Chapter 21 Substrates 383

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382 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 383

Important Terms Some historical highlights of papermaking are: • basic size postconsumer paper 105 A.D.—Ts’ai Lun, a Chinese offi cial, mixed bleaching waste the bark of the mulberry tree with linen and calendering preconsumer paper hemp to make a crude form of paper. cellulose waste • 500 A.D.—The Mayans produced paper using Chapter chain of custody print strength fi g tree bark. chipper printability • 751 A.D.—Papermaking spread to Europe coated paper pulpers as a result of the Crusades and the Moorish de-inking ream conquest of northern Africa and Spain. elemental chlorine recycled paper • 1400 A.D.—Papermaking by hand fl ourished. equivalent weight show-through • fi l l e r s sizing 1690 A.D.—The fi rst paper mill in America fourdrinier machine substance weight was established near Philadelphia by William furnish substrate Rittenhouse and William Bradford. grades supercalendering • 1798 A.D.—Nicholas Louis Robert of France 21 grain tensile strength invented a machine with an endless wire grain long thermoformed screen to produce paper in rolls. The machine grain short totally chlorine free was fi nanced by two English merchants, the lignin (TCF) Fourdrinier brothers, and was named the opacity trim American fourdrinier machine. paper fl atness uncoated paper Most of the paper manufactured in the United petrochemicals watermark States today is made on the fourdrinier machine. Substrates It can produce continuous sheets of paper up to 33′ (10 m) wide at speeds faster than 3000′ (900 m) per Substrates include any material with a surface minute. Some fourdrinier machines are more than that can be printed or coated. Although the most 350′ (110 m) long. The mechanical principles of the Learning Objectives common printing substrate is paper, substances original machine have remained nearly unchanged. After studying this chapter, you will be able to: such as plastic, metal, and wood are also classifi ed Other inventions have occurred, but many are simply refi nements. • Explain how paper is manufactured. as substrates. Matching the substrate to the job is critical. A Signifi cant improvements in papermaking in • Identify the basic characteristics of various high-quality layout, plate, ink, and printing technique recent years include thermomechanical pulping, types of paper. will be wasted if a low-quality substrate is used. On synthetic wires and felts, twin-wire machines, and the • Describe the applications of coated and the other hand, expensive stock should not be used use of computers to control pulping and papermaking uncoated papers. to print low-quality products such as newspapers operations. Paper manufacturers have also worked to improve pollution control and energy conservation • Explain the basic size and basis weight of or sales fl yers. Salespeople, designers, strippers, in the industry. paper. press operators, and fi nishing and binding personnel must have knowledge of the characteristics of paper • Determine various paper weights. and its applications. Its misuse can be very costly. • Summarize the characteristics of plastic More than one thousand different grades of paper Making Paper substrates. are listed in paper merchant’s catalogs. For centuries, the principle raw materials used in • Explain the changes occurring with substrates papermaking were cotton and linen fi bers obtained based on environmental issues. Papermaking from rags. Some cotton and linen fi bers are still used for high-quality writing papers, business letterhead History papers, art papers, and documents that will be kept for years. However, cellulose is the raw material Most paper is manufactured using machine used to make most paper today. technology, although some paper is still handmade. The use of handmade papers is usually limited to substrate: Any material with a surface that can be printed special applications, such as fi ne art reproductions, or coated. or limited editions of books printed and bound by fourdrinier machine: A paper machine that forms a craft workers using hand methods. continuous web of paper on a moving, endless wire belt. cellulose: The raw material used to make paper. 384 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 385

Pine, fi r, spruce, aspen, beech, birch, maple, and chipper cuts the logs into 3/8″ to 3/4″ chips. The chips oak are typical species harvested for papermaking. The are sized so the digester is able to separate the cellulose length of the tree fi bers varies and determines, among fi bers. After the chips are screened for size, they are put other characteristics, the strength of the paper. in a huge cooking kettle called a digester. Papermaking is a complex manufacturing process. It uses both chemical and mechanical means to reduce Making Pulp wood fi bers to pulp, which is the material used to ultimately produce paper in sheet form. See Figure 21-1. In the chemical pulpmaking process, chemicals in the sealed, pressurized digester break down the lignin present in the cellulose fi bers. The cellulose Chipping fi bers, which once resembled soda straws, become Harvested logs are cut to uniform length, debarked, pulp, a mass of soft, spongy matter. The pulp is blown Figure 21-2, and sent to a chipper or grinder. The into a pit where the chemicals are washed away. Figure 21-2. This huge machine rotates logs inside a toothed chamber to remove the bark. (Southern Forest Products Assn.)

Chipper The mechanical pulpmaking process (groundwood Raw materials process) uses grinding wheels to reduce the logs to Barker Chip pile fi ber. The by-product is pulp with high opacity but relatively low strength. Sizing and Fillers Pulp wood Grinder Digester Sizing is added to the pulp slurry to make the Groundwood pulp paper more resistant to moisture. Rosin is a common Knotter screen sizing material. Alum is added as a binding agent. Figure 21-3. The fourdrinier wire section of the Washer Chemical pulp Binding is a part of the sizing process. papermaking process. Wet paper fi bers ride on an Bleaching Fillers are needed to improve a paper’s opacity, endless wire screen. This is known as the “wet end” cell brightness, smoothness, and ink receptivity. Two of the machine. Water drains off as the fi bers move common fi llers are clay and titanium dioxide. toward the dryers. (Mead Publishing Paper Division)

Steam Dyes, Pigments, and Bleach Some papers are given a watermark, a translucent identifying design impressed in the Cooking liquid Dyes and pigments are added to produce colored Blow pit paper while it is still wet. The symbols or images are substrates, while bleach makes the pulp white. Coloring created by rearranging the fi bers with a tool known or bleaching additives are mixed in vats called pulpers. as a dandy roll. See Figure 21-4. Thickener Screens The pulp goes through a fi nal beating and refi ning stage Centrifugal cleaners Washer before it is pumped to a stock chest. Disc refiner

