collection
    Parallel Session Biagioni and Giannini A Hidden Treasure on Computer Science Pre-History in Pisa: the CSCE Collection Stefania Biagioni and Silvia Giannini, ISTI-CNR, Institute for the Science and Technologies of Information, National Research Council, Italy Abstract The collection of the Center for the Study of Electronic Computers (CSCE) contains the scientific documentation produced by the staff and associate members of the Center. The CSCE was established by the University of Pisa with the specific purpose of designing and building the first electronic computer entirely built in Italy: the CEP, standing for “Pisan Electronic Computer”. In recent times we have carried out the analysis, the description and the digitization of these historical documents, stored in paper copy at our library, and turned them into an Open Access digital archive freely available at http://csce.isti.cnr.it/. The most important historical events The history of the CSCE started at the beginning of the ‘50s, when the municipal and provincial administrations of Pisa, Lucca and Livorno granted the University of Pisa a significant amount of money (150 million liras) to be used for the realization of an important scientific device. The original idea was to build an electrosynchrotron. The studies about the construction of this electrosynchrotron began in February 1953 at the Institute of Physics of the University of Pisa, and were about to finish when a bid by the University of Rome, one of the project partners, to have the project transferred to Frascati, near Rome, was accepted; this transfer meant that the amount originally granted to the University of Pisa became available for a new project.
    [Show full text]
  • Necrologio Di Ennio De Giorgi
    1 ENNIO DE GIORGI Note biografiche Ennio De Giorgi nacque a Lecce l' 8 febbraio 1928. La madre, Stefania Scopinich, proveniva da una famiglia di navigatori di Lussino, mentre il padre, Nicola, era insegnante di Lettere alle Magistrali di Lecce, oltre che un apprezzato cultore di Lingua Araba, Storia e Geografia. Il padre venne a mancare prematuramente nel 1930; la madre, a cui Ennio era particolarmente legato, visse fino al 1988. Nel 1946, dopo la Maturit`aClassica a Lecce, Ennio si iscrisse alla Facolt`adi In- gegneria di Roma, ma l'anno successivo pass`oa Matematica, laureandosi nel 1950 con Mauro Picone. Subito dopo divenne borsista presso l'IAC, e, nel 1951, assistente di Picone all'Istituto Castelnuovo di Roma. Nel 1958 vinse la Cattedra di Analisi Matematica bandita dall'Universit`adi Messina, dove prese servizio in dicembre. Nell'autunno del 1959, su proposta di Alessandro Faedo, venne chiamato alla Scuola Normale di Pisa, dove ricopr`ıper quasi quarant'anni la Cat- tedra di Analisi Matematica, Algebrica e Infinitesimale. Nel settembre del 1996 fu ricoverato all'ospedale di Pisa. Dopo aver subito vari interventi chirurgici, si spense il 25 ottobre dello stesso anno. Premi e riconoscimenti accademici Nel 1960 l'UMI gli assegn`oil Premio Caccioppoli, appena istituito. Nel 1973 l'Ac- cademia dei Lincei gli confer`ıil Premio Presidente della Repubblica. Nel 1990 ricevette a Tel Aviv il prestigioso Premio Wolf. Nel 1983, nel corso di una solenne cerimonia alla Sorbona, fu insignito della Laurea ad honorem in Matematica dell'Universit`adi Parigi. Nel 1992 l'Universit`adi Lecce gli confer`ıla Laurea in Filosofia, di cui andava particolarmente fiero.
