A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky: : a Phylogenetic Reconstruction of a Palaeolithic Mythology

A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber sky: : a phylogenetic reconstruction of a Palaeolithic mythology. Julien d’Huy

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Julien d’Huy. A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber sky: : a phylogenetic reconstruction of a Palaeolithic mythology.. Les Cahiers de l’AARS, Saint-Lizier : Association des amis de l’art rupestre saharien, 2013, pp.93-106. halshs-00932197

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Julien d’Huy*

Les mythes, comme les espèce, évoluent par descendan- As species, myths are evolving entities. Here, we bu- ce modifiée. Nous avons ici construit différents arbres ilt phylogenetics trees of a mythological family. The phylogénétiques pour une même famille de mythes. results clearly support low horizontal transmissions Les résultats montrent que les mythes se transmettent (borrowings), Palaeolithic diffusions and punctuated essentiellement de façon verticale,ce qui permet de remonter à une diffusion paléolithique et reconstruire evolution. Additionaly, a probable Palaeolithic ver- une proto-version. De plus, il semblerait que les mythes sion of the story has been reconstructed. évoluent par ponctuations.

1 – Introduction gressive changes in heritable traits (genes Biology and mythology have historical / mythems) over successive transmissions depth, and we need history to understand (Lévi-Strauss 1971 : 603-604). Two taxa are them. Yet how do current myths and species more closely related when they share a more account for past changes ? What is their ori- recent common ancestor, and this similarity gin ? When and how have they evolved ? Could can be used to reconstruct evolutionary his- we reconstruct their primary state ? How tories. We have had some conclusive results can we tell the difference between chance in mythology (d’Huy 2012 a, b, c, d ; d’Huy and common ancestry to explain similarities 2013a, b). between two versions or two species ? What is For instance, we have studied the mytholo- the extent of vertical inheritance and horizon- gical motif of the Cosmic Hunt linked to the tal borrowings ? Big Dipper. This motif is peculiar to Northern To achieve success on these issues in the and Central Eurasia and to the Americas but biological field, scientists have developped it seems to be lacking nowhere in the planet. a set of methods called phylogenetics. We Ordinarily, three stars of the handle of the Big have already applied many of these methods Dipper are hunters and the dipper itself is an to mythological corpus. Indeed, evolution in animal (a deer or a bear) ; Alcor is a dog or a organisms and myths occurs through pro- cooking pot (Berezkin 2005).

Fig. 1. Reconstruc- ted phylogeny of the Cosmic Hunt’s versions linked to the Big Dipper. We have analysed 19 versions of these tales using bio Neighbor Joining (10.000 boots- trap replications, d’Huy 2012d).

* Doctorant au CEMAf (Centre d’Étude des Mondes africains), UMR 8171 CNRS. [email protected] Received Oct. 15th 2012.