Removing Water chipper: A machine that cuts logs into chips. A jordan machine is a beater or refi ner of the lignin: A glue-like substance that bonds wood fi bers fi bers. A jordan machine refi nes the fi ber slurry together. Stock blender until it is about 99% water and 1% fi ber and other sizing: Material, such as rosin, that is added to pulp slurry Calender stack Headbox Drying rolls solids. At this point, the paper is known as furnish. to make the paper stronger and more moisture-resistant. Paper Fourdrinier The solution is pumped into the headbox of the fi llers: Inorganic materials, such as clay or titanium dioxide, papermaking machine. added to the papermaking furnish to improve opacity, Pulp The pulp furnish is evenly dispersed on the brightness, smoothness, and ink receptivity. fourdrinier wire, Figure 21-3. The wire screen vibrates pulpers: Vats in which coloring or bleaching additives are as it travels along an endless belt, aligning the fi bers added to pulp. Press section Tub size in the direction of travel. A continuous web of paper furnish: The slurry of fi llers, sizing, and colorants in a water Figure 21-1. Major steps in the manufacture of paper. A modern papermaking operation requires a large is formed in the process. Gravity and suction remove suspension from which paper is made. investment in equipment and raw materials. about 35% of the water. watermark: A translucent design impressed in paper. 386 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 387

gloss might be used to convey a bright and exciting image. No. 1 paper produces very bright color through the use of transparent inks. Printed material, such as catalogs or posters, is typically printed on No. 2 or No. 3. Groundwood-processed sheets are of lower-grade stock, often No. 4 or No. 5. Uncoated paper does not have a layer applied over the surface and tends to have a textured feel. Uncoated paper textures include laid, woven, and linen. These textures are suited to printed pieces that will be written on, such as stationery. Uncoated papers also enhance legibility, making them good choices for text-intensive printed material, such as A textbooks or novels.

Wire Adhesive-Coated Paper Watermarks mesh Adhesive-coated stock is coated with an adhesive material that is permanently tacky or activated by

water or heat. Labels are a common product that use MARK

MARK Figure 21-5. Many of the papers used today for this type of substrate. The heat-seal type of paper

