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A Nature of Science Guided Approach to the Physics Teaching of Cosmic Rays

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A Nature of Science guided approach to the physics teaching of Cosmic Rays Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktorin der Philosophie (Dr. phil. { Doctor philosophiae) eingereicht am Fachbereich 4 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften, Wirtschaft & Informatik der Universit¨atHildesheim vorgelegt von Rosalia Madonia geboren am 20. August 1961 in Palermo 2018 Schwerpunkt der Arbeit: Didaktik der Physik Tag der Disputation: 21 Januar 2019 Dekan: Prof. Dr. M. Sauerwein 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ute Kraus 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Peter Grabmayr ii Abstract This thesis focuses on cosmic rays and Nature of Science (NOS). The first aim of this work is to investigate whether the variegated aspects of cosmic ray research -from its historical development to the science topics addressed herein- can be used for a teaching approach with and about NOS. The efficacy of the NOS based teaching has been highlighted in many studies, aimed at developing innovative and more effective teaching strategies. The fil rouge that we propose unwinds through cosmic ray research, that with its century long history appears to be the perfect topic for a study of and through NOS. The second aim of the work is to find out what knowledge the pupils and students have regarding the many aspect of NOS. To this end we have designed, executed, and analyzed the outcomes of a sample-based investigation carried out with pupils and students in Palermo (Italy), T¨ubingenand Hildesheim (Germany), and constructed around an open-ended ques- tionnaire. The main goal is to study whether intrinsic differences between the German and Italian samples can be observed. The thesis is divided in three parts. In the first part we reconstruct the intricate history of cosmic ray research. First, we present the initial studies that proceeded the discovery of Viktor Hess in 1912, and then the pioneer years of research that unveiled the phenomenolog- ical and interpretational features of cosmic radiation. We then continue with the history of the mature phase of cosmic rays research focusing on the discovery and characterization of extensive air showers. In the second part of the thesis we first present the various aspects of NOS, including the operative definition adopted here and based on the 14 objectives proposed by McComas, Almazroa, and Clough. We then discuss the design, and execution of our sample-based investigation, finally we report in details the results of our analysis, performed with the MAXQDA software program. In the third part of the thesis the aspects of cosmic ray research, in its historical, tech- nological and cultural developments, are observed through the lens of NOS. We therefore highlight aspects, moments, episodes of cosmic ray research that might elucidate and sub- stantiate, with examples and occasions for discussions, the 14 statements of McComas and collaborators, and we suggest some didactic objectives and units, which can be developed by pupils and teachers. iii Zusammenfassung Diese Dissertation besch¨aftigtsich mit kosmischer Strahlung und der Natur der Naturwis- senschaft (NOS, Englisch: Nature of Science). Das erste Ziel der Arbeit ist es, zu untersuchen, ob die vielseitigen Aspekte der Forschung im Bereich kosmischer Strahlung f¨ureinen auf NOS basierenden Lehransatz genutzt werden k¨onnen.Die Bedeutung des Lehrens von und durch NOS wurde durch viele Studien hervorgehoben, welche auf das Entwickeln innovativer und effektiverer Lehrmethoden abzielen. Das zweite Ziel der Arbeit ist es, herauszufinden, welche Vorkenntnis die Sch¨ulerund Studenten bez¨uglich Naturwissenschaften und wissenschaftlicher Arbeit haben. Zu diesem Zweck haben wir eine stichprobenartige Untersuchung, welche auf einem offenen Fragebo- gen basiert, mit Sch¨ulernund Studenten in Palermo (Italien), T¨ubingen und Hildesheim (Deutschland) durchgef¨uhrt. Ein wesentliches Ziel ist es, zu untersuchen, ob intrinsische Differenzen zwischen den deutschen und italienischen Gruppen beobachtet werden k¨onnen. Die Arbeit ist in drei Teile gegliedert. Im ersten Teil rekonstruieren wir die verworrene Geschichte der Erforschung kosmischer Strahlung. Dabei stellen wir zun¨achst die anf¨anglichen Studien, welche der Entdeckung von Viktor Hess 1912 vorangingen, vor, bevor die Pionier- Jahre der Forschung, welche die beobachteten und interpretierten Eigenschaften kosmischer Strahlung offenbarten, behandelt werden. Anschließend wird die Geschichte der fortgeschrit- tenen Phase der Forschung im Bereich kosmischer Strahlung erl¨autert,wobei der Fokus auf die Entdeckung und Charakterisierung ausgedehnter Luftschauer gelegt wird. