Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
THE LIFESTYLE OF THE KAMPONG AYER (FLOATING VILLAGE) COMMUNITY IN BRUNEI DURING THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE BRITISH RESIDENT (1906-1941)
By:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Haji Awg Asbol Bin Haji Mail Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
and
Dr. Haji Tassim Haji Abu Bakar Senior Lecturer, Academy Of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
INTRODUCTION
This article undertakes to analyse the lifestyle of the Kampong Ayer (floating village) community during the era of governance under the British Resident. In Brunei’s historical records, there are two phases of this form of governance. The first phase occurred between
1906 until 1941. This phase ended abruptly on 16 December 1941 due to the arrival of the
Japanese army of a strength of ten thousand men in Brunei. On 22 December, they reached
Bandar Brunei (the capital) and effortlessly occupied the state because there was no resistance from the people. The Japanese army remained in power until 17 June 1945 because thereafter, it was defeated by the Allied Forces. With this defeat, martial law was enforced in Brunei by the British administration. After peace was regained, martial law was lifted and it was subsequently replaced by a system of public administration that was Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) governed by the British Resident, which was reintroduced in 1946.1 With that, the second era of governance under the British Resident started, from 1946 until 1959, after the proclamation of the written constitution of Negeri Brunei. In that year, the British residency was abolished and the Resident was replaced by the British High Commissioner, whose role was limited to advising the sultan in issues of national security. Henceforth, the main administrative power in the government was handed over to the country’s Chief Minister and the Secretary of State.2
It must be stressed that this article only discusses the first phase of the British residency, with a focus on the economic and social aspects of the community that lived in Kampong Ayer or floating villages. The discussion in this article attempts to illustrate the depth of the traditional way of life within the community and whether it was able to withstand modern influences after the introduction of the British residential administration.
BACKGROUND OF PEOPLE’S LIFESTYLE PRIOR TO THE ERA OF THE BRITISH RESIDENT THE KAMPONG AYER (FLOATING VILLAGE) CENTRE OF GOVERNANCE
Before the establishment of the British residential administration in 1906, the centre of governance in Brunei was located in Kampong Ayer (floating village). It can be considered the capital or most important city at the time because this was the location of the sultan’s palace, along with residences of Brunei’s dignitaries, ulamas (scholars) and businessman. Therefore, it was also the centre of administrative operations for the various colonised regions under the kingdom’s rule. Early evidence that proved the existence of Kampong Ayer in Brunei was as recorded in the sixteenth century by Antonio Pigafetta, a transcriber on Magellan’s sea
1 Sabihah Osman, Muhammad Hadi Abdullah & Sabullah Haji Hakip.1995. Sejarah Brunei Menjelang Kemerdekaan (The History of Brunei at the Dawn of Independence), Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka, p. 95 -109; BAR, 1946, p.8 2 Pelita Brunei, 1 February 1959; Pelita Brunei, 29 September 1959. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) voyage around the world. It was the largest settlement in Brunei prior to the period of the
British residency. Aside from its function as the centre of governmental administration, it also functioned as a centre of economic activity, especially in the sectors of fisheries, handicraft and trading. Aside from that, Kampong Ayer also became a centre for Islamic expansion because of the many scholars, which consisted of Pehin-Pehin Menteri Agama (religious ministers), that lived in the area.
Western travellers that visited Brunei or have heard of it mentioned Kampong Ayer as resembling Venice, with many water lanes 3 There were some that mentioned it as this greatest ever of Malay cities.4 Previously, before Kampong Ayer’s current location, its original location was in Kota Batu. Then, it was relocated to where it stands today. According to a report by Pigafetta who once came to Brunei in 1521, the population of Kampong Ayer was twenty-five thousand families. Only the Sultan and dignitaries resided on land.5 Thus, it could be estimated that the population of Kampong Ayer at that time was between twenty to thirty thousand people. This means that at that time, this area had a population that was quite high.
Brunei was a sultanate ever since the fourteenth century when Awang Alak Betatar embraced
Islam after his marriage to a Johorean princess in 1386. He adopted the title Sultan
Muhammad Shah. In the administration of the Bruneian kingdom, the sultan’s political and socioeconomic power was the highest. In socioeconomic terms, the power of the sultan
3 D.E.Brown.1970. Brunei: The Structure and History of A Bornean Malay Sultanate. Monograph of the Brunei Museum Journal, vol. II no. 2, Bandar Brunei: The Brunei Museum Brunei, p.93; Jatswan S. Sidhu. 1995. Sejarah Sosioekonomi Brunei (Brunei Socioeconomic History) 1906-1959. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka, p.57.
4 K.G. Tregonning. 1968. “The Partition on Brunei”, Journal of Tropical Geography, vol. II, p.84
5 Robert Nicholl.1975. European Sources for the History of the Sultanate of Brunei in the Sixteenth Century, Bandar Seri Begawan: Muzium Brunei, p.10 Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) included control over the lands and subjects in the Bruneian empire, along with trade, traditions and customs, law, the appointment of dignitaries and also religion. The lands or colonies in the Bruneian empire belonged to the sultan and His Majesty’s family. These lands were also known as Sungai Kerajaan, Sungai Kuripan and Sungai Tulin. A land of the status
Sungai Kerajaan belonged to the sultan, whereas those of the status Sungai Kuripan belonged to the Wazir. These were both owned in relation to their titles. Therefore, they were not to be inherited, but would belong to the successor of the title. This was in contrast to lands that had the status of Sungai Tulin, which could be inherited by the subsequent owners, of whom were strictly the sultan and the royal family. The region of Kampong Ayer had the status of Sungai Kerajaan. 6
In executing the administration of the country, the sultan was assisted by dignitaries that consisted of the Wazir, Ceteria (knights), Menteri (ministers) and village heads. The group of
Wazir consisted of four dignitaries, Pengiran Bendahara, Pengiran Pemanca, Pengiran
Digadong and Pengiran Temenggung. On another note, the group of Ceteria consisted of
Ceteria Empat (four), Lapan (eight), Enam Belas (sixteen) and Tiga Puluh Dua (thirty-two). In this group Ceteria Empat, which consisted of Pengiran Shah Bandar, Pengiran Maharaja
Lela, Pengiran Paduka Tuan and Pengiran Maharaja Adinda, were the highest in ranking. The
Menteris (ministers), on the other hand, were elected from amongst the common people who were charismatic in their leadership and influential in society. They usually consisted of the wealthy. The group of Menteri consisted of Menteri Empat (four), Lapan (eight), Enam Belas
(sixteen) and Tiga Puluh Dua (thirty-two). The highest in ranking for this group was Dato
6 Haji Awg Asbol bin Haji Mail. 2011. Kesultanan Melayu Brunei Abad ke 19 Politik dan Struktur Pentadbiran (The Brunei Malay Sultanate in 19th Century Politics and Administrative Stucture), Bandar Seri Begawan: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, p. 107-112; Pehin Haji Awg Mohd Jamil Al-Sufri. 1990. Tarsilah Brunei: Sejarah Awal dan Perkembangan Islam (The Family History of Brunei: Early History and Development of Islam), Bandar Seri Begawan: Pusat Sejarah Brunei, p.53-54. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Perdana Menteri, Orang Kaya Digadong Seri Nara Indera and Orang Kaya Digadong Seri
Laila7. Aside from them, there were also Bruneian dignitaries who were appointed as the kingdom’s representative to the colonies. They were all regarded as rulers and had a high social status amongst Brunei society because they had political power and a strong standing in economy. On the other hand, the subjects consisted of common people and slaves. They resided in villages that were located on land, river banks and on the sea.
THE ORIGIN OF GOVERNANCE UNDER THE BRITISH RESIDENT
Governance under the British Resident was introduced following the decline in the number of
Bruneian colonies due to British take-overs in the nineteenth century. Control over Bruneian colonies in Sarawak was taken by the Brooke family since 1841, which was pioneered by
James Brooke. After he died in 1868, he was succeeded by Charles Brooke. On the other side in Sabah, the North Borneo British Company gained control since 1865. These regions were controlled by western powers either by force using firepower, or were leased, granted or given by the owner, and some were even bought. Previously, at end of the fifth and sixteenth centuries Brunei once reached its glory under the reign of Sultan Bolkiah (1485-1524) and
Sultan Muhammad Hassan (1582-1581) that it was said to have had the power to control the entire island of Borneo, to the north in the Philippines including Sulu.
The shrinking of Bruneian colonies happened since the reign of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II
(1828-1852) when James Brooke was appointed as a representative of the Brunei kingdom for, or Governor of Sarawak in 1841. He was appointed as reward for his assistance in ending
7 A.V.M. Horton. 1987. Report on Brunei in 1904 M.S.H. Mc Arthur, Ohio Unversity Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series, no.74, p.104; P.M. Yusuf. 1975. ‘Adat Istiadat Diraja Brunei Darussalam (The Royal Customs of Brunei Darussalam)’, Brunei Museum Journal, vol. IV no.3, p. 47, 52. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) the Sarawakian resistance. After the late sultan’s death, the throne to the kingdom was succeeded by Sultan Abdul Momin (1852-1885). Further loss of colonies during the latter’s reign followed, which forced him to make a vow of ‘Umanah’ with the support of a few dignitaries on 20 February 1885. Through this declaration, Sultan Abdul Momin no longer allowed any owner of Bruneian lands with the status of Sungai Kerajaan, Sungai Kuripan and
Sungai Tulin to either lease or hand them over to any party.8 On 29 May 1885 Sultan Abdul
Momin passed away and thus, Pengiran Temenggung Hashim ascended the throne to become the new Sultan of Brunei with the title Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin.9 When he gained ruling power over Brunei, the newly appointed sultan vacated his previous office of
Pengiran Temenggung. This left the office of Wazir, which usually consisted of four officers in the administration of the Brunei sultanate, with only three, which were Pengiran Bendahara,
Pengiran Digadong and Pengiran Pemanca.10 This move of not appointing a new Pengiran
Temenggung, not only improved the new sultan’s income and finances, but it also prevented the continual loss of Bruneian colonies. The Sultan was cautious to prevent the new Pengiran
Temenggung’s action to lease his lands to foreign powers.
