THE NEW PRESENCE Elena Green

contents

E d i t o r ´ s N o t e s

THE NEW PRESENCE Elena Green ...... 2

Spring 2009 Prague Writers´ Festival

Program for the 19th Prague Writers´ Festival...... 3

N e w s R o u n d - U p

Czech and Global Events from the Second Quarter of 2009...... 4

World Press

Foreign Policy, Korean News...... 6

Domestic Affairs in the Czech Republic

Euroskepticism´s New Face? n Linda Witters...... 8

A Look Beyond Labels for Equal Education n Michelle Favin...... 11 8 Between Atheism and Catholicism n Alexandra Vedrashko...... 15 Immigration

Immigration Policies in the European Union n Vladimír Špidla...... 17

Shattered Dreams n Sairah Zaidi...... 19

The Czech Foreign Police and Immigrationn Lubomír Sedlák...... 22

Racism and Reform n Zoe Aiano...... 24

The Middle East

The Hopelessness of a Middle East Peace Processn Irena Kalhousová...... 27 39 Islam, Christianity and the Struggle for Rationalism n Petr Pelikán...... 30 Global Security

Targeting the World n Marcel Kaba...... 32

Missile Defense and Rising Global Tensions n John Jack Rooney...... 39

Fighting For Salvation: Mr. Obama Comes to Prague n William A. Cohn...... 42

Big Things in Small Packagesn Benjamin Cunningham...... 47

The Global Economy

An Interview with Economist Bruce Caldwell n Lukáš Kovanda...... 50

Developing Countries in the Global Economic Slowdown n Josef Mladek...... 52

42 The Paradox of Failed Statesn Martin Riegl...... 54

Global Warming The New Presence is the sister publication of the Czech magazine Přítomnost. Both magazines are Debunking the Myths of Climate Scepticism n Alexander Ač...... 56 published by Martin Jan Stránský, grandson of the original publisher of Přítomnost, which under Global Warming is Not an Acute Problem n Martin Loužek...... 58 renowned editor Ferdinand Peroutka became inter-war Czechoslovakia´s most widely respected Parting Shots periodical publication. Blowing It n Martin Jan Stránsky...... 60 The New Presence is published on a quarterly basis. It features a mixture of original material and translated articles from our sister publication. Due to considerations of space and style, some articles may vary in style and/or length from the original. Cover photo – Jiří David.

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 1 ] editor´s notes

ince our last publication, the Czech William A. Cohn, a lecturer at Uni- Republic has given an abrupt good- verity of New York in Prague, and Ben Sbye to one head of state and a warm Cunningham, editor at The Prague Post, welcome to another. And while the former present a discussion on our double C’s as was the CR’s own Prime Minister Mirék they assess Obama’s call for nuclear dis- Topolánek, the latter was US President armament. As Cohn indicates, Obama’s Barack Obama. On the 24th of March, fresh and honest approach to the sub- the lower house of the Czech parliament ject may inject new confidence into cast a vote of no-confi- the viability of nuclear disarmament. dence against Topolánek’s Conversely, Cunningham questions the centre-right government, veracity of Obama’s professed commit- stripping the country half- ment to reduce nuclear weapons – per- way through its first EU haps it is simply a “public relations- presidency of, most im- fueled proposal,” he suggests. portantly, its credibility. But in this discussion of confidence In these troubling econo- and credibility, it remains to be seen mic times, this is one loss how one becomes the arbiter of these a country simply does not difficult to attain characteristics. It is want to suffer. And as that this question that our section on global aforementioned presiden- warming raises through the opposing tial visitor of Prague knows, confidence views of Marek Loužek and Alexander and credibility are in short supply. Ač. Should our vote of confidence go to This issue ofThe New Presence tackles climate skeptic Loužek, the research di- these two themes, confidence and credi- rector of the Czech Centre of Econom- bilty, as they relate to the global problems ics and Politics, or to Ač, a supporter of we face today. But as many of our con- climate change theory and researcher tributors reveal, referring to these trou- at the Czech Institute of Biological and bles as today’s problems is a misnomer Ecological Systems? that overlooks their often historic nature. Unfortunately, in preparing a discus- In our section on immigration, the Eu- sion on the world’s problems it is dif- ropean Commissioner for Employment, ficult to speak of hope – the mere na- Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, ture of a global problem quite simply Vladimír Špidla, notes that xenophobia denies the existence of a ready solution. still influences how some EU member- As witnesses to the political, social and states approach immigration from third economic plagues of the world, we are (non-EU) countries. As with every EU left posing worst-case scenarios and re- policy endeavor, the inability to achieve sponding with despondent and damn- consensus will undermine confidence in ing answers. And so, where does this the bloc’s stated purpose to share com- leave us? How can we feel confident in mon beliefs and values. our leaders today to fix the problems Further questions of confidence and that the leaders of yesterday left unfin- credibility rise as we enter a section on ished? the Middle East. Irena Kalhousová, an The answer lies not in these one-time analyst at the Czech think-tank the As- leaders – criticized and lauded in the sociation of International Affairs, asks: same breadth – but in the constancy of how the people of Israel and Palestine our global common responsibility to can possibly remedy – let alone tackle – bear these burdens and inch them along a conflict decades-long if their govern- as best we can. ments are incredible in the eyes of each other and lack the confidence of their people? Elena Green