Les Cahiers de l’AARS — 16 (2013) : 93-106. 93 Julien d’Huy

What about the Saharan versions of Cosmic Hunt ? Strait. So, after two versions diverge from a com- Tuareg know Ursa Minor and Ursa Major as a young camel and its mo- mon ancestor, they also become less similar to ther (Tuareg 1). The North Star is sometimes a black woman that holds each other with the passage of time. Note that the the reins of the young camel as its mother is milked (Duveyrier 1864 : use of mythemes (irreducible and unchanging ele- 424) or the post to which the young camel is tied (Bernus & Sidiyene 1989 : 155) or the head of the mother (Benhazera 1908 : 61 ; Stefanini ment of the myth that can be similar or different 1926 : 127). When the North Star is a black woman, she believes that between two versions) allow us to go back very the stars ψ, λ, μ, ν, ξ want to kill her, so she stays still (Duveyrier 1864 : far in time, beyond the horizon of current phyloge- 424 ; Pottier 1946 : 244-245). It’s easy to recognize here the Cosmic netic method in linguistics. It may be because all Hunt motif with a move from the animal hunted to the owner hunted. mythological versions share a bigger pool of com- The story also seems to be influenced by the Arab culture. Indeed, the mon structures and units than language. Arabs saw a coffin and mourners in the Big Dipper. The four stars of Phylogenetic reconstructions using parsi- the dipper’s cup are the coffin ; the handle are the three mourners, sons, mony and maximum likelihood can attempt daughters or brothers of the deceased. They are following the North Star to reconstruct the ancestral states of each who killed their father and seeking vengeance. mytheme and of the myth itself ; we also In a second Tuareg version (Tuareg 2), Ursa Major is a female camel reconstructed the following Palaeolithic story : that belonged to Noah ; the animal was killed by seven noble people, a man pursues a deer, and the animal is alive including one Tuareg ; the Tuareg was transformed into a desert monitor when it turns into the whole Dipper. (ăɣāta, Varanus griseus) and other people into jackal, chameleon... Sin- ce then, the Tuareg do not eat the desert monitor whom they considered The Bayesian approach is considered to be as their maternal uncle (Basset 1910 : 16-17 ; Benhazera, 1908 : 61). This the best current method of phylogenetic recons- version is clearly influenced by the Arab culture (cf. Noah) and might be truction. Yet the trouble with this method is the origin of the Greek versions, where a god places an animal amongst that human populations and mythologies do the stars. Note that an influence of Berber culture on Greek culture has not really take the form of a tree, but rather the been previously showed for the Pygmalion motif (d’Huy 2011). form of a bush, with exchange of both genes These tales are not cosmic hunt sensu stricto but rather deformed ver- and mythemes. Mythologies are not detached sions of the primitive story. from each other, and they continue to interact after their differentiation. This interaction is facilitated by linguistic proximity that allows We have analysed 19 versions of these tales communication and by geographic proximity using computational methods from evolutionary that allows talks, borrowings and learnings biology (d’Huy 2012d). An analysis with Mes- between speakers of different languages. quite 2.75 (an open-source software for evolutionary biology) produced a consistency index 2 – Material (CI) of 0.59 and a retention index (RI) of 0.71 For this paper, we developed our database, that are indicative of low horizontal transmission including mythological versions of Cosmic Hunt and vertical signal in the data. The CI and the centred on Big Dipper but also other versions RI can take values from zero to one. High values centred on Orion, Pleiades, etc. We added Tuareg indicate a low degree of homoplasy (acquisition (Duveyrier 1864 : 424 ; Basset 1910 : 16-17 ; Ben- of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages hazera, 1908, 61), Wagogo (Nilsson 1920 : 119), that is the result of convergent evolution ) for the Khoikhoi (Nilsson 1920 : 120), Karanga, Tswana CI and a high degree of synapomorphy (traits (Koekemoer 2008: 75) Rutul (Bulatova 2003 : that is shared by two or more taxa and their most 222, apud Berezkin 2009 : 41), Basque (Cerquand recent common ancestor) for the RI. Using both 1875: 19-20; Vinson 1883 : 8-9), Saami (Billson a bio neighbor joining and a parsimony analysis, 1918: 180; Berezkin 2005: 87 ; Pentikänen 2011 : we obtained a clear organisation of the versions 107), Evenky (Anisimov 1958 : 12-13; Jacobson and a progression : Greece § Central Asia and 1993), Chukchi (Bogoras 1924 : 243), Ojibwe Siberia  British Columbia  Northeastern (Speck 1915 : 63-64; Williams 1956 : 27-30), America. (Fig. 1 for the bio neighbor analysis Copper (Rasmussen 1932 : 23), Netsilik (Ras- with SplitsTree4, a popular program for inferring mussen 1931 : 211, 385), Polar Eskimo (Holtved phylogenetic trees or phylogenetic networks). 1951 : 50-55), Baffin land (Boas 1888 : 636-637), This signal showed that the similarities sys- Igloolik (Kroeber 1899 : 173) Coeur d’Alène (Teit tematically decrease among the versions as the and Boas 1930 : 178-179), Tsilhqot’in (also called geographical distance increases (for a similar the Chilcotin; Farrand 1900 : 31), Mocovi (Rivera process in language, see: Holman and al. 2007). de Bianchi 1973 : 704), Kalina (Magana 1983), It was consistent with our knowledge of the first Akawaio (Brett 1880 : 191-200; Roth 1915 : 265- human migrations. The Big Dipper interpreted as 266), Chemehuevi (Fowler 1995: 147-148), Mari- a Cosmic Hunt must be even older than 15.000 copa (Spier 1933: 146-147), Kiliwa (Meigs 1939 : years, coming from Asia, when North America 69-78) and Mojave (Fowler 1995: 147) versions. was populated by migrations across the Bering For the others references, see d’Huy 2012d.