Nevertheless, Sultan Hashim himself leased Trusan, his property that had a status of Sungai
Tulin, to Charles Brooke. He had originally meant to initiate better relations. His Majesty also
8 Arthur Louis Keyser. 1922. People and Places: A Life in Five Continents, London: John Murray, p.29; Arthur Louis Keyser. 1923. Trifles and Travels, London: John Murray, p.130; The Agreement between Sultan Abdul Mumin, Pengiran Bendahara and Pengiran Digadong with the British North Borneo Company for they will not permit any lease or cession of territory in north of and including the Limbang river, Muara Damit and Muara Besar, Brunei 17 Muharram A.H.1302 (5 November 1884), F.O. 12/120. D.E. Brown. 1974. ‘Sultan Mumin’s Will and Related Documents’, Brunei Museum Journal, vol. III, no.2, p.168 9 W.H.Treacher. 1889. ‘British Borneo: Sketches of Brunei, Sarawak, Labuan and North Borneo.’ Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. vol.XX pt.I, p.52
10 Consul General Leys to Foreign Office, 14 December 1885, C.O. 144/59; Frank Swettenham to Marquess of Lansdowne, 25 March 1902, F.O.12/120; D.E. Brown.1974.‘Sultan Mumin’s Will and Related Documents’, p.160. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) had hopes that Brooke would offer assistance in overcoming the conflict in Limbang which continued ever since the 1850s.11 It is to be expected that Sultan Hashim was hopeful because during the agreement to lease Trusan, Brooke promised to assist His Majesty in any hardship. However, it was to no avail because not only did Brooke betray his word, but he himself became a nuisance which jeopardised the survival of the Brunei sultanate at the end of the nineteenth century.
The Limbang conflict came to be reignited after a few Bruneian Malays who had come to visit the area were murdered in November 1885. This tragedy stirred tensions between the two parties that were still in conflict. The people of Limbang denied ever having been involved in the incident, and thus offered two members of their community whom they alleged to be the culprits in the incident to be handed over to Sultan Hashim. This offer was declined by the sultan because they were not the ones who committed the murder. His Majesty acted as such to apprehend the actual murderer in Limbang. In reaction to Sultan Hashim’s decision, the people of Limbang severed their ties with and ceased paying taxes to Brunei.12 On a different note, Peter Leys, the British Consul General in Labuan and Brooke continued to persuade
Sultan Hashim to lease Limbang to Sarawak. Brooke offered to pay $6000.00 a year for the lease of Limbang. They gave the excuse that the sultan was no longer capable of governing this colony.13 It was a fabricated argument to accomplish their personal agendas.
11 R.E.Stubbs. 1905. Brunei and the Limbang. Eastern no.97, Printed for the Use the Colonial Office, p.7 12 Ibid., p.11
13 Spenser St John, Acting Commissioner to the Viscount Palmeston, Foreign Affairs, 1 June 1851, F.O. 12/9; Consul General Leys to the Marquis of Salisbury, Labuan 24 February 1887, F.O. 12/76; dan The North Borneo Herald, Official Gazette, no.V vol.II, 1 November 1884, p.1-2. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
In November 1886, Sultan Hashim, the group of Wazir and the people of Bandar Brunei demanded the rescinding of the lease of Limbang to Sarawak, despite it having been approved by the British government. They asserted that Limbang and Brunei were one with their cries that ‘Brunei is the spirit of Limbang and Limbang is the (physical) body of Brunei’.
Furthermore, the people of Brunei’s livelihood depended on this region. They also wanted to defend Sultan Abdul Momin’s ‘Umanah’ (mandate) as was previously explained. Brunei further acted to forward their appeal to the British government to put pressure on them to comply with their demands.14
In bearing the weight to prevent the continual decline of Bruneian colonies any further, on 17
September 1888, Sultan Hashim signed a treaty that placed Brunei under the protection of the British. However, this treaty also failed to prevent the further shrinking of Bruneian colonies, and in fact it could also be considered as unfair, much like the treaties prior to it.
Article III of this treaty was evidently impartial to Brunei because when there was ever a dispute with any state, including with the North Borneo British Company or Sarawak, it was thus agreed to be mediated by the British government and the sultan must adhere to any decisions they made.15 Through this treaty, the British succeeded in controlling Brunei’s foreign relations.16 It could be considered that the Brunei sultanate was entrapped by this treaty because in its dispute with Sarawak, the British government showed no evidence of being partial to Brunei, and was in fact partial to Brooke. This stand was taken in order to
14 The Sultan of Brunei to Consul General Leys, Brunei, 29 Sapar A.H. 1304 (27 November 1886), F.O. 572/18; C.B. Robertson, Memorandum on Admiral Mayne’s Question for February 28, Respecting the Cession of Limbang river to Sarawak, 26 February 1886, F.O. 572/18; The Sultan of Brunei to Her Majesty the Queen, Brunei 14 Jamadil Akhir A.H. 1304 (8 February 1887) F.O. 572/18. 15 Article III of the Protectorate Agreement between Brunei and the British government Appendix IV F.O 12/130. 16 R.E.Stubbs, op.cit., p.16. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) protect its interests in this region in competing with other western powers such as the Dutch and the United States.
On 17 March 1890, without prior permission from Sultan Hashim, Charles Brooke seized
Limbang from Brunei’s control using military might. He raised the Sarawakian flag and proclaimed the occupation of this colony by Sarawak. This proclamation would only be altered subject to an order issued by the British government, offering alternative options in overcoming the issue concerning Limbang. He also promised that he would pay a sum of money to the Brunei government as compensation on seizing Limbang. With this occupation
Brooke proceeded to erect fortresses to ensure the safety of government buildings from any attack.17 This occupation was later endorsed by the British government, despite Sultan
Hashim’s fierce opposition by insisting that Limbang was a part of Brunei.
In essence, a majority of the people of Limbang were dissatisfied that their region was governed by Sarawak. This was made evident when Mohammad Kassim, the British consular, stated that only 25% of the people of Limbang were content to be under the protection of Brooke’s governance, while the rest were more agreeable to continue to be under the administration of the Brunei sultanate.18 Furthermore regarding the conflict in
Limbang, Sultan Hashim was successful in garnering the full support of the local Bruneian dignitaries and rulers in resisting Brooke’s illegal occupation of this colony. They requested the British government to order Brooke to leave Limbang.19
17 Ibid., p.17. 18 A.C. Watson. 1984. ‘Letters from Brunei Inche Mahomed’s Consular Reports 1866-1890.’ Brunei Museum Journal. vol.V no.4, p.142. 19 Ismail Haji Awg Nordin .1998. ‘Sultan Hashim: From Western Points of View.’ Being a Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of Master of Arts in South East Asian Studies in the University of Hull, p.60. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
The Perjanjian Perlindungan 1888 (Protection Agreement) failed to prevent the decline of
Bruneian colonies, and furthermore, even the political survival of the Brunei sultanate at the end of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century continued to wane. Thus, the British government sent Mc Arthur to investigate the situation in Brunei. With that in 1904, Mc Arthur reported back to the British government that Brunei should be given full protection. Its identity as a sultanate must be preserved.20 Furthermore, in that year, the British Foreign Office agreed to appoint a British resident in Brunei, despite a previous disagreement to this proposal due to financial constraints.21 In order to maintain Brunei’s long term existence, hence Sultan Hashim agreed to sign the Perjanjian Tambahan (additional agreement) of
1905/1906. In this treaty Brunei was prepared to accept a British resident as an adviser to the sultan in all matters with the exception of matters regarding Islamic religious affairs.22 After the introduction of governance under the British Resident, it brought along a variety of modern influences in the socioeconomic development of Brunei. The Resident initiated the move to relocate Brunei’s administrative centre, which was in Kampong Ayer (floating village), onto land.
The introduction of a British resident through legal agreement, who was initially appointed to be an adviser to the sultan, later changed to become the highest power in the newly formed public administration in Brunei. The Resident was also found to have interfered in matters regarding Islamic affairs, which was against the terms in the treaty. Nevertheless, the
Resident introduced modernisation in the Bruneian public administration by creating new government departments. Among them were the police force, the Land Office, the
20 A.V.M. Horton, op.cit., p.135-136. 21 Ibid., p.23. 22 William George Maxwell & William Summer Gibson. 1924. Treaties and Engagements Affecting the Malay States and Borneo. Suffolk: Jas Truscott & Son Ltd, p.149-150. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Department of Works and Customs Office. Although these modernisation steps left a positive impact on the socioeconomic development in Brunei, the role of locals as leaders in the government sector slowly became extinguished because only British officers would be appointed to lead these new offices. The Resident was not confident of the ability of the locals to lead the government departments because they were regarded as inexperienced.23
POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS DURING THE BRITISH RESIDENCY
Despite Kampong Air being mentioned as the most populous in Brunei before the introduction of the British residential administration, there was never any official census conducted to verify its truth. Even if it existed, this statistic is merely an estimated impression. An official census of Bruneian population was only conducted for the first time in 1911, five years after the British residential administration had been introduced. Thereafter, it was conducted consistently every ten years, in accordance with the practice of the association of
Commonwealth nations.24 The population of Brunei according to censuses for 1911, 1921 and
1931 (Refer Table 1) was as follows:
Table 1: Population in 1911, 1921 and 1931
Race / Year 1911 1921 1931 Malay and Indigenous 20,881 23,938 26,972 Chinese 736 1,434 2,683 Indian 44 37 377 European 20 35 60
23 BAR 1907, p.10, 21 24 L.W.Jones. 1966. The Population of Borneo: A Study of The Peoples of Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei, London: University of London, p 17. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Eurasian 2 - 10 Others 35 10 33 Total 21,716 25,454 30,135
Source: BAR 1941
According to Table 1 above, the first ever census showed that Bruneian Malays and
Indigenous people were the highest in number at 96.15% out of the total population of Brunei at that time. It was followed at a great distance by the Chinese as the second highest population at 3.39%. Following that were the Indians, Europeans, Eurasians and others consecutively. As was previously stated, most of the Bruneian Malays lived in Kampong Ayer.
This scenario was caused by the influence of economic activities related to rivers and seas. A majority of them were involved in fishing for their livelihood.