uses heat to melt the coating so it will stick to another MARK

MARK magazine and book publishing are coated for better MARK MARK reproduction of color and fi ne-screened halftones. surface. Stock with a coating that is permanently Dandy roll Coating is applied on the papermaking machine. tacky is commonly called pressure-sensitive. These (Mead Publishing Paper Division) stocks require contact and pressure to make them Screen adhere to another surface. B wire mesh Figure 21-7. On the machine in the background, rolls of paper are being rewound after being slit to different Figure 21-4. Creating a watermark. A—The watermark widths. Some of these rolls may later be cut into sheets Safety Paper is simply a rearrangement of paper fi bers. It identifi es and packaged; others will be used on web-fed presses. the grade of paper or the trademark of a company. B—A (Mead Publishing Paper Division) Safety stock is typically used for printing checks. dandy roll is used to place the watermark on the paper. The specifi cations are very rigid because the stock must expose any attempted alteration of the Paper Types document. If someone tries to alter it by erasure or by Drying using chemicals, the paper automatically displays a When the furnish leaves the screen, it enters Adhesive-coated, safety, bond, carbonless, change in the design or color. Some other documents the press section, which removes more water. Then, offset, duplicator, cover, ledger, index, newsprint, using safety paper include bonds, deposit slips, the paper enters a dryer section consisting of large and recycled are some of the many types of paper. coupons, tickets, certifi cates of title, warranties, and temperature-controlled rollers. More moisture is A general understanding of the characteristics and legal forms. removed. Coatings are applied as the paper moves applications of various papers is important. through the machine, Figure 21-5. Bond Paper At some stage of the drying process, the paper Coated and Uncoated Papers Bond paper is a broad classifi cation of quality must be calendered. Calendering is the process of paper used for business forms, letterheads, fl attening and smoothing the paper surface by passing Coated paper is a broad classifi cation of paper stationery, and many other products. Characteristics it between a series of rollers. Supercalendering that has layers of latex, pigments and adhesives uses heated steel rollers and pressure to form a very applied to its surface. Coated papers typically have smooth, high-gloss fi nish, Figure 21-6. a smoother, stronger surface than uncoated papers. calendering: Passing paper between rollers to increase the Finishes may be high-gloss, dull-coated, or matte- smoothness and gloss of the paper’s surface. Figure 21-6. Heated supercalender rolls are used to coated. They are more expensive than uncoated supercalendering: Using heated steel rollers and pressure smooth and polish the paper surface to a high gloss. Rolling papers but yield better reproduction of images. to form a very smooth, high-gloss fi nish on paper. (Mead Publishing Paper Division) The untrimmed paper is wound into rolls. Some Coated papers are rated by brightness. A No. 1 coated paper: Paper with a mineral substance applied to it rolls are rewound, slit, and cut into lengths to make rated paper is suitable for high-quality jobs, such for a smoother, stronger surface. fl at packages of paper. Others remain as rolls for use as sales literature. Material intended to convey a uncoated paper: Paper that does not have a mineral layer in web-fed presses, Figure 21-7. prestigious image might use a matte fi nish, while high applied over the surface, so it has a slightly textured feel. 388 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 389 of bond paper include strength, good ink receptivity, releasing the dye onto the sheet below. The receptor Cover Paper and erasability. coating develops the image. Bond paper is used extensively for printers Carbonless business forms have a variety of Cover paper is a thick or heavy paper, typically connected to desktop computers. Laser printers can applications. Checks, vouchers, shipping labels in used for the covers of books, catalogs, brochures, provide acceptable quality using the same paper clear plastic envelopes, and continuous forms for manuals, and similar publications. Sometimes, two designed for photocopying machines. Paper for use impact-type printers are common uses. layers of cover paper are bonded together to produce in ink-jet printers has a coating formulated to accept double thickness. When pasted together, it can be the dye-like inks used by these printers. Offset Paper sold by caliper or thickness. Bond paper is made from cotton or rag fi ber, or from chemical wood pulps. It has an even, hard fi nish Offset paper is designed specifi cally for use on Ledger Paper on both sides. Rag bond is the most expensive type offset printing presses. It has good opacity, rapid Ledger paper has a smooth, matte fi nish that of paper and often has a watermark. ink absorption, and permanence. It can be coated or uncoated. Offset paper is used for a wide variety resists erasing. It easily accepts pen and is both of products, such as books, form letters, magazines, strong and durable. Ledger paper is used for Duplicator Paper manuals, and advertisements. See Figure 21-8. accounting notepads, bookkeeping forms, business Duplicator paper is an inexpensive bond paper Offset paper is sometimes called book ledger sheets, and fi nancial statement forms. designed for use in photocopying machines and paper because both have similar properties and laser printers. Duplicator paper should never be construction methods. Offset papers are made from Index Paper used as a stock for offset lithography or other forms various materials, including chemical wood pulp, Index paper is a thick, stiff, smooth paper, Figure 21-9. Corrugated packaging is a major user of of printing. Its surface strength and other qualities mechanical wood pulp, recycled papers, and even frequently two-ply or greater. Index stock may be fi ber from recycled paper. (Sonoco Products Co.) are not suitable for use on press. straw. Frequently, two or more of these raw materials coated or uncoated. Its most common uses are index are combined to make offset paper. cards and postcards, so it must be sturdy enough to Impregnated offset paper receives a mineral fi lm Recycled paper is made from old or used paper Carbonless Paper withstand frequent handling. Bristol paper is not as to smooth and strengthen the surface for better image products, Figure 21-9. There are different grades smooth as index paper, but the thickness and use is Carbonless paper is used to make multipart reproduction. It is sometimes called pigmentized of recycled paper. High grades can be made into similar. business forms that will be written on or used in some offset paper. quality printing paper. Low grades can be made into type of impact printer (a device, such as a typewriter, Text paper is an expensive grade of offset or newsprint, cartons, and other products. that makes a physical impression by striking the book paper. Depending on its surface smoothness, Newsprint Paper The recycled paper arena is dynamic. Guidelines paper). Carbonless paper starts with a base stock relating to the manufacture of recycled paper are it can be both attractive and functional. Smooth Newsprint is one of the lowest grades of printing similar to ordinary bond. The paper is coated with continually being reviewed by the United States text paper is used for accurate reproduction of paper. It is made by the groundwood or mechanical encapsulated colorless dyes and a receptor coating Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The federal halftones. Rougher surfaces are used when halftone method of papermaking. Newsprint has very short that reacts with the dye to produce an image. The government has established minimum-content reproduction quality is not important. fi bers which enable the paper to be folded easily in capsules are broken when pressure is applied, standards for the paper it purchases. any direction. When new, it has a grayish-white color, Recycled papers may contain preconsumer but it turns yellow and becomes brittle with age. Since waste, postconsumer waste, or both. Waste material newsprint absorbs ink readily, a drying system on the created by manufacturing processes that would press is not needed. otherwise be disposed of is called preconsumer paper waste. Used