Towards a Bandung Spirit-Based Civil Society Movement: Reflection from Yogyakarta Commemoration of Bandung Asian-African Conference Darwis Khudori

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Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement: reflection from Yogyakarta commemoration of Bandung Asian-African Conference Darwis Khudori

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Darwis Khudori. Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement: reflection from Yogyakarta commemoration of Bandung Asian-African Conference. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Taylor & Francis (Routledge), 2006, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 7 (1), pp.121-138. 10.1080/14649370500463240. hal- 02570762

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HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Volume 7, Number 1, 2006

Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement: reﬂection from Yogyakarta commemoration of Bandung Asian-African Conference

Darwis KHUDORI

Taylor and Francis Ltd ABSTRACT This article deals with a commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Bandung Asian– African Conference 1955. Held in a modest way, in Yogyakarta, Bandung and Bangkok, the commemoration leaves, a durable contribution: the conference book – an anthology of reflections related to this world historical event. Written by 16 socially engaged intellectuals, academics and activists from Africa, Asia, Latin America, Europe, and USA, the book is entitled ‘BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Movements.’ The objective of the work is to look for alternatives to the present undesirable World Order and Globalisation. Put in the perspective of social history (of social struggle, social movement, or social change), the Yogyakarta Commemoration of the Bandung Asian–African Conference deserves close attention. The actors involved in the publication and in the meeting, the messages they delivered and the projects they proposed, are too important to be ignored. This article presents an analytical review on the commemoration, especially on the content of the book, completed by a concluding remark on the prospect of the movement.

KEYWORDS: Asia–Africa, Bandung spirit, civil society, globalisation

Introduction Bangkok, but which leaves a durable contribution: the launch of a conference The 50th anniversary of the Bandung Asian– book, an anthology of reflections related to African Conference 1955 (BAAC) deserves the 50th anniversary of Bandung Asian- solemn commemoration. There is no doubt African Conference 1955. Written by 16 about it. There is no need to repeat here the socially engaged intellectuals, academics importance of BAAC in world history. What and activists from Africa, Asia, Latin Amer- is interesting to notice is the multiplication ica, Europe, and USA, the book is entitled of commemorations, mainly by civil society ‘BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in movements. While the government of Asian Global Society. The Challenge of Globalisation and African countries have united their for Social and Solidarity Movements’ (Khudori forces to organise a unique commemoration 2005). It is based on a common concern that in Jakarta and Bandung, transnational civil society movements have given birth to Now, 50 years later, colonisation has diverse initiatives of commemoration in all officially disappeared, the Cold War over the world in 2005 (Porto Alegre, Cairo, has ended, the Non-Aligned Movement Bandung, Yogyakarta, Jakarta, Bangkok, has almost lost its reason of being. Humankind has entered into a new era Kerala, Colombo, Tokyo, …). of civilisation generated by the Informa- This article deals with one of the tion and Communication Technologies commemorations, which was held in a (ICTs): Globalisation. Yet, similar modest way in Yogyakarta, Bandung and systems of domination by the powerful

in the world order persist, wars continue their actions? Who is their adversary? What to threaten humanity and injustice has is the point of their opposition? What kind appeared in more sophisticated forms of situation do they criticize? What alterna- and larger dimensions. Where is our tives do they propose? What is their concept world going? Is a better world still possi- of World Order? What kind of change do ble? Is there any alternative to the they wish to introduce? How do they trans- present course of globalisation? (Khudori 2005: x) late their concept into reality? What is their project? What programmes and actions do The words ‘50 years later’ refer to the they put into their agenda? Bandung Spirit expressed in 1955 by the Those are the questions guiding the African and Asian Countries, which can be direction of this article. summarised as ‘a call for peaceful coexistence, for independence from the hegemony of any superpower and for the creation of International networks for alternatives solidarities related to disadvantaged The actors involved in the Yogyakarta peoples.’ (Khudori 2005: ix). The objective of Commemoration did not get together by the work is to look for alternatives to the chance. They have progressively formed a present undesirable World Order and working group, over more than a year, for Globalisation. the commemoration of BAAC. Seen from Put in the perspective of social history their involvement in the Yogyakarta (of social struggle, social movement, or Commemoration, they can be distinguished social change), the Yogyakarta Commemo- into several groups: the Steering Committee ration of the Bandung Asian–African members, the authors, the speakers, the Conference deserves close attention. The Organising Committee members, the simple actors involved in the publication and in the participants of the conference,… Not all the meeting, the messages they delivered and Steering Committee members participate in the projects they proposed, are too impor- the book and not all the authors belong to tant to be ignored. An analytical review on the Steering Committee. Not all the authors the commemoration, especially on the were present in the conference and not all content of the book, would be useful for the the speakers of the conference are authors of enrichment of social sciences, but also for the book. For the sake of reliability, this arti- the improvement of social movement in cle concerns only the authors of the book. general and for the follow-up of the event They came from five sources more or less itself in particular. internationally known for their work on If we accept the rough definition of alternatives to globalisation. Social Movement, which is a collective effort First, the networks of TWF (Third aimed at either changing or preserving World Forum), CETRI (Centre Tricontinen- some aspects of a social system, the working tal) and WFA (World Forum for Alterna- group involved in Yogyakarta Commemo- tive) led by Samir Amin and François ration raises a question of whether it can be Houtart. There are two authors and two identified or analysed as a social movement. collectives from this network: Bernard If yes, what is its prospect? Founou-Tchuigoua (Cameroon/Senegal), To answer those questions, the classical Nirmal Kumar Chandra (India), AAPSO work of Alain Touraine, which identified a (Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Organiza- social movement according to three princi- tion, Egypt), and AIPSO (All India Peace 1 ples: identity, opposition, and totality, can be and Solidarity Organisation, India). useful. Based on these principles, the char- Second, the network of SEIN (Socially acteristics of the Yogyakarta Working Engaged Interfaith Network) led by spiri- Group can be identified through the follow- tual and religious thinkers and leaders such ing questions. Who are they? What is their as Sulak Sivaraksa, Chandra Muzaffar, identity or what is the common reference of Abdurrahman Wahid, and Wolfgang R. Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 123

