Management Plan for Asiatic Ibex (Capra Sibirica) Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Originally Completed January 31, 2010 Revised: October 19, 2012

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Management Plan for Asiatic Ibex (Capra sibirica) Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Originally completed January 31, 2010 Revised: October 19, 2012

Prepared by: Richard B. Harris, PhD Adjunct Associate Professor of Wildlife Conservation Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences University of Montana Missoula, Montana USA [email protected] Special Species Section Manager Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife Olympia, WA USA 98501 [email protected] Ibex Management Plan

Table of Contents I. Definitions ...... 3 II. Authority ...... 3 III. The Species ...... 5 A. Description ...... 5 B. Biology ...... 7 C. Extant Populations in Afghanistan ...... 9 IV. Areas within Afghanistan ...... 10 A. Bamyan...... 10 B. Wakhan...... 11 V. Issues in Conserving and Managing Asiatic ibex ...... 12 VI. Recovery Plan: Protected Species (Bamyan) ...... 14 A. Introduction and Rationale...... 14 B. Management Area: All of Bamyan Province ...... 15 C. Management Structure ...... 15 D. Initial regulations ...... 15 E. Rangers and enforcement ...... 16 F. Population monitoring ...... 16 G. Habitat management ...... 16 VII. Management Plan: Harvestable Species (Wakhan) ...... 17 A. Introduction and Rationale...... 17 B. Management Area ...... 21 B. 1. Management Units ...... 21 C. Management Structure ...... 22 D. Initial regulations ...... 23 D1. Community-based hunting option ...... 23 D2. National trophy hunting option ...... 25 E 1: Community-based hunting option ...... 26 E2. National trophy hunting option ...... 29 F. Quota allocation ...... 30 F1. Community-based hunting option ...... 30 F2: National trophy hunting option ...... 31 G. Use of revenues ...... 31 G1. Community-hunt option ...... 32 G1. National trophy-hunt option ...... 32 H. Population monitoring ...... 32 I. Habitat management ...... 34 Acknowledgements: ...... 34 VIII. References ...... 34 Appendix ...... 41

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I. Definitions “AWEC” refers to the Afghan Wildlife Executive Committee”, also known as the Afghanistan Wild Species Executive Committee “AVPAC” refers to the Ajar Valley Protected Area Committee. “Draft Fauna Conservation Regulations” “Environment Law” refers to the Environment Law of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Official Gazette No. 912, 25 January 2007, approved by the National Assembly “Ibex” and “Asiatic ibex” both refer to the species Capra sibirica. This species is also referred to as “Siberian ibex” and “Himalayan ibex”. Herein, the term “Asiatic ibex” is preferred, because the species does not currently live in Siberia, and its range extends well beyond the Himalayan mountain chain. Some scientific sources refer to this species as Capra ibex sibirica, suggesting that it is a sub-species of the alpine ibex, Capra ibex. However, there is increasing consensus that central Asian ibex are a distinct species from alpine ibex (Grubb 2005), and they are treated thus in this document. “MAIL” refers to the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan “NEPA” refers to the National Environmental Protection Agency of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan “Wakhan Pamir Association” refers to the Wakhan Pamir Association, headquartered in Qila-e-Panja, District of Wakhan, Province of Badakhshan.

II. Authority 1. The Environment Law, Article 41, Section 1 requires that “habitats of protected species listed in Article 50 of this Act shall be designated as species management areas as provided for in Article 43 of this Act”. 2. The Environment Law, Article 41, Section 2 states that NEPA shall prepare management plans for species management areas in conjunction with species recovery plans. 3. The Environment Law, Article 41, Section 3 states that destruction of habitats of protected species is prohibited.

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4. The Environment Law, Article 46 states that species management shall be an integral part of land use planning and natural resource management planning, and of management plans for protected areas and habitats. 5. The Environment Law, Article 47, Section 1, directs NEPA, with the assistance of academic institutions and relevant ministries, to prepare and update lists of harvestable and protected species. 6. The Environment Law, Article 48 states that, taking into account the principles of unit management, rational management, and ecological management, the NEPA shall prepare management plans for harvestable species listed pursuant to Article 47, which shall include provisions for conservation of habitats of the species. Article 48 further states that taking of harvestable species shall be allowed on the basis of permits or management agreements conditioned upon maintaining favourable conservation status of the species. Article 49 – States that taking of protected species is prohibited except as specifically permitted for captive propagation or scientific/educational purposes, and further specifies purposes for which permits may be granted. Article 50 – Calls for development of recovery plans which shall be developed in coordination with relevant ministries and Provincial Councils, and District and Village Councils, and that such recovery plans shall be developed together with management plans for their habitats. 7. The Afghanistan Wildlife Executive Committee, met on November 8, 2008 in Kabul. Professor Mirazai and Assistant Professor Mohibi presented a review of the Siberian ibex. Professor Mirazai suggested that all animals in Afghanistan should be protected. Asst. Professor Mohibi interjected that the Bamyan population should be protected because of its small population. However, he argued for a harvestable listing for the Badakhshan population. Asst. Prof. Mohibi indicated there was a large population in Badakhshan and suggested a quota of 10 males per year. Asst. Prof. Mohibi also explained more about Area of Occupancy and density estimates. Professor Tanin argued that there should be a limited harvest and the young should be protected. However, if the population estimate was as large as 20,000 in the western Pamir then it could sustain harvest. Prof. Osmankhail asked again for clarification on the population estimates. The group broke into detailed discussions on estimating populations based on statistics and limited data.

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The Committee unanimously agreed to a split listing for the Siberian Ibex. Ibex in the region of Bamyan Province will be listed as Protected (CR A2ad + C1). Ibex in the region of Badakhshan Province will be listed as Harvestable (Least Concern). 6. A Draft Fauna Conservation Regulation has been prepared, which includes further language relevant to species management plans. Relevant portions of this Draft Regulations are included as an Appendix to this document.

III. The Species

Figure 1. A group of Asiatic ibex males.

A. Description The mountain goat of central Asian mountains, the Asiatic ibex is a large-bodied, long-lived member of the Caprini tribe of the Caprinae subfamily of the Bovidae family (Shackleton and Lovari 1997). Males are graced with long, graceful, and heavily-ridged

5 Ibex Management Plan horns that can exceed 140 cm (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). The species Capra sibirica has in the past been considered a subspecies of Capra ibex, but currently most authorities accept it as a valid species (Grubb 2005). Common names in Afghanistan include ahu rung, or simply ibex in Dari, and mugley in Pashto (Habibi 1977). In English, it is sometimes referred to as the Siberian ibex and the Himalayan ibex. Herein, it is referred to only as the Asiatic ibex, because these other common names either place the species where it does not actually live (i.e., Siberia), or limit it to only a small part of its historical and current distribution (Himalaya). At the same time, it must be distinguished from other species called “ibex”, i.e., the alpine ibex (Capra ibex), the Spanish, or Iberian ibex (C. pyrenaica), the Walie ibex (C. walie), and the Nubian ibex (C. nubiana) (Shackleton and Lovari 1997). Capra sibirica is listed on the IUCN Red List as “least concern” (IUCN 2008). The Asiatic ibex is among the most sexually dimorphic of ungulates. Adult males averaging, about 90 kg are about twice as heavy as females, which average about 44 kg (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Both sexes have horns, although they differ greatly in size and conformation. Whereas horns of males are black, robust and thick (up to > 200 mm in circumference), heavily corrugated, and variable in their scimitar-like shape, horns of females are grey-brown, much more slender (usually around 100 mm in circumference), and much shorter, never achieving the scimitar-like shape. (Some people are of the erroneous impression that one can age an ibex male from the number of ridges on the horns, but while it is true that the number of ridges increases with age, exact concordance between the number of ridges and age is purely coincidental, and cannot be expected generally). In addition to Afghanistan, Asiatic ibex are found in western mountain ranges of China, India (primarily in Ladakh), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan (Schaller 1977, 1998; Shackleton 1997; Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Fedosenko and Blank (2001) recognized 4 different subspecies. If valid, the subspecies inhabiting Afghanistan is likely to be C. s. sakeen, which is described as large in body size but typically have shorter horns that those ibex living further north in Kyrgyzstan and China.

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Figure 2. A group of Asiatic ibex females and 1 male (far right).