materials that have served Zink Paper a purpose and may be recycled into new paper is called postconsumer paper waste. Zink™ stands for Zero Ink. This product is a very Guidelines were issued by the Federal Trade unusual substrate. It is made of composite materials Commission for the use of labeling products as composed of different layers. Embedded between recycled in a way that is clear and truthful for the top layer and the polymer base are dye crystals consumers. The label must consist of the percentage of cyan, yellow, and magenta. The paper is colorless and type of recycled content, Figure 21-10. and appears as a regular sheet of paper stock. The printer uses heat to activate the embedded crystals which in turn colorizes the stock. recycled paper: Paper made from old or used paper products. Recycled Paper preconsumer paper waste: Scrap material generated by the papermaking process. Several environmental issues, such as depleting postconsumer paper waste: Used paper products that Figure 21-8. Books and many other printed products are produced using offset paper, often on web-fed presses resources and landfi ll space, have contributed to have served their intended purpose and are separated from like this one. (Heidelberg Harris) the trend toward buying and using recycled paper. solid waste for recycling into new paper. 390 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 391 hink Green corrugated linerboard, and paperboard are relatively T rough and very absorbent. Calendered and coated ❦ papers are the smoothest and least absorbent. They Paper Recycling also exhibit high ink holdout. Recycling paper is one of the easiest ways Paper for Laser Printing 10% to help protect the environment from the TOTAL RECOVERED FIBER dangers caused by paper waste. There are In digital printing, errors in paper selection can ALL POSTCONSUMER FIBER multiple organizations dedicated to helping cause such problems as misregistration and ink rub-off. The high speeds and temperatures of digital Figure 21-10. A product must be labeled to indicate the graphic communications industry be less the percentage of recycled matter it contains. The harmful to the environment. One example printing equipment require specially formulated recycled content of this product came entirely from already discussed is the Forest Stewardship papers, some of which are laser-compatible or laser- postconsumer waste. Council. Others include the Sustainable guaranteed, as well. Forestry Initiative and the Green Press For medium- and high-speed black-and-white Initiative. These organizations ensure pulp for or color digital printers, smooth-fi nished laser Before paper can be reused, it is subjected to papers have superior toner adhesion and excellent chemical and mechanical processes to return it to a paper comes from recycled material or from approved forests. In order to be considered performance at high speeds and high temperatures. pure condition. De-inking is the process of removing These printers typically print on papers ranging from inks, fi llers, and coatings from waste paper. The recycled, the paper must contain at least 30% recycled materials. Recycled paper comes 16-lb. bond to 60-lb. cover and 110-lb. index. mixture is reduced to cellulose fi bers suspended in Dry-toner digital presses run well with smooth, a water slurry. in the forms of preconsumer waste or postconsumer waste. Preconsumer waste includes bright papers from 24-lb. bond to 80-lb. cover stock, After the waste paper is de-inked, the fi bers are coated or uncoated. bleached. Bleaching is the use of chlorine bleach to scraps or other types of leftover paper. Post- consumer waste is paper that has been printed Wet-toner digital presses require a special give paper a bright white appearance. coating on substrates for optimal toner adhesion. on, used, and recycled. Recycled paper must Figure 21-11. Papers used for offset lithography, Elemental chlorine was used to bleach paper. A variety of substrates will work, from 50-lb. text to be de-inked before it can be reused. In order whether printed on a small duplicator or a large web- However, the waste given off from chlorine was linked transparencies to labels, as long as they are coated. to the creation of dioxin, which can cause health to make recycled paper usable, it must be fed press, must have a surface resistant to having problems including cancer. Once this discovery bleached. The most environmentally friendly fi bers pulled loose by tacky ink. Loose fi bers can cause specks and other defects in the printed product. was made, the EPA began to develop emission process is elementally chlorine-free bleaching. Paper standards for the pulp and paper industry. Since Organizations like those mentioned offer assistance and certify the paper used by then, alternatives to bleaching by chlorine have been but any paper must have suffi cient fi ber-bonding Characteristics used throughout the world. printers is environmentally safe. For more strength to prevent the pulling of fi bers from the The directions of fi bers in a sheet or web of paper Elementally chlorine-free (ECF) bleaching uses information, see www.sfi program.org. stock by tacky ink. Because of the surface contact must be a consideration in all printing processes. safer chemicals, such as chlorine dioxide or sodium and tackiness of the ink, special coatings are applied Another important factor is the stability of the sheet. hypochlorite, instead of chlorine gas. Using oxygen to the paper. Will it curl or have wavy edges? Paper also comes in or other nonchlorine bleaching processes is another the paper used contains mineral fi ller, but also a Moisture is another consideration. The paper a variety of weights and sizes. alternative to eliminate the formation of dioxins. Another larger percentage of short-fi ber chemical pulp. surface must not become weakened by moisture, or alternative is to use unbleached (slightly brown) paper Paper surfaces may be relatively soft, since fi bers will pick off with each successive impression. products known as totally chlorine-free (TCF). gravure ink is not tacky. This eliminates the problem of Surface irregularity is not critical in offset Grain Direction ink picking fi bers from the surface of the paper. Coated lithography. The blanket is resilient and should return Paper made by the machine method has grain, surfaces are widely used in gravure. Compressibility to its original shape, even if the paper has an irregular which is determined by the direction in which the Paper Applications of paper is important because the gravure cells must surface. Of course, limitations do exist. Halftones pulp fi bers lie. Direction of grain becomes important make contact with the paper surface. Some papers are adaptable to different and solids do not print well on irregular stock. when feeding the paper through the press and during Because gravure is used in packaging, the stock applications, while others are very limited in their some fi nishing procedures. must have dimensional stability, thickness must be use. The applications of paper to various printing controlled, and moisture content must be considered. Paper for Flexography processes will be discussed next. de-inking: The process of removing inks, fi llers, and The reaction of the stock to the process is critical in Flexography is ideal for printing packaging coatings from waste paper. the high-production speeds required of gravure. materials because the soft plates can transfer ink bleaching: A chemical treatment to whiten wood pulp. Paper for Gravure to almost any kind of substrate. Kraft linerboard and coated kraft are used in corrugated boxes. The ink is elemental chlorine: Chlorine gas used to bleach paper Newsprint produced for gravure printing typically Paper for Offset Lithography pulp and to separate the pulp from lignin. contains mineral fi llers and a calendered surface. unable to be absorbed into kraft papers. Other paper In offset lithography, fuzz, lint, and dust must be totally chlorine free (TCF): Refers to unbleached paper Mail-order catalogs are a good example of this type of and paperboard substrates include folding cartons, strictly limited. See Figure 21-11. A wide variety of with a slightly brown appearance. stock. When high-quality gravure printing is desired, labels, gift wrap, and paperback books. Newsprint, papers can be printed by the lithographic process, grain: The direction or structure of paper fi bers. 392 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 393