Subsequently, the second highest racial group in the population after the Malays was the
Chinese. Although trade relations between Brunei and China have begun as early as the fifth century, where they traded goods such as pottery, silver merchandise, gold and silk, the
Chinese had never started any permanent settlements in Brunei. Only towards the nineteenth century were there some Chinese settlers in the north of Borneo including Brunei. Aside from farming and trading, a portion of them worked in gold mines in Sarawak. After Labuan was controlled by the British in 1846, they brought Chinese labourers in to work in coal mines on the island. In the early stages of the Chinese people’s involvement in the economic activities Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) in Brunei, they were exclusively middlemen in the export and import of goods such as sago, fish and prawns. Some of them were also involved in agriculture. 25
In the trading sector, they also played an important role as they rented buildings for their sago, general and wholesale shops. They also played the role of capital investors or middlemen to the fishermen in Kampong Ayer. Their trading activities were not only limited to the local scene, but they also involved other states, especially Labuan and Singapore. They were the exporters of fish and prawns to other states. This made their economic standing strong due to their dominance in trading. Some of the Chinese community in Brunei lived in
Kampong Air. Here, many of them were active in trading activities and operated general shops. Some of them also traded using sampans rowing from house to house in Kampong
Ayer. They forged good ties with the Malay community there.26
There was an increase in the presence of the Chinese in Brunei caused by a move by the
British to bring them in as labourers in the petroleum industry. Many of them were brought in from Hong Kong. This industry underwent a rapid development when the largest oil well was discovered in 1929 in Seria by the British Malayan Petroleum Company. The increase also occurred due to the migration of Chinese people to Brunei from nearby areas such as
25 Haji Awg Asbol bin Haji Mail, op.cit.,; Wu Zong Yu. 1994. ‘Raja Brunei dalam Sejarah China (The King of Brunei in the History of China)’. International Seminar paperwork on the Brunei Darussalam Malay Sultanate. Organised by the Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam dan Yayasan Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah, Bandar Seri Begawan, 13-17 November 1994, p.1; Yura Halim dan Jamil Umar, 1958, Sejarah Berunai (The History of Brunei), The Brunei Press, Kuala Belait, p. 11. 26 Pg Khairul Rijal bin Pg Haji Abdul Rahim, 2007, Teknologi Menangkap Ikan di Negara Brunei Darussalam 1906-2003 (Fishing Technologies in Negara Brunei Darussalam 1906-2003). Kuala Lumpur: Malaya University Press, p.41.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Labuan, Kota Kinabalu and Miri. They also immigrated with the intention to find work. Their numbers rose to 2683 people or 8.9% out of the total population of Brunei in 1931.27
Next, the Indians ranked the third highest out of the total population of Brunei. The presence of Indians in Brunei started when the British took control of governing power in
Labuan in 1846, as was previously mentioned. During the British residency in Brunei, the
Resident brought Indians in to serve as policemen. This group was merged with the Labuan police force. Aside from that, the Brunei government also brought Indian workers in to overcome the shortage of labourers in the rubber plantation sector. This had been done even earlier in Malaya. The British Resident encouraged foreign investors, especially from the west to set up rubber plantations in Brunei. It was aimed at increasing economic resources in
Brunei. The increasing number of Indians was quite apparent in 1931. In 1911 there had been only 44 people, but two decades later, the number increased to 377. This was due to the robust development of the petroleum industry. The same happened as with the Chinese as previously explained. The Indians were hired as skilled and semi-skilled workers at oil wells in
Seria. However, because the Indian community in Brunei was not as large as the Chinese, they did not have their own schools or temples during the British residency as how it was in
Malaya.
On another note, the Europeans were the investors or foreign workers who had come to invest in the petroleum and ubar (a type of plant dye) industries, along with rubber plantations in Brunei. This group included the administrative officers under the British resident. Even though their numbers were minimal, which was around 20 in 1911, 35 in 1921
27 BAR 1955, p 31; Tan Pek Leng. 1992. ‘A History of Chinese Settlement in Brunei.’ Essays on Modern History Brunei. Bandar Seri Begawan: Universiti Brunei Darussalam, p 124; Ibid. p.32. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) and which increased to 60 in 1931, many of them held high positions in their respective businesses and fields. They were either leaders or professionals that served as administrative officers, doctors or engineers. Hence, in Bruneian society, they held a high social status. In
1941 the population of Brunei reached 40 774 people.28
ECONOMY
As was previously explained the economy of the people of Kampong Ayer was largely dependent on maritime activities, especially fisheries. It was regarded as a traditional career that is inherited through the generations. However, some of them were also involved in other economic activities to support their livelihood such as handcrafting and trading. This continued into the first era of the British residential administration until 1941.
Careers as a fisherman was the highest in number amongst the people of Kampong Ayer during the era of the British residential administration. This was due to the ease of access to resources for this line of work in this area. They conducted fishing activities to support their livelihood by using equipment that they made themselves. In performing this activity the tools and equipment utilised to catch fish was adapted to its location, which was usually in the rivers or in Brunei Bay. For instance, in order to fish in shallow waters, they used equipment known as lintau, kabatan, bubu, rambat and selambau. On the other hand, in deeper waters, they used equipment such as kelong, andang, rawai and tugu. The lintau, kabatan, kelong and bubu were made from bamboo which was cut to a width of half a centimetre and length of between four to ten feet. The cut pieces of bamboo were weaved or tied with one another using vines known as lemiding. To catch fish, aside from using various fishing equipment, the
28 Pg Khairul Rijal bin Pg Haji Abdul Rahim, op.cit., p.33. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) fishermen of Kampong Ayer also used various sampans. The types of fish caught varied, from small-sized to large and included prawns, crabs, groupers, sardines, rumahan, red snappers and others. Occasionally, some of them collected shellfish such as scallops, oysters, mollusks, mussels and sea snails.29
On a different note, there was a variety of handicraft activities conducted by the villagers of
Kampong Ayer during the era of the British residency. The activities in local industries that included perahu (sampan) making, home construction, cloth weaving, mat weaving, food cover weaving, nipah palm roof making, iron-, gold-, silver- and copper forging. These activities created names of villages to show the trade that was conducted by the villagers of said villages as appears in Table 2.
From this table, handicraft could generally be divided into two categories. The first is handicraft utilizing metal as commodity such as gold, silver, iron and copper. For example, goldsmiths usually fashioned fine jewelry and copper smiths usually produced kitchen wares and also accessories. The second category was handicraft that did not utilize metal as its commodity. This second category could further be divided into five groups. The first is cloth- making such as songket weaving. The second is making supplies for home construction, such
29 Interview with Haji Mail bin Haji Bakar, aged 85 and Haji Lakat bin Haji Sahat, berusia 65 tahun. They both resided in Kampong Setia “B”, Kampong Ayer. The interview was held on 1 October 2010 at his home. Their fathers came from Kampong Saba, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer which was famed for its community’s expertise in penugu. It is a tool to catch fish and prawns. Lintau is another tool to catch fish made from bambooin the shape resembling kelong. However, the lintau was attached or held only in rivers, much unlike the kelong which was put in deeper waters or at the mouths of rivers. It was able to withstand a month or more of use, depending on how far it was capable of producing enough catchings. Different from kabatan, which was only set up overnight to collect full harvest. Thereafter, it was moved to another locations to harvest new catchings. Also refer, Pg Khairul Rijal bin Pg Haji Abdul Rahim, op.cit., p. 42-67; Kamus Bahasa Melayu Nusantara (The Malay Language Dictionary of the Archipelago). 2003. Bandar Seri Begawan: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, p. 1628
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) as roof-making from nipah palm fronds. The third is home-building and the fourth is making fishing equipment. Finally, the fifth is perahu or sampan making.
Aside from that, there were some villagers who were expert in culinary skills such as making kuih or savory desserts. The other occupations they conducted were more general, such as beramu or gathering natural resources from the forest and collecting shellfish. Each community’s involvement in these different areas of trade were so specialised to each village to the extent that it was not done or was done less by other villages. Hence, they were known as or given names based on the expertise in the craft of the village concerned. Nevertheless, there were villages which were not given names based on the expertise of its community, such as Kampong Lorong Sekuna and Kampong Burong Pingai, which were skilful in weaving songket. This situation seemed to have created an economy that is one village one product.
However, the names of some villages based on the expertise of its community slowly dwindled. This scenario occurred because the community was no longer involved the respective trades, because some of them had moved to land, whilst the rest moved to other floating villages. Apart from that, it is possible that the children of these craftsmen no longer wanted to continue their parents’ craft, but found work in other fields such as serving the government or private sectors. A portion of the community in Kampong Ayer worked serving the government, such as becoming religious officers and lower government officers. As for service to the private sector, there were among them that worked at the ubar (dye) factory which was located in Subuk, along with the petroleum industry in Seria.
Table 2: Names of villages in Kampong Ayer according to the craft of its community. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
No. Name of village Community craft / expertise 1. Kampong Pandai Emas (good at Gold- and silversmith. Usually made gold work) jewelery and accessories 2. Kampong Pandai Besi (good at iron Iron smith. Usually made weapons work) such as machetes, knives, keris (dagger), axes and spears. 3. Kampong Pemariok (pot maker) Made pots from copper and iron/steel. 4. Kampong Burong Pingai, Kampong Weaved cloth Lurong Sekuna 5. Kampong Kuala Peminyak (oil Made oils maker) 6. Kampong Menjalin (weaving) Made balat, a fishing equipment made from bamboo and limiding (vine). 7. Kampong Pebalat (balat maker) Worked as fishermen by using the balat, a fishing tool. 8. Kampong Pemukat (pukat maker) Worked as fishermen by using the pukat, a fishing tool. 9. Kampong Perambat (rambat or net Worked as fishermen by using the maker) rambat, a fishing tool or net. 10. Kampong Padaun (nipah gatherer) Collected nipah frond to make roofs for homes and balai. 11. Kampong Pengatap (roof maker) Roofing installer. 12. Kampong Peramu (forest product Sold wood from the forest to build forager) homes and for other uses. 13. Kampong Pakayu (wood cutter) Sold firewood for cooking 14 Kampong Tekoyong (shell) Collected tekoyong or shells.