B. Biology Asiatic ibex are true mountain goats, never found far from steep terrain which they can negotiate with relative ease. Their nimbleness on steep terrain makes them rarely vulnerable to attacks from wolves (Canis lupus); their primary predator is the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Ibex are closely associated with presence of rough, precipitous terrain (Dzieciolowski et al. 1980, Fox et al. 1992) although they will move further from escape terrain during early morning and evening feeding bouts. In Ladakh, ibex were rarely found 100m from escape terrain, and never < 350 m (Fox et al. 1992). Females with kids are particularly restricted to escape cover (Grignolio et al. 2007). Although quantitative data are still scarce, all indications are that ibex have relatively small home ranges, and have high fidelity to seasonal ranges. Ibex have generally adopted a conservative life-history strategy, with slow growth and high survival. Most mortality occurs early in life or late, with very little normally occurring during the prime years of life (Toigo et al. 2007). Natural survival in closely

7 Ibex Management Plan related alpine ibex can be quite high, particularly among prime-aged females (e.g., Largo et al. 2008) and, in the absence of hunting, adult males as well (Toigo et al. 2007). There is usually relatively high mortality among young of the year, and mortality increases again when females exceed 12 years of age. However, even kids and yearlings can show high survival during favorable years (Shank et al. 1977, Toigo et al. 2007). In European national parks, where no legal hunting occurs and illegal hunting is also likely to be quite rare, closely related alpine ibex can achieve growth rates of up to 25% yearly, although typically would not increase at nearly such a rapid pace. Horns in males continue to grow throughout life, and horn size has recently been found to be correlated with genetic heterozygosity at multiple loci (Von Hardenberg et al. 2007). Ibex females generally have their first young on approximately their 2nd birthday. Single young are the norm, although some twinning has been reported (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). In Pakistan, Roberts (1977:194) reported that twinning was common. In the 1970s in the Ajar Valley of Afghanistan, twins were reported among yearlings (i.e., kids that had both survived at least 1 year; Shank et al. 1977). Snow cover can be a problem for ibex; they appear to have limited mobility during heavy snow, but adapt, if forage is sufficient, by restricting their movements to steep areas where wind and insulation allows for variable snow depth (Fox et al. 1992). In some areas of central Asia with trees (e.g., Tian Shan and Altai ranges), ibex sometimes retreat to forested areas and avoid open meadows during winters with heavy snow. Acceptable ibex habitat is thus constrained not only by the presence of escape terrain, but also by an absence of frequent, heavy snows. Ibex move seasonally to winter range, but these movements may be rather short if elevation and aspect allow them to get away from snow without moving much. Investigations into the possible effects of future climate change on mountain ungulates have recently begun. Petterollii et al. (2007) found that although early spring green-up was advantageous to mountain ungulates, the rapid phenological process of spring vegetation caused by warmer temperatures was associated with reduced growth and survival of young, including in Alpine ibex. Ibex are mixed feeders, depending on a mixture of grasses, forbs, and shrubs, as available. They appear to be flexible in their specific choice of preferred forage, often doing well on coarse, woody forage that other mountain ungulates (e.g., argali, Ovis ammon) would find unpalatable. Ibex appear to require salt in their diet, particularly

8 Ibex Management Plan during lactation, and are known to congregate at salt licks where salt is insufficient in soil or vegetation. However, many areas in Afghanistan appear to have sufficient salt in soil or vegetation that licks may not be required. Ibex do not need to drink daily and will eat snow during winter. Ibex are crepuscular in activity (most active in early morning and early evening hours), usually avoiding activity during mid-day (Fox et al. 1992) A few parasites and diseases have been identified either in Asiatic ibex or closely related species. Vyrypaev and Litvinov (1974) identified sarcoptic mange caused by the mite Acarus sire, as prevalent among Asiatic ibex in the western Tian Shan of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. These authors believed that these parasites were implicated in population declines, although they did not provide clear evidence that mange was the ultimate cause of death (it is often associated with stress whose ultimate cause lies elsewhere). Acevedo et al. (2005) provided evidence that prevalence of bronchopulmonary nematode larvae in Iberian ibex was positively correlated with ibex density, which is unsurprising. They did not consider the levels of nematode infection to be a serious health risk to the ibex studied, and nematodes were not implicated in any episodes of elevated morality. However, Acevdeo and Cassinello (2009) noted that sarcoptic mange has been an issue for Iberian ibex in the past. Arif et al. (2007) reported on a die-off of captive Nubian ibex in Qatar from pleuralpneumonia caused by the virus-like prokaryote Mycoplasma capricolum. It was unclear from their study whether the ibex were infected from domestic goats (which are known to harbor the disease), or from ibex that had recently been arrived from a different captive facility. Verbisck-Bucker et al. (2008) suggested, however, that agalactia syndrome, characterized by mastitis, arthritis, and keratoconjunctivitis and caused by a different species of Mycoplasma, could be health risk to Iberian ibex.

C. Extant Populations in Afghanistan Asiatic ibex have historically inhabited most of the Hindu Kush range extending into central Afghanistan (Hassinger 1973, Habibi 1977). It appears that ibex populations in Afghanistan began retreating decades ago; maps in Habibi (1997) and Fedosenko and Blank (2001) evidently overstate the current distribution of Asiatic ibex in Afghanistan. Recent confirmed reports of ibex are restricted to Bamyan and Badakhshan Provinces. However, there remains potential habitat, depending on how it is defined, for ibex in a larger area of the country (see map below).

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Figure 3. Potential habitat for Asiatic ibex in Afghanistan, as mapped by the Wildlife Conservation Society, 2008.

IV. Areas within Afghanistan A. Bamyan Ibex probably inhabited most of Bamyan Province historically. However, the Ajar Valley has long been known as a concentrated area for ibex. The Ajar was formerly a hunting ground of King Zahir during 1950’s and 1960s (Skogland 1976, Shank et al. 1977) during which time livestock were prohibited from using the area, with livestock gradually increasing in the area during the 1970s. Foreign-based trophy hunting occurred until 1973, with an average of 25 ibex being removed yearly (Shank et al. 1977). Band-e-Amir protected area does not appear to have potential habitat for ibex,

10 Ibex Management Plan but areas to the north, particularly the Ajar Valley, do.

Figure 4. Locations of Band-e-Amir and the Ajar Valley within Bamyan Province, Afghanistan. B. Wakhan In recent years, ibex have been recorded from almost all mountainous areas within Wakhan District (Table 1, Fig. 5). Ibex are also known from all the mountain ranges surrounding Wakhan, in China, Pakistan, and Tajikistan (Roberts 1977, Schaller et al. 1987).

Table 1. Summary of recent ibex records in Wakhan District

Time period Location Team Number Observed Summer 2006 Big Pamir Habib 162 Summer 2007 Big Pamir Harris 31 Summer 2008 Big Pamir Winnie 118 Autumn 2008 Big Pamir WPA rangers 149

Summer 2008 Little Pamir Habib 54

Autumn 2008 Wakhjir Winnie 122

Summer 2008 Throughout Wakhan Timmins 146

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Figure 5. Google Earth image of Wakhan District, Afghanistan, showing approximate locations of recorded observations of ibex during 2006-2008 (red dots).