The underlined dimension on a package of paper High moisture in 16-lb. stock is thinner than 20-lb. stock. The basic bond or 70-lb. book. A 20-lb. bond means that 500 specifi es the direction of the grain. Another way to center causes whole size of book paper is 25″ × 38″. The substance weight sheets of 17″ × 22″ writing paper weigh 20 pounds. fi nd grain direction is to tear a sheet of paper in one sheets to curl of book paper is 2 1/2 times the weight of bond with If the letter M appears after the weight, it means direction and then the other. The straightest tear is 2 1/2 times the surface area. per 1000 sheets. For example, 25 × 38 – 140M parallel to the grain, Figure 21-12. Cover paper has a basic size of 20″ × 26″. It is a means 1000 sheets of 25″ × 38″ book paper weigh A third means of fi nding grain direction is to cut two durable stock with many textures. It comes in 60-lb. 140 pounds, Figure 21-15. strips of paper, each in a different direction. Lay the strips to 80-lb. weights. The basic size of index stock is Substance weight is the actual weight of the over a rod or straight surface. The sheet that curves the 25 1/2″ × 30 1/2″. It is a heavy stock and often ream. Papers have many basic sizes and basis most is across or at right angles to the grain. identifi ed by the number of plies. One-ply equals weights. Therefore, the thickness of a ream of stock Grain may also be found by dampening one side 90-lb. stock; two-ply equals 110-lb. stock; three-ply can vary based on its substance weight. of the sheet. The dampened paper will curl with the equals 140-lb. stock. Equivalent weight is the weight of one ream of grain. Usually, a sheet of paper will fold easier and Basis weight is the weight in pounds of one ream paper that is of a size larger or smaller than the basic size. form a more even edge with the grain. of basic-sized stock. A ream has 500 sheets. Usually Use the following formula to fi nd the equivalent weight of In most cases, sheets are fed through a press with paper is referred to by its ream weight, as in 20-lb. paper, referring to Figure 21-15 for the basic size. the grain parallel to the cylinder of the offset press. The stock is referred to as grain long. During binding, the grain should be parallel to the binding edge so Type Basic Size Weights the fi bers will not break. Grain short is a quality that Writing 17″× 22″ 26 indicates the grains run across the paper. 32 High moisture 40 on edges causes 48 edge waviness 56 Paper Flatness 64 Paper fl atness refers to how well the paper Figure 21-13. High moisture content can make paper etc. remains straight or unwarped. Flatness is a basic warp or become wavy. Cover 20″× 26″ 100 requirement if the stock is to feed through a sheet- 120 fed press without problems. 130 Paper handling must be closely supervised. Paper is naturally hygroscopic, meaning the cellulose 160 Relative humidity and paper moisture are critical to 180 fi bers seek the moisture in the surrounding area. Most smooth operation of the press. Packages of paper etc. paper is shipped with 4% to 6% moisture content. In a should be kept closed until needed to keep moisture facility with an air temperature of 70°F to 75°F (21°C to Book 25″× 38″ 60 out. Also, paper must be square and free of dust, lint, 70 24°C), that equates to 42% to 48% relative humidity. and dirt. 80 Wavy paper edges indicate a greater amount of 90 moisture in the edges than inside the sheet, Figure 21-13. 100 120 Sometimes the opposite occurs, resulting in tight Paper Size and Weight 140 edges and a sheet that curls up or down. All paper has a grade, a basic size, and a basis 160 weight. The types of paper are also known as etc. grades. Each grade has certain characteristics and Index bristol 25 1/2″× 30 1/2″ 117 uses. The choice of paper grade depends on the 144 intended use. 182 222 Basic size, specifi ed by length and width, varies 286 with grade, Figure 21-14. The basic size of bond etc. paper is 17″ × 22″. One ream weighs 16 or 20 lbs.; Figure 21-15. Some typical weights of paper for common sizes. Even tear— Uneven with Square grain long: Important factor of paper that can affect folding and direction of feed for printing. tear— grain Kind of Paper Inches Basic Size against grain short: Indicates that the grain runs across the paper. ″ × ″ grain Bond, ledger, writing 374 17 22 paper fl atness: How well a sheet of paper remains straight or unwarped for feeding through a sheet-fed press. Cover 520 20″ × 26″ Newsprint 864 24″ × 36″ grades: Categories or classes of paper. Book, offset, text 950 25″ × 38″ basic size: The standard length and width, in inches, of a grade of paper. Index, bristols 778 25 1/2″ × 30 1/2″ Figure 21-12 An easy way to tell paper grain direction ream: Five hundred sheets of paper. is to tear two sheets in different directions. The Figure 21-14. Some common types of paper and their substance weight: The actual weight of a ream of paper. straightest tear is parallel to the direction of grain. basic sizes. equivalent weight: The weight of one ream of paper of a size that is larger or smaller than the basic size. 394 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 395