    [Show full text]
  • OCR Document
    Curriculum vitae prof. Sergio P. Ratti Sergio P. Ratti was born in Garlate (Lecco) sept. 5th 1934. Married to Amelia Corinna Aimi Sons. Alessandro G.G. born aug. 6th, 1962, in Evanston Ill. USA Michele, born jan 30th 1965, in Milano, Italy Scientifc High School in Milano. BS 1953 Laurea in Physics, University of Milano 1957 Qualification in General Physics, 1963. Career: Since nov 1st 1972: Full Professor in Experimental Physics; University of Pavia Dean of the Graduate School in Physics (since 1981) Dean Graduate Schools of the University: (1981-1990) + 2006 - Assistant professor University of Milano 1958-1959 Associate professor University of Milano 1960-1972. Research associate Northwestern University, Evanston 1961-1962 Visiting professor Northwestern University 1966 Oxford University 1976 Rutgers State University of New Jersey; 1979 Permanent visiting scientist: CERN, Geneva, 1970-71 Visiting scientist: CERN, Geneva (since 1965) FERMILAB, (since 1979). Awards: Giovanni Gentile jr. prize for Physics: 1958 Angelo Della Riccia (Italo-Suisse foundation) price for Phyiscs: 1971 Medal of merit: Italian Physical Society: 2005 Membership: Italian Physical Society European Physical Society American Geosciences Union Ministero dell’Istruzione Università e Ricerca (MIUR): National University Council (CUN): Member (1997-2006) and member of the Disciplinary Court (2006). European Academy for Economic and Cultural Relations. Editing: Director of the Journal Scientifica Acta Director of the serie “Fisica e Scienze esatte” (Ed. Franco Angeli, Milano
    [Show full text]
  • Le Tecnologie Del CNR Per I Beni Culturali
    Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Le tecnologie del CNR per i beni culturali Redazione Sara Di Marcello, Dipartimento Patrimonio Culturale, CNR Manuela Faella, Uffi cio Promozione e Sviluppo Collaborazioni, CNR Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Le tecnologie del CNR per i beni culturali 5 Technologies for cultural heritage by CNR Francesco Anti nucci Isti tuto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione, CNR Conoscenza e Comunicazione 9 Knowledge and Communicati on Massimo Cultraro Isti tuto per i Beni Archeologici e Monumentali, CNR Protezione, Diagnosti ca, Restauro 39 Protecti on, Diagnosti cs, Conservati on Cristi na Sabbioni Isti tuto di Scienze dell’Atmosfera e del Clima, CNR Salvatore Siano Isti tuto di Fisica Applicata “Nello Carrara”, CNR Le tecnologie del CNR per i beni culturali Che i beni culturali siano strategici per il paese Italia non solo non è disputato da nessuno ma appare quasi l’enunciazione di una banalità. Quando, però, si tratta di vedere quale contenuto concreto abbia questa affermazione, il risultato, almeno quello più spesso espresso e vantato dai media, appare deludente. Da una parte, è solo una questione di primato “muscolare”: siamo il paese con il maggior numero di beni culturali al mondo. Dall’altra parte, si tratta di una miniera da sfruttare: la lunga eredità dei famosi/ famigerati “giacimenti culturali”. Sia l’una che l’altra non offrono molto per un paese avanzato del primo mondo. La pura e semplice quantità, in questo caso, è ben poco monetizzabile (anche se qualche tentativo si cerca di farlo) e anche se paradossalmente lo fosse, sarebbe un’ennesima una tantum, buona a tappare qualche buco, non a generare progresso.
    [Show full text]
  • Le Tecnologie Del CNR
    Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Nazionale delle Consiglio Published by Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Piazzale Aldo Moro, 7 00185 Roma Le tecnologie del CNR Graphic Design ValenƟ na GoƩ ardi per i beni culturali Silvestro Caligiuri Printed by BetMulƟ media ccopertinadorsetto7mm.inddopertinadorsetto7mm.indd 1 229/01/119/01/11 000.290.29 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Le tecnologie del CNR per i beni culturali 000Indice.indd0Indice.indd 1 002/02/112/02/11 111.251.25 000Indice.indd0Indice.indd 2 002/02/112/02/11 111.251.25 Redazione Sara Di Marcello, Dipartimento Patrimonio Culturale, CNR Manuela Faella, Uffi cio Promozione e Sviluppo Collaborazioni, CNR 000Indice.indd0Indice.indd 3 002/02/112/02/11 111.251.25 000Indice.indd0Indice.indd 4 002/02/112/02/11 111.251.25 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Le tecnologie del CNR per i beni culturali 7 Technologies for cultural heritage by CNR Francesco AnƟ nucci IsƟ tuto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione, CNR Conoscenza e Comunicazione 11 Knowledge and CommunicaƟ on Massimo Cultraro IsƟ tuto per i Beni Archeologici e Monumentali, CNR Protezione, DiagnosƟ ca, Restauro 41 ProtecƟ on, DiagnosƟ cs, ConservaƟ on CrisƟ na Sabbioni IsƟ tuto di Scienze dell’Atmosfera e del Clima, CNR Salvatore Siano IsƟ tuto di Fisica Applicata “Nello Carrara”, CNR 000Indice.indd0Indice.indd 5 002/02/112/02/11 111.251.25 000Indice.indd0Indice.indd 6 002/02/112/02/11 111.251.25 Le tecnologie del CNR per i beni culturali Che i beni culturali siano strategici per il paese Italia non solo non è disputato da nessuno ma appare quasi l’enunciazione di una banalità.