Schmidt. Two authors came from this else than a new form of capitalism (Setiawan network: Majid Tehranian (Iran/USA) and 2005: 8). For him, the Bandung Spirit is the Wolfgang R. Schmidt (Germany). spirit of anti-capitalism. ‘In order to estab- Third, the network of the Nagoya lish the bastion of defence required in resist- Workshop (on Spirituality-based Social ing the domination of foreign and global Movements facing Globalisation) initiated capital, national sovereignty must be and coordinated by Darwis Khudori. This strengthened. The Flame of Bandung is network is represented by eight authors: actually still burning. How to re-ignite the Bernadette Andreosso-O’Callaghan flame is the question we are now facing’ (France/Ireland), Darwis Khudori (Indone- (Setiawan 2005: 12). sia/France), Jean-Pascal Bassino (France/ Some essays notice that the conditions Japan), John Lannon (Ireland), Kaarina denounced by the Bandung leaders in 1955 Kailo (Finland), Parichart Suwanbubbha continue to exist today. AIPSO, for example, (Thailand), Patricia Morales (Argentina/ quotes Sukarno who warned in his speech: Netherlands) and Yukio Kamino (Japan). ‘I beg of you do not think of colonialism Fourth, the network of the Centre Inter- only in the classic form.… Colonialism has national Lebret-IRFED (International also its modern dress, in the form of Network for Dialogue and Development) economic control, intellectual control, actual led by Sergio Regazzoni and Yves Berthelot. physical control by a small and alien This network contributed two authors: community within a nation. It is a skilful Boutros Labaki (Lebanon/Italy) and Yves and determined enemy, and it appears in Berthelot (France). many guises .... Wherever, whenever and Fifth, the independent source. Two however it appears, colonialism is an evil authors were invited to join in the publica- thing, which must be eradicated from the tion for special reason. The first is Hersri earth’ (AIPSO 2005: 14–15). This, according Setiawan (Netherlands/Indonesia) for his to AIPSO, is a prescient description of neo- testimony as an actor of BAAC and of the colonialism, and would accurately describe cultural policy set up by the ‘Bandung the occupation in Iraq and Palestine (AIPSO Countries’. The other is Pierre Rousset 2005: 15). Another point related to colonial- (France) for his role in WSF (World Social ism is the ideological imposition denounced Forum). by Nehru as ‘most degrading and humiliat- ing to any self-respecting people or nation’ (AIPSO 2005: 16). Today, AIPSO notices, Bandung Spirit ideological impositions ranging from partic- Although the authors work together in the ular Western-oriented notions of democracy framework of commemoration of BAAC, and human rights to neo-liberal economic not all of them evoke the relevance of the reform are widespread and so are ideologi- Bandung Spirit for the present era of Global- cal justifications for illegal international acts isation in their essays. This is understand- ranging from the invasion of Afghanistan, able since the relevance seems evident and the occupation of Iraq and Palestine, and the the collective work is oriented toward an threats against Syria and Iran, to cite just a alternative instead of a review of the past. few instances (AIPSO 2005: 16). Some of them however do evoke the Band- For AIPSO, Bandung is significant today ung Spirit. In general, the Bandung Spirit is because its core concerns remain and, in the associated with the struggle against the absence of a countervailing political bloc in domination by the powerful over the weak the form of the erstwhile socialist bloc, are if in the world order, a fact denounced by anything more important. Neo-colonialism is BAAC 1955 that continues to function a major threat. The flagrant US-backed today. attempt to overthrow President Hugo For Hersri Setiawan,2 for example, Chavez of Venezuela is just a recent example. economic globalisation at present is nothing This is based on a strident ideological 124 Darwis Khudori campaign based on an unprecedented A strong denunciation can be found, for control over the global media. This campaign example, in the essay of Kaarina Kailo,5 who is simply the imposition of ‘American values’ wrote that or rather those of a section of the US power This is a moment in history when we elite (AIPSO 2005: 16). ‘In these times there is are witnessing the highway robbery of much more that can be said about such a bold humanity’s and womanity’s collective and sweeping effort to reorder the world as heritage, the treasures and gifts of was attempted with such success starting in women, of the land, of nature, of indig- Bandung in April 1955. The world has enous people — gifts which are increas- changed, so have the challenges. But the basic ingly taken or harnessed to serve the hopes and urges of our people have not. We market and the small elite controlling owe a lot to Bandung. Most of all we owe our and owning the world’s freely mobile people the commitment and courage to carry capital…. I believe that we now live in a climate of popular apathy, frustration, forward the unfinished tasks, so that our free- even indifference, and most surprising dom will flourish in peace and plenty’ and threatening of all — in a climate (AIPSO 2005: 20). also of surprisingly wide-spread accep- tance of the corporate take-over of the Challenge: world order and globalisation commons. (Kailo 2005: 73) The criticisms can be classified into three Since the beginning of its formation, the levels, from the most concrete to the most Yogyakarta Commemoration Group has abstract ones: Politico-economy, Model of stated the present World Order and Globali- Development and World View. sation as the subjects of criticism. The authors of BANDUNG 2005 present their criticisms in different ways, ranging from cool academic Politico-economy notice to strong denunciation typical of mili- The most concrete criticisms deal mainly tant activists. Among the first category, we with politico-economy. AIPSO denounces found, for example, the essay of Bernadette strongly the domination of the rich coun- Andreosso-O’Callaghan3 and Jean-Pascal tries in the world order. Bassino4 who studied the socio-economic evolution of ‘Bandung’ Asian-African coun- Backed by the troika of the World Bank- tries from 1960 to 1999. They concluded that: IMF-WTO, the G-7 countries headed by the US are trying to impose a particular First, the ‘Bandung’ African countries economic model on other countries were relatively richer than the ‘Band- throughout the world in the name of ung’ Asian countries in 1960. Second, neo-liberal economic reform. … Deci- economic growth has generally tended sions to privatize public holdings, to be much more vigorous over the deregulate the economy, and reduce 1960–1998 period in Asia than in Africa. labour rights are not just ‘economic’ This has developed into a widening gap decisions but are profoundly political. between Asian and African countries Likewise as the UNDP Human Devel- over the period, with Asian countries opment Reports and other documents quasi systematically outperforming have shown, these so-called reforms their African counterparts. Third, the have aggravated existing inequalities, divergence between Asia and Africa can and led to a transfer of wealth from the be seen in terms of both economic and poor and middle classes to the rich. human development indicators. These The gap between the top 20% and the results are undoubtedly the greatest bottom 20% in the world has increased drawback of modern economic develop- from 30:1 in 1960 to over 92:1 now. ment, and a proof that some of the objec- (AIPSO 2005: 16–17) tives of the Bandung Declaration failed to materialize. (Andreosso-O’Callaghan On the same basis, Nirmal Kumar and Bassino 2005: 48) Chandra6 wrote: ‘Globalisation as conceived Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 125 by the Washington Consensus, primarily socio-economic model that globalisation the US Treasury, acting in concert with US imposes in the mind of politicians and finance capital (Wall Street), US-based tran- wishes of the consumers. The time has come snational corporations and consultants, and to ponder on the necessary changes in the implemented by the multilateral institutions behaviours of consumers and producers. like the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO, The fashionable expression of ‘sustainable seeks to reverse the process of de-coloniali- development’ has led so far to rules, too sation that started after World War II…’ often left in books and to a few corrective (Chandra 2005: 29) and actions, but not to a change of model. The present model is unsustainable as it destroys Agricultural trade illustrates some of the both the environment and the social fabric. glaring inequities of contemporary globalisation. By providing huge subsi- Conducted by enterprises with the domi- dies, the rich countries drive down the nant objective of short-term maximisation of world market prices, accentuating the value of stocks and by governments poverty in the developing countries, striving for GDP growth, economic activities while enriching a handful of prosperous neglect the creation of jobs or develop ‘un- farmers and giant domestic companies. decent’ conditions of work. They are now Thanks to its cotton subsidy, the US threatening the future of our children more control 40% of global trade; that than they are building it. It is indeed admit- deprives West Africa of $200 million in ted that if all developing countries, and first export revenue and pushes the region of all those of Asia, were to enjoy the pattern deeper into external debt. For the Third of consumption of the United States or World as a whole, it is estimated that agricultural exports would have gone Europe, the pressure on natural resources, up by two-thirds from the current level including air and water, would be unsus- of $36 billion. Of the total US farm subsi- tainable. This is difficult to say, as it could be dies of $17 billion in 2001, only 12% went interpreted as denying other people the to the bottom 80% of farms, while as right to enjoy OECD standards. But, it much as $12.4 billion went to the top means simply that the OECD model is not 10%, including several Fortune 500 adapted to present circumstances: therefore, companies and billionaires like David people from OECD countries will have to Rockefeller, Ted Turner and so on. change their way of life and people from Furthermore, unlike manufactures, rich other parts of the world will have to change countries pegged the import tariff on agricultural goods at a high level so that their implicit model. We still all equate more consumers often pay much higher prices to better, when in fact more threatens the than in developing countries. All this future. This, also, is particularly difficult to leads to a deadweight loss for the vast say when so many people are suffering majority of mankind in both developing hunger and cannot benefit from their human and industrial countries far outweigh- right to ‘adequate conditions of living’. But, ing the bonanza for the super rich in the hunger is not caused by the shortage of food West. (Chandra in Khudori 2005: 34) but by trade mechanisms: the world food production exceeded nutrition needs by 23% in 2000, and market forces conduct to invent Model of development needs for the wealthy and to neglect basic The criticisms on the model of development needs and services for the poor. (Berthelot can be found in the essay of Yves Berthelot.7 2005: 52–53) He wrote, for example, Fifty years later, rather than criticising Worldview globalisation for its weak theoretical basis – the neo-liberal agenda updated – and its fail- At the level of Worldview, we found criti- ure to reduce gaps between rich and poor, it cisms; for example, in the essay of Kaarina is more forward-looking to question the Kailo. For her, the situation, as she 126 Darwis Khudori denounced above, is deep-rooted in the Materialism or the obsessive interest in ‘dominant Western paradigm and world- obtaining material goods, including view’, which she calls ‘Master Imaginary’. those that lack real merits or which are even harmful, stems from the uniquely Echoing aspects of self-interest and human capacity to create our own non-giving of the exchange economy perception of needs apart from those (Vaughan 1997) , the concept condenses that are genuine. Materialism is preva- the artificial and arbitrary dichotomies lent at this period of neo-liberal global- that have allowed white heterosexual ization, where ‘the Market is becoming elite men to dominate nature, women, the first truly world religion,’ if religion native populations and people of colour means ‘what grounds us by teaching us as well as men defying the hegemonic what world is, and what our role in that gender contracts. Among the central world is’ (Loy 2000, 15) … This frantic elements of the master imaginary are consumerism is tragic on multiple assumptions and projections of non- levels. It is a grave challenge against the egalitarian difference (e.g. humans vs. principle of sustainability because the animals, primitives vs. the civilised, ecological footprint (i.e. human pressure mind vs. matter or spirit) which, upon on the global ecosystem) varies enor- closer scrutiny are merely ideological mously according to lifestyle (e.g. in tools of control; tools through which the energy consumption, an average US citi- dominant hegemonic class has sought zen equals 140 Bangladeshi citizens). to control, subjugate and label those it Moreover, four to eight Earths would be has placed in the periphery of its hierar- needed if the entire human race were to chical order. Women can and do, at live like the wealthiest 20% do (Botkin & different locations of power and privi- Keller 2005, 68; Davison 2004, 133) …. lege embrace this world-view and its The disadvantage of materialism for logic of mastery over the entities personal life is also that of narrow self- defined as ‘other.’ Among subjugated concept: once basic needs are satisfied, or exploited peoples, we are currently happiness requires psychological fulfil- also witnessing the emergence of an internal elite that is willing to sell out to ment through caring social relations the market forces, even when its worst based on the mutual transcendence of excesses mean deepening inequities ‘I–others’ dichotomy. Environmental and an ecologically unsustainable sustainability, in addition, requires the future. Although whites, non-whites, transcendence of (one level higher) ‘we– men and women can embrace this econ- they’ dichotomy, because selfish omistic imaginary, its roots are in the communalism negatively directed at the asymmetrical sex/gender systems of outside world is unlikely to fulfil the honour-based patriarchies and thus universal environmental responsibility. contain gendered and gendering Moreover, group solidarity represent- processes. In its dysfunctional core, ing the ‘we vs. they’ mindset may even honour consists of safe-guarding male- become the social basis for military oriented sexual, religious and property conflict – a nightmare for both environ- ‘rights,’ even when it can mean engag- mentalists and pacifists alike. Finally, ing in the shameful phenomenon of the transcendence of narrow self- gender-based control – ‘honour concept also involves that of the murders’ – by members of certain patri- ‘human–nature’ dichotomy, particu- archal societies. (Kailo 2005: 75–76) larly associated with the Western civilisation and infamous among 8 At the same level, Yukio Kamino states environmentalists…. Finally, the world- that the present environmental crisis is view for ‘ecotopia’ also transcends the deep-rooted in the dominating worldview third bias or limitation of generational- identified in three mutually overlapping ism, or a tempo-centric perspective components: materialism, narrow self- focused on the consideration of welfare concept and generationalism. for the current set of generations. Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 127