V. Issues in Conserving and Managing Asiatic ibex

An assessment of the conservation status of Asiatic ibex in other range states in Central Asia shows that it is generally an easier species to conserve than associated species of wild sheep. Where Asiatic ibex and argali live in the same mountain ranges, experience demonstrates that argali are more likely to be reduced by human causes than Asiatic ibex (Fox et al. 1991). Where Asiatic ibex share mountain ranges with urial, it is again the urial that is more likely to find itself in trouble. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) despite their common name, are ecologically much more goat-like than sheep- like, and generally occupy the same ecological niche as do Asiatic ibex. (There are only a few, small areas where blue sheep and Asiatic ibex co-exist; in general, mountains inhabited by one are not inhabited by the other and their geographic distributions overlap only slightly). Similarly to ibex, where blue sheep and argali occupy the same mountain range, it has universally been found to be the case that blue sheep populations are larger than argali populations, and are more likely to be stable or increasing, whereas argali populations are more likely to be in decline. The markhor (Capra falconeri),

12 Ibex Management Plan although a goat just like Asiatic ibex, share with wild sheep a preference for slightly lower, more gentle topography, and similarly, are more likely to be in decline than ibex where they share the same mountains. Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, the Nubian ibex although prized by poachers, has fared better than the similarly endangered gazelle, Gazella gazella, and for similar reasons (Attum 2007). That said, poaching can be the quickest route to the demise of a species, and can effectively prevent a rare species from recovering. Ibex, like any other free-ranging species, cannot respond favorably to good habitat conditions if they are hunted at a higher rate than they can reproduce, just as they cannot respond favorably to the absence of human mortality if vegetation they require is appropriated by domestic livestock, or if escape terrain they require is made unavailable by excessive human disturbance. In some situations, competition with and displacement by domestic sheep and goats can be problematic for Asiatic ibex. Any time a domestic species that shares evolutionary history with a wild species occupies a similar area, the potential for competitive interactions – almost inevitably to the detriment of the wild species – is present. Bagchi et al (2004) presented data from the Pin Valley in India that ibex and domestic sheep/goats used different parts of the study area, and interpreted this as displacement of the ibex by livestock. Their study design did not allow them to show causation clearly, however. In the closely related Iberian ibex, Acevedo et al. (2007) found that in areas where domestic goats were present, ibex tended to be displaced from preferred foraging areas. These authors did not, however, investigate possible displacement effects of other species of livestock on ibex. There is little evidence that untended livestock (e.g., yaks, horses) displace ibex. The largest concern regarding removal of forage needed by ibex or displacement from preferred areas is probably centered on winter, when ibex have fewer options of where to go. Forage is of poor quality during winter in any case, and snow may prevent ibex from traveling to areas with fewer livestock. In recent years, specialty wool traders have been advertising a premium wool that they call “yangir” (the Mongolian word for ibex), and claim that the product arises from legal hunts of Asiatic ibex (http://www.brundeviantiran.com/en/natural- fibres.cfm?i_fib=33-yangir-blanket-shawl; http://www.scabal.com/index.php?page=specialeditions_yangir; http://www.royalchangra.com/flash/yangir.swf). Because it seems unlikely that the

13 Ibex Management Plan number of legally killed ibex throughout central Asia is currently sufficient to underlie an international market, there is considerable suspicion that, if this wool is actually coming from free-ranging Asiatic ibex, the source is poaching. Although ibex populations in most range states are currently in no danger, the potential for market forces well beyond local control to produce great incentives to poach ibex is therefore present. Laboratory procedures exist to discriminate wool of ibex from those of other species (Tonin et al. 2002), but that does not necessarily mean that they are practical to use.

VI. Recovery Plan: Protected Species (Bamyan) A. Introduction and Rationale. It is clear that Asiatic ibex in Bamyan Province are not nearly sufficiently numerous to be considered for consumptive use. Indeed, that was no doubt part of the rationale for categorizing them as Protected by the Afghanistan Wildlife Executive Committee (AWEC). However, the recovery of Asiatic ibex in Bamyan is likely to be assisted by an awareness among both officials and local people that success is likely to lead to the possibility of limited, regulated hunting some time in the future. Such future consumptive use, if desired by local people and adequately regulated, can provide material, as well as spiritual benefits for people who must, necessarily, sacrifice or change some of their behaviors in the short-term. For now, however, ibex in Bamyan Province are extremely rare and at risk of total extirpation from the area. Total protection of all ibex is required, as is a renewed willingness on the part of both local people and government officials to prioritize saving them in this area. Asiatic ibex have historically inhabited most of the Hindu Kush range extending into central Afghanistan (Hassinger 1973, Habibi 1977), and were considered abundant in the Ajar Region. Skogland (1976) counted 989 ibex in the Ajar Valley in 1975. Shank et al. (1977) documented at least 1,350 ibex in the Ajar Valley during the mid 1970s, and agreed with local estimates that the total population might have been as many as 5,000. In fact, these authors all considered the ibex at this time to be over-abundant in the Ajar Valley, in danger of overexploiting their own forage base. From the late 1970s until approximately 2006, little was done to protect or monitor ibex in the Ajar Valley or surrounding areas, which evidently was the scene of considerable fighting during the various wars. Livestock grazing became common (some from local residents, some from itinerant kuchi pastoralists), and may have further

14 Ibex Management Plan exacerbated range conditions that were reported to be poor in the 1970s (Larsen 1978). Livestock grazing may have also affected wildlife use of springs, limiting access to water. It appears that local hunting of ibex became common, and was evidently uncontrolled. In 2006, Shank (2007a) observed 5 ibex during a 5-day survey in 2006, and reported that local opinion was that there may have been 100-200 ibex remaining in the area. Shank (2007b) saw 5 ibex during a survey in May 2007, but none during a subsequent survey in late October (Shank 2007c) or in spring 2008 (Shank 2008a). Evidently, poaching has been continuing from villagers based in Said Baba, Pushte Waz, Podinatu, Sarghazi Pijgah, Behgal, Sar Azia, Loranj and Char-Deh. The focus of this management plan is the recovery of ibex in the Ajar Valley. If this is successful, the scope of recovery should be expanded to consider additional appropriate areas within Bamyan Province. The principle issue that needs to be solved is unsustainable, illegal killing of the remaining ibex.

B. Management Area: All of Bamyan Province Although presently ibex evidently inhabit only a small portion of Bamyan, the area for special management of ibex is the entire province. No management sub-units are identified at this time.

C. Management Structure Under the general guidance and supervision of appropriate Provincial representatives of NEPA and MAIL, as well as District and Provincial governments and the newly formed Ajar Valley Zone Shura, the primary authority with responsibility for recovering ibex is the Ajar Valley Protected Area Committee (AVPAC). It is recommended that AVPAC take responsibility for training and permanently hiring 6 game guards. These game guards will have the task of deterring poachers, apprehending any poachers that are discovered, and referring any such cases to appropriate legal authorities.

D. Initial regulations 1. Ibex hunting is strictly prohibited. 2. In addition, ibex are not to be harassed, herded, or otherwise disturbed when feeding or drinking.

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E. Rangers and enforcement It is recommended that AVPAC take responsibility for training and permanently hiring 6 game guards. These game guards will have the task of deterring poachers, apprehending any poachers that are discovered, and referring any such cases to appropriate legal authorities.

F. Population monitoring Three fixed points have already been chosen for monitoring of ibex (Shank 2007b). These are: 1) Lachakhana-- A ridge top at N35.36914, E67.38129, 2575m elevation; 2) Pushte Jay— a big rock at N35.42793, E67.30583; and 3) Aw Surkhak-- a ridge top inside the Surkhak bowl at approximately N35.404922,E67.403406. In addition, game guards should continue to look for additional survey routes and fixed observation points with from which to survey for ibex. Understanding areas within the Ajar Valley that the remaining ibex use is equally important to estimating the number remaining. If possible, game guards should be provided with GIS-produced satellite images, which will facilitate them recording the locations where ibex are observed. As promising areas for ibex are identified, further, intensive surveys of these areas should be conducted by the game guards, as well as by willing volunteers. Such information will assist the development of more detailed, site-specific versions of this ibex management plan for Bamyan Province in the future.

G. Habitat management Where ibex have become very rare, management of livestock to reduce competition and displacement is ultimately useful. However, the management of livestock throughout the Province is beyond the scope of this management plan. Within the Ajar Valley, water is a resource required by both by domestic livestock and ibex. Some sharing of this resource must occur for ibex to recover. Particularly in late summer and early fall, and particularly in Sonbala and Mizan, when water resources are limiting, time must be allocated for ibex to have unimpeded access to water sources. Wakefield and Attum (2006) found that Nubian ibex reduced their use of a water hole in Saudi Arabia’s ibex reserve for 6 hours after it had been visited by human tourists. There was no evidence of avoidance during times > 6 hours since the most recent human visitors.

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The following springs have been identified as potentially important for the recovery of ibex (Shank 2007b): Yargholi, Zardi, Chalagh Morda, Jareyakh, Surkhak, and Pushtechob, The AVPAC must be responsible for setting up a schedule of water use that allows each of these springs to be used by pastoralists only on every 2nd day, allowing alternate days completely free of human disturbance, thus allowing the potential for ibex to drink.