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit pr¨asentieren wir zun¨achst die vielseitigen Aspekte von NOS, inklusive der gebr¨auchlichen Definition, welche hier ¨ubernommen wurde und auf den 14 Punk- ten, die von McComas, Almazroa und Clough vorgeschlagen wurden, basiert. Danach disku- tieren wir den Entwurf, die Durchf¨uhrungsowie die Ergebnisse unserer stichprobenartigen Untersuchung und berichten ¨uber die Ergebnisse unserer Analyse, welche mit dem MAXQDA Softwareprogramm durchgef¨uhrtwurde. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit werden die Aspekte der Forschung im Bereich kosmischer Strahlung bez¨uglich ihrer geschichtlichen, technologischen und kulturellen Entwicklungen aus der Sicht von NOS betrachtet. Daf¨urheben wir Aspekte, Momente und Episoden der Forschung im Bereich kosmischer Strahlung hervor, welche die erw¨ahnten 14 Aussagen ¨uber NOS verdeutlichen und mit Beispielen und Diskussionen untermauern k¨onnen. Zus¨atzlich schlagen wir einige didaktische Ziele und Einheiten vor, welche von den Sch¨ulernund Lehrern entwickelt werden k¨onnen. iv Contents List of Figures . viii List of Tables . xii List of Abbreviations . xv 1 Introduction 1 I History of cosmic rays research 5 2 From the beginning to particle physics 7 2.1 Before the discovery . 8 2.2 Discovery and \rediscovery" of the cosmic rays . 12 2.3 Determining the nature and characteristics of the rays . 24 2.4 A new research instrument and new particles . 37 2.5 Puzzling behaviour and more particles . 47 3 From the first discovery of the EAS to the UHECR 59 3.1 About the Extensive Air Showers (EAS) . 59 3.1.1 Showers characteristics . 60 3.2 The discovery of the Extensive Air Showers . 65 3.3 Air Shower studies in the Soviet Union: how did it begin . 67 3.4 Extensive Air Showers at the MIT . 69 3.5 The Institute of Nuclear Study: Japan involvement in EAS studies . 72 3.6 Cornell University and Greisen's contribution to EAS study . 74 3.7 From multiple showers to EAS: The activities in the United Kingdom . 77 3.8 Giant arrays for the detection of UHECR . 79 3.8.1 Volcano Ranch . 80 3.8.2 Sydney University Giant Air-shower Recorder . 81 v 3.8.3 Yakutsk Station . 82 3.8.4 Akeno and Akeno Giant Air Shower Array . 82 3.8.5 Haverah Park . 83 3.8.6 Fly's Eye and HiRes . 84 3.8.7 The Telescope Array . 85 3.8.8 Pierre Auger Observatory(PAO) . 87 3.9 Summary of the Part I of the thesis . 88 II Nature of Science (NOS) 91 4 Teaching with NOS and teaching through NOS 93 4.1 An attempt to define Nature of Science (NOS) . 93 4.2 From Dewey's to modern NOS . 95 4.3 How and why teaching with and through NOS? . 101 5 NOS knowledge: A comparative study of two \school systems" 107 5.1 Key question: Does the school system affect the pupils precognition about NOS?107 5.2 Design of the analysis . 110 5.3 Data collection instrument . 113 5.4 Social research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative . 117 5.4.1 Content Analysis (Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse) . 119 5.5 Analysis of the data . 122 5.5.1 Development of the Codesystem . 123 6 Results of samples comparison 131 6.1 The whole sample . 131 6.2 Comparison between the two samples . 134 6.2.1 Aim and characteristics of science . 136 6.2.2 The experimental approach . 139 6.2.3 Tentative NOS . 142 6.2.4 Theories and laws . 144 6.2.5 Inference and theoretical entities in science . 145 6.2.6 Subjective or theory-laden NOS . 149 6.2.7 Dynamics of science . 151 6.2.8 Creativity . 156 vi 6.3 The PhD students' views on NOS . 158 6.4 Conclusions of the analysis . 166 III Nature of Science and Cosmic Rays 171 7 A NOS guided approach to the physics and history of Cosmic Rays 173 7.1 Science is an attempt to explain natural phenomena . 173 7.2 Science and technology impact each other . 175 7.3 Scientific knowledge while durable, has a tentative character . 179 7.4 New knowledge must be reported clearly and openly . 181 7.5 People from all cultures contribute to science . 185 7.6 Scientific knowledge relies heavily, but not entirely, on observation, experimen- tal evidence, rational arguments, and skepticism . 186 7.7 Scientists require accurate record keeping, peer review and replicability . 188 7.8 Observations are theory-laden . 190 7.9 There is not an universal step-by-step scientific method. Scientists are creative 192 7.10 The history of science reveals both an evolutionary and revolutionary character 194 7.11 Science is part of social and cultural traditions. Scientific ideas are affected by their social and historical milieu . 195 7.12 A case study: the pion . 196 8 Summary and Outlook 205 8.1 Summary . 205 8.2 Outlook . 207 References 208 A Questionnaire VNOS-C 235 B Statistical data sheet 243 C Early versions of the categories system 247 D Reuse of figure licences 253 vii viii List of Figures 2.1 Wulf's electrometer. 9 2.2 Gockel's measurements. 11 2.3 Trajectory of Hess's seventh flight. 13 2.4 Minutes of the DPG meeting of July the 10th 1914. 17 2.5 Millikan's smallest cylindrical electroscope. 19 2.6 Werner Kolh¨orsterduring measurements in an alpin glacier. 23 2.7 Early Geiger-Muller tube. 27 2.8 Arrangement of Bothe and Kolh¨orster's experiment. 29 2.9 Cosmic-ray intensity vs.
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