Source: Data recompiled from various sources. Also refer D.E.Brown.1970. Brunei: The Structure and History of A Bornean Malay Sultanate. Monograph of the Brunei Museum Journal, vol. II no.2, Brunei: The Brunei Museum Brunei; Haji Awang Yahya Haji Ibrahim.1996. ‘Beberapa Aspek Mengenai Rumah and Perumahan Di Kampong Ayer (A few Aspects about the Homes and Habitation in Kampong Ayer)’. International Symposium paperwork on Kampong Ayer. Organised by the Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, 6-9 September 1996; Haji Awang Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim.1996. ‘Kampong Ayer: Warisan, Cabaran and Masa Depan (Kampong Ayer: Heritage, Challenges and Its Future).’ International Symposium paperwork on Kampong Ayer. Organised by the Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, 6-9 September 1996; Haji Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, 1971. ‘Variations and Changes in the Names and Locations of the Wards of Brunei’s Kampong Ayer over the Last Century’, Brunei Museum Journal, vol. II no.3.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Apart from being involved in fishing and handcrafting during the era of the British residential administration, the villagers in Kampong Ayer were also involved in trading activities as means of livelihood. This activity can be divided into two types; the first of which is regional trading and the second, local. The first type was carried out when traders from these villages conducted trading activities in Limbang, Labuan, Sabah and Sarawak.
Merchants in this category were also known as nakhoda (skippers). Their activities became one of the factors why there are Bruneians in regions they had previously visited. This happened because there were amongst them that married the local women, which led them to settle in the previously mentioned regions.
On the other hand, local trading activities, which were usually conducted within the
Kampong Ayer area and its surrounding, were carried out by a group of traders known as the pengalu and the padian, along with Chinese shopkeepers or businessmen. The pengalu conducted their trading along the Sungai Brunei (river) and the padian around the Kampong
Ayer waters. The trade merchandise included salted fish, pickled fish and fish jerky, which were supplied by the fishermen. The pengalu also brought kuih (savory dessert), especially dry snacks such as sapit, makanan cincin (food rings), madu kasirat (natural honey), and kuripit (flat bread).30 On the other hand, goods obtained from the inland inhabitants consisted mainly of forest and agricultural harvest such as rice, vegetables and fruits.31
30 Rusli bin Murni, 1989. ‘Mengalu Antara Corak Perniagaan Lama di Brunei”. Budaya Bangsa (Racial Culture), Bandar Seri Begawan: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, p 138.
31 Haji Zainuddin bin Haji Hassan, 1996. ‘Pengalu dan Padian di Brunei: Satu Pengenalan Ringkas (The Pangalu and Padian of Brunei: A Brief Introduction)’, Jurnal Pusaka, bil. V, p 177 – 180.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
In trading, the pengalu would usually use the barter system or exchanging of goods.
Goods that could not be produced in Kampong Ayer such as fruits and vegetables would be exchanged with salted fish with the inland inhabitants. This went contrariwise where goods not produced by inland inhabitants, such as fish, kuih (desserts) and handicrafts usually made of copper would be brought by the pengalu on his visit to them. In this situation, it could be stated that the pengalu was the connector or middleman between the villagers of Kampong
Ayer with the inland community in supplying food materials and other necessities. Among the pengalu, some were successful in their trade that it led to their strong economy. This was made evident when amongst them, some were even able to purchase and acquire a number of lands further inland. This was because during the era of the Resident administration, land in Brunei could be purchased at quite low prices. There were even some among the pengalu who were bestowed titles, appointed to the office as a minister or became Pehin Menteri
Agama (titled religious ministers).32
The perahu (sampan) which was usually used by the pengalu were large sampans that had walls and roof awnings to provide shelter for them against rain and heat. A pengalu would usually be assisted by four workers, who were usually his wife and children to navigate the sampan to its destination by taking turns.33 In order to conduct their trading activities, the groups of pengalu would operate from two bases. The first base was located in where the current Kampong Ujong Klinik is, which consisted of a group of pengalu from Kampong Saba who conducted their trading activities downstream the Sungai Brunei (river), to areas such as
Kampong Putat, Pudak, Menunggol, Kupang and onwards to Limbang. On the other hand,
32 An interview with Dyg Hajah Ismah binti Pehin Khatib Dato Paduka Haji Mohd Said aged 58. Lives at No 83 Sim 625 Kampong Madewa BF 1120 Km 7 Jalan Tutong Negara Brunei Darussalam. The interview was held on 24 May 1993 at her home. She is the daughter of a Menteri Agama (religious minister). Before moving to land, she came from Kampong Pandai Besi, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. 33 Rusli bin Murni, op.cit., p 139. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) the second base was located in Kampong Limbongan, which consisted of groups of pengalu from Kampong Tamoi, Lorong Dalam, Burong Pinggai and Bukit Salat. The area they traded in included Kampong Batu Empat, Kilanas, Mulaut, Junjungan and Limau Manis.
The pengalu’s merchandise which was obtained from the inland inhabitants, such as fruits and vegetables, other than being sold directly by the pengalu to the villagers in
Kampong Ayer, could also be bought by padian traders. These goods would be traded and sold around the area of Kampong Ayer. The career as a padian trader was monopolised by womenfolk. There were no males as padian. This group traded from house to house by rowing their sampans which were known as gubang. To protect them from rain and sunshine, they wore large hats in the shape of a semicircle with a diameter of about two feet. This hat, known as saraung bini became their identity and categorised its wearer as padian. Aside from merchandise obtained from the pengalu, the padian also sold fish supplied by fishermen and kuih (savory desserts) supplied by their makers. Padian activities centred around Labuhan
Kapal (shipping port) or currently the Dermaga Diraja (royal quay) and in some areas in
Kampong Ayer. The padian would meet the pengalu and fishermen to obtain goods at the padian bases as was previously stated.34 The existence of the padian traders in the period of the British residential administration was not something new within the Kampong Ayer community. In fact, it was a continuation and a heritage from the previous generations even since sixteenth century. Their existence was even recorded by Pigafetta in 1521.35
34 An interview with Yang Dimuliakan Pehin Siraja Khatib Dato Paduka Seri Setia Ustaz Awang Haji Yahya Bin Haji Ibrahim. The interview was held on 2 June 2009 at his home in Kampong Manggis Jalan Muara Brunei. Yang Berhormat Pehin was one of the earliest Bruneians who has received a Masters Degree from the Al-Azhar University in Egypt. Before moving to land. He came from Kampong Lorong Sekuna, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. He was aged 74 at the time of the interview, a once held the office of Deputy Minister of Religious Affairs of Brunei and a Syarie Chief Judge. 35 Robert Nicholl, op.cit p.10 Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
The padian’s trading activities ran from early morning until late in the evening. It was busier during periods of high tide. In their trading, the padian would also bring with them measuring equipment such as weighing scales, cupak and gantang (measuring cups for quarts, pints or gallons). The cupak was usually made of a coconut shell whereas the gantang was made of copper in the shape of a cylinder with a diameter between seven to eight inches and a height of between nine to ten inches.36 From the economic lifestyle of the villagers of
Kampong Ayer in the period of governance under the British Resident as discussed above, it is clear that the modern influences he had brought was not yet prominent, and in fact the traditional economy continued to be practised to support their livelihood. The economic activities of the people of this area did not seem to cater for large scale production for a more international market as what happened for the production of rubber and petroleum. In no way did the residential administration help the fishermen in Kampong Ayer to further advance their economy by providing loans and as such.
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
An analysis of the social life of the Kampong Ayer community during the period of administration under the British Resident could also be made from the perspective of social relations. In general, social relationships in the Kampong Ayer community during this period were based on strong and close familial and neighborly ties. This could be seen during special occasions having to do with gaiety and sadness. Festivities such as weddings, house warming, mandi berlawat (baby shower for the first child), berzikir (chanting praises to Allah), khatam Quran (recitation completion) and majlis doa selamat (supplication for safe
36 Haji Zainuddin bin Haji Hassan, op.cit., p 177-180. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) deliverance). On the other hand, the mournful occasions include the passing of a beloved. In festivities such as wedding banquets, relatives and neighbours would gather and were invited to carry out work in preparation for such occasions together by memucang-memucang or gotong royong (working collaboratively and collectively). As an example, this type of collaborative work could be seen during the making of the teratak (hut/home), menongkat and repairing of the home of the wedding couple, along with preparing the feast for the guests.
During gatherings of gaiety or sadness, the community of Kampong Ayer would usually beraga-agaan (visit each other). This could be done much easier when their homes were located very close with one another. For any occasions or incidences that occurred, their neighbours could easily be informed. They could then either arrive by using the walkways or sampans.37
At these special occasions of merriment or mourning, they would meet and gather and took concern to communicate using polite and respectful language, especially when speaking with the older generation. The Malay community of Kampong Ayer was renowned for their character of ‘awargalat’ (courteousness). It was instilled in them since young by their elder generation through teachings and practices in their daily lives. In their daily speech amongst themselves, they would normally have their own “titles” by which they were addressed, which must be observed, such as nini, tua (eldest), tengah (middle), amit and bungsu (youngest).
Thus was also whilst speaking with people who were bestowed titles, where they also had
37 An interview with Yang Dimuliakan Pehin Siraja Khatib Dato Paduka Seri Setia Ustaz Awang Haji Yahya Bin Haji Ibrahim; An interview with Haji Kassim bin Serudin, aged 90. The interview was held at his home in Kampong Setia “B” one of the villages in Kampong Ayer in Brunei on 15 April 2006. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) their own specific addresses and language. These customs were practised as a sign of respect in their daily interactions.38
Furthermore, they also strictly adhered to other customs that have been practised since generations. Anyone who did not conform to the customs or rules which have become the practice of their community would thus be considered as bringing shame to his or her family.
For example, in wedding festivities, there was the custom of berbedak (blessing ceremony by family members using rice flour) and berpacar (decorating the hands using henna). These two customs were obligatory at wedding festivites.39 Although these customs were regarded as practices through the generations ever since a long time ago, they were in essence done to bring out the glow in both bride and groom. Weddings were highly regarded by the
Kampong Ayer community because they symbolised an important change in a person’s life.