Whereas the prevalent paradigms today Global Solidarity that has to anticipate the life are based on unarticulated and virtually interest of all and therefore to be in solidar- unrecognized tempo-centric assump- ity with in-equals, including the ‘other’, the tions, ‘the obligations of the ecological ‘foreigner’, the ‘they’ and the ‘we’, everyone citizen extend through time as well as who lives in any of the five layers of space, towards generations yet to be human civilisation. The authors call this born (Dobson 2003, 106). (Kamino 2005: solidarity ‘An Organic Human and Global 103–105) Solidarity for Life’, because this kind of solidarity takes into account not just one aspect, Response: goals, areas and issues one person’s or group’s view, one area of interest or one source of power. But it takes The responses can be ordered into three into account everything organically and levels: goals, areas, issues. pertaining to life: diversity with respect to cultural, social, ethnic and national matters Goals: global solidarity in a plural world and gender differences (Tehranian and Schmidt 2005: 153). We qualify goals as the farthest points to In order to achieve this goal, a Global be reached among all the points proposed Civil Society Movement is needed. Why? by the authors. They are found mainly in Because, among the four stakeholders of the 9 the essay of Majid Tehranian and Wolf- World Order (States, Markets, Civil Societ- 10 gang R. Schmidt. It is based on a concep- ies, Communication Networks), the Global tion of world order, which perceives Civil Society constitutes the most sympa- human civilization ‘not in terms of stages a thetic one (Tehranian and Schmidt 2005: la Marx, Rostow or Bell, nor as cycles of 155). It is in this scenario that ‘Bandung II’ birth, development and death a la Spen- (the term proposed by the authors for a gler, Toynbee or Sarkar’ (Tehranian and movement related to the 50th anniversary of Schmidt 2005: 152). The authors view civi- the Bandung Asian–African Conference) lization as a layering process from can play an important role. It can be charged nomadic to agrarian, commercial, indus- with a mission of promoting Global Solidarity trial and digital (Tehranian 2005). The in a Plural World consisting of three World community is today deeply divided elements: among these five modes both within and among nations. The wars in Afghanistan (1) Bandung II can unite the emerging and Iraq cannot be fully understood until Global Civil Society from all five civili- we view them as a conflict between sations into a coherent political voice different modes of civilization. More than to counter the hegemonic strategies of two-thirds of the world today lives in the the global economic and political pre-industrial mode, reflected by $2 a day forces. of income. The growing economic, politi- (2) Bandung II can establish a growing cal, and cultural disparities between the network of global economic, political, five modes suggest a possible global civil and cultural networks for human secu- war of states and opposition terrorism rity and dignity, sustainable develop- without physical and moral boundaries for ment, and the pursuit of a world peace an unknown period of time (Tehranian with peaceful means. and Schmidt 2005: 152). (3) Bandung II can mobilise the consider- The coexistence of the five layers of able cultural resources of an emerging human civilisation, combined with identity, global society to produce a new global commodity and security fetishisms have civilisation based on unity in diversity created a world of antagonisms between (Tehranian and Schmidt 2005: 154). differing layers of mechanic solidarities. For A set of goals of the movement is that reason, a Global Solidarity is needed, a proposed: 128 Darwis Khudori