94 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky : A Phylogenetic Reconstruction

3 – Method and results likelihood allowed to reconstruct ancestral Fig.2. Mesquite tree The questionnaire previously used in d’Huy states of mythemes and of the protomyth itself including mytho- for each root. We then identified the recons- logical versions 2012d was developed on the basis of the known of Cosmic Hunt typological variations in this family of myths tructed mythemes for each eurasian root centred on Big Dip- (see the table at the end of the paper). The (Fig. 3) and selected the version that holds the per but also other absence or presence of a mytheme was coded majority of the wide shared mythemes (>50%) versions centred on Orion, Pleiades, etc. for each version by 0 or 1, respectively, to pro- as the better root. Consequently, the tree has been rooted with Evenki 3. The reconstructed (red : Asia ; gray : duce a binary matrix of 93 mythemes in 47 Greece ; yellow : versions. The database was still incomplete but Palaeolithic version was almost identical to the Basque ; orange : has been build so that it could flexibly grow as previous one (see below). Africa ; light blue : Arctic ; magenta : new versions emerge. This will allow the abi- The second mythological tree was constructed with MrBayes 3.2.1 (Huelsenbeck american Coast- lity to test our model. Plateau / British & Ronquist 2001; Ronquist & Huelsenbeck We took into account adaptation to the Columbia ; pink : 2003). We set the evolutionary model to the local environment, because the choice of the northeastern Ame- generalised time reversible substitution model rica ; wood : ame- same mytheme (e.g. tapir, fisher) by neighbo- with gamma-distributed rate variation across rican Great Basin ring cultures probably showed vertical trans- sites and a proportion of invariable sites. We / Great Southwest ; green : Guiana) mission from mother to daugther mythologies. ran an ordinary Markov Chain Monte Carlo To reconstruct the first state for the myth, (MCMC) analysis for 40.000.000 generations we used Mesquite 2.75 (Maddison & Maddison with a sample on the screen every 10.000 gene- 2011). We calculated the parsimony treelength rations. The summaries were based on a total of the tree and matrix. Character matrices of 8.002 trees from two runs. Each run pro- were supplied from data files and the tree was duced 4.001 trees of which 3.001 samples were rearranged by subtree pruning and regrafting. included. The fact that stationary has been We built a majority rules consensus tree where reached (burn-in) was controled with Tracer only those clades present in more than 50 per 1.5.0 (Drummond & Rambaut 2007). As a pre- cent of the trees were present (Fig. 2 ; 200 caution, the 2.500.000 first steps (250 samples) trees ; treelength : 213). The retention index were discarded as “burn-in”. According to the for matrix (0,6966) indicated that most of the previous analysis, the tree was rooted with mythemes were shared through common des- Evenky people 3 version. cent. Indeed, high CI and RI values (for ins- We simulated evolution of DNA sequences tance, greater than 0.60) usually show a low on the bayesian tree with Mesquite 2.75 and horizontal transmission (Nunn and al. 2010). chose the Jukes-Cantor model as a user-defi- Arguments in favour of localization of pro- ned model of nucleotide evolution. The four typical Cosmic Hunt in Asia seem persuasive submodels of this one were i/ the states at the (Berezkin 2005). We successively rooted the root of the tree, ii/ the equilibrium frequencies tree with each eurasian version, one by one. of states on other branches, iii/ the relative Phylogenetic reconstructions using maximum rates of characters, and iv/ the relative rates of

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Fig. 3. Recons- tructed mythemes for each eurasian root by maximum likelihood method. Claude Lévi-Strauss calls zoemes “animals given seman- tic functions.” Zoemes “allow mythic thought to keep operations within the same framework” (Levi-Strauss 1985 : 130).