As much as possible, it was to be experienced only once in a person’s lifetime.
EDUCATION
The life of the Kampong Ayer community in social terms during governance by the British
Resident can also be analysed through the educational perspective. After the residential administration was introduced into the midst of society in Brunei, it also left a deep impact and direct influence on the people of Kampong Ayer. This was evident in the educational sector.
When the British residential administration introduced a formal educational system by
38 An interview with Dato Paduka Dr. Haji Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, aged 65. Before moving to land, he once lived in Kampong Lurong Sikuna, Kampong Ayer. He has a Ph.D from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. He once held the office of Assistant Director of the Brunei History Centre and the Director of Sultan Haji Omar Ali Saifuddien Sa’adul Khairi Waddien Memorial, Prime Minister’s Department. This interview was held at his home in Kampong Mulaut on 15 March 2009. 39 Ibid. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) founding the Sekolah Rendah Melayu (primary Malay school) in 1914, thus the Kampong
Ayer community instantly had two types of educational systems. Apart from formal education, the Kampong Ayer community also had their religious educational system, which was conducted informally. The Malay school was established because the Resident faced difficulties in recruiting local youths who could read and write in romanised writing. This was necessary for him to acquire the manpower or workforce to execute the administration of the government.40
In the early stages after the Malay school was established, it did not receive much support from parents, especially of girls, in Kampong Ayer. The uninhibited mixing between boys and girls was taboo for the Kampong Ayer community. Nevertheless, the Kampong Ayer community slowly gained understanding of the importance of sending their children to these schools. As an effect of formal education, henceforth a new breed was born within the
Kampong Ayer community, who became teachers of the Malay school. Among the earliest was Marshal Maun and Basir Taha who succeeded in continuing their studies to the Sultan
Idris Teachers’ Training College in Tanjung Malim, Perak in the 1930s. Teachers were government officers, and thus were strongly influential on the Kampong Ayer community.
They were considered highly educated and respected by the people in the community. This new generation did not only contribute in ensuring that the Kampong Ayer community understood how necessary it was that their children were sent to school to gain worldly knowledge, but they also played a role in instilling nationalist sentiments amongst the people
40 Haji Awg Asbol Haji Mail, Haji Mohamad Yusop Haji Awg Damit & Ampuan Haji Brahim Ampuan Haji Tengah, 2014, Evolusi dan Tranformasi Kecemerlangan 100 Tahun Pendidikan Negara Brunei Darussalam (The Evolution and Transformational Excellence of Education in 100 Years in Negara Brunei Darussalam), Bandar Seri Begawan: the Ministry of Education, p.15 Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) of Kampong Air of the importance of Brunei attaining its independence from the dominance of the British colonists.
Religious education was introduced much earlier to the Kampong Ayer community, and was carried out by religious scholars, Pehin-Pehin Menteri Agama (titled religious ministers) and also private individuals who had capacity and were knowledgeable in the field of religion.
They were regarded as religious teachers and disseminated knowledge voluntarily. This type of education was conducted in homes, mosques and the balai (purpose-built centres of education). 41
The balai educational system existed because the homes of religious scholars became incapable of catering to their increasing number of students. Hence, the balais were built close to their homes. Educational systems such as this were mostly conducted in Kampong
Ayer, with not many conducted on land. Religious teachers consisted of Bruneian ulamas
(scholars) and were mostly the Pehin-pehin Manteri Agama (titled religious ministers).42 Pehin
41 There are four definitions of balai according to the Malays in Brunei. Firstly, a balai is a place to store fishing equipment such as balat, tugu, jala, pukat dan lukah (fishing nets and traps). It functions as a storage room. Secondly, a balai is a place to have a small industry workshop to weave and produce fishing equipment, to make boats or to process mangrove wood to be made into firewood for cooking. Thirdly, a balai is a place to study silat or martial art. Finally, a balai is a place to learn and have religious activities. Balais such as this are generally owned by scholars who are Pehin-pehin Manteri Agama (religious ministers). Thus, the final definition is used in this discussion. Interview with Haji Kassim bin Serudin. Also refer, Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim. 1982. ‘Peranan Rumah-Rumah Perkumpulan dalam Masyarakat Melayu Brunei (The Role of Cluster Houses in the Brunei Malay Community).’ Ikhtisar Budaya. Bandar Seri Begawan: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Brunei, p.83. 42 Bruneian clerics were not necessarily Pehin Manteri Agama. Some of them were ‘Pengirans’ and there were others who were ‘Wazirs’. As an example, a scholar who was a Pengiran is Maulana Pengiran Haji Abdul Momin bin Pengiran Sabtu. He was said to have studied religion in Mecca around 1800-1820. He had many students from around Kampong Air. Maulana Pengiran died around 1880. On the other hand, a Bruneian cleric who was a Wazir is Pengiran Digadong Pengiran Haji Mohd Salleh bin Pengiran Anak Haji Mohammad (1890- 1969). He studied religious knowledge at balai ulama Brunei. Because he had a deep knowledge of religion, he was appointed to hold an important position in the religious administration of the Brunei government. In 1940, he was appointed as Kadi Besar, and then in 1948 he was appointed as an advisor in the Syariah Council. He became a member of the Islamic Religious Council in 1955 and a Religious Advisor from 1959 to 1968. Refer, Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Khatib Muhammad bin Hassan (1860-1941) once did as such when his home in Kampong
Lurong Sikuna, which later became the centre of Islamic educational activities, was no longer capable of accommodating his ever increasing number of students. Finally, in order to overcome this problem, he built a balai. It was here that he delivered his lessons much more comfortably.
The same was once done by Pehin Datu Imam Abu Bakar bin Abdul Rahman (1880-1937) in
Kampong Kianggeh, another Kampong Ayer or floating village.43 Other Pehin-pehin Manteri
Agama (titled religious ministers) who had balais were: Pehin Dato Imam Haji Mokti, who died in 1946 and whose balai was in Kampong Burung Pingai, Pehin Siraja Khatib Haji Abu
Hanifah who died in 1956 and whose balai was in Kampong Saba, and Khatib Saad bin Juru
Apong who died in 1968 and whose balai was in Kampong Pandai Besi.44 The students of these religious scholars were not only limited to those who came from the Kampong Ayer community, but there were some who came from far, for example, Pehin Khatib Abdul Razak had students coming from as far as Sabah. Notwithstanding, this does not mean that the activity of disseminating Islamic education in private homes became extinct due to the existence of balai education. In fact, it still continued in Kampong Ayer in that period. This was
Simat bin Angas, Suhaili bin Haji Hassan & Haji Ismail bin Ibrahim, 1992. Tokoh-tokoh Agama di Brunei Darussalam: Pengenalan Ringkas (Religious Figures in Brunei Darussalam: A Brief Introduction). Bandar Seri Begawan: the Department of Museums, p.15, 31-32.
43 Ibid., p.21, 28, 50. 44 Mohd Jamil Haji Abas’s interview with Begawan Pehin Siraja Khatib Dato Seri Setia Awg Haji Mohd Yusof in the Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei on 5 February 1991. Mohd Jamil was a Masters candidate of History Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) even done by Tuan Imam Abdul Rahman bin Awang Matserudin (1872-1945) in Kampong
Bukit Salat.45
The balai as a religious educational institution played an important role in spreading the syiar
(greatness or glory) of Islam in Brunei, as was the role of ‘pondok’ in Malaya and ‘Pesantren’ in Indonesia.46 A few researches believe that the balai educational system only existed in the
1920s. However, this viewpoint is clearly inaccurate because this form of educational system has long been in existence, even since the nineteenth century or even earlier.47 This was made evident when the ulamas or scholars in Brunei who were still alive at the end of the nineteenth century had already built balais to deliver religious knowledge to their students.
This continued until the era of British residential administration. On a different note, there are some researchers who believe that the balai educational system was founded in Kampong
Burung Pingai. Later, this system was followed by other villages such as Kampong Peramu,
Kampong Sungai Kedayan, Kampong Lorong Sikuna and Kampong Saba.48
The balai educational system could be divided into two categories, which were general and advanced studies. General studies offered lessons on Bruneian Zikir, Ratib Saman, Quran recitation and hadrah. Aside from these, lessons on performing prayer rites were also taught.
45 Simat bin Angas, Suhaili bin Haji Hassan & Haji Ismail bin Ibrahim, op.cit., 1992, p.15, 31-32; Hajah Joriah binti Haji Metali, 1988, ‘Dato Haji Ahmad’, Pusaka, Department of History Centre News, Brunei, no. I, p.18, 40, 63.
46 Mahmud Saedon bin Awg Othman. 2003. Jejak-Jejak, Kumpulan Kertas Kerja (Traces, A Compilation of Paperwork). Bandar Seri Begawan: Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam Brunei, p.285.
47 Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, 2003, Brunei Darussalam Rantisan Sejarah dan Budaya (Brunei Darussalam History and Traditions). Bandar Seri Begawan: Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam Brunei, p.11. 48 Abdul Latif Haji Ibrahim. 1982. ‘Peranan Rumah-Rumah Perkumpulan (The Role of Cluster Homes)’, op.cit., p.75. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Knowledge in these areas became necessary for any Muslim community in order to be released from the demands of Fardh’ Ain (obligatory on every single Muslim) and Fardh’
Kifayah (obligatory on the community in part). Students who followed these general lessons were not required to be able to write and read jawi (Arabic letters adapted to the Malay language).49
On the other hand, advanced studies did require their candidates to be those who were able to write and read jawi. They were taught knowledge in Fiqh, Faraidh, Babun Nikah, Nahu and
Qawaid, Tasawuf and also Akhlak. These fields allowed the students to become Kadi, Juru
Nikah (marital oaths officer) and teachers.50 In the balai education, their text references were the same as the ones used in religious educational centres in other parts of the Malay World, for instance Matla’ Badrin, Sabilul Muhtadin, Furu’ Masail, Bughyah Al-Tullab, Hidayah Al-
Salikin and Siar Al-Salikin.51 This balai religious educational system was never conducted in expectation of materialistic returns. The scholars as teachers had no expectations of material rewards from their students, and it was left to the students whether they wanted to give any compensation or otherwise. This showed that these scholars that taught religious knowledge did so sincerely for Allah, and not due to other motives such as material gain.
