This study explores how issues of filial FILIAL PIETY AND piety and chastity are portrayed and CHASTITY IN NGUYEN discussed in the early 19 th century DU’S THE TALE OF KIEU Vietnamese masterpiece, The Tale of Kieu , by Nguyen Du. This long narrative poem recounts the plight of Kieu, a beautiful and 1 talented young girl who has to prostitute Montira Rato herself in order to save her father from a corrupt mandarin. The story highlights the conflict between the Confucian concepts Abstract of filial piety and female chastity, personal obligations and personal morality. The th The early 19 century Vietnamese Vietnamese who collaborated with the masterpiece, The Tale of Kieu by Nguyen French in the early 20 th century saw Du, is a story that famously highlights the themselves as torn by a similar conflict conflict between the Confucian concepts of and claimed that, like Kieu, they had to filial piety and female chastity, and prostitute themselves for the sake. The between personal obligations and Tale of Kieu reflects the tension in the 19 th personal morality. This paper explores century Vietnamese society caused by the how issues of love and sexual austere Confucian views of love, relationships, as portrayed in the Tale of relationships and sexuality. It is hoped that Kieu, influenced the thinking of the paper will contribute to an th Vietnamese intellectuals in the early 20 understanding of how closely the topics of century. Drawing on parallels to Kieu’s female chastity, Confucianism and plight, it is argued that the Vietnamese, nationalist movements were connected. who collaborated with the French, often made sense of their actions in terms of The discussion and textual analysis is sexual submission and sacrifice as well as mainly based on the English translation by being compelled to prostitute themselves Le Xuan Thuy (1999) unless otherwise for the sake of a higher obligation - in indicated. The study is divided into three their case to the nation. The portrayal of main parts. Firstly, it will provide female sexuality and morality in Nguyen information on the authorial background Du’s story continued to be discussed by and the socio-political context of The Tale th Vietnamese intellectuals well into the 20 of Kieu . Then, it will explore the ideas of century. This paper charts the course of love, filial duty and sexuality expressed in this debate and the wider discussions the story. In the final part, the discussion relating to sexuality and literature up until will be extended to the debates on The the 1945 August Revolution with the aim Tale of Kieu that dominated the academic of showing how closely female chastity, and literary sphere in the early 20 th Confucianism, and nationalism, came to century. be interlinked. Nguyen Du and The Tale of Kieu

1 Nguyen Du (1765-1820) was born in the Lecturer in and village of Tien Dien, in the province of Ha literature, Department of Eastern Languages, Tinh. His father was a high-ranking Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University

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official in the Le Dynasty (1428-1788). He serve the new regime and returned to his was the seventh child of the family. Like home village instead. His career as several of his kin Nguyen Du served as a mandarin was resumed when the Nguyen scholar and mandarin at Court. At the age dynasty was established. Under the reign of 17 he passed the official mandarinate of , he served as a provincial examination and his career as a state administrator, though a number of official might have been brighter if the historians have speculated that he accepted civil war between the Trinh and the the post reluctantly. In 1813, he went to Nguyen, two influential feudal families, as a diplomat. It is believed that The had not taken place. Tale of Kieu was written during that diplomatic mission (Nguyen Loc 1999: The country had been divided into two 297 – 333). parts since the early 17 th century. The North was controlled by the Trinh while The Tale of Kieu (also known as Kim Van the South was under the Nguyen. While Kieu, the names of the protagonists) is both families claimed that they recognized based on a Chinese fiction that was the Le Dynasty as the legitimate authority, written in the 16 th or early 17 th century. they still fought against each other. Nguyen Du rewrote this short novel into However, after the long period of civil 1,627 couplets, that is a 3,254-line poem, war, a local revolt, led by three brothers in the folk metre known as luc bat or ‘six- from the village of Tay Son, a province of eight’ verse. The author borrowed the plot Binh Dinh, was raised against the two from a Chinese prose narrative but adapted families. The Tay Son rebellion was the details, characters and atmosphere of widely supported by downtrodden the story into a Vietnamese context peasants and small merchants. In 1776, (Duong Quang Ham 1942: 104). It tells Saigon fell and Nguyen Anh fled the the story of Vuong Thuy Kieu, a beautiful country and sought assistance in Siam. and talented girl, who was born into a After that, the Tay Son defeated the Trinh middle-class family. When her father, Mr. in 1786. They then captured Hanoi (at that Vuong, a merchant who is described as time known as Thang Long). However, ‘neither rich nor poor’, is arrested on a with support from the French, Nguyen false charge, in order to rescue him she Anh defeated the Tay Son and in 1802 sells herself as a concubine and is later established the Nguyen Dynasty, under forced to become a prostitute. which the Vietnamese state became administratively unified for the first time. Because of the author’s literary talent and He became emperor Gia Long, and moved its moving content, the story was loved by the capital city from Hanoi to Hue (at that an audience from all walks of life. time known as Phu Xuan). However, Vietnamese Confucian scholars did not consider a story about a prostitute Nguyen Du grew up during the civil war to be as worthy as were the Chinese and his career endured a great many classics (Huynh Sanh Thong 1984: 99 – political vicissitudes. To show their 125). This contradiction between the loyalty to the Le Dynasty, Nguyen Du and popular reception and literary standards some members of his family fought can probably be explained by reference to against the Tay Son. When he realized that the Confucian concept of the role and the attempt was abortive, he refused to function of literature. Traditionally, the