A : Khanty B : Saami1 C : Evenki 1 D : Evenki 2 E : Evenki 3 F : Ob-Ugric G : Saami2 H : Chukchi I : Rutul J : Basque 1 K : Basque 2 L : Pausanias M : Pseudo- Apollodorus N : Hesiod O : Ovid

Last column : % of shared mythemes.

change from state to state. We simulated 1000 of distributions that represent different mixtures characters and obtained a consistency index of of the posterior distribution and the prior dis- 0,7358 and a retention index of 0,8548. These tribution (Xie and al. 2011). The sampling was results were greater than the results for the pre- based on 50 steps with 294.000 generations vious tree. (588 samples) within each step. The marginal likelihood was bigger for the strict-clock model Using MrBayes, we also run an MCMC than for the non-clock model, the log values analysis with the standard non-clock model being -1057,04 and -1092,66, respectively (Fig. for 15.000.000 generations. Then we repeated 4). There was good agreement between the two the procedure under the strict clock model. We independent analyses for both models, indica- used the stepping-stone method and we estima- ting that we had accurate estimates of the mar- ted the model likelihood by sampling a series ginal model likelihoods. The strict-clock model

96 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky : A Phylogenetic Reconstruction

Marginal Standard non- Strict-clock likehood clock model model ter and al. 2003). Using the Bayesian tree, we computed the Pearson product-moment 1 -1092,88 -1057,04 correlation coefficient r (or Pearson’s r) Fig. 4. Margi- 2 -1092,47 -1057,03 nal likelihood between the number of nodes on each path for standart non Total -1092,66 -1057,04 and each root-to-tips path length. The tree clock-model and with branches proportional to lenghts (Fig. strict-clock model. was 35,62 log likelihood units better than the 5) showed a strong correlation (0,9146, 1 non-clock model, a log difference above 5 being being a perfect positive correlation) between considered very strong evidence (Kass & Raf- the number of net-speciation events (nodes) tery, 1995). Thus, the marginal likelihood mean and the total path length from the root of the estimator indicated that we had strong evidence tree to its tips (Fig. 6). in favor of strict-clock model. In fact, myths The node-density effect is an artifact change over time in a more complex way. of phylogeny reconstruction that can cause Punctuated equilibrium is a theory in shorter summed lengths in areas of the tree evolutionary biology which proposes that, where fewer species (here, collected myths) instead of a slow, continuous and gradual have been sampled. The artifact produces a movement, evolution tends to take the form positive relationship between path lengths of extended periods of time where species and numbers of nodes and could impact the will exhibit little net evolutionary change results of a punctuational effect. However, (stasis), «punctuated» by episodes of very the artifact contains a distinctive signature fast events of branching speciation and in the form of a curvilinear relationship development of new forms. Punctuated and between path length and number of nodes gradual evolution result in different rela- (Venditti and al. 2006). This curvature can tionships : there is a positive correlation for be reliably detected by means of the coeffi- a punctuational process between path length cient of determination (R2). The R2 s a num- (the sum of length from each terminal node ber between 0 and 1 used to describe how to the root) and the number of nodes on the well a regression line fits a set of data. An R2 path. In contrast, for gradual process, the near 1 indicates that a regression line fits the path lengths are independent to the number data well, while an R2 closer to 0 indicates a of divergence events along that path (Webs- regression line that does not fit the data very

Fig. 5. Consensus tree based on average branch lengths. Labels indicate the probability of each node.