VII. Management Plan: Harvestable Species (Wakhan)

A. Introduction and Rationale. The idea underlying this plan is to legitimize limited use of a natural resource, and thereby decrease the probability of its overuse. There are already community rangers in the area, who can i) reduce the probability of poaching, ii) conduct surveys of ibex, and iii) act as information conduits. It is suggested here that the management of ibex explicitly not embrace economic advancement as a goal, nor should the intent be to make money. There is currently insufficient assurance that management authorities in Afghanistan can avoid the pattern seen in most other Asian countries when the potential for substantial income from wildlife arises, i.e., that of the majority of such benefits accruing to those who don’t actually pay the opportunity costs of having wildlife. The intent here is rather to encourage a sense of stewardship locally, by legitimizing and systematizing limited consumptive use, and using those incentives and structures to reduce unregulated and unreported use (poaching). Should regulated harvest begin of Asiatic ibex in Wakhan District, it should be recognized that the success or failure of the program, in terms not only of the conservation of wild Asiatic ibex but also of equitable distribution of material benefits, will have implications not only for Asiatic ibex in Wakhan, but for the potential of future programs focused on other species and/or in other areas to be established. There are at least three conceptually distinct ways in which conservation of Asiatic ibex in Wakhan can be encouraged through sustainable use. These are i) international “trophy hunting”, presumably primarily by non-citizens of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, ii) national “trophy hunting”, by citizens of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and iii) community hunting, by local residents. These modes of

17 Ibex Management Plan sustainable use differ in the biological, social, and economic intentions and consequences. Most programs attempting to mobilize sustainable use as an avenue toward conservation in developing countries have focused on international trophy hunting. Indeed, there are at least 4 reasons to seriously consider international trophy hunting of Asiatic ibex as a strategy in Wakhan: i) The large and beautiful horns of adult males make this species of considerable interest to international trophy hunters; ii) The Big Pamir Wildlife Reserve already has a history of functioning as a trophy hunting area during the late 1960s and 1970s; iii) There is the potential of earning considerable sums of money by hosting foreign trophy hunters (Edwards 2006), and residents of Wakhan area are in need of financial support. iv) Trophy hunting for ibex hunting in nearby Pakistan is generally agreed to have had a positive effect on populations there (Ahmad 1995, Virk 1999, Shackleton 2001, Arshad et al. 2002, Hunnam et al. 2003; although Johnson 1997, Shackleton 2001, and Hussein 2007 pointed out deficiencies and risks of the programs). However, there are also disadvantages and risks of initiating sustainable use based on international trophy hunting of Asiatic ibex in Wakhan: i) Control of funds. Conservation incentives are stronger where people living alongside wildlife gain tangible benefits from sustainable use. However, experience in most areas of central Asia suggests that it will be difficult to ensure that benefits from trophy hunting flow to local people in need (Cunha 1995, Amgalaanbaatar et al. 2002, Harris and Pletscher 2002, Wingard and Zahler 2006). In some situations, incentives to conserve trophy animals have been criticized as insufficient to reduce poaching (Annekova 1999). It seems possible that, given the current formal and informal governmental structure, most tangible benefits arising from a trophy hunt in Wakhan, at least in the short-term, would be intercepted by higher-level government entities; ii) Amount of funds. There is a tendency toward inflated expectations of income when the notion of trophy hunting is suggested. Although it is true that some trophy animals command extremely high fees, it is not necessarily the case that all do. In particular, Asiatic ibex are generally priced much lower than argali occurring in similar areas. Further, the price that trophy hunters are willing to pay for a given species also depends on the perceived value of the animals in that particular locality relative to those

18 Ibex Management Plan available elsewhere, and the travel costs of getting to the hunting area. Although quantitative data are lacking, it seems likely that Asiatic ibex in the Pamir and Hindu- Kush mountains of Wakhan are generally no larger, and in fact may be somewhat smaller, than those available to trophy hunters in nearby countries. Trophy hunters typically desire to hunt > 1 species when expending funds to travel far from their home country. However, in Wakhan, potential trophy hunters would have only ibex available to them. Trophy hunters may also be legitimately concerned about their security while traveling in Afghanistan, and weigh this in their decision about whether to come to Wakhan relative to other areas. Asiatic ibex are currently legally taken by trophy hunters in China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan (although the programs in China and Tajikistan are temporarily suspended as of June 2009). Prices charged to trophy hunters for Asiatic ibex hunts vary considerably, depending on location and service. As of June 2009, some outfitters based in the United States charged hunters as much as $9,000 per ibex (for hunts in Tajikistan and Pakistan), and $5,700 (for hunts in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert). However, some outfitters based in Russia charged as little as $3,500 per hunter for an ibex hunt. Considering that overseas outfitters generally retain 10-15% of the total fee for their own services, the amount flowing into the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan would be 85-90% of these figures. iii) More conservative quotas. Because trophy hunters are very selective in the animals they remove, taking generally the oldest males only, it is necessary to require very conservative quotas for trophy hunts to be sustainable. This is because excessive removal of males will reduce the available of the very old, “trophy” males that are of economic interest, and because removing too many of the oldest rams has the potential to disrupt normal breeding systems, and thus have long-term (if subtle) adverse evolutionary consequences for the population. Thus, while there is very little risk that legal removals under a trophy-hunting management regime would induce an overall population decline, the total monetary value from these hunts would similarly be modest because only a few animals can be taken. iv) Dependence on economic and political factors beyond local or national control. A system premised on the incentives arising from foreign hunters is vulnerable to global economic and political factors well beyond the control of authorities at the district level in Iskhashim, the provincial level in Faizabad, or the national level in Kabul. Uncertainty regarding income flows can act to reduce conservation incentives. Even if the flow of hunters is reasonably stable, the dependence on outside funds may detract from a

19 Ibex Management Plan sense of community responsibility for the resource (Edwards 2006), and local communities would depend on entities at high levels to market hunts to foreigners (Shackleton 2001).

The second option is national trophy hunting. Both the rationale for considering national trophy hunting, and its disadvantages and risks, are similar to those for international trophy hunting. The major differences are that i) the amount of income that is likely to be generated by a national trophy hunt is considerably lower than an international trophy hunt, and ii) there is less need to involve national entities (and none to involve international entities), and thus control of benefits would probably simpler and more direct than in an international trophy hunt.

The third potential mode of sustainable use is community hunting. Most of the potential disadvantages of trophy hunting are avoided under a strategy of community hunting. In contrast to trophy hunting, a community hunting program makes no promise of lucrative financial returns. Instead, it is premised on the desirability of material and other benefits flowing directly to local people from the legitimization of limited hunting. In contrast to trophy hunting, it is expected that in a community hunt, selection for very old males will be less marked; instead, animals within any legally-defined category are expected to be removed from the population roughly in proportion to their abundance. For sustainability in a community hunt, there is lower standard that a sufficient number of large, “trophy” type animals be available for hunters. Similarly, there is less concern about long-term adverse evolutionary consequences, because the age-structure of males participating in breeding is likely to be similar to that without hunting (there will simply be fewer of them). However, community hunting poses much greater risks than does trophy hunting of reducing the population below acceptable levels. If incentives for sustainable use based on community hunting fail, and instead of encouraging responsible use it has the perverse effect of removing all impediments to killing, it could even lead to local extirpation.

This management plan takes the view that both the social circumstances in Wakhan and the biological characteristics of Asiatic ibex in the Pamir and Hindu Kush Mountains make it more likely that incentives toward conservation based on a

20 Ibex Management Plan community hunt will succeed, than that they will fail. These same characteristics however, make reliance on the potential incentives from an international trophy hunt riskier. A national trophy hunt would be intermediate between these two options, both in terms of risks and benefits.