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literature of learned scholars was written women should not tell the story of in Chinese and was dominated by the Thuy Van and Thuy Kieu . Confucian concept of van so di tai dao da , which literally means ‘literature carries (quoted in Dinh Gia Khanh 1998: 27) morality’. That is to say, the purpose of literature is to enhance morality (Dinh Gia In the 18 th century work ‘ Phan Tran’ , it is Khanh 1998: 25 – 26). As the majority of arranged that Phan Sinh, the main the Vietnamese population was illiterate, character in the story, will marry a girl only the ruling class and scholars were chosen by his parents, but he falls in love involved in literary activities and they with another girl. He is also obsessed with were mainly concerned with political his love and this affects his study. The stability and moral standards. As a result, plot is contrary to the Confucian idea of literature was almost completely excluded filial piety that a child must obey his or her from the vernacular world. Good literary parents even in marriage. As for Kieu, she works had to represent the social order and manages to meet her sweetheart, Kim morality as prescribed by the royal court. Trong, in private when her family is away and she agrees to be his wife without the However, from the late 18 th century, the approval of her parents. Such behaviour writers of Nom stories paid more attention was unthinkable in the Confucian period. to ordinary people. Nom stories are written The emperor Tu Duc pointed out that The in the demotic script, which is an Tale of Kieu was for entertainment and ideographic script used to transcribe the that one should not take the story seriously Vietnamese language, while Han or (ibid). Also, throughout the period of 15 Chinese was the official language. The years that she is separated from her family, oldest text written by Nom dates from the Kieu lives with three different men. 14 th century but the script itself might have Vietnamese scholars commented that been created earlier than that. Nom is neither of these stories was worth reading regarded as a reaction against the because Phan Sinh's and Kieu’s characters domination of Chinese culture and did not conform to the main concepts of civilisation. Literature in Nom was highly Confucianism. developed in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. Nguyen Du’s The Tale of Kieu followed The Tale of Kieu can be seen as a this literary trend. (Nguyen Loc 1999: challenge to Confucian morality. Nguyen 652) Du’s masterpiece is not only contrary to the Confucian teaching on female chastity, Filial Piety and Chastity in The but it also reacts against the strict concepts Tale of Kieu and secretiveness of Confucianism in favour of love and sexuality. In addition, it

can be said that it was uncommon for a It is said that young Vietnamese were th Confucian scholar in the early 19 taught not to read the story of Phan Tran century, like Nguyen Du, to introduce into and The Tale of Kieu . As is shown in an a literary work the topics of love and old saying: sexuality, which, it was thought, should be