97 Julien d’Huy

works by agglomerating clusters. NeighborNet constructs networks rather than hierarchical trees and can make a useful contribution to representing multiple phylogenetic hypotheses simultaneously and showing complex evolutionary processes (e.g. hybridization, lateral transfer, recombination). Fig. 6. Root-to-tip We also used SplitsTree to quantify how path length against each version fits into the network with the number of nodes so-called delta score (Holland and al. 2002). along each path. Briefly described, the method scored indivi- dual versions from 0 to 1; a relatively high delta score indicates a strong conflicting well. We used OpenOffice 3.4.1 to calculate signal in the data. The average delta-score the R2 for the figure 6. The R2 with a linear was 0,3393. This corroborated that the data regression (0,84) was bigger than a logarith- was tree-like. Wichmann and al. (2011) cite mic regression (0,79) or than an exponential delta scores across the world’s language fami- regression (0,77). The tree also didn’t seem lies. The average which can be obtained from to show the curvilinear trend associated their data is 0,3113. Thus some myths are with the node-density artifact. R2 for linear at least as tree-like in their behavior as lan- regression could represent the percent of guages, if not more. variation explained by punctuational pro- The initial coding procedure might intro- cesses (Dediu & Levinson 2012). duces some bias in the tree. One can argue that Then we used another technique for it is very difficult to compare the American constructing phylogenetic networks, Neighbor- zoemes with others from Eurasia or Africa Net, implemented in SplitsTree 4.12 (Bryant because they simply do not live in these area. & Moulton 2004 ; Bryant and al. 2005), to To assess the robustness of the network, we visualize the relationships implied by the data removed the zoeme names (mythemes 1-19) (Fig. 7). We used uncorrected P-distance. This and used only the mythemes 2 and 17: “the algorithm takes a distance matrix as input, and zoeme is an herbivore” and “the zoeme is a car-

Fig.7. A split graph showing the results of NeighborNet analyses of the Cos- mic Hunt versions.

98 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky : A Phylogenetic Reconstruction

nivore.” Additionaly, the logically dependent of death (dHuy 2012e). All of that reinforces Fig. 8. Splitgraph mythemes 91-92-93 were eliminated. The pro- the idea that the peoples with the haplogroup without some blem is that a “yes” on item 57-78 implies a X were part of the original founders of Native mythemes. “yes” on items 91 for instance. This could have American populations. Yet the cluster Greek / a big effect on the results of our analysis by Ojibwa may be weakly supported (see below). exaggerating the appearance of clustering. The Two Salish versions (Snohomish people / NeighborNet network created with SplitsTree’s Twana people) are incorrectly placed before the analysis is shown in fig.8 and the tree created Basque versions and belong to the same cluster with Mesquite is shown in fig.9. than Evenki. Note that the larger and contro- 4 – Discussion versial family “Dene-Caucasian” includes the Basque and maybe the Salish language fami- The MrBayes’ consensus tree is shown in lies (Shevoroshkin 2003, 2008). Moreover, the fig.5. The root and the first nodes of the second Yeniseian languages that belong to the Dene- branches are eurasian. A branch groups the Caucasian family share many contact-induced Greek and Ojibwa versions. That can be explai- similarities with the South Siberian Turkic ned by an ancient genetic link : haplogroup X2 languages, Samoyedic languages and Evenki appears to be essentially restricted to northern (Anderson 2003) ; these contacts could explain Amerindian groups and to the Near East, the the proximity between Evenki, Basque and Caucasus and Mediterranean Europe, making Salish versions. If we exclude this hypothesis, it likely that some Native American founders it can be assumed that during the last glacial have European ancestors (Brown and al. 1998). maximum, one migration spreads from Asia to There also are mythological links (d’Huy 2012 the Pyrenees and the Northwest Coast. c, e) between Europe / Western Asia and North By observing the figure 5, several conclu- America. Many similar and very ancient tales sions can be drawn. North and South Ameri- are largely restricted to the haplogroup X2 area, can versions may come with many migrations e.g. i/ a person gets into a monster’s homestead, from Siberia rather than just a single wave of can be killed, but escapes sticking to the hair migrants, one by ancestors of present Eski- of an animal who is going out or under an ani- mos and some Northeastern Amerindians, mal’s skin (d’Huy 2012c, 2013b), or ii/ animals one by ancestor of Algonquian (who sha- ask riddles that the hero must answer on pain red haplogroup X with European), another