Aside from being a centre of religious educational study, the balais also played a role in supporting other religious activities, for example in the 1940s in the month of Ramadhan
(fasting month), the owners of the balai would hold tadarus (Quran recitation) gatherings. This
49 Mahmud Saedon bin Awg Othman, op.cit., p.282. 50 Pendidikan Agama di Negara Brunei Darussalam (Religious Education in Negara Brunei Darussalam). 1996. Bandar Seri Begawan: the Department of Islamic Studies, Ministry of Religious Affairs, Brunei,p. 45-46. 51 Mahmud Saedon bin Awg Othman, op.cit., p.286. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) implies that tadarus gatherings were not only held in private homes, prayer halls and mosques. The Muslim community that lived near these balais were encouraged by Pehin- pehin Manteri Agama (religious ministers), as the owner of the balai, to attend and enliven the tadarus gatherings which would usually start around five in the afternoon until dusk. For refreshments after the gatherings, it was customary for the participants of the tadarus to bring along with them a quantity of food each or was given as alms by the Muslim community that lived nearby the balais. Giving food such as kuih as alms is a normal practice usually done by the Muslim community of this country because they realized that giving alms in the month of
Ramadhan brought them great rewards in the hereafter.52 At times, the tadarus gatherings would be held after tarawih prayers. In these, refreshments at the end of the gathering would be obtained from fish caught using a kabat on lintau (two types of fish trap) on the same night.
The fish that would usually be caught were mostly sembilang (a type of catfish), because this fish would come in at night to feed on prawns that were caught in the lintau.53 At times, these balais would also be used as halls for tahlil (prayer for the dead) gatherings, which were customarily held once a year, especially in the month of in the month of Syaaban, before the beginnig of Ramadhan.54 According to Mahmud Saedon, the balai education system that is held in Brunei greatly contributed in giving rise to the birth of local ulamas or scholars who had a vast knowledge in fiqh in the Malay language that was in line with the teachings of
Mazhab Syafiee (one of the acknowledged sects of Sunni Muslims). Traditions in education and knowledge were the same as the traditions practised in the other states of the Malay
52 Interview with Dyg Hajah Ismah binti Pehin Khatib Dato Paduka Haji Mohd Said. 53 Interview with Haji Bungsu bin Jafar, aged 78. Interview was held at his home at No. 157D Kampong Setia ‘B’ Negara Brunei Darussalam, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. The interview was held on 10 Januari 2005. 54 Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, 2003, Brunei Darussalam Rantisan Sejarah dan Budaya (Brunei Darussalam History and Traditions), op.cit., p.11. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
World.55 These scholars who were produced by balai education are the generation that would continue the effort in teaching and spreading Islamic education to the Muslim community in
Brunei.
Nevertheless, the contribution of the balai as a channel for religious knowledge was not comprehensive over the Muslim community in Kampong Air. The balai education only allowed male students. Thus, the womenfolk were left behind in the search for religious knowledge.
Womenfolk who were good at Quran recitation and had good religious knowledge only studied in private homes, away from interaction with male students.56 At the same time, not all the adult males of Kampong Ayer attended religious educational activities held in these balais; only those who were really interested would attend them. Furthermore, at that time, there was no rule that required the Muslim community to study religious education in balais, or in other words, it was only done voluntarily. The role of the balai as an educational institution gradually dwindled and finally became extinct when Islamic education was introduced in schools, especially after the establishment of the Sekolah Rendah Agama
(religious primary schools) in 1956.
FACILITIES
The social life of the Kampong Ayer Malay community in the period of British residential administration can also be analysed from the aspect of facilities that were available. During
55 Mahmud Saedon bin Awg Othman, op.cit., p, 286.
56 Haji Awg Yahya bin Haji Ibrahim. 2000. Sejarah dan Peranan Institusi-institusi Melayu Islam Beraja (The History and Role of the Islamic Malay Monarchic Institution). Bandar Seri Begawan: Da’wah Islamiah Centre, the Brunei Ministry of Religious Affairs, p.30-31. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) this era, Kampong Ayer did not yet have access to running water via pipes. In order to obtain water supply, the people of Kampong Air did so using traditional methods. They rowed their sampans to an area in Subuk to collect water, at the location of where Jalan Residensy is today. Here, there were three points where water would stream downhill. They collected their water supply either once or twice a week, bringing with them water containers such as gerunung57 and bejana-bejana (pots) which were made of clay. Aside from that, the Kampong
Ayer community also used empty tin containers which had been cleaned, and in the middle of these tins, they inserted a piece of stick for ease of transporting them.58
Apart from water supply, there was also no electricity in Kampong Ayer during the period of administration under the British Resident. People used kerosine lamps, candles and torches to light up their homes at night. On the other hand, for cooking, they used mangrove wood. With that, they not only had to go through hardship to ensure sufficient drinking water, they also had to go in search of mangrove wood as fuel for cooking. The mangrove wood was taken and cut using axes or machetes from mangrove forests nearby the village. The wood taken were then carried home using sampans to be cut further, removed of the bark, dried under the sun and finally arranged at the pantaran (porch) of the house. The mangrove wood must be dried fully to ensure the ease of making a fire for cooking. At times they also bought mangrove wood from a supplier such as Kampong Pakayu.
THE MOVE TO LAND PROGRAMME
57 An interview with Dato Paduka Dr. Haji Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim. Gerunung is a type of container resembling a large pot for water storage. 58 Ibid., Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
When the British residential administration was introduced in Brunei, McArthur was appointed as the first Resident. Among his early ideas was a plan to move the centre of administration of Brunei from the Kampong Ayer area to land and at the same time, prevent the continual construction of homes in the area.59 This idea had once been proposed by Blundell even before the residential administration was introduced. He wanted to open a new township at a place which was known as padang (field), which was located behind the sultan’s palace. His reason why the new town was needed was because Kampong Ayer was unsuitable as a centre of administration and settlement. This could be seen from the aspect of health. The death of infants at that time was still high.60
The new Resident’s wish to move Kampong Ayer to land was not only to ease the administration of the government, but there were other factors in play. Among them, the residential administration viewed Kampong Ayer as unsuitable for healthy development, similar to Blundell’s opinion previously. This area was said to be the nest and breeding ground for mosquitoes, which could lead to a multitude of diseases. Nevertheless, this idea was found to be inaccurate when diseases that are caused by mosquitoes was not only limited to the Kampong Ayer community, it also occurred in communities that lived on land.
The location of homes in Kampong Ayer which were too dense, with unplanned house constructions can be viewed as a factor that would have caused disasters if there had been fire. If a tragedy such as this had happened, the fire would easily spread because the houses in Kampong Ayer were not only close to one another, but most of the material in constructing
59 BAR 1910, p.15. 60 Peter Blundell was a British engineer who served the ubar factory in Brunei town. His book, The City of Many Water, recounts many stories on the lives of the community in Brunei town in the early twentieth century. Peter Blundell. 1923. The City of Many Water, London: J.W.Arrowsmith (London) Ltd, p.202.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) the houses consisted of wood and dried nipah fronds as the roof or walls. These materials are highly flammable if they were to catch fire. Notwithstanding that, in this period it was rarely reported that fires occurred in Kampong Ayer. It is possible that there were some, but it had not happened as frequently as what happened to Kampong Ayer at the end of the twentieth and the twenty-first centuries. In the later period, Kampong Ayer frequently had fires, and they were not small ones, but they were large to the extent that they destroyed scores of homes in just one disaster.
Although the houses in Kampong Ayer were built using inexpensive materials, yet the community had their own unique architectural designs. During the period of administration by the Resident, the belah bubung and tungkup designs were very popular. Apart from using nipah palm leaves as the roof, the floor of these houses was made of nibung (a type of palm resistant to saltwater) and bamboo. The columns were made of hardwood such as kayu bulian, kulimpapa and selangan batu. Other than having a kitchen and bedroom, a house also had a room to entertain guests, which was known as langgar. It was here that family activities would be conducted, such as the teaching and learning of how to recite the Quran and holding various gatherings. The construction of the house would usually be conducted by gotong royong (collaborative effort) by family and neighbours.61
Aside from health and safety issues, the Resident wanted to proceed with the programme to move the Kampong Ayer community because it was a means to raise the economic resources of Brunei. At that time, this state was regarded as having insufficient funding for
61 An interview with Haji Abu Bakar bin Budin, aged 73. He has experienced living in two villages of the in Kampong Ayer. The first was when he lived in Kampong Lurong Sikuna and he later moved to Kampong Peramu. After his house had a fire in 1991, he then moved to the Negara Lambak Kanan Housing Programme. The interview was held on 21 Mac 2008 at his home. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) developmental expenditure. For example in 1906, Brunei had funds amounting to $228,173.
However, as much as $200,000 was borrowed from the Federated Malay States.62 The
Resident viewed the Kampong Ayer settlement as one that was the most populous compared to other places in Brunei. In 1906 the population of Kampung Ayer was estimated to be between eight to ten thousand people. According to the census for 1911, the Kampong Ayer community consisted of 9767 people and later in 1921, dropped to 7623 people as was previously stated.63 Thereby, it was felt that the potential for human resource from this area must be harvested and made full use of in the move to improve the economy of Brunei. This could be achieved by implementing a project to relocate the Kampong Ayer community onto land, and later, there they could become farmers who grow an assortment of plants and breed binatang. As a result of this initiative, the Resident expected that it would increase the source of income for Brunei.
If this move was not implemented, the economy of Brunei could not improve because the high number of manpower in Kampong Ayer could not be maximally taken advantage of due to the fact that they were limited to being involved in fisheries, handicraft and trade, whereas the farming and agricultural sectors were equally important in the effort to improve the economy of Brunei at that time. Aside from that, the relocation project was necessary to increase the population of the town of Brunei as the new township located on land. If this move was not implemented, it means that the new town would not be an interesting town because it did not have many inhabitants, and thus would only become a lifeless ghost town.