kept hidden and clandestine. men should not tell the story of

Phan Tran ,

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A study by Anthony Giddens, although Thus, not only the scene where the young dealing with Western society, helps clarify lovers arrange to meet each other in why authors in traditional societies were private, but also the details about brothels not encouraged to explore the issue of and prostitution in The Tale of Kieu would love. As Giddens notes, in Western be regarded as extreme according to literature, romantic love was first Confucian standards of good literature. mentioned in the late 18 th century These include such explicit details as a narratives. This is because love had been prostitute using a little juice from the peel considered a disruptive and dangerous of pomegranate and a few drops of force. Passionate love had the power to chicken’s blood to fool customers that she sway a person from his or her routine and is a virgin, and the way in which girls at a duty, to stimulate him or her into radical brothel are taught about the arts of love, action and to turn his or her back on including the seven sentimental ways of existing institutions. Love was also speaking with customers and the eight associated with ‘freedom and self- techniques of entertaining them. Also realisation’ (Giddens 1992: 38 – 40). As is included is the way Nguyen Du describes shown in this story, Kim Trong and Kieu the body of Kieu in detail: ignore the old tradition because of their love. However, in a Confucian society Through the light rosy gauze such as , women, not men, are the curtain, focus of denunciation for that improper The silhouette of her body stood behaviour (Nguyen Ngoc Thien 2002: out, 579). As white and transparent as if it were made of jade and ivory. In the opinion of a prominent literary It resembled truly a perfect statue critic, Tran Dinh Huou, according to and a divine masterpiece. (p. 189) Confucian standards, a good piece of literature should avoid extremism and In the story, she is first sold as a concubine maintain moderation. As he points out: to Ma Giam Sinh. Then, she is transferred to a brothel run by a depraved woman For Confucian scholars, a literary named Tu Ba. After that, she becomes a work should help distinguish concubine of Thuc Ky Tam, a good man between good and evil but the whose wife, Hoan Thu, is very jealous. degree of criticism should be Treated badly by Thuc’s wife, Kieu moderate not extreme. Topics that decides to flee but, unluckily, she meets should be strictly avoided in a bad people who return her to the brothel. literary piece include lewdness Later, she is rescued by Tu Hai, a rebel and sexual desire because writing leader. Her life would then have been about sex and desire is regarded as happy had she not believed Ho Ton Hien, illicit and immoderate. Also, a corrupt mandarin, and asked Tu Hai to literary criticism, when used as a surrender to the court. This leads Tu Hai to means of denouncing evil, should his death. be expressed in a moderate way and not be too explicit. On learning that she has been cheated by (Tran Dinh Huou 1991: 19) Ho Ton Hien and that her advice has led Tu Hai to his death, Kieu is devastated.

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When the mandarin then announces that father, represents her salvation or her she is to be given to his officer, Kieu physical degradation? As for Nguyen Du, decides to take her own life by jumping he openly shows his sympathy for his into the river, as the only way of saving main character: herself from a shameful life and a cruel fate. The poet Tan Da 2 also reproached The perfume of your faith has Kieu for not killing herself after the death reached Heaven of Tu Hai. Tan Da expressed his feelings Selling yourself to save your about this episode in The Tale of Kieu as father is an act of filial devotion, follows: Saving another person is an act of altruism, Two lines of tears, two waves, You have served your country and Half a husband’s funeral, half a your people faithfully. (p. 370) lord’s feast. If only the governor had taken pity By contrast, for Confucian literati, the on that ill-fated woman, acceptance of this contradiction seems The Tien Duong river might not impossible. The comment of the have entombed the one with rosy Confucian scholar and poet Nguyen Cong cheeks! Tru (1778-1858) is a good example of the Confucian view of female chastity. As he (quoted in Nguyen Hien Le 1996: 42) says:

It can be said that, in The Tale of Kieu , …From Ma Giam Sinh to Tu Hai Nguyen Du broke the traditional To sell her dying body and live in convention of Vietnamese literature by not brothels. highlighting chastity. Instead, the author Where is Kieu’s filial piety now? raised the conflict between filial piety and chastity; that is, Kieu cannot keep her And then he draws a harsh conclusion: chastity because of her filial piety. She sells herself in order to save her father. A Miserable life did not give her question relating to Confucian teaching chastity occurs: should Kieu be judged on her filial Misfortunes only lead her to piety or on the loss of her female chastity, promiscuity. when this loss of chastity ( bat tiet ) is in (Nguyen Loc 1999: 438) fact due to her filial piety? Another crucial contradiction is whether or not the filial Kieu is not the mistress of her own piety of a woman with a pure heart, who destiny. Her life is controlled by bad fate. sacrifices herself for the survival of her Nguyen Hien Le (1996: 36) pointed out that The Tale of Kieu “is a story that 2 Tan Da is a pen name of Nguyen Khac Hieu. portrays the human condition – or, more He was born in 1889 in a Confucian family accurately, the condition of a talented and and became a famous Vietnamese poet in the beautiful woman – face to face with early 20 th century. For more detail, see Huynh destiny”. The Buddhist concept of Karma Sanh Thong. 1996. An Anthology of is also shown in the story. The scholar Vietnamese Poems from the Eleventh through Tran Trong Kim asserted that if one the Twentieth Centuries . New Haven: Yale understands The Tale of Kieu , one can University Press.