    [Show full text]
  • A Nature of Science Guided Approach to the Physics Teaching of Cosmic Rays
    A Nature of Science guided approach to the physics teaching of Cosmic Rays Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktorin der Philosophie (Dr. phil. { Doctor philosophiae) eingereicht am Fachbereich 4 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften, Wirtschaft & Informatik der Universit¨atHildesheim vorgelegt von Rosalia Madonia geboren am 20. August 1961 in Palermo 2018 Schwerpunkt der Arbeit: Didaktik der Physik Tag der Disputation: 21 Januar 2019 Dekan: Prof. Dr. M. Sauerwein 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ute Kraus 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Peter Grabmayr ii Abstract This thesis focuses on cosmic rays and Nature of Science (NOS). The first aim of this work is to investigate whether the variegated aspects of cosmic ray research -from its historical development to the science topics addressed herein- can be used for a teaching approach with and about NOS. The efficacy of the NOS based teaching has been highlighted in many studies, aimed at developing innovative and more effective teaching strategies. The fil rouge that we propose unwinds through cosmic ray research, that with its century long history appears to be the perfect topic for a study of and through NOS. The second aim of the work is to find out what knowledge the pupils and students have regarding the many aspect of NOS. To this end we have designed, executed, and analyzed the outcomes of a sample-based investigation carried out with pupils and students in Palermo (Italy), T¨ubingenand Hildesheim (Germany), and constructed around an open-ended ques- tionnaire. The main goal is to study whether intrinsic differences between the German and Italian samples can be observed. The thesis is divided in three parts.
    [Show full text]
  • Edoardo Amaldi 1908-89
    Edoardo Amaldi 1908-89 Edoardo Amaldi, right, with Gilberto Bernar- dini at a CERN Council session in 1965. Edoardo Amaldi, one of the driving forces of European science and a pioneer of CERN, died on 5 Decem• ber. He began his career in the 1930s with Enrico Fermi in Rome, where he helped discover that slow neutrons were more readily cap• tured in target nuclei. After the premature death of Et- tore Majorana and the decision of Fermi and other prominent Italian physicists to emigrate in the 1930s, Amaldi took essential steps to maintain the spirit of Ital• ian physics. Gian Carlo Wick was invited to take up the Rome chair left vacant after the departure of Fermi. Gilberto Bernardini at Bolog• na commuted regularly to the Ital• ian capital to continue the cosmic ray tradition pioneered by Bruno Rossi. Under their guidance, dra• matic wartime research exploits un• had led the small but vigorous ture. It took many years before fi• der difficult conditions nevertheless group of scientists and politicians nal agreement on the latter was made important contributions to who promoted the idea of a Euro• reached, but it was symbolic that physics, culminating in the epic pean Laboratory in the early Amaldi was President of the CERN 1946 discovery of the muon by 1950s, and it was fitting that he Council when the SPS was finally Marcello Conversi, Ettore Pancini held the position of Secretary Gen• approved in 1971. Subsequently find Oreste Piccioni. eral when CERN formally came into he was a regular visitor, still in• In 1955, while the experiment of being in 1954.
    [Show full text]
  • Ritorno a Chicago: Enrico Fermi E La Nascita Della Fisica Delle Alte Energie Nel Secondo Dopoguerra (1946-1954)
    Ritorno a Chicago: Enrico Fermi e la nascita della fisica delle alte energie nel secondo dopoguerra (1946-1954) Giulio Maltese1 Introduzione: Fermi e gli “anni Cinquanta” Nella storia della fisica delle particelle, non molto dopo la fine della Seconda Guerra Mondiale cominciò un periodo al quale ci si può genericamente riferire come agli “anni Cinquanta”. Durò dal 1947 al 1963, e attraverso di esso “la fisica delle particelle elementari divenne adulta e passò attraverso ai trionfi e ai dolori della sua adolescenza. Cominciato con la scoperta dei pioni carichi nei raggi cosmici, il periodo finì con la consapevolezza che i costituenti fondamentali degli adroni sono i quarks. Questi anni videro l’affermazione della teoria quantistica dei campi nell’elettrodinamica quantistica (QED) rinormalizzata, solo per vederla rigettata come schema teorico per le interazioni forti e deboli. Videro anche il concetto di simmetria emergere come caratteristica fondamentale della fisica, per assistere poi alla sua caduta nella rivoluzione della parità. I ricercatori scoprirono particelle così diverse da ogni altra particella allora nota da coniare per esse l’appellativo “strane” trovando poi proprietà inaspettate nel comportamento di interazioni note da tempo. Gli anni Cinquanta furono un periodo di scompiglio intellettuale, dove nella fisica teorica cambiarono mode e atteggiamenti.”2 Enrico Fermi fu uno dei personaggi principali della prima metà di questo periodo. Dei quasi sedici anni che trascorse negli Stati Uniti dalla fuga dall’Europa nel dicembre 1938 fino alla sua morte prematura nel 1954, le sue imprese scientifiche più note sono la realizzazione della prima reazione a catena (2 dicembre 1942) e il test della prima bomba atomica (16 luglio 1945), avvenute rispettivamente presso il Metallurgical Laboratory di Chicago e nel deserto di Alamogordo, vicino al laboratorio di Los Alamos, nel New Mexico.