Thus, two options are proposed here: legal, regulated community hunts as the primary vehicle for controlling human-caused mortality and encouraging habitat protection for Asiatic ibex in Wakhan; and a legal, regulated trophy hunt – but restricted to Afghan citizens (i.e., a national trophy hunt) – as the primary vehicle for controlling human mortality and encouraging habitat protection for Asiatic ibex. The notion of limiting consumptive behavior in order to allow for its long-term perpetuation evidently is not a novel concept historically in the region. According to Michel (2007), “From the Western Pamirs certain past community rules nowadays are still known. For instance, it was regulated in which gorge which community can hunt, hunting seasons were limited and avoided hunting during the lambing season, pregnant females were not allowed to be hunt and numbers of shot animals were limited. The entire topic of traditional rules on hunting would deserve much attention as it can provide one basis for the development of new community rules.” A concern under any management plan in which local people benefit from healthy numbers of ibex is that there may be increased incentive to reduce the number of its natural predator the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Hussain (2007) discussed this is relation to trophy hunting of ibex in Pakistan. Snow leopards remain a protected species in Afghanistan, and their conservation is of critical importance. The chance that incentives to poach snow leopards will increase must be weighed against the benefits to snow leopards from having a secure prey base. Additionally, educational efforts in the region, also conducted under the auspices of the WPA, are continuing to stress the value of the entire ecological community.

B. Management Area The “Wakhan Management Areas” will be taken to be the entirety of Wakhan District within Badakhshan Province. B. 1. Management Units The following management units will be recognized (from west to east): 1. Qazideh

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2. Khandud 3. Qila-e-Panja 4. Sast 5. Baba Tungi 6. Kandkhun 7. Western Big Pamir (for national trophy hunting option only) 8. Eastern Big Pamir (for national trophy hunting option only) 9. Nirs 10 Broghil 11. Digargund 12, Chaqmaqtin 13. Wakhjir 14. Tegerman Su

C. Management Structure Ultimate authority for conservation and use of Asiatic ibex rests with NEPA. Working in consultation with NEPA, the primary management organization with the responsibility and authority for ensuring conservation of Asiatic ibex and the sustainability of community hunting will be the Wakhan-Pamir Association (WPA). The WPA is charged with the responsibility of improving socio-economic conditions of communities across the landscape through sustainable use of natural resources. The WPA‘s jurisdiction includes all geographical areas, including villages, valleys, waterways and mountains. As of June 2009, WPA had a total of 33 rangers (16 in the Big Pamir and 17 in the Little Pamir areas). These rangers will be responsible for ensuring compliance with specific regulations. Specific regulations and dispute resolution will be under the aegis of the WPA. It is recognized that wildlife conservation and management is best understood as a process of adaptive management. While fundamental principles of conservation do not change, natural and social conditions do change. In addition, information on the state of the biological resource and of the social and economic conditions of human inhabitants of the area increases incrementally: information seen as the best available at one point in time may later be superseded by more complete or accurate information. Thus, the program includes a monitoring component, and a structure for revising specific regulations when appropriate.

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D. Initial regulations These regulations are suggested as appropriate to begin the program. However, as the program is intended to be dynamic and responsive to biological and social needs as they are identified by the WPA, they are open to revision.

D1. Community-based hunting option 1. Legal hunters a. Only residents of Wakhan District, as defined by the WPA, can legally apply for a hunting permit; b. Unless there are more permits available than the number of applicants, applicants for a permit for a CDC cluster must be a resident of that cluster, as defined by the WPA (if there are more permits than applicants, other Wakhan residents (above) may apply; c. A legal hunter must be 15 years of age or older; 2. Permission to hunt a. Only holder of permits, as issued by the WPA and valid for that year, may hunt Asiatic ibex. b. Any other hunting, unless specifically authorized by the WPA and approved by NEPA, is considered illegal and thus subject to appropriate legal penalty. c. Hunting may only occur for the species, sex, and/or other type of animal described by the permit. Hunting of any species, sex, or type of animal not permitted is considered illegal and thus subject to appropriate legal penalty. d. Permits may not be sold. However, after consultation with WPA, a permit holder may transfer the permit to another member of the permit holder’s family, but the same hunting restrictions apply. e. With the provision of a permit to hunt, the WPA will provide the hunter with a standardized tag, signed by the head of the WPA, which the hunter must attach to the carcass of the hunted animal immediately after the kill. This tag must remain attached to the carcass in a visible manner at all times. f. The carcass of the appropriately tagged animal must be made available for inspection by representatives of the WPA immediately after the hunter returns from the field. 3. Hunting season

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a. Permit holders may only hunt ibex within the prescribed season. Any hunting done before the 1st day of the season or after the last day of the season, even if done by a legal permit holder, is considered illegal and thus subject to appropriate legal penalty. b. The suggested hunting season for Asiatic ibex in Wakhan District is 1 October through 30 November of each year. 4. Legal use of animal products a. All animal products arising from legally killed ibex may be used and/or consumed by the hunter and his family. The hunter may also give animal products away freely, or barter them for other products. All useable portions of killed animals must be retrieved from the field. b. Excepting meat, no other animal products arising from a legally killed ibex may be sold to any other person, in or out of the community. This prohibition is needed to prevent a market in ibex wool (“yangir”) from distorting the community-based incentive system (see Bilal et al. 2003). 5. Tagging of legal animals a. The WPA will develop a standardized method of identifying animals legally hunted under this program, by affixing a weather-resistant tag to the carcass. 6. Prohibited areas. a. The Western Big Pamir Management Area (corresponding with the boundaries of the old Big Pamir Wildlife Management Area, or a newer Big Pamir protected area, if gazetted) will be closed to community-based hunting. The rationale for this is as follows: 1) All Wakhan villages have co-equal tenure rights in the Big Pamir area, and all benefits from responsible stewardship of the area should devolve to each in equal proportion. The system of community-based hunting, in which individuals from specific village clusters are afforded temporary rights to capture and ownership of individual ibex (who are otherwise a commonly-held resource), is not easily accommodated by this land tenure system. (In contrast, trophy hunts, in which benefits to the overall community are largely financial, can be more easily accommodated in the Big Pamir, because these benefits are more easily shared). 2) If only a community- based hunt occurs, the Big Pamir will continue to operate as a no-hunting zone. It is usually good management practice, when possible, to maintain a segment of an otherwise hunted population in an unhunted condition, as a baseline for future biological reference. 3) The Big Pamir area also contains a small and vulnerable portion of the

24 Ibex Management Plan overall Wakhan argali population. Retaining the Big Pamir as an area free of community- based hunting will lessen the possibility of poaching for argali in this area. b. All areas within 1 km of year-round settlements. No-hunting zones surrounding villages are good safety precautions, and are unlikely to reduce hunting opportunity for ibex substantially.

D2. National trophy hunting option 1. Legal hunters a. Only citizens of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan may apply for a permit to hunt ibex under the national trophy hunting program. b. A legal hunter must be 15 years of age or older. 2. Permission to hunt a. Only holder of permits, as issued by the WPA and valid for that year, may hunt Asiatic ibex. b. Any other hunting, unless specifically authorized by the WPA and approved by NEPA, is considered illegal and thus subject to appropriate legal penalty. c. Hunting may only occur for the species, sex, and/or other type of animal described by the permit. Hunting of any species, sex, or type of animal not permitted is considered illegal and thus subject to appropriate legal penalty. d. Permits may not be sold, exchanged for other items of value, or otherwise transferred to another person. Permit fees are non-refundable, and are paid by the owner regardless of success in obtaining an ibex trophy. e. With the provision of a permit to hunt, the WPA will provide the hunter with a standardized tag, signed by the head of the WPA, which the hunter must attach to the carcass of the hunted animal immediately after the kill. This tag must remain attached to the carcass in a visible manner at all times. f. The carcass of the appropriately tagged animal must be made available for inspection by representatives of the WPA immediately after the hunter returns from the field. g. Legally permitted hunters may be accompanied by non-hunting companions. However, any requirement of services in support of the hunt (e.g., guide, horses, tents, food) must be arranged for from within the Management Unit in which the hunt takes place. 3. Hunting season

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E. Initial quotas and quota setting E 1: Community-based hunting option 1. Initially, the community hunt will be intended for only male ibex. The intent is to protect female ibex, so as to assure that is conservative (i.e., biologically sustainable). If, after some time and experience with the hunt (and monitoring efforts support that the population is stable or growing, see section F below), the WPA may elect to expand legal hunting to both sexes. Species-specific demographic data and models are not available for C. sibirica. However, the closely related alpine ibex has been shown to be capable of growth of approximately 15% yearly when at low densities (and in at least one case, up to 28% yearly, Toigo et al. 2007), to exhibit density-regulation when at or