• Maintenance of Human unity in diversity. orbit, ocean resources, or currency • Human civilisation as a common journey exchanges to finance the global funds in pursuit of peace with peaceful means. (Tehranian and Schmidt 2005: 158). • Human dignity and security as the first and foremost common goal of human Areas and issues civilisation. • Respect for sovereignty at all layers of Not all the articles propose issues to be human society, from tribes to villages, worked out in the future meetings. Some of cities, states, regions, and the Planet Earth. them are meaningful in giving input instead • Respect for the interdependence of of raising issues: the work of Hersri Setiawan human civilisation and its natural envi- (on the historical background and testimony ronment. to BAAC 1955), Patricia Morales11 (on the • Concrete measures to narrow the gaps notions of solidarity in the constitutions of among the five modes of human civilisa- Latin American countries), Pierre Rousset12 tion by means of transfers of knowledge, (on the evolution of World Social Forum), science, technology, capital, and manage- and AAPSO (on the summary of Cairo ment. Conference related to the Commemoration • Mobilisation of the Global Civil Society to of BAAC 1955). Those proposing issues can persuade the Global Market, State, and be grouped into six areas previously Communication Network to work toward planned: Politics, Economics, Culture, Envi- the above common goals (Tehranian and ronment, Education and Communication. Schmidt 2005: 157). More concretely, the movement has to Politics: economic reform, democratisation of develop policies to deal with the following UN, peace movement strategic objectives: Issues in Politics are proposed mainly by • Democratising global governance. the essays of AIPSO and Bernard Founou- • Democratising national governance. Tchuigoua.13 Both essays denounce the • Promotion of women’s participation in continuous domination by the powerful in all aspects of society. the World Order. AIPSO speaks about the • Respect for the rights and sovereignties ‘neo-colonialism’ led by the USA, as quoted of repressed minorities or majorities. previously, while Bernard Founou-Tchuig- • Micro credit for all layers of human oua speaks about the ‘collective imperial- entrepreneurship. ism’ begun by the intervention of the USA • Reforming and strengthening of the to compel France and the UK to put an end United Nations system. to the war against Egypt following the • Freedom for the mobility of labour and nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956. capital across national boundaries. Both essays also evoke the use of social • Establishment of a world currency sciences for the interest of the powerful: pegged to all other national currencies. ‘ideologication of education especially in • United Nations citizenship for all those Humanities and Social Sciences’ (AIPSO requesting it. 2005: 17) and ‘instrumentalisation of social • Outlawing of all forms of violence, from sciences’ (Founou-Tchuigoua 2005: 24). domestic to international. At the level of proposal, AIPSO put • Reform of the current global juridical forward three issues: Economic Reform, systems to bring all violators to justice. Promotion of Peace, and Democratisation of • Establishment of several global funds to the UN. ‘For us, to build alternative models encourage innovations in science, to this disastrous one, an economic solidar- technology, and arts. ity is a must. Economic ties including • Taxation of global commons such as the exchange of technologies, scientists, experts, electromagnetic spectrum, geostationary capital and trade flows should be matched Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 129 by exchange of experiences about alterna- society-state alliance for a law governed tive, more equitable, self-reliant paths of egalitarian order in which politico-ideo- economic development. Southern-based logical and military intervention in the regional economic alliances, which are internal affairs of states are banned. To genuinely independent and not penetrated achieve this, not only will the Bandung agenda have to be amplified to meet the by the US and its allies, are indispensable. new challenges. But a basic political So are efforts to set up regional banks and and social task that was earlier financial institutions that would act as an neglected will have to be given pride of alternative to the World Bank and IMF. This place. Fifty years ahead in independent would require considerable political will, democratic existence, the politics of the but there otherwise would be no alternative countries of the South has irrevocably to US-led Northern economic domination, changed. Now these countries, on the and the ultimate economic dependence of whole, have thriving, vibrant civil soci- most of the South’ (AIPSO 2005: 17–18). eties. The new agenda will not be On Peace, AIPSO wrote: confined to states. It will also have to be based on the needs and urges of civil Most pressing is the issue of peace. society. This will make the whole Under the guise of proliferation of revival of the Bandung spirit both more WMDs, Iraq was invaded and occupied, meaningful and powerful. For instance, even though WMDs have never been where states resist as in the US and UK found there, before or after the occupa- over the occupation of Iraq, the interaction. Iraq and North Korea [DPRK] are tion between civil societies in the US being threatened by the US now. There and UK, and the rest of the world may is a blatant hypocrisy at work. The have a crucial impact and prove in time Israeli nuclear technologist Mordechai to be a corrective to an unyielding Vanunu exposed the Israeli nuclear government. (AIPSO 2005: 19–20) program nearly a couple of decades ago. But despite the fact that it has a massive nuclear arsenal, an atrocious human Economics: Africa, economic policy and socio- rights record including the practice of economic model of development apartheid-type policies against Palestin- ians, and the systematic violation of UN The essays dealing with economic issues Security Council resolutions, there has evoke several points, as mentioned in the been virtually no action against it. Politico-economy section above: the weak- Instead, it has been rewarded despite its ness of Africa (Bernadette Andreosso- apartheid and colonisation. India and O’Callaghan and Jean-Pascal Bassino), the other countries of the South argued domination of the US and its allies in during the formulation of the NPT, that economic globalisation (Nirmal Kumar there should be safeguards against both Chandra), and the model of socio-economic horizontal and vertical proliferation. development (Yves Berthelot). The issues Countries should not be permitted to develop new generations of nuclear proposed are clear: Empowerment of Africa, weapons, i.e. indulge in vertical prolifer- Reform of Economic Policy, Change of ation. In stark contrast, the US is trying Socio-economic Model of Development. to develop WMDs in space the so-called However, the means for reaching these ‘son of Star Wars’ program. (AIPSO objectives are diverse. 2005: 18–19) For Bernadette Andreosso-O’Callaghan For that respect, AIPSO proposes and Jean-Pascal Bassino, ‘the risk of increased socio-economic isolation of the building a strong peace movement African continent for the decades to come can backed by and responded to by the be halted by the deeper and more systematic states of the South and their allies. involvement of civil society (NGOs in partic- Organically linking this peace movement to those in the North as well as ular) in these countries’ (Andreosso- building a similar worldwide civil O’Callaghan and Bassino 2005: 49). 130 Darwis Khudori