    [Show full text]
  • Come Ennio De Giorgi Giunse Alla Scuola Normale Superiore Annali Della Scuola Normale Superiore Di Pisa, Classe Di Scienze 4E Série, Tome 25, No 3-4 (1997), P
    ANNALI DELLA SCUOLA NORMALE SUPERIORE DI PISA Classe di Scienze ALESSANDRO FAEDO Come Ennio De Giorgi giunse alla Scuola Normale Superiore Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Classe di Scienze 4e série, tome 25, no 3-4 (1997), p. 433-434 <http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASNSP_1997_4_25_3-4_433_0> © Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, 1997, tous droits réservés. L’accès aux archives de la revue « Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Classe di Scienze » (http://www.sns.it/it/edizioni/riviste/annaliscienze/) implique l’accord avec les conditions générales d’utilisation (http://www.numdam.org/conditions). Toute utilisa- tion commerciale ou impression systématique est constitutive d’une infraction pénale. Toute copie ou impression de ce fichier doit contenir la présente mention de copyright. Article numérisé dans le cadre du programme Numérisation de documents anciens mathématiques http://www.numdam.org/ Ann. Scuola Norm. Sup. Pisa Cl. Sci. (4) Vol. XXV (1997), pp. 433433-434 Come Ennio De Giorgi giunse alla Scuola Normale Superiore ALESSANDRO FAEDO Dopo gli anni della guerra io sono rientrato a Pisa con un viaggio avven- turoso il 12 marzo 1946, essendo stato avvertito che il mio maestro Leonida Tonelli era gravemente ammalato. Poiche Tonelli abitava fuori Pisa corsi subito dal Rettore dell’ Universita per avere sue notizie e seppi cosi che nella notte egli era spirato. Il Rettore mi disse anche che era andato piu volte a trovarlo durante la sua malattia e che Tonelli gli aveva detto che desiderava che io continuassi il suo insegnamento. Non trovando a Pisa, semidistrutta dalla guerra, un alloggio per la mia famiglia, riaprii la casa di Roma che avevo lasciato all’inizio del 1941 al mio richiamo alle armi e per 5 anni feci il pendolare fra Roma e Pisa.
    [Show full text]
  • Arxiv:1909.00679V1 [Physics.Hist-Ph] 2 Sep 2019 1Cresti M., Loria A
    Oral History Interview with Marcello Cresti by Alessandro De Angelis, August 2019 Born in Grosseto, 26 April 1928, Marcello Cresti graduated in Physics in 1950 at the University of Pisa by attending the Scuola Normale Superiore, and became professor of Experimental Physics in Padua in 1965. His research focused on the physics of cosmic rays and elementary particles. In 1951, working at the mountain observatory built by the Padua research group at Pian di Fedaia, close to the Marmolada mountain, at an altitude of 2000 m a.s.l., he developed and used a system of overlapping Wilson chambers that allowed an analysis of particles produced by cosmic rays. With this device, in collaboration with Arturo Loria and Guido Zago, he obtained results on the extended air showers of cosmic radiation and on the production of pions and strange particles.1 As other mountain observatories, the Fedaia Laboratory had an important role in establishing international collaborations with other cosmic ray groups in Europe. In 1955 he worked at the Max Planck Institute for Physics in G¨ottingen,directed by Werner Heisenberg, to analyze the data obtained, developing a technique for reconstructing events that used one of the first electronic computers, built in that Institute by Heinz Billing in the early 1950s. During his stay in G¨ottingen, he collaborated with Martin Deutschmann who brought to the Fedaia observatory a multiplate cloud chamber2 and also established a relationship with Klaus Gottstein, who later led the Max Planck cosmic ray group and with whom he later collaborated in Berkeley. In 1956/57 he worked at the UCRL (University of California Radiation Laboratory) in Berkeley under the direction of Luis W.
    [Show full text]