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understand a part of Buddhism. On the Their wishes all came true since other hand, knowledge of Buddhism can fate so willed, help readers understand The Tale of Kieu And of two loves marriage made more clearly (reprinted in Nguyen Ngoc two friends. Thien 2002: 568). The following example shows how the idea of Karma is portrayed (Huynh Sanh Thong 1996: 167) in the story. As revealed in the story, the bad characters like Ma Giam Sinh or Tu Thus, their love is not connected to Ba are punished. Meanwhile, the good sexuality, drawing a sharp contrast with people like Kieu are rewarded after they the sexuality of the prostitution in which have paid off their sins. As shown at the Kieu engaged during 15 years of misery. end of the story, Kieu can enjoy the In fact, this kind of platonic love was new reward of her good deeds. to the social context of the early 19 th century Vietnam. Traditionally, in ....and her previous sins have been Vietnamese society, marriage was not washed out. based on love but on an agreement Sometimes, heaven is also between two families. Thus, it was indulgent to the human beings: determined by consideration of factors Those who have paid off their such as wealth, social status and previous debts, reproduction, love not being taken into May expect compensation in their account. Marriage was related to sentimental future. (p. 367) reproduction and economic imperatives, and women had to rely entirely on men. After having heard about Vuong’s misfortunes and the sacrifice of Kieu, Kim Traditionally, Vietnamese women were Trong responds to Kieu’s request by controlled by ‘ tam tong’ or the three marrying Thuy Van, Kieu’s younger sister. submissions, which divided a woman’s He never gives up searching for Kieu. life into three stages: when she was young, Towards the end of the story, Kieu is she had to obey her father; when married, rescued by a Buddhist nun and returned to she depended on her husband; if her her family and loved ones. Here, the idea husband died, she had to obey her eldest of love is conveyed interestingly as it is son (Marr 1984: 192). Similarly, the revealed that the subsequent marriage relationships in the society were mainly between Kieu and Kim Trong is not categorised into the ‘ tam cuong ’, the three consummated. They decide to live social bonds, which included the together as friends instead of as husband relationships of ruler-subordinate; father- and wife. As shown in the story: son; and husband-wife (Pham Van Khoai 2003: 65). Thus, the platonic love between Of love and friendship they Kieu and Kim Trong would not be fulfilled both claims- imaginable at the time the poem was They shared no bed but joys of composed. Moreover, a friendship lute and verse. between a man and a woman, as Now they sipped wine, now demonstrated in the relationship of Kieu played a game of go, and Kim Trong, did not fit any of the types Admiring flowers, waiting for the of social bonds described by Confucius. moon.

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It is generally believed that Kieu’s destiny A woman does not have two is analogous to that of Nguyen Du, husbands, especially the relationship between How could one wander around Nguyen Du and the Nguyen rulers. If the and look for a new king. relationship of the couple in The Tale of (Nguyen Loc 1999: 313) Kieu does not reflect the Confucian concept of social relations, then similarly Like Kieu, who could not keep her the relationship between the poet and the chastity, Nguyen Du suffered because he Nguyen Dynasty was also an awkward one could not maintain his faithfulness to the according to Confucian ethics. Kieu’s Le Dynasty even though he knew that he anxiety as to whether or not she should ask was unable to turn against the social and Tu Hai to surrender to the royal court can political turmoil. As depicted in the be compared to Nguyen Du’s dilemma beginning part of The Tale of Kieu : about whether or not he should serve the Nguyen lords. In the end, she chooses to A hundred years – in this life span follow Confucian teaching on filial piety on earth and loyalty to the king and this is similar Talent and destiny are apt to feud. to Nguyen Du’s decision to serve the You must go through an event in Nguyen Dynasty while remaining very which the sea becomes mulberry loyal to the Le Dynasty. fields And watch such things as make How much honour I could do to you sick at heart. myself and to my parents! (Huynh Sanh Thong 1996: 3) I would work first for the interest of my country, Confucianism was officially introduced And then for that of my family. into Vietnam in the 10 th century. Ngo By so doing, I could fulfil my two Quyen, the founder of the Ngo Dynasty, main duties; declared independence in 938 and My filial piety towards my parents established Vietnam as a nation state after And my devotion towards the it had been under Chinese rule for more sovereign. (p. 342) than a thousand years. Nevertheless, he imitated the Chinese model of Despite having been regarded as a good administration with its Confucian ethics. and honest mandarin, Nguyen Du was Confucianism subsequently declined in the accused of having tam su hoai Le , that is 13 th and 14 th centuries during the Ly-Tran having concern for or obsession with the Dynasty due to favour then being given by Le Dynasty. If his highly successful the Court to Buddhism but it flourished narrative poem revealed his doubts about again during the Le Dynasty between the Confucian morality, then it is quite ironic 15 th and 18 th centuries. The ambiguous that he himself was trapped by the morality in Nguyen Du’s The Tale of Kieu dilemma caused by the Confucian value of reveals the decline in the acceptance of ‘trung ’ or faithfulness. Nguyen Du’s Confucianism in the 19 th century. internal conflict is more clearly expressed Moreover, Nguyen Du’s attitude towards in a poem he wrote about Thang Long (or social and political change, as shown in Hanoi in the present day): the story, was also articulated by Vietnamese literati in the early 20 th