26 Ibex Management Plan near its carrying capacity, and that severe winter weather exacerbates the limiting effect of density (Sæther et al. 2002, Jacobson et al. 2004). 2. Until or unless the WPA changes regulations to allow both sexes to be legally hunted, a legally-killed animal is defined as one with at least 1 horn of no less than 40cm long, as measured from the base of the skull to the tip of the horn. This regulation is intended to minimize the chance that a female will be killed (Roberts 1977: 193; Fedosenko and Blank 2001:2). Any animal that meets this minimum horn-length size, if otherwise legally killed, is considered a legal, regardless of its sex. (This allows rare misidentification of a female animal that happened to have extraordinarily long horns). Permits to hunt will only be valid during the prescribed hunting season (suggested in 3.b., above, as 1 October through 30 November of each year). 3. Initially, the allowable number of permits for male ibex should be equal to the closest whole number to 5% of total number of ibex counted within the management unit, or 10% of number of male ibex seen within the management unit, whichever is greater. That is, if 100 total ibex were seen in the management unit, (including females, males, and young), a total of 5 permits for males would be issued (100 * 0.05). However, if 60 of the 100 ibex seen were males, 6 permits for males would be issued (60 * 0.10). This quota, based always on the proportion of some estimated number of animals, can be raised if monitoring (see section H, below) suggests that doing so is sustainable, or lowered, if monitoring suggests it is excessive. These initial quotas are designed to be conservative. That is, they may not provide as much opportunity for local use as is potentially available. However, it is suggested at the outset that quotas be conservative under the assumption that it will be easier to gradually increase the quota if appropriate than to reduce it after people have certain expectations of benefits. A quota of 5% of the total count (or 10% of the total count of males), with only male ibex legally taken, implicitly allows for a) a small amount of poaching, undetected and undeterred by the conservation system, b) a small amount of mistaken killing of female rather than male ibex, and c) a small selection by hunters for larger over small males, thus slightly altering the age-structure of breeding males. Even with modest levels of all 3 of these, this level of harvest is unlikely to produce any long-term adverse biological consequences. It is expected that, subjected to legal hunting such as this, the ibex population will have a long-term equilibrium population slightly smaller than it would under no human harvest at all. However, if as expected, legal hunting in this way reduces or completely eliminates illegal hunting, the ibex

27 Ibex Management Plan population could easily increase. Grachev (n.d.) recommended as a conservative strategy a hunt of 5-7% of the number of Asiatic ibex in the Almaty region of Kazakhstan, although he assumed that females would also be taken in proportion to their availability in the population. This proposed system of producing a quota for permits would be more conservative than that recommendation. At the same time, it is important to be vigilant against the possibility that the community hunt could reduce the proportion of older males in the population excessively, possibly initiating a long-term, if gradual, decline in genetic diversity in the population. Largest-horned males are not merely older males; they also tend to be the most genetically diverse, and play an important role in future evolutionary potential of the species (Von Hardenberg et al. 2007). Although neither breeding structure nor heritability of horns as been specifically studied in Asiatic ibex, there are suggestions that variability exists not merely by age and habitat conditions, but also on an individual basis (Bergeron et al. 2008). 4. The ibex numbers to use for applying the proportion for the permit quota (e.g., the 5% or the 10%), should be the previous years’ count, if only 1 year is available. As consecutive year counts are available, the number used should be the 3-year running average of the counts. Two examples of using the running 3-year average are produced below (the first using counts of all ibex, the 2nd using counts of male ibex only; the annual quota would be the higher of these two). This is done to reduce unnecessary fluctuations in the number of permits owing simply to the fact that ibex counts will be imprecise, and vary considerably due to weather, effort, and other factors unrelated to true population size. ———————————————————————————————————————— Table 2. An example of how the number of permits to harvest male ibex might be determined based on counts of all ibex conducted during the previous 3 years.

Year Total Count of Ibex Formula Permits (harvestable males) ------1 100 (100 * 0.05) 5 2 140 ((100 + 140) /2 * 0.05) 6 3 80 ((100+140+80)/3) * 0.05) 5 4 135 ((140+80+135)/3) * 0.05) 6 5 155 ((80+135+155+)/3) * 0.05) 6 6 60 (135+155+60)/3) * 0.05) 6 7 75 (155+60+75)/3) * 0.05) 5 ______

——————————————————————————————————————

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Table 3. An example of how the number of permits to harvest male ibex might be determined based on counts of male ibex only conducted during the previous 3 years.

Year Total Count of Male Ibex Formula Permits (harvestable males) —————————————————————————————————————— 1 40 (40 * 0.10) 4 2 56 ((40 + 56)/2 * 0.10) 4 3 36 ((40+56+36)/2) * 0.10) 4 4 68 ((56+36+68)/3) * 0.10) 5 5 90 ((36+68+90)/3) * 0.10) 6 6 60 (68+90+60)/3) * 0.10) 7 7 75 (90+60+75)/3) * 0.10) 7 ——————————————————————————————————————

5. In addition to the automatic adjustment to the quota that results from having it pegged to annual counts via a set proportion (above), the success rates of hunting permit holders should be evaluated when considering future adjustments to the harvestable percentage (section 3 above). Each year, the proportion of legal permit holders successfully killing an ibex within the legal hunting season will be known to the community. If success rates are > 50% and remain relatively stable over a period of 5 years or more, this would tend to suggest that there is not need to reduce the harvestable percentage. If success rates are < 50%, or show a clear pattern of decline over a period of 5 or more years, a review quotas and/or of the overall plan should be initiated, with an eye toward a more conservative management regime. If success rates are > 75% and show a pattern of clear increase, can review quotas with an eye toward possibly increasing them In addition, the WPA will be tasked with adding up the total number of days spent hunting by all permitted hunters each year (see F.5, below), and calculating the simple index: days spent hunting per ibex killed. If this index is relatively stable or declines, this suggests the ibex population is stable or increasing, and increases confidence that the system is operating as intended. If this index increases, this suggests that the ibex population may be declining, and a review of quotas and/or overall plan should be undertaken, with an eye toward a more conservative management regime If after a few years, there is strong evidence of population increase or other positive indicators that the population is capable of sustaining this hunt and the community is interested in additional opportunity to use ibex consumptively, consideration should be given to adding a similar number legal permits to kill females. E2. National trophy hunting option

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1. A legally-killed animal is defined as one with at least 1 horn of no less than 40cm long, as measured from the base of the skull to the tip of the horn. 2. Initially, the allowable number of permits for male ibex should be equal to the closest whole number to 2% of total number of ibex counted within the management unit, or 4% of number of male ibex seen within the management unit. That is, if 100 total ibex were seen in the management unit, (including females, males, and young), a total of 2 permits for males would be issued (100 * 0.02). However, if only 35 of the 100 ibex seen were males, 1 permit for males would be issued (35 * 0.04). This conservative quota should ensure that a sufficient number of large, mature males (and/or males with genotypes conducive to fast-growing horns) are retained in the living population to provide for normal breeding and maintenance of normal allele (gene) frequencies. 3. The ibex numbers to use for applying the proportion for the permit quota (e.g., the 2% or 4%), should be the previous years’ count, if only 1 year is available. As consecutive year counts are available, the number used should be the 3-year running average of the counts.

F. Quota allocation F1. Community-based hunting option The WPA will be responsible for allocation of ibex hunting permits. The suggested method of allocating permits is as follows: i) The sub-quota for each management unit is first determined, based on the results of previous surveys (see section F, below); ii) The WPA publicizes the availability of this number of permits among community members within each cluster; iii) After a sufficient length of time has elapsed to allow all prospective applicants to make their applications but no less than 1 month prior to the start of that year’s hunting season, a lottery is held to determine which applicants will receive permits; iii.a) Applicants submit their applications by 1) paying the application fee, and 2) submitting writing on a standardized sized piece of paper on which is clearly written their name, or alternatively, a clearly written mark which distinguishes them from other members of the community; iiii.b) The lottery occurs in a public place where all interested can observe the process;

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iii.c) The pieces of paper are put into a box or other container which is covered, so that none of them can be seen, but has a hole large enough for a person to put their hand in, and the pieces of paper are mixed and shuffled so that they are well mixed, and their likelihood of being selected is, for all practical purposes, equal; iii.d) Being careful to not look at the piece of paper, person(s) selected by the WPA select pieces of paper until the quota has been reached. The fee to apply for a permit shows good faith in the process, and partly helps defray expenses associated with operating the lottery. Suggested application fee: 50 Afs. Successful applicants will be required to pay a permit fee of 100 Afs. Successful permit holders will be precluded from entering their name in the lottery for the subsequent 2 years. After this time period, they will be allowed to do again enter their name in the annual lottery for permits, and have an equal chance of selection as all other applicants. Exception: If there are fewer applicants in a given management unit than the number of available permits, the 2-year waiting period is waived.