62 BAR 1907, p.5. 63 British Resident, Brunei to High Commissioner, 24 September 1906, C.O. 144/80; D.E.Brown, 1970. Brunei: The Structure and History of A Bornean Malay Sultanate. op.cit., p. 50; BAR 1911, p.11; BAR 1921, p.6; A.V.M. Horton, op.cit., p.67. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
At the same time, the government also made a decision to take stern action on the Kampong
Ayer community members who were reluctant to be involved in the relocation scheme. Only the members of the community that were involved in fishing activities and the ubar (a plant- based dye) industry were exempt from this stern action. The exemption was made because not only was fishing an important source of economy, but fish was the main food source of the people of Brunei. On the other hand, the ubar industry also generated a huge source of income to the government in terms of export duties along with the mangrove forest concessional payment imposed on the ubar factory owners, aside from providing employment to the Kampong Ayer community that served in these factories.64 The Residential administration gave a grace period until 1911, and if it was found that still many refused to join this relocation to land programme, thus it would issue and order to force the Kampong Ayer community to move to Brunei town which would have then already be established on land.65
As one of the earlier measures in the initiative to have Brunei town on land, the residential administration erected a temporary residential building as the new centre of government administration in 1906, even though the sultan’s palace was still located in Kampong Sultan
Lama, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. In December 1906 construction work on the permanent residential building was started and it was completed in July 1907 at a cost of
$8,000.66 This can be considered the foundation for the establishment of Brunei town on land, although there are some who believe that the establishment of the town on land only happened later in 1908.67 In the same year, a strip of road that was not covered in asphalt, a
64 Island Trading Syndicate was a company involved in the ubar industry, which began in 1900. Refer Graham Saunders.1994. A History of Brunei. Kuala Lumpur : Oxford University Press, p 103. 65 BAR 1910, op.cit., p.16. 66 A.C Watson. 1992., ‘Notes on the History of Bubungan Dua Belas.’ Brunei Museum Journal, p.37-104.
67 BAR 1906, op.cit., p.13-14; Jatswan S. Sidhu, op.cit., p. 58-59. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) mile and a half long, was built in the new Brunei town. Even though there were no cars at that time, a road was still necessary to allow ease of transport from one place to another around the town. It was also important to facilitate administration and development in the move to relocate Brunei town to land. Before the introduction of the residential system, Brunei had never had any structured roads.68 This was due to the cultural lifestyle of the community in
Brunei at that time, which was more centred near water.
In 1906, the government also established the police force and postal department, and with that a post office building and police station were built.69 The postal department that was formed did not only offer its services in delivering mail and parcels, but it more importantly, it had a role as one of the means as a source of income for the government. Income could be derived through the sale of postage stamps. On the other hand, the police force was even more important in overseeing the security of the Resident, keeping public peace and enforcing the law which the government had made. This illustrates that the Resident was aware of the fact that the modernisation he had introduced did not receive the full support of the people of Brunei, especially the Kampong Ayer community. In fact, there were some amongst them who were dissatisfied to the extent that they became a threat to the Resident’s safety. It is possible that McArthur kept in mind the example of the murder of the Resident of
Perak by Dato Maharaja Lela in Pasir Salak at the end of the nineteenth century.70 In the year it was established, 12 police officers were appointed. It increased to 28 towards 1907. Out of this number, four were Malays and 24 were Indians. 14 of them were stationed in Brunei town, whereas four more were stationed in Muara, four in Tutong and the remaining six in
68 BAR 1910, op.cit., p.13. 69 BAR 1906, op.cit., p.13-14. 70 Barbara Watson Andaya & Loenard Y.Andaya. 1983. Sejarah Malaysia (History of Malaysia). Kuala Lumpur: Macmillan Publishers (M) Sdn. Bhd, p.188.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Temburong. Notwithstanding, the Indian officers was said to have been frequently drunk while on duty, and thus caused a multitude of problems in terms of efficiency and discipline in the police force. Finally, the government took stern action by enforcing rules (of conduct) in forbidding police officers to consume alcohol while on duty.71
In the relocation programme of the Kampong Ayer community to land, the government allocated three relocation sites which were Kampong Tumasik, Kampong Sungai Tekuyong72 and Kampong Sumbiling.73 In order to attract the people to these areas, the government offered an incentive scheme by awarding freehold land titles to the participants who enrolled in the programme. They were advised to plant coconut and other fruit trees. This means that the common people were able to own land, because before 1906, lands in Brunei belonged to the sultan and his close relatives, with the status of Sungai Kerajaan, Sungai Kuripan and
Sungai Tulin.
Although this programme received strong opposition from the Kampong Ayer community, a few of them, who consisted mainly of the pengiran (high society) and the Chinese, warmly accepted the government’s call to move to land. It is possible that the applicants saw the long-term advantages of living on land rather than continuing their lives in Kampong Ayer.
The earliest participants of this relocation project in 1909, were the pengiran, who were mainly members of the Brunei royalty. They pioneered the opening of the relocation site in
Kampong Tumasik. Because the relocation project was carried out near the Brunei river, the participants were still able to continue their livelihood as fisherman, aside from carrying out
71 Haji Duraman Tuah. 2000. Pentadbiran Awam Brunei Darussalam di Period Naungan dan Pemerintahan Sendiri: Satu Kajian (Public Service in Brunei Darussalam in the Period of the Dominion and Self- Rule: A Study). Bandar Seri Begawan: the Brunei Public Services Institute, p. 50, 52-53. 72 Currently Kampong Kianggeh 73 Currently Kampong Sumbiling Lama. Refer, BAR 1909, p.6. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) farming and agricultural activities in line with the government’s aspirations. In that year also, the government carried out a project to reinforce the mangrove forest in order to develop and expand the area of Brunei town on land.
Although the relocation programme around 1906 until the 1920s received the support of a portion of the people of Kampung Ayer including the elite society, it was still unable to attract many more inhabitants to move on land. Many still wanted to reside in Kampong Ayer.74 They opposed the relocation project with a multitude of reasons. Among the reasons was that some of them felt proud of and were comfortable with the culture of living on water, which they inherited from through the generations. Their traditional career as fishermen had been ingrained in their lives. They felt that if they moved onto land, it meant that they would have to change their way of life from being fishermen to farmers. This scenario would definitely bring difficulties to them because it was not easy for them to adapt the lifestyles they live throughout the generations.75 Furthermore, the Kampong Ayer community was known for their strong family ties. Therefore, this relationship would surely be destroyed if they moved to land because of the large distance between houses, which was unlike Kampong Ayer where the houses were in close proximity between one another. Here, the people surrounding them and their neighbours were their relatives.
On the other hand, there were some village heads who refused to relocate because they feared losing their status. Thus, if they explored the new settlement their village culture would expectedly be different. Therefore, it was possible that they would no longer be appointed as village head. Thus, some of them proceeded to persuade their villagers not to participate in
74 Ibid., p.190. 75 BAR 1910, op.cit.,p.14. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) the relocation project. Because the person appointed as village head was someone who had been bestowed titles by the sultan or who was an influential and well-respected elder, and thus, all his opinions would leave a strong influence on their followers. Hence, when the village head himself refused to be relocated, it was inevitable that they led many of their followers in their footsteps. This would complicate the government’s effort in attracting many more members of the Kampong Ayer community to move on lad. In the year 1906, it is said that there were 14 village heads in the entire Kampong Ayer.76
CONCLUSION
From the discussion above, it is evident that the economy and social aspects of the Kampong
Ayer community in the period of the first phase of the British residential administration were still strong with the traditional elements that they inherited throughout generations. This is proven through their economic activities they were involved in, which included the fishing, handcrafting and trading sectors, that were more localised in nature and supplied the necessities of their daily livelihood. Economic modernisation initiatives which were brought in by the Resident in the form of economic production for the international market, such as rubber plantation and petroleum industries were unsuccessful in influencing the Kampong
Ayer community. Their economic activities were largely for self-consumption and local markets. Such was also the case for education; the Kampong Ayer community, sought religious knowledge by traditional methods, by learning in mosques and the balai institutions.
However, after the establishment of the Malay schools in 1914, they quite successfully
76 In 1967, Kampong Ayer had 35 village heads. Refer British Resident, Brunei to High Commissioner, 24 September 1906, C.O. 144/80: D.E.Brown.1970. Brunei: The Structure and History of A Bornean Malay Sultanate, op.cit., p. 50, 51; BAR 1910, op.cit., p.14. Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) seeped modernisation influences through on the community in Kampong Ayer. This was made clear when more and more parents became more prepared to send their children to school. Under the influence of formal education, thus a new elite generation, the Malay teachers, was bred. They were largely responsible in ensuring that the Kampong Ayer community understood the importance of sending their children to school to gain knowledge.
They also played a role in instilling nationalist sentiments amongst the Kampong Ayer community. On the other hand, in the programme to relocate the Kampong Ayer community to land, the British Resident faced various challenges and obstacles. Nevertheless, the residential administration finally succeeded in creating a new Brunei township on land, which also became the centre of government administration to replace the role that was played by
Kampong Ayer. At that time the government made effort to provide various modern public facilities, such as government buildings, shop houses, roads, running water, electricity, education and mosques, solely for the purpose of establishing a township on land. As a result of placing a higher priority for development on land, hence Kampong Ayer came to be merely a part of the identity of Brunei town that was unable to fully enjoy basic facilities and lagged in the developmental and modernisation initiatives which were introduced under the residential administration. In spite of this, most of the people of Kampung Ayer seemed to be insensitive to the development and changes that were happening. As an effect of their attitude, the project to relocate them to land during this period was essentially less successful. Thus today, many of the community members are still permanent residents of Kampong Ayer, which is viewed as quite traditional. On one hand, those who wanted to move to land can be considered as trying to adopt the modernisation elements because they were willing to adapt their lifestyle from life on water to life on land. Aside from that, it can also be considered that modernisation occurred because the common people were allowed to own state lands, where Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) previously this was never allowed. However, not all traditional elements of the Kampong Ayer community can be seen as negative or difficult to accept modernisation, and in fact some of these elements do contain positive values and must be defended, for example in terms of social relationships which were berawargalat (courteous) and respectful. This custom of being polite was not only practised amongst themselves, but was also upheld in interactions with the non-Malay community, such as the Chinese.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Nicholl, Robert.1975. European Sources for the History of the Sultanate of Brunei in the Sixteenth Century, Bandar Seri Begawan: Muzium Brunei.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Pehin Haji Awg Mohd Jamil Al-Sufri. 1990. Tarsilah Brunei: Sejarah Awal and Perkembangan Islam (The Family History of Brunei: Early History and Development of Islam), Bandar Seri Begawan: Pusat Sejarah Brunei.