For Nirmal Kumar Chandra, ‘For an their needs’ and ‘that regional entities alternative world, it is important that the conduct internal and external policies for rules of the game in trade, investment and the people and that national policies aim at capital flows are drastically changed. The meeting basic human needs for today and Bandung spirit must be revived. Major tomorrow’ (Berthelot 2005: 58). developing countries like China, Indonesia, India, South Africa, Mexico and Brazil have Culture: identity, religion, gender to collaborate not just to promote their narrow ‘national’ interests but to leave Three issues are proposed in the area of space for other Third World countries to culture. develop in a fair and equitable manner’ The first, proposed by Darwis (Chandra 2005: 38). Khudori,14 is social movements based on For Yves Berthelot, ‘Regionalism’ could identities (religion, ethnicity, gender, territo- help to change the model he criticised. It is riality) as a potential leading actor for find- based on the fact that ‘contrary to what ing alternatives to the present course of could be expected, that the external trade of globalisation. This is because, since the end the broad regions of the world evolved of the 20th century, the identity-based social towards a much closer integration of the movements have taken an increasingly countries within each region rather than important role among the existing social towards a global engagement. Statistics movements in challenging the present show, also, that the more a region is indus- World Order. Different from the social trialised, the more important is its intra movements of the industrial era (mainly regional trade. The regional trade concentra- trade-unionism), which are essentially tion has been a long-standing phenomenon based on the same logic of their adversary in Western Europe. The same phenomenon (economic well being), the identity-based occurred in Latin America and Asia with the social movements of the globalisation era diversification of their economies. For propose a world order based on a Africa and the Middle East, the very low completely different logic: the development level of regional integration reflects the of the ‘self’, of the ‘meaning’, of the ‘sense’, countries’ continuing dependence on a few for which identity is the main source commodities exported throughout the (Khudori 2005: 60–71). world and their low level of industrialisa- The second, proposed by Boutros tion’ (Berthelot 2005: 54). ‘But for regional- Labaki,15 is inter-religious dialogues, ism to become a strong movement, it is still especially focused on the question of ‘devel- in need of proper practices, clear goals, and opment’ and ‘underdevelopment’ as the concrete results. At the regional and inter- necessary part of the collective work. This regional levels, dialogues have to be trans- concerns especially the Christians and the formed into negotiations of agreements, Muslims in the context of an unequal rela- imbalances between parties have to find tionship between the North (developed, compensations and regional views have to industrialised, rich countries) and the South impact effectively on global negotiations. If (developing or less developed, poor coun- regionalism succeeds, it will have a decisive tries), where the North is deeply attached to influence on the management of globalisa- Christianity while the South is largely popu- tion and the evolution of ideas’ (Berthelot lated by the Muslims (Labaki 2005: 84–98). 2005: 57–58). The third is the need to change the For that respect, the role of CSOs (Civil dominant worldview based on which the Society Organisations) is very important, neo-liberal globalisation operates. Kaarina especially to ‘ensure that people recognise Kailo names this dominant worldview the necessity to change the model and ‘Master Imaginary’ as described in her criti- participate in the emergence of social organ- cism above. This is to be replaced with what isations that respect their culture and meet Kaarina Kailo calls ‘Gift Imaginary’, which Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 131

‘has at its core the undoing, the dismantling, explosive population growth, the spread of the blurring of the arbitrary, unjust dual- “Western civilization” over the rest of the isms within the master imaginary. It refers world, etc. Finally, most studies on the rela- to another sensibility and ethos than the tionship between today’s environmental binary logic and hierarchical dualisms of crisis and economic globalization indicate the master imaginary. We cannot have the that the latter has undermined Earth’s abundance needed for gift giving and the ecological integrity through a variety of provision of basic health, food and security processes’ (Kamino 2005: 101–102). in a situation of artificial scarcity, created The essay focuses on the identification through wars and economic arrangements of the fundamental cause of the environ- set up to benefit the few at the expense of mental crisis: the dominating worldview of the many. Yet, capitalism – particularly in today as he described in his criticism above. its hypercompetitive and crude form under He proposes to replace this worldview by neoliberal globalism – is based on the kind an alternative paradigm suitable for of capital accumulation and artificial, sustainable development. The question is economically created scarcity that cannot ‘how can we possibly promote such a para- but lead to deepening human tragedies of digmatic transformation among humanity?’ poverty and need’ (Kailo 2005: 76). For that This task demands the committed dedica- respect, Women’s Movements play an tion and close collaboration of a diverse important role. ‘Women from around the cast of social actors. The nation-states can world have stressed in their culture-specific still play an important role as demonstrated ways that we need nothing less than a radi- in the application of Kyoto Protocol. In the cally other world view, one based on a private business domain, many corpora- recognition of the collusion of patriarchy tions in various industries are investing to and male hegemonies with the systems promote new technologies that are substan- based on undemocratic structures allowing tially more eco-efficient than those of today. the most vulnerable groups – women, chil- ‘Yet, it is logical to presume that the public dren, ethnic minorities – to be abused and and private sectors – the two traditional exploited. Instead of a common consumer domains that have led humanity to this culture unifying all people in a shared quest ecological crisis – are by themselves incapa- for material gratification, we feel the ble of shouldering this historic transforma- competitive masculated model (with which tion in civilisation. There must also be a women too are now beginning to identify) significantly enhanced contribution from must be replaced by the gift logic, the the third non-governmental and non-profit ancient and to some extent continuing sector that has been making impressive practices of gift circulation. Otherwise, we advances lately’ (Kamino 2005: 106). cannot re-introduce loyalties to place and community – the bedrock of ecological and Education: human dignity, pluralism, dialogue social sustainability’ (Kailo 2005: 80–81). Several issues are proposed by Parichart Suwanbubbha16 in her essay dealing with Environment: sustainable future education. Facing the global environmental crisis, the The fundamental one is the need to only essay of the book focused on te envi- preserve ‘Human Dignity’ as the most ronment, by Yukio Kamino, stresses the important value of human beings. This is to need to secure a sustainable future. anticipate the consequence of globalisation The essay identifies that the environ- that views and treats people like objects mental crisis, like economic globalisation, is (Suwanbubbha in Khudori 2005: 112). ‘historically connected to the Industrial The second issue evoked by the essay is Revolution that marked the transition from ‘Pluralism’, because globalisation has also a solar economy to a “carbon economy,” connected people and the world together. 132 Darwis Khudori