F2: National trophy hunting option The WPA will be responsible for allocation of ibex hunting permits. The suggested method of allocating permits is as follows: 1. One-half of all available permits in any year must come from the Big Pamir management district. The other half of all available permits can come from any management district with a sufficient number of ibex to yield a quota of 1 or more (see Section E2. above). 2. Permits will be sold to individual applicants who have shown interest by paying an application fee by the WPA in an open, transparent manner, on a first-come, first- serve basis. The fee to apply for a permit shows good faith in the process, and partly helps defray expenses associated with operating the lottery. Suggested application fee: 500 Afs. Successful applicants will be required to pay a national trophy hunting permit fee of 50,000 Afs. (This price can be raised or lowered in future years, depending on demand. However, once the price is set for any year, it cannot be changed until the next year, and cannot be reduced or increased to individual permit applicants).

G. Use of revenues

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Any and all revenue obtained by the WPA from ibex hunting must be used in a way that is consistent with the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem on which both Wakhan’s people and wildlife depend. G1. Community-hunt option 1. Revenues received by WPA from application fees and permit fees will be used to support the administration of the permit allocation system, to support WPA rangers, and to support yearly wildlife monitoring.

G1. National trophy-hunt option One-half of income to the WPA arising from application fees and permit fees will be used for recurring management expenses of the program (i.e., rangers’ salary, wildlife population monitoring, administrative costs). The remaining half will be spent on community development projects with conservation as cross cutting theme, i.e. improving trails, irrigating new lands for fodder to reduce pressure from high altitude pastures, promote awareness through community outreach and environmental education, setting and partly subsidizing a livestock insurance program to rationalize the risk of predation from wild predators. As an association WPA cannot distribute profits or income directly among individual stockholders. However, projects that are deemed to be in the community interest, as agreed-upon through established WPA procedures, can be funded with funds from the national trophy hunt.

H. Population monitoring 1. With the assistance and under the guidance of NEPA and the Ministry of Agriculture, the WPA will be expected to conduct annual surveys of ibex within each of the 9 management units. If an annual survey cannot be conducted in any give year, the WPA must produce a short explanation of why this has occurred, and make it available for community inspection. The following year, a survey should be conducted. 2. Following each survey, a report listing its results must be produced in writing, and made freely available for inspection by member of the public. 3. The survey and written report must be completed no less than 1 month prior to the opening of the hunting season (i.e., 1 September of each year). 4. Survey methodology a. “Index” count method

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Long experience in the field of wildlife population dynamics has shown that observers never find all the wild animals in any given area. Despite the certainty one may have that one has seen “all” the animals, surveys of wildlife should not be viewed as a “census”. Despite the fact that ibex occupy open habitats and seem to be easily visible, even experienced observers fail to count all ibex present (Gaillard et al. 2003). There are methods that can be used to estimate the number of animals not seen, and thus estimate the total number of animals present, but these require more rigorous field methods, attention to detail, and greater mathematical sophistication. Here, it is assumed that counts will be incomplete (i.e., not find all the animals), but that if a standardized procedure is adopted, and attention is paid to replicating the methods of the survey each year, long-term trends of the actual population will be reflected in long- term trends of index counts. It has been shown for alpine ibex in France that as long as counts in which conditions were very poor (and thus counts are particularly low relative to the true number of animals) are accounted for, long-term trends in ibex populations can be approximated by standardized ground counts (Largo et al. 2008). 1. Annual surveys in all management units must occur as close in time to each as possible, to minimize chance that animals move between them and are thus get double counted 2. WPA rangers and other volunteers walk, or ride along ridges, scanning mountain slopes for ibex. A GPS reading should be taken at the location from which each ibex group is observed. All ibex are documented, including sex and age-class (kid, yearling, young male, old male) when possible (e.g., Pandey 1993, Ali 2007). Observers strive to avoid counting the same animals more than once, by observing where they travel and using their best judgment to assess whether animals seen later are the same as those already recorded. 3. Extrapolations to areas not actually surveyed should not be made until or unless clear procedures for unbiased sampling and statistical methods are in place. 5. Additional information the trend of ibex population provided by hunters a. As part of the privilege of obtaining a legal permit to kill ibex, all hunters will be required to: i) Make a written tally of all ibex (as well as argali) seen while in the field hunting ibex. This must be provided to the WPA at the end of the hunting season. Similar methods have been shown to correlate well with the true number of ungulates (Ericsson and Wallin 1999,Solberg and Saether 1999, Kindberg et al. 2009).

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ii) Make a written tally of the number of days spent hunting for ibex, whether successful or not. This must be provided to the WPA at the end of the hunting season. Days in which the weather was particularly poor, or hunting was not done seriously should count as only ½ day.

I. Habitat management In general, Asiatic ibex appear to tolerate modest levels of disturbance, and appear able to maintain populations even in the face of modest levels of forage competition from domestic livestock. However, to maintain a population capable of sustaining use, consideration must be given to limiting disturbance and reduction of forage. 1. All people who apply for a permit to hunt ibex under the community-hunting program, whether successful or not, as well as all people who have applied for permits within the previous 5 years, are asked to avoid herding domestic sheep and goats to within approximately 300 m of steep cliffs in ibex habitat. Ibex need forage as well, and generally stay close to steep, rocky habitats. By limiting forage reduction in these areas, and avoiding direct disturbance, ibex have a better chance to sustain themselves or increase, thereby increasing the number that can later be hunted.

Acknowledgements: Funding for the preparation of this document was provided by the USAID/Wildlife Conservation Society Afghanistan Biodiversity Project. Dr. C. C. Shank and Dr. J. A. Mock provided valuable data and insight into the preparation of this document. The analyses and recommendations in this document are those solely of the author. Nothing in this document is intended to imply endorsement or agreement by either USAID or the Wildlife Conservation Society.

VIII. References

Acevedo, P., J. Vicente, V. Alzaga and C. Gortazar. 2005. Relationship between bronchopulmonary nematode larvae and relative abundances of Spanish ibex

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Habibi, K. 1977. The mammals of Afghanistan: their distribution and status. Field Documents o 1: FO/DP/AFG/74/016. FAO, Rome. Habibi, K. 1997. Afghanistan. pp. 204-211 in Shackleton, D.M., 1997, Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge Harris, R.B. and D.H. Pletscher. 2002. Incentives toward conservation of argali (Ovis ammon): a case study of trophy hunting in western China. Oryx 36: 373-381. Hassinger, J.D. 1973. A survey of the mammals of Afghanistan resulting from the 1965 Street expedition. Fieldiana Zoology 60: 1-195. Hunnam, P., G. Brodnig, H. Khawar, and M. M. Khan. 2003. Mountain Areas Conservancy Project Pakistan: Mid-Term Evaluation Report. UNDP Project Number: PAK/98/G31 GEF Project Number: 947 Hussain, S. 2007. Do economic incentives work? Seminar 577, September 2007: 1-7. IUCN, 2008, 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Jacobson, A.R., A. Provenzale, A. von Hardenberg, B. Bassano, and M. Festa-Bianchet. 2004. Climate forcing and density dependence in a mountain ungulate population. Ecology 851598–1610. Johnson, K. A. 1997. Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for Caprinae in Pakistan. pp. 393-423 in Freese, C.H., Harvesting wild species: implications for biodiversity conservation. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Kindberg, J. G. Ericsson, and Jon E. Swenson. 2009. Monitoring rare or elusive large mammals using effort-corrected voluntary observers. Biological Conservation 142: 159-165. Largo, E., Gaillard, J-M., Festa-Bianchet, M., Toı¨go, C., Bassano, B., Cortot, H., Farny, G., Lequette, B., Gauthier, D. & Martinot, J-P. 2008: Can ground counts reliably monitor ibex Capra ibex populations? - Wildlife. Biology. 14: 489-499. Larson, J.Y. 1978. Status of alpine rangelands in central Afghanistan with special reference to Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Afghanistan. Kabul. Malik, M. M. 1987. Management plan for wild artiodactyls in Northwest Frontier Province, Pakistan. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, University of Montana. 142 pp. Michel, S. 2007. Project Concept – Community-based conservation and management of mountain ungulates in Tajikistan. Unpublished report. Firuza Abdurakhimova,