Pendidikan Agama di Negara Brunei Darussalam (Religious Education in Negara Brunei Darussalam). 1996. Bandar Seri Begawan: the Department of Islamic Studies, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, Brunei.
Pg Khairul Rijal bin Pg Haji Abdul Rahim, 2007, Teknologi Menangkap Ikan di Negara Brunei Darussalam 1906 - 2003 (Fishing Technologies in Negara Brunei Darussalam 1906-2003). Kuala Lumpur: Malaya University Press.
Ranjit Singh, D.S. 1991. Brunei 1839-1983: The Problems of Political Survival, Singapore: Oxford University Press.
Sabihah Osman, Muhammad Hadi Abdullah & Sabullah Haji Hakip 1995. Sejarah Brunei Menjelang Kemerdekaan (The History of Brunei at the Dawn of Independence), Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka.
Saunders, Graham. 1994. A History of Brunei. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
Sidhu, Jatswan S. 1995. Sejarah Sosioekonomi Brunei 1906-1959 (The Socioeconomic History of Brunei1906- 1959). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka.
Simat bin Angas, Suhaili bin Haji Hassan & Haji Ismail bin Ibrahim. 1992. Tokoh-Tokoh Agama di Brunei Darussalam: Pengenalan Ringkas (Religious Figures in Brunei Darussalam: A Brief Introduction). Bandar Seri Begawan: Jabatan Muzium-Muzium.
BRUNEI ANNUAL REPORT (BAR)
BAR, 1906 - 1946
ARTICLE
Abd Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, Dato Paduka Dr. Haji. 2008. “Kampong Ayer Cabaran Warisan: Arah Ke Mana? (Kampong Ayer Challenge of the Next Generation: Where onward?” Kampong Ayer: Warisan Hidup, Cabaran dan Kesinambungan (Kampong Ayer: Living Heritage, Challenges and Continuity), Bandar Seri Begawan, Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Brown, D.E. 1974. ‘Sultan Mumin’s Will and Related Documents’, Brunei Museum Journal, vol. III, no. II.
Hajah Joriah binti Haji Metali, 1988, ‘Dato Haji Ahmad’, Pusaka, Berita Jabatan Pusat Sejarah Brunei, no. I.
Haji Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, 1971. ‘Variations and Changes in the Names and Locations of the Wards of Brunei’s Kampong Ayer over the Last Century’, Brunei Museum Journal, vol. II no.3.
Haji Zainuddin bin Haji Hassan, 1996. ‘Pengalu and Padian di Brunei: Satu Pengenalan Ringkas (The Pangalu and Padian of Brunei: A Brief Introduction)’, Jurnal Pusaka, bil. V.
P.M. Yusuf. 1975. ‘Adat Istiadat Diraja Brunei Darussalam (The Royal Customs of Brunei Darussalam)’, Brunei Museum Journal, vol. IV no.3.
Rusli bin Murni, 1989. ‘Mengalu Antara Corak Perniagaan Lama di Brunei (A Comparison? of the Old Methods of Trading in Brunei)’ Budaya Bangsa (Racial Culture), Bandar Seri Begawan: Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka.
Tan Pek Leng. 1992. ‘A History of Chinese Settlement in Brunei.’ Essays on Modern History Brunei. Bandar Seri Begawan: Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Tregonning. K.G. 1968. “The Partition on Brunei”, Journal of Tropical Geography, vol. II.
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Watson, A.C. 1984. ‘Letters from Brunei Inche Mahomed’s Consular Reports 1866-1890.’ Brunei Museum Journal. vol.V no.4.
------1992. ‘Notes on the History of Bubungan Dua Belas.’ Brunei Museum Journal.
PAPERWORK
Haji Awang Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim.1996. ‘Kampong Ayer: Warisan, Cabaran and Masa Depan (Kampong Ayer: Heritage, Challenges and Its Future).’ International Symposium paperwork on Kampong Ayer. Organised by the Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, 6-9 September 1996.
Haji Awang Yahya Haji Ibrahim.1996. ‘Beberapa Aspek Mengenai Rumah and Perumahan di Kampong Ayer (A Few Aspects of the Houses and Habitation in Kampong Ayer)’. International Symposium paperwork on Kampong Ayer. Organised by the Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, 6-9 September 1996.
Wu Zong Yu. 1994. ‘Raja Brunei dalam Sejarah China (The King of Brunei in the History of China)’. International Seminar paperwork on the Brunei Darussalam Malay Sultanate. Organised by the Academy of Brunei Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam and Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Foundation, Bandar Seri Begawan, 13-17 November 1994.
THESIS
Ismail Haji Awg Nordin.1998. ‘Sultan Hashim: From Western Points of View.’ Being a Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of Master of Arts in South East Asian Studies in the University of Hull.
NEWSPRINT
The North Borneo Herald, Official Gazette, no. V vol. II, 1 November 1884.
Pelita Brunei, 1 February 1959
Pelita Brunei, 29 September 1959.
INTERVIEW
Mohd Jamil Haji Abas’s interview with Begawan Pehin Siraja Khatib Dato Seri Setia Awg Haji Mohd Yusof in the Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei on 5 February 1991. Mohd Jamil was a Masters candidate of History Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
An interview with Dyg Hajah Ismah binti Pehin Khatib Dato Paduka Haji Mohd Said aged 58. Lives at No 83 Sim 625 Kampong Madewa BF 1120 km 7 Jalan Tutong Negara Brunei Darussalam. The interview was held on 24 May 1993 at her home. She is the daughter of a Menteri Agama (religious minister). Before moving to land, she came from Kampong Pandai Besi, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer.
An interview with Haji Bungsu bin Jafar aged 78. Interview was held at his home at No. 157D Kampong Setia ‘B’ Negara Brunei Darussalam, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. The interview was held on 10 Januari 2005.
An interview with Haji Abu Bakar bin Budin, aged 73. He has experienced living in two villages of the in Kampong Ayer. The first was when he lived in Kampong Lurong Sikuna and he later moved to Kampong Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941)
Peramu. After his house had a fire in 1991, he then moved to the Negara Lambak Kanan Housing Programme. The interview was held on 21 Mac 2008 at his home.
An interview with Haji Kassim bin Serudin, aged 90. The interview was held on 15 April 2006 at his home in Kampong Setia “B” one of the villages in Kampong Ayer in Brunei.
An interview with Haji Nassir bin Haji Tuan, aged 68. He once lived in Kampong Sungai Pandan, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. He has now moved to land and resides at the Negara Rimba Housing Programme. The interview was held on 28 March 2008 at his home.
An interview with Yang Dimuliakan Pehin Siraja Khatib Dato Paduka Seri Setia Ustaz Awang Haji Yahya Bin Haji Ibrahim. The interview was held on 2 June 2009 at his home in Kampong Manggis Jalan Muara Brunei. Yang Berhormat Pehin was one of the earliest Bruneians who has received a Masters Degree from the Al-Azhar University in Egypt. Before moving to land. He came from Kampong Lorong Sekuna, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. He was aged 74 at the time of the interview, a once held the office of Deputy Minister of Religious Affairs of Brunei and a Syarie Chieh Judge.
An interview with Dato Paduka Dr. Haji Abdul Latif bin Haji Ibrahim, aged 65. Before moving to land, he once lived in Kampong Lurong Sikuna, Kampong Ayer. He has a Ph.D from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. He once held the office of Assistant Director of the Brunei History Centre and the Director of Sultan Haji Omar Ali Saifuddien Sa’adul Khairi Waddien Memorial, Prime Minister’s Department. This interview was held at his home in Kampong Mulaut on 15 March 2009.
Interview with Haji Mail bin Haji Bakar, aged 85. He lives at No. 164D Kampong Setia “B” one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. The interview was held on 1 October 2010 at his home. His father came from Kampong Saba, another village in Kampong Ayer which was famed for its community’s expertise in penugu. It is a tool to catch fish and prawns.
Interview with Haji Lakat bin Haji Sahat, berusia 65. Lives at No.164D Kampong Setia “B”, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer. The interview was held on 1 October 2010 at his home. His father came from Kampong Saba, one of the villages in Kampong Ayer which was famed for its community’s expertise in penugu. It is a tool to catch fish and prawns.
ABSTRACT
This article discusses the lifestyle of the Kampong Ayer community in the period of the first phase of administration under the British Resident, circa 1906 until 1941. The analysis focuses on economic and social aspects. In terms of its economic aspect, it attempts to explain fishing, handcrafting and trading activities. On the other hand, in the social aspect, it views social relationships, education and the relocation to land programme. In terms of economy, the lifestyle of the Kampong Ayer community seemed more traditional as their activities were more localised, as was their livelihood. Economic modernisation influences brought in by the Resident in terms of economic production for foreign markets, such as Prof. Madya Dr. Hj Awg Asbol bin Hj Mail: The Lifestyle Of The Kampong Ayer (Floating Village) Community In Brunei During The Administration Of The British Resident (1906-1941) rubber plantation and petroleum industries were unsuccessful in having an impact the Kampong Ayer community. Such was also the case for education. The Kampong Ayer community continued to seek knowledge in religious education by traditional methods, by learning in mosques and the balai institutions. However, after the establishment of the Malay schools in 1914, they quite successfully seeped modernisation influences through on the community in Kampong Ayer. On the other hand, in the programme to relocate the Kampong Ayer community to land, the British Resident faced various challenges. Nevertheless, the residential administration finally succeeded in creating a new Brunei township on land, which also became the centre of government administration to replace the role that was played by Kampong Ayer. As a result of placing a higher priority for development on land, hence Kampong Ayer came to be merely a part of the identity of Brunei town, and was not able to enjoy the developmental and modernisation initiatives which were introduced under the residential administration. Today, many of the community members are still permanent residents of Kampong Ayer, which is viewed as quite traditional.