Width of Basis × × Length sheets weight Paper Computation Factors = Equivalent weight Length × Width of basic size Type Basic size Factor Example: What is the equivalent weight of a ream Business papers 17″× 22″ 374 of 28″ × 34″ ledger paper, 32-lb. stock? Book papers 25″× 38″ 950 Cover papers 20″× 26″ 520 Printing bristols 22 1/2″× 28 1/2″ 641 28 × 34 × 32 Tag, news, conv. 24″× 36″ 864 = 81.4 lbs. ″× ″ 17 × 22 Index bristols 25 1/2 30 1/2 778 Figure 21-16. A factor is derived by multiplying the To fi nd the total weight of a number of sheets, dimensions of the basic size of a type of paper. For use the following formula: example, the basic size of business papers (bond) is 17″ × 22″, which equals 371. (Inter-City Paper Co.) Weight of Number of × 1000 sheets sheets = Total weight To fi nd the approximate weight of rolls on a 3″ 1000 inner diameter core, use the following formula: Example: What is the total weight of 1475 sheets of ″ ″ (Roll Roll 17 × 22 – 56M, 28-lb. stock? × Width × = Approximate weight diameter)2 factor* 56 × 1475 = 82.6 lbs. 1000 *Roll factors: Bond 0.021 To fi nd the basis weight (when the sheet size and ream weight are known) use the following formula: Smooth Finish Offset 0.022 Vellum Finish Offset 0.018 Basic size × Ream weight = Basis weight C2S Web Offset 0.032 Length × Width of sheet Example 1: What is the approximate weight of a Example: What is the basis weight of a ream 34 1/2″-wide, 40″-diameter roll of coated web paper? of book paper 23″ × 29″, with a ream weight of (40 × 40) × 34.5 × 0.032 = 1766 lbs. 56 pounds?