‘Many languages, cultures and religions Lannon,17 evokes the challenge of Globalisa- imply both similarities and differences. As a tion for Social and Solidarity Movements in result of differences, it is necessary to the field of ICTs (Information and Commu- prepare our young generation to cope with nication Technologies). ‘The challenges of the differences of others’ (Suwanbubbha globalisation for social movements lie in 2005: 113). finding ways to dialogue and communicate Related to Pluralism, ‘Dialogue’ came with communities around the world, to as the following issue to be promoted as a discover how globalisation is affecting us part of pedagogical activities. ‘In this way, all, and to begin forming global solidarities people may learn more effectively about to deal with the negative consequences. autonomous differences of cultures, reli- Information and communications technolo- gious belief and the standpoint of others.’ gies present them with an opportunity to Moreover, ‘Through the process of dialogue, tackle these challenges, and to build them- conflict and violence could be reduced as selves a platform upon which to collaborate, dialogue enables people to listen to the mobilise, observe, and publish’ (Lannon reasoning of others that may otherwise 2005: 128). never been known or understood. Further- One of the most pressing ICT-related more, cross-cultural empowerment may challenges for social movements is appro- occur. Above all, dialogue is transferred into priation. ‘Few social movements have action when people put the problem at the ideological or moral difficulties using ICTs, center and each partner in dialogue contrib- but many are struggling with the issue of utes by sharing their ideas about the solu- how to mould these globalising tools for tion from their standpoint or from those of their needs, and how to use them strategi- each religious and cultural belief’ (Suwan- cally and creatively for the benefit of all. It bubbha 2005: 114). is critical for them that ICT policy and In the spirit of preserving Human procedural issues – such as Internet gover- Dignity, the underprivileged people have nance – do not simply reflect the dominant to be included in education. In that globalising discourse(s), but that they are respect, informal and non-formal educa- open to all interests. Social movements are tions are to be developed as a bridge not interested in controlling the Internet, between formal educational functions and but they need to have a say in the formu- publicly influential educational perfor- lation of rules, laws and policies relating mance. In the same spirit, community has to ICTs, so that tools like the Internet can to be considered also as a source of learn- flourish as both a public good and a ing, especially regarding the existence of public space. Processes like the World ‘local wisdom’. Community has to be seen Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), not as a static place, but a place composed and the discussions around Internet gover- of ‘a group of people who share the same nance and financing mechanisms (includ- objectives and values. People in a commu- ing things like the proposed creation of a nity create solidarity, mutual communica- Digital Solidarity Fund for Africa) are tion, care, respect, tolerance, friendship, therefore vitally important’ (Lannon 2005: sharing in the process of learning and a 128–129). natural and moral leader with good In this respect, two issues are administration and management’ (Suwan- mentioned: ‘commercialisation, integration, bubbha 2005: 116). and concentration of ownership of the media’; and ‘international laws regarding intellectual property that have attempted to Communication: ICTs (Information and reinforce the domination of Northern coun- Communication Technologies) tries and their corporate allies.’ Social and In the area of communication, the only solidarity movements can work on these essay on this subject, written by John issues. Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 133

