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The Impact of ELT on Ideology in Post-Mao China

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The Impact of ELT on Ideology in Post-Mao China The Impact of ELT on Ideology in Post-Mao China By Shaoquan Zhang Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania October 2002 Statement This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copies in accordance with Copyright Act 1868. Shaoquan Zhang 26 August 2003 Abstract This thesis takes a political approach to English Language Teaching (ELT) in post-Mao China. It was prompted by two parallel developments in the past twenty years or so: the expansion of ELT and changes in ideology. The thesis looks into the hitherto scarcely explored political aspects of ELT and finds that ELT has significant impact on both the official ideology and the people's belief system. The study fills in a gap in the research of contemporary Chinese politics by revealing the political consequences and implications of ELT. Findings of the study on the one hand de-mythologize the political innocuousness of ELT, and on the other hand throw light on the more general questions regarding the causes and process of ideological change in post-Mao China. The thesis draws on a number of concepts and analytical tools. The most important one is the model of pure ideology versus practical ideology developed by Franz Schurmann in the 1960s. With some modifications, the model views the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party as made up of possibly conflicting elements, which are located at different levels of abstraction. It also sees ideological change in terms of the shifting of some elements of the ideology from the realm of pure ideology into that of practical ideology or vice versa. Schurmann's model is used here to define both "ideology" and "ideological change", and it serves as theoretical framework for the thesis. Another important concept is the three mechanisms of positivism, technicalization and marketization as dominant features in ELT. (A. Pennycook 1994) In the Chinese context, these mechanisms serve to create an effective channel for the influx of Western ideologies into China, and this influx in turn may pose serious challenge to the official Chinese ideology. Finally there is the concept of textbooks as ideological discourse with ideological functions. (Elena Lisovskaya and Vycheslav Karpov1999) This concept is used for discussing how English-language textbooks serve as impetus of ideological change. The scope of the research covers three areas of ELT in post-Mao China: English-language textbooks, English literature, and ELT impact at social level. In each and all these three areas the thesis finds that ELT has significant impact on ideological change. In the English-language textbooks, with the removal of the more orthodox communist ideological symbols and the insertion of symbols associated with Modernization and Western ideologies, the general trend is one of de-radicalization in ideology. In literature, challenged by the introduction of Western Modernist writers, the previously dominant Marxist discourse has become practically irrelevant in terms of policymaking and policy outcome. At the social level, the thesis looks into the cases of the Voice of America and George Orwell, and finds that on the one hand ELT functions in breaking Chinese political/ideological taboos, forcing the authorities to adopt a double standard towards heterodox ideas. On the other hand ELT has led to a "lily-pond effect" in terms of growing influx of dissenting Western ideologies. Finally, drawing on findings of this study and taking into account the current pace of development of ELT, the thesis predicts an even greater ELT impact on ideology in the future. Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to the University of Tasmania for providing me with a scholarship to complete this thesis. The School of Asian Studies was also generous in supplying me with many kinds of support, ranging from funding for a fieldwork trip and conferences to various logistical assistances. I feel grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Mobo Gao, without whom this thesis could not have been completed. He was generous with his time and provided much needed conceptual, factual, and editorial advice throughout the past three and half years. My deep thanks also go to Dr. Maria Flustch, my academic consultant, David Owen, who read most chapters of the thesis and offered valuable advice, Hisako Umeoka, secretary of the School, Jane Broad, international student adviser, and all my- friends/colleagues here at the School of Asian Studies, whose kindness and support I will always remember. iv Declaration This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university, and it contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. Shaoquan Zhang Abbreviations ABC Australian Broadcasting Corporation CCP Chinese Communist Party CET College English Test CPE Chinese Pidgin English ELT English