25 × 38 × 56 53,200 Example 2: What is the approximate weight of a = = 80 lbs. 17 1/2″-wide, 40″-diameter roll of vellum offset? 23 × 29 667 (40 × 40) × 17.5 × 0.018 = 504 lbs. Figure 21-17. A stock cutting sheet form. (Central Missouri State University) The length and weight of paper in rolls can be calculated by applying the factors shown in Sometimes it is necessary to fi gure out how many ″ ″ Figure 21-16 to the appropriate formula. pieces of paper can be cut out of a large sheet. A Number of pieces per sheet: desired cut size is 6 × 9 . The result would be that To fi nd the length of paper in a roll of known width typical stock cutting sheet is shown in Figure 21-17. 16 pieces can be obtained using the vertical method Vertical Cross and net weight (not including wrapper and core), use To fi gure the number of pieces per sheet, the and 12 pieces using the cross method. _ Size of stock:_____25؋_____ 38 _____25 ؋____38 the following formula: dimensions of the desired cut piece are written It is more economical to cut the short dimension below the dimensions of the uncut sheet. First, of the piece out of the short dimension of the sheet, Roll weight × Factor Size wanted :_____6 ؋_____9 _____6 ؋____9 _ which is the number obtained using the vertical × 41.67 = Length each dimension of the cut size is divided into its Roll width × Basis weight corresponding full-sheet dimension. The resulting method. However, this is true only if it is satisfactory .whole numbers (fractions are dropped) are multiplied 42؋ 4 6 ؋ to have the grain run the long way on the piece ______″ Example: How many feet of paper are in a 1000-lb. to fi nd the number of pieces that can be cut from If the grain had to run parallel to the short (6 ) ″ roll of 35 -wide offset book, 75-lb. stock? the sheet. The computation is done two ways. In the dimension of the piece, it would yield only 12 pieces No. pieces / sheet =_____16 =_____ 12 vertical method, the dimensions are divided vertically; (as determined using the cross method). 41.67 × 1000 × 950 = 15,080′ in the cross method, division is done diagonally. Figure 21-18. How to determine the number of pieces 35 × 75 An example of the two methods is shown in per sheet. Figure 21-18. Stock size is 25″ × 38″, while the 396 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 397

Sometimes, it is possible that the trim can be Designation mm Index Strength Academic Link used for another job. To fi nd out, utilize the same A0 841 1189 33.11 46.81 The tensile strength of paper is determined by type of formula. A1 594 841 23.39 33.11 A2 420 594 16.54 23.39 how well the inner fi bers are bonded together. A roll Acid-Free Paper Metric Paper Sizes A3 297 420 11.69 16.54 of paper that cannot feed through a web-fed press A4 210 297 8.27 11.69 without breaking easily has loosely bonded fi bers The acid found in manufactured paper In many countries, the SI Metric system is used A5 148 210 5.83 8.27 occurs naturally in wood pulp and may also for specifying paper size. The letters A and B each A6 105 148 4.13 5.83 and low strength. be absorbed from the environment, printing designate a different series. The sizes in each series A7 74 105 2.91 4.13 Print strength is determined by how well the A8 52 74 2.05 2.91 surface of the paper is bonded together. A low print processes, and human hands. This acid causes are numbered 0 to 8 and represent the number of B0 1000 1414 39.37 55.67 strength could allow bits of fi ber to be lifted off the the paper to turn yellow in color and physically times a sheet can be folded to obtain a particular B1 707 1000 27.83 39.37 deteriorate. To ensure longevity, acid-free size. The sizes in a series are proportionate; any B2 500 707 19.68 27.83 paper surface by high-tack inks. Hickeys would B3 353 500 13.90 19.68 appear on the printed image. Coated stock normally (or alkaline) paper has become the standard smaller size is always half the next larger size. B4 250 353 9.84 13.90 has higher print strength than uncoated stock. substrate used for archival and historical In the A series, A0 has an area of 1 m2. The B5 176 250 6.93 9.84 documents and projects. sheet is not a true square but has a proportion of B6 125 176 4.92 6.93 B7 88 125 3.46 4.92 During production, acid-free paper is 5:7, Figure 21-19. Using 1 m2 as a starting point, B8 62 88 2.44 3.46 Brightness treated with an alkaline compound, usually the subsequently smaller sizes are determined by Brightness is determined by how well the paper calcium carbonate, to neutralize the acid and halving the larger size, Figure 21-20. Figure 21-21. Alphanumeric designations, sizes, and surface refl ects light. Paper brightness affects the bring the pH of the paper to 7 or slightly more. In the B series, the sizes fall between the A series indices for the metric-size paper sheets. An index is contrast of the printed image. A bright paper makes Acid-free paper also contains a reserve of the measurements and are used for unusual situations. the decimal equivalent in inches. colors, particularly black, stand out more. alkaline compound to neutralize any acids Standard metric sizes of paper are listed in Figure 21-21. Transparent ink on a bright paper also produces the paper may encounter once in use or that The nearest metric equivalent to the 8 1/2″ × 11″ standard sheet used in the United States is the A4 exceptional color rendition. More light refl ects up develop as the paper ages. The integrity of ″ ″ size. It is 210 mm × 297 mm (8.27 × 11.69 ). through the ink layers to produce stronger colors. acid-free paper is expected to last hundreds of years. The life span of paper that has not been treated with an alkaline compound may only 1189 mm Qualities of Opacity be a couple of decades. Paper Opacity refer s to t he a b ili t y of li g ht to pa s s t hro u g h What are some other common uses of a sheet of paper. It is also the ability to see through calcium carbonate? There are several physical qualities that can the sheet. Poor opacity produces an undesirable be used to make judgments about which paper is result called show-through. The image on the back side of the sheet can be seen through the paper, 1m2 most well-suited for a particular printing job. These • The booklet envelope, with its opening on the are color, smoothness, strength, brightness, and and is a distraction to the reader. Examine stock 841 mm side, is used to hold house publications and opacity. carefully to make sure show-through will not occur. A heavyweight paper has high opacity, whereas a thin direct mail pieces. paper tends to have low opacity. • The clasp envelope is used to mail bulky Color materials. The manner of fastening will vary, but Paper color and ink color must be compatible. it is strong and can take abuse. Figure 21-19. Size A0 is the basis for metric paper Envelopes Figure 21-23 lists common envelope sizes. Envelope 2 White paper is essential for full- or four-color printing. sizes. It is 1 m in area, with a rectangular shape in a company catalogs provide more detailed information. 5:7 proportion. It refl ects all the colors of the spectrum, while colored Envelopes come in many styles and sizes for a paper does not. Colored paper can create a process variety of applications. Envelopes used for postal color value that is undesirable, producing a fi nished purposes have a minimum size requirement of piece that may not be what the customer expected. trim: The paper that is left over after cutting a sheet into 3 1/2″ × 5″. Any size over 6 1/8″ × 11 1/2″, or thicker smaller pieces. ″ than 1/4 , is subject to additional postage fees. printability: How well fi ne details are reproduced in a A2 Smoothness Figure 21-22 illustrates common envelope styles. printed image. Smoothness and texture both greatly affect • The commercial envelope is typically used to tensile strength: The amount of stress that will break A1 printability, or how well images show fi ne detail. send correspondence. The No. 10 size paper. A4 Smoothness varies with paper type. A smooth sheet (4 1/8″ × 9 1/2″) is the most widely used. print strength: How well a paper surface resists lifting of its fi ber by high-tack inks. A3 requires a very thin fi lm of ink to produce sharp • The window envelope has an opening that allows A6 opacity: The quality of a paper that does not allow print A5 images. The opposite is true for rough papers. the address to appear through the clear opening. This is a time-saving and convenient feature. from the opposite side to show through. • The baronial envelope is used mostly for show-through: An undesirable result of poor opacity in Figure 21-20. Metric paper sizes are simply halves of which the image on one side of a sheet of paper is seen on larger sizes. invitations, announcements, and greeting cards. the other side. 398 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 399