Concluding remark Kamino). It has to be noticed, however, that most of the authors have a double profile: The analysis of the Yogyakarta Commemo- academics who participate actively in asso- ration Group as a social movement enables ciative movements and activists who have us to identify its characteristics, its prospect, an academic background. and its project. In any case, the composition of the authors represents perfectly the universality Characteristics and the specificity of the Group. It is universal in the sense that it corresponds to the Its characteristics can be summarised as present trend of social and solidarity move- follows. ments characterised by the transnational composition of the group, combining Identity. Its identity can be seen from the people from the North as well as from the basic reference of the event it organised: the South, from the Western as well as from the Bandung Spirit as described in the intro- Non Western World, from the academic duction of this article. The composition of world as well as from associative move- the people involved in the commemoration ments. It is specific in the sense that the is interesting to note. Seen from the point of leading actors and the majority of the actors view of ‘geopolitical’ representation, the are from the South and from the Non-West- composition is complicated. There are ern World. authors who belong to the Asian national- ity but are living in Europe (Darwis Opposition. The Group opposes the present Khudori, Indonesian living in France) or state of the World Order and the present the inverse (Hersri Setiawan, Dutch living course of Globalisation, especially related to in Indonesia; Jean-Pascal Bassino, French the domination of the powerful upon the living in Japan). There are authors belong- rest of the world. Some authors identify ing to two nationalities such as Patricia clearly their ‘enemy’: the US and their allies Morales (Argentina/Netherlands) and (the Western/Northern/Industrialised/ Boutros Labaki (Lebanon/Italy). If the Developed/Rich countries, World Bank, country of origin of the authors is taken as IMF,…), but in general the authors point out the criterion, the proportion of Western and the ‘system’ instead of the ‘actors’ of domi- Non-Western representation is six (Finland, nation. France, Germany, Ireland) and ten (Argen- tina, Cameroon/Senegal, India, Indonesia, It proposes alternatives to the Japan, Lebanon, Thailand). While the North Totality. present World Order and Globalisation at and South representation is seven (Finland, diverse levels (long term, middle term, short France, Germany, Ireland, Japan) and nine term) and areas (Politics, Economics, (Argentina, Cameroon/Senegal, India, Culture, Environment, Education, Commu- Indonesia, Lebanon, Thailand). nication) in the form of Goals and Issues as Seen from the point of view of the socio- the basis of its collective work. professional category, the group is composed of two profiles: academics and activists, with a large proportion of the first Prospect. The prospect of this movement will (Bernadette Andreosso-O’Callaghan, depend on two factors: internal and external Bernard Founou-Tshuigoua, Boutros ones. Labaki, Darwis Khudori, Jean-Pascal Bassino, John Lannon, Kaarina Kailo, Majid Internal factor. It depends on the willingness Tehranian, Nirmal Kumar Chandra, Pari- of the Group to continue to exist, to be faith- chart Suwanbubbha, Patricia Morales) ful to its basic reference, to maintain and/or compared to the second (Hersri Setiawan, strengthen its cohesion, and to work on the Pierre Rousset, Wolfgang R. Schmidt, Yukio Goals and Issues it defined. It means also 134 Darwis Khudori that it depends on its capacity to regenerate, Areas (of work), for example, some authors renew, perpetuate itself, especially with evoke the issue of the use of social sciences new generations of academics and activists for the interest of the powerful. This issue is willing to join in the movement. not covered by any area. Therefore, it may At present, this group constitutes an be worth adding Science and Technology to interesting profile in the landscape of social the list of Areas. There are also pressing and solidarity movements in the world, as issues related to the basic needs for living stated in the characteristics above, especially that are not evoked in the book, such as the for the fact that the leading and majority of commercialisation of water, the spread of the actors are from the South and from the AIDS, the increasing scarcity of the sources Non-Western World, which still suffer the of energy. These issues may be grouped into domination of the powerful, and that they another new area, for example Basic Needs. form a coalition of influential academics, On the other hand, there are areas that are activists and religious leaders. The problem not sufficiently filled in with issues. This is that many of them are officially at the age concerns, for example, the areas of the Envi- of retirement (Samir Amin, François ronment, Education and Communication, Houtard, Hersri Setiawan, Yves Berthelot, each of which is represented only by one Boutros Labaki, Bernard Founou Tchuigoua, author. There are pressing issues that are Nirmal Kumar Chandra, Wolfgang R. not mentioned or developed in those areas, Schmidt). Therefore, regeneration is a crucial such as deforestation (Environment), question for the continuity of the group. commercialisation of education (Education), the use of media for the interest of the powerful (Communication). These lacks are External factor. The prospect of the Group understandable, since the publication was depends on the relevance of its basic refer- intended to be a ‘preliminary work’ for a ence and its concrete work for the world greater event supposed to be organised situation, especially in proposing alterna- later. So, they can be completed in the tives to the situation it criticises. At present, following activities. The question is what its basic reference (Bandung Spirit) is highly kind of event or activities can be developed relevant to the challenge of the World Order from the ‘preliminary work’? What will be and Globalisation, as evoked by some of the the basis of the movement? What will be its essays of the book. Seen from the complex- relationship with other types of civil society ity of the world problems it identifies, it is movements? What will be its position clear that its basic reference will still be rele- related to the states or governments? vant for a long time, if not forever. As for its The keywords of the ‘preliminary concrete work, it is still to be seen, because it work’ were ‘Rethinking’ (Solidarity in has just started to work. Global Society) and the ‘Challenge’ (of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Project. The Yogyakarta Commemoration Movements). Therefore, it seems logical that Group has proposed the necessary elements the next activities or event, if there will be of a social project in a global perspective any, would be oriented towards the conse- through a set of fundamental goals and a quences of the ‘rethinking’ as a ‘response’ to considerable number of issues. It has to be the ‘challenge’. It is clear from the diverse noticed, however, that all the goals and goals and issues proposed in the book that issues proposed by the authors do not repre- the Group needs to develop not only ‘reflec- sent a collective work. They represent indi- tions’, but also ‘actions’. The Group cannot vidual views of the authors, which have not work only at the level of ‘discourses’ for an been elaborated or approved collectively as ‘abstract’ society, but also and especially a project proposal. They have formed never- ‘actions’ in the middle of a ‘concrete’ theless a good base for a project proposal, community. In order to achieve its ‘global’ although there are some gaps. In terms of goals, the Group needs a ‘local’ basis for its Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 135 actions. For that respect, some essays have three tiers of interaction: an intergov- given a clear indication and justification: ernmental forum; sub-regional organi- theoretically, Regionalism can be an effec- zations; and people-to-people tive way to change the present course of interaction, particularly business, Globalisation; concretely, Africa and Asia academia, and civil society. are the region that corresponds perfectly to They have also set up an agenda as the profile of the Group for several reasons. follows: The most important one is that Africa and We are determined to develop an insti- Asia share many things in common, espe- tutionalized process of the NAASP cially the suffering from the domination by through convening: a Summit of Heads the powerful, the Colonisation in the past, of State/Government every four years; and the Globalisation today. It is also in a Ministerial Meeting of Foreign Minis- Africa and Asia that we find the poorest ters every two years; and Sectoral and least developed countries in the world. Ministerial and other Technical Meet- Above all, Africa and Asia are the basis of ings when deemed necessary. A Busi- the movements started in the Bandung ness Summit in conjunction with the Asian–African Conference 1955. By taking Summit of Heads of State/Government Africa and Asia as the basis of the move- will be held every four years. (http:// www.asianafricansummit2005.org/ ment, it does not mean that the Group is statements_declaration.htm) closed to people or organisations based outside Africa and Asia. It means that the It is interesting to notice that the Final leading actors of the Movement are based Declaration has included an agenda for the in, or citizens of, African or Asian countries Business Summit, but not for the Civil Society and that the basic field of their work is Summit. This fact may give advantage and Africa and Asia. People or organisations disadvantage to Civil Society Movements. based outside Africa or Asia can join in the Advantage, because Civil Society is not the Movement as allies. affair of government. It is the duty of the Civil In this case, the Yogyakarta Group Society Movements to decide what they cannot neglect the result of the Asian– should do. It may mean that the activists of African Summit – organised by the govern- Civil Society Organisations in Africa and ments of Asian and African countries in the Asia can develop their projects freely, with- framework of the commemoration of the out the control of the states. Disadvantage, 50th anniversary of the Bandung Asian- because it may mean that the governments African Conference – in Jakarta and do not take into consideration seriously the Bandung in April 2005. The result cannot be Civil Society Movements; that the mention of neglected, because the states of Africa and Civil Society in the Final Declaration is just a Asia are also the legitimate heirs of the kind of ‘lip service’ in order to appear ‘polit- Bandung Asian–African Conference and ically correct’; and that the attitude of the their project is something to do with the governments will be indifferent when the Bandung Spirit. The theme of their summit Civil Society Movements take the same line was ‘Reinvigorating the Bandung Spirit: of the governmental policy but repressive Working Towards a New Asian–African when the Civil Society Movements take a Strategic Partnership’ known as NAASP critical position. It may mean also that there (http://www.asianafricansummit2005.org will be no moral support, let alone financial /default.htm). Among the most relevant support, from the states to the Civil Society points proposed by the summit, related to Movements. the question of Civil Society Organisations, The Yogyakarta Group can take into is the following declaration: consideration this situation in its project proposal without losing its principle: keep- We resolve that the sustainability of the ing independent position and critical atti- NAASP shall be conducted through tude vis-à-vis the states. 136 Darwis Khudori