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NGO "Nature Protection Team"/UNEPCOM Pandey, S., 1993, Estimation of density of ibex Capra ibex Linn, in Pin Valley National Park, Himachal Pradesh. Journal Bombay Natural History Society 89:361-363. Pettorelli, N, F. Pelletier, A. Von Hardenberg, M. Festa-Bianchet, and S.D. Cote. 2007. Early onset of vegetation growth vs. rapid green-up: Impacts on juvenile mountain ungulates. Ecology 88:381–390. Roberts, T.J., 1977, The Mammals of Pakistan, xxvi + 361 pp., Ernest Benn, London. Sæther, B-E., Engen, S., Filli, F., Aanes, R., Schroder, W. and Andersen, R. 2002: Stochastic population dynamics of an introduced Swiss population of the ibex. Ecology 83: 3457-3465. Schaller, G.B., 1977, Mountain Monarchs: wild sheep and goats of the Himalaya. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. Schaller, G.B., 1998, Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe, Chicago University Press, Chicago Schaller, G.B., Hong, L., Talipu, Lu H., Ren J.R., Qiu M.J. and Wang H.B. 1987, Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biological Conservation 42: 53-71., Shackleton, D.M., 1997, Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae., , IUCN, Gland and Cambridge Shackleton, D.M. and S. Lovari. 1997. Classification adopted for the Caprinae Survey. pp. 9-14 in Shackleton, D.M., 1997, Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae., , IUCN, Gland and Cambridge Shackleton, D.M. 2001. A review of community-based trophy hunting programs in Pakistan. Mountain Areas Conservancy Project-IUCN. Shank, C.C., Petocz, R.G. and Habibi, K. 1977, A preliminary management plan for the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve. Field Document No. 4; FO:DP/AFG/ 74/016. FAO, Rome. Shank, C.C. 2007a. The Wildlife Conservation Society. Afghanistan biodiversity conservation project. Hazarajat Component - 2006 Annual Report. Unpublished report, Kabul. Shank, C.C. 2007b. The Wildlife Conservation Society. Afghanistan biodiversity conservation project. Bamyan trip report. May 6 – 24, 2007. Unpublished report, Kabul.

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Shank, C.C. 2007c. The Wildlife Conservation Society. Afghanistan biodiversity conservation project. Bamyan trip report. October 22- November 7, 2007. Unpublished report, Kabul. Shank, C.C. 2008a The Wildlife Conservation Society. Afghanistan biodiversity conservation project. Bamyan trip report. May 16 – June 12, 2008. Unpublished report, Kabul. Shank, C.C. 2008b The Wildlife Conservation Society. Afghanistan biodiversity conservation project. Bamyan trip report. October- November 2008. Unpublished report, Kabul. Skogland, T. 1976. Ecological reconnaissance of the Hindu Kush ibex (Capra ibex) in Ajar Valley, Bamyan Province, Afghanistan. UNDP/FAO Project AFG/72/005 Solberg, E.J., and B.-E. Saether. 1999. Hunter observations moose as a management tool. Wildlife Biology 5: 107-117. Toïgo, C., J-M Gaillard, M.Festa-Bianchet, E. Largo, J. Michallet, and D. Maillard. 2007. Sex- and age-specific survival of the highly dimorphic Alpine ibex: evidence for a conservative life-history tactic. Journal of Animal Ecology 76: 679–686 Tonin, C., M. Bianchetto, C. Vineis, and M. Festa-Bianchet. 2002. Differentiating fine hairs from wild and domestic species: investigations of shatoosh, yangir, and cashmere fibers. Textile Research Journal 72: 701-705 Verbisck-Bucker, G. M. Gonzalez-Candela, J. Galian, M. J. Cubero-Pablo, P. Martin- Atance, and L. Leon-Vizcaino. 2008. Epidemiology of Mycoplasma agalactiae infection in free-ranging Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) in Andalusia, southern Spain. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 44(2):369–380 Vyrypaev V.A., and V.F. Litvinov. 1974. The influence of sarcoptosis on the population of Capra sibirica Pall in western Tien Shan. First International Theriological Congress. Moscow, 1974. V. II. Pp.292-293. Virk, A.T. 1999. Integrating wildlife conservation with community-based development in Northern Areas, Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Montana. 168 pp. Von Hardenberg, A., B. Bassano, M. Festa-Bianchet, G. Luikart, P. Lanfranchi, and D. Coltman. 2007. Age-dependent genetic effects on a secondary sexual trait in male Alpine ibex, Capra ibex. Molecular Ecology 16: 1969–1980

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by endangered ungulates. Journal of Arid Environments 65:668–672 Wingard, J.R., and Zahler, P. 2006. Silent Steppe: The Illegal Wildlife Trade Crisis in Mongolia. Wildlife Conservation Society, 006.ttp://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFI CEXT/MONGOLIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21021328~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127 ~theSitePK:327708,00.html.

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Appendix Relevant portions of Draft Fauna Conservation Regulation Article 1. Fauna Management Plan Requirements (1) Pursuant to the Environment Law Articles 48 and 50, fauna management plans shall be developed for protected and harvestable species and include the following: (i) an assessment of the status and distribution of the species nationwide including detailed maps; (ii) a statement of the legal status and public policies affecting the conservation and use of the species; (iii) a conclusion and major management recommendations; (iv) a statement of management goals and long-term population objectives; (v) a statement of the management objectives and strategies for each identified sub-population; (vi) an assessment of critical habitat to be set aside as a species habitat management area pursuant to Environment Law Article 48; (vii) an assessment of the ability of populations to sustain hunting at the desired level; (viii) a list and detailed description, including maps of areas where hunting or fishing, as the case may be, for the species may and may not occur.

Chapter 2, Article 4 (1)(iii) where possible and appropriate, and in accordance with this Regulation, transfer effective management responsibilities for fauna resources within defined geographical areas to communities; Chapter 2, Article 4 (1)(iv) prepare all national level species management plans for Afghanistan; Chapter 2, Article 4, (1) (v) ensure that management planning for fauna is an integral part of land use planning and natural resource management planning, and of management plans for protected areas and habitats; Article 2. Powers and Obligations of Community Organizations (1) Community organizations may be established for the purpose of managing and accessing fauna resources. (2) Such community organizations may include Community Forestry Associations formed under the Forest Law of 1387, or Community Rangeland Association formed under the Rangeland Law of 1387, or other organizations legally recognized by the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and meeting the following requirements: (i) must be managed in accordance with the purpose of this Regulation, and the rights and obligations as set forth in this Regulation; (ii) must comply with the terms and conditions of any fauna resource right granted pursuant to this Regulation and land lease agreement granted by relevant legislation; (iii) may establish their own procedures concerning access and use, provided they are consistent with fauna resource rights and land lease rights;

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(iv) shall have the right to formulate and enforce their own internal procedures and exercise dispute resolution consistent with local traditions, provided these are not in contradiction with the provisions of this Regulation or any Regulations or Procedures made under it, and shall be made available to NEPA and the Ministry upon request; and (v) shall have the right to enforce all rules governing access to and use of the resource as against third parties, subject to the Government’s authority. Article 3. Functions of Community Organizations (1) With the assistance of the Ministry and other stakeholders, a Community Organization shall have the following functions: (i) organize and implement community-based fauna resource management on its lands in an independent manner in accordance with this Regulation; (ii) create committees for the planning and implementation of community- based fauna resource management; (iii) discuss and make decisions concerning local strategies for community- based fauna resource management and other land uses, including cross- boundary strategies if applicable; and (iv) monitor and evaluate activities within the areas for which the Community Organization holds a fauna resource right or rights.