Polyester for folders, book jackets, and overhead projector Size Dimensions transparencies. (inches) Polyester is one of the strongest plastic fi lms used Office and Commercial as a printing substrate. It has high clarity, toughness, Clear-Oriented Polyester Air mail Official 5 3 1/6 x 5 1/2 durability, and good dimensional stability. It must 6 1/4 3 1/2 x 6 be treated to prepare its surface for offset printing. Clear-oriented polyester is the cheapest plastic 6 3/4 3 5/8 x 6 1/2 Polyester substrates are used for decals, labels, and substrate available. It tears and scratches easily but 7 3 3/4 x 6 3/4 7 3/4 3 7/8 x 7 1/2 signs. provides good clarity. It is used for short-term display 8 5/8 3 5/8 x 8 5/8 signs, labels, visual aids, and similar products. 9 3 7/8 x 8 7/8 Postage saver Commercial 10 4 1/8 x 9 1/2 Copolyester 11 4 1/2 x 10 3/8 Kimdura® 12 4 3/4 x 11 Copolyester is an extruded and dull-fi nished 14 5 x 11 1/2 plastic substrate. It has a high degree of dimensional Kimdura® is a white opaque or translucent Baronial stability, clarity, and formability. It is available in polypropylene fi lm substrate. It serves as a “synthetic 4 3 5/8 x 4 11/16 matte fi nish or transparent colors. Copolyester is a paper” that has been treated for offset printing. It 5 4 1/8 x 5 1/8 comparatively inexpensive plastic substrate. Book is tough and durable, and can withstand repeated Booklet Dot-a-gum postage saver 5 1/2 4 3/8 x 5 5/8 report covers, overhead projector overlays, and fl ip folding. Kimdura has good dimensional stability and 5 3/4 4 5/8 x 5 15/16 charts are a few of its applications. a waterproof printing surface. It is used for posters, Booklet brochures, catalogs, children’s books, outdoor maps, 2 1/2 4 1/2 x 5 7/8 globes, menus, and instructional manuals. 3 4 3/4 x 6 1/2 Polycarbonate Film Pay 5 5 1/2 x 8 1/8 Transparent window 6 5 3/4 x 8 7/8 Polycarbonate fi lm is a high-gloss substrate ® Coin 6 1/2 6 x 9 with good dimensional stability, good heat Reemay 7 6 1/4 x 9 5/8 resistance, and excellent light transmittance. Low- Reemay® is a spunbonded polyester that is 7 1/2 7 1/2 x 10 1/2 9 8 3/4 x 11 1/2 haze polycarbonate fi lm can be printed on offset a c r y l i c - c o a t e d o n b o t h s i d e s . I t i s b r i g h t w h i t e. R e e m ay Theater 9 1/2 9 x 12 presses without pretreatment. It is easily die cut and feels like fabric and can be sewn and grommeted. It 10 9 1/2 x 12 5/8 embossed. Polycarbonate fi lm is used for decals, is used for banners and similar applications and has Clasp nameplates, membrane switch panels, overlays, and excellent UV-resistance. 0 2 1/2 x 4 1/4 product identifi cation. Baronial 5 3 1/8 x 5 1/2 ® 10 3 3/8 x 6 Tyvek Clasp Drug 15 4 x 6 3/8 Rigid Vinyl ® 11 4 1/2 x 10 3/8 Tyvek is a strong spunbonded polyolefi n plastic 25 4 5/8 x 6 3/4 A rigid vinyl substrate has good stability and is substrate. It has a smooth surface, good dimensional 35 5 x 7 1/2 available in calendered gloss or matte fi nish. It comes stability, resistance to ultraviolet light and moisture, 14 5 x 11 1/2 in white translucent, white opaque, and standard and excellent opacity. Tyvek is treated with an 50 5 1/2 x 8 1/4 55 6 x 9 opaque colors. Rigid vinyl is commonly used for antistatic agent to facilitate sheet handling. For 63 6 1/2 x 9 1/2 identifi cation cards or credit cards, but it is also used printing purposes, it is commonly used for envelopes, 68 7 x 10 for shelf signs or labels, danglers, wall signs, and tags, labels, maps, and book coverings. 75 7 1/2 x 10 1/2 80 8 x 11 pocket calendars. Rigid vinyl is easily die-cut and Policy Remittance Catalog 83 8 1/2 x 11 1/2 thermoformed into shapes. 87 9 3/4 x 11 1/4 Environmental Figure 21-22. Typical envelope styles. (Carpenter- 90 9 x 12 Offutt Paper Co.) 93 9 1/2 x 12 1/2 High-Impact Polystyrene Issues 94 9 1/4 x 14 1/2 95 10 x 12 High-impact polystyrene is a versatile and The paper industry is trying diligently to be 97 10 x 13 economical plastic substrate. It is offset-printable good stewards of the earth’s natural resources. Plastic 98 10 x 15 and available in translucent and opaque colors. It is 105 11 1/2 x 14 1/2 Reforestation is taking place. Programs are ensuring used for point-of-purchase display signs and toys. Substrates 110 12 x 15 1/2 that perpetual planting, growing, and harvesting of trees is taking place while protecting the environment. Plastic has many variations. Sometimes it is a Figure 21-23. Common envelope sizes and Cellulose Acetate The driving force behind recycling advocacy is to keep thin fi lm. Other times it is a sturdy yet fl exible material. dimensions. Another plastic might be stiff or even rigid. Plastic Cellulose acetate is a plastic fi lm. It provides substrates are blended from various petrochemicals outstanding clarity but poor dimensional stability and other compounds. Most plastic substrates are and tear-resistance. Its soft surface is receptive petrochemicals: Petroleum-based chemicals. available in both roll and sheet form. to a wide variety of inks. Cellulose acetate is used thermoformed: Formed by heat and pressure. 400 Graphic Communications Chapter 21 Substrates 401 paper out of landfi lls. Another benefi t of recycling is Review Questions 3. Visit a paper storage facility and list the paper the saving of trees. It also takes less energy to make classifi cations as well as the paper sizes Please do not write in this book. Write your answers pulp out of a sheet of paper than a log. associated with that classifi cation. on a separate sheet of paper. 4. As a group project, request the specifi cations 1. List three common materials used as printing for an actual job from a printing plant. Do all of Chain of Custody substrates. the calculations necessary to determine how The chain of custody is the process of tracking 2. Most paper manufactured in the U.S. is made on much paper is necessary for the job. Then visit and recording the possession and transfer of wood what machine? the plant and fi nd out if your calculations were and fi ber from forests of origin, through the different 3. What is the raw material used to make paper? correct. stages of production, to the end user. This means that the responsibility now includes paper merchants, 4. _____ is added to the pulp to make paper printers, agencies, and independent designers. The moisture-resistant. _____ are added to improve Related Web Links Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) and the Forest opacity, brightness, smoothness, and ink International Paper Stewardship Council (FSC) are two programs receptivity. that authenticate that the fi ber source comes from 5. The process that impresses a translucent www.ipaper.com responsibly managed forests. design in paper is _____. Site for the paper and packaging company with A. watermarking information on different types of forests and paper. B. calendering Forest Stewardship Council Standards C. furnishing www.fsc.org Professionals and biologists are managing D. embossing Information and standards for responsible forest the forests to be in compliance with the standards 6. _____ paper is smoother, stronger, and yields a management. of the SFI program. The FSC was established to better image than _____ paper. create an honest and credible system for identifying ForestEthics 7. What are two alternatives to using chlorine gas well-managed forests. The Chlorine Free Products to bleach paper? www.forestethics.org Association (CFPA) is a not-for-profi t accreditation An organization dedicated to the future health of 8. What characteristic is contained by machine- and standard-setting organization. The standards endangered forests worldwide. relate to the reduction of energy and water made papers? consumption, eliminating harmful toxins, provide a 9. How many sheets are in a ream of paper? Green Seal chain of custody for all fi bers, and reviewing social, 10. What is the formula for determining basis www.greenseal.org environmental and fi nancial responsibility of their weight? Organization that offers studies, information, and products and services. standards about different environmental issues. 11. How many sheets of 8″ × 10″ can be cut out of a 17″ × 22″ sheet? Green-e Summary 12. What color of paper is essential for true process www.green-e.org The surface of many materials has the capability color reproduction? Organization with standards for products made with of being printed on to give a visible image. Although 13. Print _____ is an important factor affecting renewable energy. paper is the most commonly used substrate, plastics hickeys or specks on the printed image. and metal have favorable surfaces. The papermaking Chlorine Free Products Association process requires consistency so that the surface of 14. The _____ of paper affects whether the paper www.chlorinefreeproducts.org the stock allows true repeatability of an image. Many will exhibit an undesirable problem called _____. Organization dedicated to creating products without types of paper are needed to produce a variety of 15. Which plastic substrate is typically used to make the use of chlorine compounds. products. It is essential to know the characteristics identifi cation cards and credit cards? Sustainable Forestry Initiative of paper when printing as all designed products may 16. Explain the role of the chain of custody. www.sfi program.org not be suitable for a selected stock. Knowledge of Organization with information and standards to help the quality of paper is also essential. Federal and Suggested Activities protect from deforestation. state regulations have forced major changes within the manufacturing process as well as sustainable 1. Explore the possibility of making handmade forestry and certifi cation. paper. 2. Using a rubber stamp, place the stamp image on seven different substrate surfaces. Analyze the effect of the stamp on each surface of the various substrates. chain of custody: The process of tracking and recording the possession and transfer of wood and fi ber from forests of origin to the end user.