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Fig. 9. Tree drawn by people whose descendants are confined hopefully give a better measure of this punc- with an altered to the Southwest of North America and the tuational effect and of the role of distance in version of the South America, and another one by ancestors mythological differentiation. database, without some mythemes. of many Salishian people. These migrations The SplitsTree’s network shows a non star- probably occurred at least 15.000 years ago, like aspect according to a deeply stable signal before the rising sea water submerged Berin- (Fig. 7). This network highlights higher level gia. The fact that African and Great Basin cluster in the data with an African, an Eura- versions belong to the same cluster can be sian and an Amerindian groups. Additionally, explained by a common eurasian origin. The it correctly organises some of the versions African versions probably indicate a reverse into well-known linguistic groups, with Ura- migration from Asia to Africa. lic (Ob-Ugric, Khanty people, Saami), Saha- Our results also suggest that, as for spe- ran (Tuareg 1, Tuareg 2), Greek (Hesiod / cies and language (Atkinson and al. 2008; Ovid / Pausanias / Pseudo-Apollodorus), Dediu and al. 2012), newly formed versions Tungusic (Evenki 1 and 3), Eskimo (Copper, diverge at a rapid pace around myths splits, Baffin land, Polar Eskimo, Netsilik, Igloo- and then adopt a slower rate of change, where lik), Salishan (Snohomish / Twana ; Lillooet they evolve at a rate relatively constant over / Coeur d’Alene / Nlaka-Pamux), Iroquoian time (see also: d’Huy 2013b). The punctuatio- (Mohawk / Cherokee / Seneca, with three nal bursts may account for about 84% of the geographically close Algonquian versions : total divergence among the studied versions. It Mi’kmaq, Lenape and Meskwaki), Algon- could be due to a cultural need to foster group quian (Ojibwa 1 / Ojibwa 2), Yuman (Mari- identity and social cohesion (we think that ver- copa / Kiliwa / Mojave ; Chemehuevi is Uto- sus they think that) : for instance, a story of Aztecan) and Carib (Kalina / Akawaio) area the origin of fire was told by an amerindian to being the most distinct. The low number of offset another story by an amerindian of ano- boxes showing conflicting signals and the ther tribe (Goddard 1904 : 197). The second coherent groupings of mythological versions hypothesis is a mythological founder effect. indicate that the structural features of these In a similar effect to its genetic counterpart, versions were deeply stable through time (for a mythological founder mutation appears in a the same analysis with language: Greenhill myth known by individuals who are founders and al. 2010). There is a clear link between of a distinct population; then this mutation can languages and mythological versions. Myths get passed down to other generations. Here, belong probably to the category of cultural the myth is probably characterized by serial features that are most similar to languages in founder effects as people settled Eurasia and their distribution and the both seem change North America by rapid and long distances fol- relatively little over their history. lowed by periods of settlement. Consequently, According to the haplogroup X’s hypothesis, mythological differentiation tends to increase the Greek cluster is not placed into the eurasian with geographic distance. Future works will cluster. The Khoikhoi version is also incorrectly