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century and this is the topic that we are should be concerned about or going to discuss in the next part of this afraid of. We should not doubt it. study. (Nguyen Ngoc Thien 2002: 385)

Debates surrounding Kieu: a His comment soon brought a response and move towards Modernity a large portion of the journals and magazines became dominated by the

resulting discussion and debate on The Although the story of Kieu was popular Tale of Kieu . As the Confucian scholar and widely admired by Ngo Duc Ke, who was imprisoned at Con of all classes, it received considerable Son Island for 15 years for taking part in attention and became a controversial topic the anti-colonial movement, complained: for academic discussion in the pages of newspapers and magazines in the early In our country these days, there 20 th century. Pham Quynh, the former are so many literary reviews of editor of Nam Phong (Southern Ethos), Kieu, studies of the character accused of being a collaborator with the Kieu, essays that show French colonial government, prompted appreciation of Kieu, songs about The Tale of Kieu to be discussed among Kieu, opera and plays about Kieu, scholars. Since the early 1920s, the Nam portraits of Kieu. We can see Kieu Phong journal had been dedicated to the everywhere. issue of women’s rights. The conflict of how individuals were affected by (quoted in Nguyen Loc 1999: 443) Confucian doctrine, which focused on the duty of a person towards his or her family But Pham Quynh’s belief in the power and and society, was constantly raised in a importance of literature was strongly number of journals and magazines. This opposed by nationalists and Confucian process reflected the decline of scholars. They believed that Pham Quynh, Confucianism and the growing influence as a French lackey, only wanted to sway of Western ideas of individualism and the interest of young Vietnamese away egalitarianism. In 1920, with French from the political struggle to seemingly participation, Pham Quynh organised a harmless literary issues. For example, Ngo celebration to mark the centennial of Duc Ke strongly emphasised that language Nguyen Du’s death. In 1924, he wrote a and literature could be maintained only controversial essay entitled ‘ Bai Dien when the people and nation survived first Thuyet bang Quoc Van ’ (The Speech by (Marr 1984: 154). National Language). In this essay, Pham

Quynh stated that The Tale of Kieu was It should be noted that prostitution was the nation’s masterpiece and that only used, under French rule, as a metaphor for literature could reflect a nation’s true collaboration with the French. Relating spirit. He wrote: their plight to that of Kieu, those who

collaborated with the colonial government If The Tale of Kieu exists, our explained that they prostituted themselves language exists. If our language for the development and modernisation of remains, our nation will remain, the country (Huynh Sanh Thong 1984: and there is nothing that we 106). Not surprisingly, their claim was