Notes Science, and a former executive secretary of the World Council of Churches (WCC, Geneva, 1. Castells explains this notion by using other Switzerland). He is currently president of the words: identity means the self-definition of the World-wide Ecumenical Partnership, Germany/ movement, what the movement is, in the name Switzerland. of whom the movement speaks; opponent – the 11. Patricia Morales is Argentinean/Dutch, a principle of opposition – is the main enemy of painter, writer, philosopher, and associate the movement, which the movement designates researcher at the Globus Institute for Globalisa- consciously as such; societal objective – the princi- tion, University of Tilburg, the Netherlands, and ple of totality – is the idea which the movement Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, espe- has on the type of social order, or social organi- cially on the question of peace and solidarity in sation, to which the movement wishes to lead Latin American countries. toward a historical horizon of its collective 12. Pierre Rousset is French, the president of ESSF action (Castells 1997). (Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières), a member of 2. Hersri Setiawan is a writer, journalist and activ- the International Commission of ATTAC (Asso- ist of social and cultural organisations, and a ciation pour la Taxation des Transactions finan- former representative of the Indonesian cières pour l’Aide aux Citoyens) for Asia-Pacific National Committee for the Asian-African Writ- Link, and adviser to the European United Left/ ers’ Bureau in Colombo (1961–1965). Nordic Green Left Group in the European 3. Bernadette Andreosso-O’Callaghan is an Parliament. Ireland-based French, economist, Jean Monnet 13. Bernard Founou-Tchuigoua is Cameroonese/ Professor of Economics and director of the Euro- Senegalese, an economist, a former professor of Asia Centre, the University of Limerick, Ireland. Economics at Algiers University (Algeria) and 4. Jean-Pascal Bassino is French, an economist, and IDEP (African Institute for Development and associate professor at Paul Valery University, Planning), Dakar (Senegal), and research direc- Montpellier, France, temporarily based in Japan. tor at the Third World Forum, Dakar, Senegal. 5. Kaarina Kailo is Finnish, a scholar of Women 14. Darwis Khudori is a France-based Indonesian, Studies, and a former professor of Women’s and coordinator of the International Organising Studies and Multiculturalism at Oulou Committee of the Yogyakarta Commemoration University, Finland, currently more active in of the 50th anniversary of Bandung Asian–Afri- municipal politics and the international pro- can Conference. See his short biography at the democracy network, women’s and peace end of this article. organisations (Feminists for a Gift Economy, 15. Boutros Labaki is Lebanese/Italian, a develop- FemAttac). ment economist, an engineer, activist and 6. Nirmal Kumar Chandra is Indian, an economist, professor of Economic Development, Economic a retired professor of Economics, Indian Institute History and Sociology of the Middle East and of Management, Calcutta, and a member of the the Arab World at Lebanese University, Ameri- Third World Association of Economists. can University and Saint Joseph University in 7. Yves Berthelot is French, and economist, a Beirut. Labaki is also Senior Vice-President of former Deputy Secretary General of UNCTAD, a the Council of Reconstruction and Development former Executive Secretary of Economic of Lebanon (1991–2000), General Secretary of Commission for Europe, and president of the ILDES (Institut libanais pour le développement Centre International Lebret-IRFED – a France/ économique et social, Lebanon) and Vice Presi- Switzerland-based NGO dedicated to dialogue dent of the Centre International Lebret-IRFED and development. (France/Switzerland) for Middle East and Arab 8. Yukio Kamino is Japanese, a scholar of Social World Research, Director at St Joseph University Sciences, with a background in African and (Beirut). Asian Studies. Kamino is an environmental activ- 16. Parichart Suwanbubbha is Thai, a scholar of ist, Co-Chair of the International Coordination Education Science and Religious Studies, an Committee, OISCA International – a Japan-based assistant professor of Religious Studies, and transnational NGO dedicated to environmen- chairperson of Comparative Religion Graduate tally sustainable development worldwide. Programme at Mahidol University, Salaya, 9. Majid Tehranian is American/Iranian, a profes- Nakornpathom, Thailand. Suwanbubbha is also sor of International Communication at the a member of the working committee of Mahidol University of Hawaii, and director of the Toda University Research Center for Peace Building. Institute for Global Peace and Policy Research. 17. John Lannon is Irish, a software design/devel- 10. Wolfgang R. Schmidt is German, a theologian, a opment engineer, a scholar of Peace and Devel- scholar of International Law and Political opment Studies, Human Rights activist, and a Towards a Bandung spirit-based civil society movement 137

researcher with the Praxis Centre for the study Founou-Tchuigoua, Bernard (2005) ‘Solidarity of Information and Technology in Peace, Among the Peoples of Africa and Asia: Conflict Resolution and Human Rights at Leeds Elements of A Political Economy’. In Darwis Metropolitan University (UK). He is also a Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Soli- lecturer at the Euro-Asia Centre, University of darity in Global Society. The Challenge of Globalisa- Limerick, Ireland. tion for Social and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada References University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Afro-Asian Peoples Solidarity Organisation Kailo, Kaarina (2005) ‘Solidarity and Globalism (AAPSO) (2005) ‘The resume of the Interna- Revisited: The Gift Imaginary and New Models tional Conference on “Vision of Bandung after of the Human’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) BAND- 50 years in Facing New Challenges” held in UNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. Cairo March 1–3, 2005, at Pyramisa hotel’. In The Challenge of Globalisation for Social and Soli- Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethink- darity Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of ing Solidarity in Global Society. The Challenge of Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Movements, Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok Yogyakarta: Department of Anthropology, Rakyat. Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada Kamino, Yukio (2005) ‘Time for a Change of Heart: University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Facing the Global Environmental Crisis’. In All India Peace and Solidarity Organisation Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethink- (AIPSO) (2005) ‘We Owe a Lot to Bandung’. In ing Solidarity in Global Society. The Challenge of Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Movements, Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. The Chal- Yogyakarta: Department of Anthropology, lenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Khudori, Darwis (2005) ‘Identity-based Social Move- Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok ments facing Globalisation: Challenge and Rakyat. Response, Resistance and Alternative’. In Andreosso-O’Callaghan, Bernadette and Jean- Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethink- Pascal, Bassino (2005) ‘Socio-economic Conver- ing Solidarity in Global Society. The Challenge of gence in the Bandung Countries, 1960–1999’. In Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Movements, Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Yogyakarta: Department of Anthropology, Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. The Chal- Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada lenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of Labaki, Boutros (2005) ‘Interrelated Solidarity Links Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, in a Global Society: Islamic-Christian Dialogue Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok and South-North Relations’. In Darwis Khudori Rakyat. (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Berthelot, Yves (2005) ‘Bandung Fifty Years Later: Global Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Toward Another Development Model for the Social and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: Post Globalisation Era’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) Department of Anthropology, Faculty of BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Social Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: Depart- Lannon, John (2005) ‘Information and Communica- ment of Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural tion Technologies: New Global Challenges and Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Opportunities for Social and Solidarity Move- Pondok Rakyat. ments’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG Castells, Manuel (1997) The Power of Identity, Oxford: 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. The Blackwell Publishers. Challenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Chandra, Nirmal Kumar (2005) ‘Economics of Band- Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of Anthro- ung – Then and Now’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) pology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Social Morales, M.C. Patricia (2005) ‘A Latin American and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: Depart- Approach to Solidarity’. In Darwis Khudori ment of Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Global Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Pondok Rakyat. Social and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: 138 Darwis Khudori

Department of Anthropology, Faculty of World’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. The Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Challenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Rousset, Pierre (2005) ‘The World Social Forum: A Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of Anthro- New Framework for Solidarities’. In Darwis pology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Solidarity in Global Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of Anthropology, Author’s biography Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Darwis Khudori is a writer (poems, short stories, Setiawan, Hersri (2005) ‘Learning from History: essays), an engineer-architect (Gadjah Mada Univer- “The Bandung Spirit”’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) sity, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1984; Institute for Hous- BANDUNG 2005: Rethinking Solidarity in Global ing and Urban Development Studies, Rotterdam, the Society. The Challenge of Globalisation for Social Netherlands, 1987 and 1989), and historian (doctor- and Solidarity Movements, Yogyakarta: Depart- ate in History of Contemporary Arab and Muslim ment of Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural World, University of Paris-Sorbonne, France, 1999). Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Director of Master’s Degree in International Affairs, Pondok Rakyat. specialising in Trade with Asia, at the Faculty of Suwanbubbha, Parichart (2005) ‘Bandung 2005 and International Affairs, University of Le Havre, France Educational Challenges in the Age of Globalisa- (www.univ-lehavre.fr), he is also a Board Member of tion’. In Darwis Khudori (ed.) BANDUNG 2005: Yayasan Pondok Rakyat (People’s Shelter Founda- Rethinking Solidarity in Global Society. The Chal- tion), Yogyakarta, Indonesia (www.ypr.or.id), and lenge of Globalisation for Social and Solidarity Centre International Lebret-IRFED, Paris/Geneva, Movements, Yogyakarta: Department of Anthro- France/Switzerland (www.lebret-irfed.org). pology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, and Yayasan Pondok Rakyat. Contact address: Faculty of International Affairs Tehranian, Majid and Schmidt, Wolfgang R. (2005) University of Le Havre 25, rue Philippe Lebon, BP ‘Proposals for Global Solidarity in a Plural 420 Le Havre 76057 Cedex, France