100 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky : A Phylogenetic Reconstruction placed. Its place might indicate a quick migra- misplacements do not affect their general tion from Asia to Africa and America. Note that meaning. Yet we should note that the results a specific version can only appear around the obtained with the modified data could be less perimeter (and not in the midst) of a network of reliable because there may be not a sufficient reticulations. If borrowings are identified in a amount of data analysed. version, NeighborNet cannot place such a ver- According to the reconstructed Palaeolithic sion in an intermediate position between many version (see Methods and results), there is an others around it, and that can biase its position animal that is a horned herbivore, especially an (Heggarty and al. 2010). A cluster groups the elk. One human pursues this ungulate. The hunt Tuareg, Basque, Saami, Evenki and Uralic ver- locates or get to the sky. The animal is alive when sions, which could be interpreted as indicating it is transformed into a constellation. It forms the an ancient common ancestry. This grouping Big Dipper. With the altered tree (Fig. 9), the only may confirms that the Franco-Cantabrian change is that the zoeme is an herbivore, without refuge area was the source of expansions of any additional information (according with infor- hunter-gatherers that colonized northern Africa mation partially given by the modified data). and recolonized much of northern and central The transition of the Ursa Major designa- Europe after the last glacial maximum. It also tion from elk to bear in Indo-European and reveals a common mythological and palaeo- Mediterranean area (not earlier than 2000 lithical bond that unites the European hunter- B.C.) is corroborated by various cultural and gatherer populations and the Berbers. linguistic sources (Lushnikova 2003). The To assess the solidity of the network, reconstructed prehistoric story also explains we repeated the NeighborNet analysis with why there is no bear representations similar Splitstree after removing some doubtful to the Big Dipper in Upper Palaeolithic (Hay- mythemes (see Methods and results). The new den and Villeneuve 2011), the cosmic animal network (Fig. 8; delta-score: 0,3514) is very being a horned herbivore. The Cosmic Hunt similar to the previous one, with approxi- myth is probably reflected in the rock art of matively the same linguistic clusters, except Karelia, Siberia, the Far East and Northern for Saharan. The Eurasian group is divided Mongolia (Ernits 2010) and may be repre- into two groups that remain at the root of the sented in the famous Lascaux shaft ‘scene’ other branches. The Eskimo cluster is splited showing a bird-headed ithyphallic man with between Netsilik / Igloolik / Polar Eskimo and an apparently disembowelled bison (d’Huy Copper / Baffin land groups, yet remains at the 2012d). Yet the contents of the myth and the base of the Northeastern amerindian branch specifics of rock art make it difficult to prove (as it actually does with more mythemes; see definitively the relevant connection. Additio- fig.7). Yuman and African versions continue nally, the phylogenetic approach suggests that to be closely associated, as Basque / Snoho- the Cosmic myth would have existed in many mish / Twana and Greek / Ojibwa versions area, including the prehistoric Sahara : we do. The Khoikhoi version is always incorrectly now need to find where and how this myth placed. The Wasco version changes position. has been represented in this area. With a Mesquite analysis of the modified 5 – Conclusion database (Fig. 9; consensus tree of 200 trees ; Our phylogenetic approach of myths allows treelength: 172 ; retention index: 0,6566), the us to : 1/ confirm the Palaeolithic datation of the relationship within each of the main clusters Cosmic Hunt linked to a horned herbivore, 2/ remains approximatively the same and the reconstruct the first version of the myth, 3/ cor- linguistic and cultural groups are relatively roborate the hypothesis of a European post-gla- similar. The tree groups the Ojibwa versions cial human recolonization of Europe and a part with the Iroquoian tales, which weakens the of North Africa from the Franco-Cantabrian haplogroup X’s hypothesis. It also groups one refuge, 4/ prove the existence of a mythological Tuareg version with Greek versions. These root common to Berbers and European hunter- new clusters could be explained by borrowings gatherers, 6/ document at least four migrations Acknowledegments : The author thanks between neighboring people (see the Box for from Eurasia into America and suggest that Yuri Berezkin, the Tuareg version). Additionaly, the Iroquoian there was reverse migration from Eurasia to Brian Hayden, Jean- family does not form a monophyletic group Africa, 5/ find support for the punctuated evo- Loïc Le Quellec, and Mojave and Netsilik versions are mis- lution of myths, 6/ offer some suggestions to Steven Pinker, placed. To conclude, in agreement with the interpret prehistoric rock art images that should Yves Vadé and Søren Wichmann two modified data analyses, a deeply change be discovered. Thus, the study of human mytho- for their helpful of mythemes may cause only small changes logy directly opens up new ways for genetics, suggestions and in the topology of the tree and network, and archaeology and rock art researches. encouragements.

101 Julien d’Huy

0 0 0 0 Wa go go 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Ts wa na 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 Sa am i2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Ru tul 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 Ka ran ga 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 Kh oik hoi 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ev en ki 3 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 Kili wa 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 Ma ric op a 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 Ch em eh ue vi 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Igl ool ik 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 Mo jav e 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Le na pe 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ak aw aio 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Kal ina 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 Ba sq ue 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Oji bw a2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 Tsi lhq ot'i n 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 Co eur d'A lèn e 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Ba ffin La nd 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Pol ar Es ki mo 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