language teaching HSK Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi JEFE Junior English for China NCE New Concept English NXGZE New Xu Guozhang English PEP People's Education Press PRC the People's Republic of China UNDP . United Nations Developing Program VOA the Voice of America WSK Waiyu Shuiping Kaoshi (Foreign Language Proficiency Test) XGZE Xu Guozhang (compiles) English YDYE Yu Dayin (compiles) English ZHXAE Zhang Hanxi (compiles) Advanced English vi Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iv Declaration Abbreviations vi Chapter One Introduction: the Politics of English Language Teaching in China 1 Research Problem 1 Research Gap 5 Rationale and Significance 8 Methodology 10 Alternative Approaches 12 Organization of the Thesis 17 Chapter Two Literature Review: the Foreign Language Dilemma 20 Introduction 20 International Perspective 21 Chinese Historical Perspective 25 Chinese Pidgin English 26 . The Ti-Yong Formula 32 The Chinglish Phenomena 36 Conclusion 44 Chapter Three Ideology and Ideological Change 46 Pure Ideology and Practical Ideology 46 The Dialectic of Change 52 Modifications: Alternative Approaches 55 The Interaction between Formal Ideology and "Lived Ideology" 60 The Foreign Language Dilemma in the Post-Mao Era 65 Chapter Four Impetus of Change: the Ideological Functions of English-Language Textbooks in Post-Mao China 72 Introduction 72 Frame of Reference: Textbooks as Ideological Discourse 73 Sources of Data 78 Methodology 79 Ideological Stability in YDYE 81 ZHXAE as a Forerunner of Ideological Change 86 vii Ideological Adaptation in XGZE 90 Further Ideological Shifts in NXGZE 95 New Concept English: Beyond Local Politics? 98 Conclusion 102 Chapter Five Into the Realm of Pure Ideology: the Shift of the Chinese Marxist Discourse of English Literature in the Post-Mao Era 106 Introduction 106 Ideology, Policy, and Policy Outcome 108 History and the Persistent Presence of the Marxist Ideology 111 The Case of D. H. Lawrence 119 Proposition 1 122 Proposition 2 129 Proposition 3 132 Conclusion: Ideological Change and the Role of ELT 135 Chapter Six The Trojan Horse of ELT: The Contribution of ELT To the De-radicalization of Political Discourse in China 139 Introduction 139 The Case of the Voice of America 141 The Case of George Orwell 146 The Lily-Pond Effect 149 The Mechanisms of the Trojan Horse 160 The Positive Discourse of ELT 160 The Instrumental Approach 163 Marketization 168 Conclusion: the Conflict-Without-Confrontation Model 174 Chapter Seven Conclusion: the Impact of ELT on Ideology 177 Summary of the Findings 177 Momentums for ELT in the Future 182 Further ELT Impact on Ideology 192 Appendix 203 Bibliography 205 viii Chapter One Introduction: The Politics of English Language Teaching in China Research Problem This thesis deals with the politics of the English language teaching (ELT) in China in the post-Mao era) I ts main aim is to find o ut i n w hat w ay a nd t o w hat e xtent E LT h as impacted on ideological change. The research project is prompted by two major developments in post-Mao China. One is the expansion of ELT and the other is the change in both the official ideology and the ordinary people's belief system. I will start with the first development. The expansion of ELT has been one of the most impressive developments in China over the past twenty-odd years. 2 "ELT" is used here in a broad sense, covering not only the teaching but also the learning of English, and other ELT-related activities. English is a compulsory course from the junior middle school right to the graduate schoo1. 3 On average, a Chinese The situation in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau is not discussed here. 2 This development would appear even more significant if it is seen from a historical perspective. In the early years of the People's Republic of China, when the Soviet Union was regarded as China's ally and model for development, Russian became the first foreign language of the country. Though the teaching of the English language went on, it was confined to colleges and universities with a limited number of learners. It was not until 1956 that English was restored to the curricula of middle schools. Following the split between the Chinese Communists and their S oviet c ounterparts, English replaced Russian to be the primary foreign language of the country. However, during the Cultural Revolution (1966-69), with education as one of the sectors most affected by political events of the country, English language teaching suffered a serious setback, and as part of formal education, it was practically non-existent. See Zhang E. Shaoquan and Gao Mobo, "De-politicisation in the Teaching of English in China" in Pacific-Asian Education, vol. 12, no. 1(2000), pp. 60-74. ' In many capital and coastal cities, ELT starts at primary school. 1 student spends 1200 hours learning English at middle schoo1, 4 380 hours (minimum) in undergraduate study 5 and another 320 in post-graduate study.
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