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strongly rejected by the nationalists. It is Today, Nguyen Du is regarded as a also noticeable that the evaluation of Kieu peerless national poet and The Tale of was clearly divided between two sides, Kieu as undeniably a national epic. With those who praised Kieu as being filial and its literary merit and universal theme on those who criticised her as unchaste. For love, the poem stands the test of time. example, the nationalist Huynh Thuc Moreover, Nguyen Du, through his Khang called Kieu a whore and said that characterisation of Kieu, knotted the tie of the poem was pornographic (Nguyen Ngoc love with filial duty and revealed the Thien 2002: 586). However, this criticism ambiguity of the Confucian concept of probably aimed at the French female chastity. The topics of love, collaborators, the advocates of Kieu, rather Confucian morality and social obligation than at the literary work itself. drawn from The Tale of Kieu in the early 20 th century public debate provided a Apart from the fact that The Tale of Kieu realm for the liberation of ideas for the was utilised for political ends, the analysis new generation of Vietnamese of it by a literary critic, Nguyen Bach intellectuals and removed the limitations Khoa, through the application of Western of Confucian ideology. If Pham Quynh psychology was a striking development in and the French colonialists really wanted the Vietnamese literary and academic to turn young Vietnamese minds from domain. According to this analysis by political struggle, then ironically, Nguyen Bach Khoa, also known as Truong discussion of the miserable life and Tuu, Kieu suffers from hysteria, and the adventures of the prostitute in Nguyen author Nguyen Du suffered from Du’s best known work gave a great depression when he wrote the poem. opportunity for the nationalists to spread Although Nguyen Bach Khoa's paper their ideas. The process of transforming created a controversy about the study of Confucian society into Modernism was science and art, it was not well received. also favourable to the Communists’ For example, the well-known critic Hoai preparation for the August Revolution - Thanh, and the poet, Luu Trong Lu, but this is a topic to be discussed in viewed Nguyen Bach Khoa’s review of another project. The Tale of Kieu as too academic and scientific and his approach as somehow References unsuitable for literary studies (for further information see Nguyen Ngoc Thien Dinh Gia Khanh (ed). 1998. Van Hoc 2002). Even so, Nguyen Bach Khoa’s Viet Nam The Ky X – Nua The Ky XVIII essay on The Tale of Kieu significantly (Vietnamese Literature during the 10 th – marked a transition from the Confucian the first half of the 18 th century). Hanoi: period to the Modern period. From then on Nha Xuat Ban Giao Duc. the new generation of Vietnamese literati began to move away from a Confucian Duong Quang Ham. 1942. Viet Van Giao worldview and towards a perspective Khoa Thu (Textbook for Vietnamese based on science and the new knowledge Literature). Hanoi: Nha Hoc Chinh imported from the West. At least, they had Dong Phap. new explanations for life and social circumstances. Giddens, Anthony. 1992. The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality,

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Love and Eroticism in Modern Nguyen Loc. 1999. Van Hoc Viet Nam nua Societies . Oxford: Polity Press. cuoi the ky xviii – het the ky xix (Vietnamese Literature from the Late Hoang Xuan Han. 1997. Noi ve Truyen 18 th Century to the Early 19 th Century). Kieu (Talking about The Tale of Kieu ). Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Giao Duc. Tap Chi Van Hoc 3: 3-15. Nguyen Ngoc Thien. 2002. Tranh Luan Huynh Sanh Thong. 1984. Main Trends Van Nghe the ky XX (Debates on of Vietnamese Literature between the Literature and Arts in the 20 th Century). Two World Wars. The Vietnam Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Lao Dong. Forum 3: 99-125. Pham Van Khoai. 2003. Giao Trinh Han . 1996. An Anthology Nom danh cho Du Lich (Han – Nom of Vietnamese Poems from the Eleventh Textbook for Tourism). Hanoi: Nha through the Twentieth Century . New Xuat Ban Dai Hoc Quoc Gia Ha Haven: Yale University Press. Noi.

Le Dinh Ky. 1996. Tinh Nghia tu Truyen Tran Dinh Huou. 1991. Ve anh huong Kieu (Love and Fidelity from The Tale nhieu mat cua nho giao trong van hoc of Kieu ). Tap Chi Van Hoc 10: 18-20. viet nam co can dai (The Influences of Confucianism on Classical Vietnamese Marr, David G. 1984. Vietnamese Literature). Tap Chi Van Hoc 3. Tradition on Trial 1920-1945 . Berkeley: University of California Press.

McHale, Shawn Frederick. 2004. Print and Power: Confucianism, Communism, and Buddhism in the Making of Modern Vietnam. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Nguyen Du. 1983. The Tale of Kieu . Translated by Huynh Sanh Thong. Binghamton: Yale University Press.

______1999. Kim Van Kieu . Translated by Le Xuan Thuy. Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Van Hoc.

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