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0 1 0 0 Co pp er 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ch uk chi 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 Se ne ca 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 Oji bw a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 W as co 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Lill oo et 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Pa us ani as 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ov id 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ps eu do - Ap oll od oru s 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 He sio d 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 Tu are g 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 Tu are g 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Sa am i1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 Ba sq ue 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ob ugr ic 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Ev en ki 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Ev en ki 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Kh ant y 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 Mo hw ak 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Mi km ac 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 Me sk wa ki 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 Sn oh om ish 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 Tw an a 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 Nl ak a'p am ux 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 Ch ero ke e 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

or at least three three least at or

animal. sues an animal who an animal sues - members of the same members the of

e is seven animals. seven e is pursuers. five e are zoeme is a moose. zoeme is The zoeme is a camel. The zoeme is pursuers. mammal. a big The zoeme is a herbivore. The zoeme is animal. a horned The zoeme is an ungulate. The zoeme is an elk. The zoeme is a reindeer. The zoeme is a deer. The zoeme is The an ass. The zoeme is an antilope. The zoeme is a zebra. The zoeme is a pig The zoeme is an ox. The zoeme is a tapir. The zoeme is a carnivore. The zoeme is a bear. The zoeme is a fisher. The zoeme is animal. a domestic It's legged a six It’s sun the The zoeme captures one animal. is There animals. two is There animals. three is There animals. four is There Ther pride. his for punished is An animal pursuer. one is The re pursuers. two are There pursuers. four are There Ther pursuers. seven are There dogs. are Pursuers pur An animal family. The zoeme is a mountain sheep. a mountain The zoeme is – three are There are Pursuers

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

102 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky : A Phylogenetic Reconstruction

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

her her

dew. -

n in winter. n in

hit with a

ns into a star of the the of a star into ns

The dripping blood of the animal animal the of blood The dripping autumn foliage. the tinges becomes honey The grease becomes snow. The grease The cosmic animal is is animal The cosmic Dipper. pursues an animal pursues sky. the to get or located Pursuers to sky A the man from down goes alone to access way to the and destroys earth sky. the stars. into brothers his A man turns A woman a taboo. breaks a becauseof become stars Hunters relative. a bear. a nymph into A god transforms a into animal A god transforms constellation. a hunter. stops person A divine when transformed alive is The animal sky. the in or constellation into dead when transformed is The animal constellation. into fall. the until continues The hunt from dripping blood the or The grease and on earth body falls animal's the else. becomes something a star. into transformed The dog is dart or arrow. warmth of origin the is The hero a star into transformed is Each animal Dipper. Big the of tur One animal the of stars two into turns Two animals Dipper. the of stars four into turn animals Four Dipper. the of star seven form Seven animals Dipper. the of stars four forms The animal Dipper. Dipper. the forms The animal into turn same family Members the of Minor. Ursus and Major Ursus see stars are limbs off Cut the shadow of the are stars Three animal. transformed into a bear. into transformed A man is about to kill his own mot his kill to A about man is 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 - 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

103 Julien d’Huy

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

an animal.

ack

ades are a game. are ades rs are the handle of the Dipper. the of handle the are rs of the main constellation of the the of main constellation the of e three stars of Orion’s Belt are are Belt Orion’s of stars e three Hunte Dipper. the of stars four form Hunters Dipper. the of stars five form Hunters Dipper. the of stars seven form Hunters owner. their to associated are Animals a dog. is Alcor an object. is Alcor pot. a cooking is Alcor an arrow. is Alcor Alcor is a knife. a drawing. is Dipper The Big are Belt Orion’s of stars The three animals three as interpreted are Belt Orion’s of stars Three animal. single one as interpreted is Orion of stars neighboring the One of the hit to hunter by the shot a sword animals. a pursuer. is Orion of The sword hunter a Canopusis The Hy hunters. are The Pleiades are The Pleiades game.a is Cassiope a game. is Betelgeuse the of main constellation the One of Dipper Big the is story the of main constellation the One of Pleiades the is story interpreted as three pursuers. three as interpreted story is Orion. Alcor is a p a pursuer. is Orion Th One

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93

104 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky : A Phylogenetic Reconstruction

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