[ 2 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 prague writer‘s festival

th Program for the 19 Prague Writers‘ Festival 2001 Nights: The Art of Silence 7–11 June 2009

he 19th anniversary of the Prague Writers’ Festival The festival will exhibit stories mainly from Ara- will be held on the 7th–11th of June at the famous bia (Adonis and Mourid Barghouti), China (Gao TLaterna Magika Theatre, Prague, Czech Republic. Xingjian, Ma Jian, and Yang Lian) and from the world This year's theme is “2001 Nights: The Art of Story- of American underground comics (Robert Crumb, telling.” The festival will explore the parallels between Aline Kominsky-Crumb and Gilbert Shelton). The “One-Thousand and One Nights” and the events of the festival will thereby seek to approach these three dif- 11th of September 2001: the connections between history ferent “worlds.” and narrative, politics and literature. The festival presents Like no other literary festival, the Prague Writers’ a great occasion to hear excerpts from current literature – Festival is a festival of ideas, a festival of living culture. to listen to public readings and attend conversations. The All information about the Festival and its program authors will discuss the power of stories, the relationship are available on its website: www.pwf.cz. between truth and literature, and the struggle that emerges from differing perceptions of facts.

Sunday, 7 June Thursday, 11 June 19.00 Gala Evening at Laterna Magika Theatre 17.00 American Center Performance: Handa Gote Conversation: Hosts: Michael March, President, Prague Writ- American Underground Comix ers' Festival; Pavel Bém, Mayor, City of Prague 20.00 Laterna Magika Theatre Presentation: Spiros Vergos Prize for Freedom International Reading of Expression Guardian Conversation: All tales are a tale I'm telling myself SIGNINGS All signings are at Big Ben Bookshop Monday, 8 June 18.00 Laterna Magika Theatre Saturday, 6 June Guardian Conversation: Poetry 13.00 Anne Michaels 20.00 Laterna Magika Theatre International Reading Sunday, 7 June 12.00 Robert Crumb, Aline Kominsky-Crumb, Tuesday, 9 June Gilbert Shelton 13.30 Adonis, Mourid Barghouti 18.00 Laterna Magika Theatre Guardian Conversation: The Freedom to Lie Monday, 8 June 20.00 Laterna Magika Theatre 12.00 Iain Banks, Anne Waldman International Reading 13.00 Gao Xingjian, Ma Jian, Yang Lian

Wednesday, 10 June Tuesday, 9 June 17.00 Municipal Library 12.00 Jaroslav Rudiš, Jaromír Švejdík Presentation: Walter Serner Short Story Prize 17.00 American Center CONTACT Conversation: Politics, Identity, Culture Prague Writers’ Festival Platýz arcade 20.00 Laterna Magika Theatre Národní 37/416 Prague 1 Presentation: Tel./fax: +420 224 241 312 Knight of Culture | Olbram Zoubek Prize E-mail: [email protected] International Reading www.pwf.cz

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 3 ] news roundup Czech and Global Events from the Second Quarter of 2009

 4. 3. Sudan discussions on arms control, the war in Af- an emergency meeting but fails to reach The International Criminal Court (ICC) is- ghanistan, and Iran’s nuclear ambitions. consensus on how to respond. sues an arrest warrant for Sudanese Presi- dent Omar Hassan al-Bashir. The Sudanese  2. 4. The G-20  6. 4. Italy president is convicted of war crimes and The leaders the world’s twenty largest A 6.3 magnitude earthquake strikes central crimes against humanity in Darfur. economies meet at their second summit in Italy. Italy’s worst earthquake in thirty years London. The leaders discuss cooperation kills 294 people, injures more than 1,200,  10. 3. The Czech Republic and the US in the global economic crisis and cracking leaves 40,000 homeless, and devastates The Czech President Václav Klaus states down on tax havens. US President Barack the city of L’Aquila which was located at the during a visit to the States that the eco- Obama states that the “Washington con- epicenter of the quake. nomic crisis is the price the US must pay for sensus” (uninhibited globalization and de- its regulatory intrusions in the free market. regulation) is over.  7. 4. Moldova Violent anti-communist protests erupt in  17. 3. Madagascar  3. 4. Ukraine the former Soviet state’s capital of Chisinau. A coup d’etat overthrows the president of More than 10,000 demonstrators led by The largely student demonstration protests Madagascar, Marc Ravalomanana. Backed the pro-Russia Party of Regions flock to the parliamentary election results which by the military, the opposition leader Andry the streets to the capital city of Kiev in allow the Communist party to maintain its Rajoelina becomes president. a demonstration calling for early elections. grip on power. Social networking sites like Ukraine’s economy has been hard hit by the Twitter and Facebook are utilized in organ-  24. 3. Israel economic crisis as the demand for steel (its izing the demonstration of 10,000. The center-left Labor party led by Defense primary export) has declined. Minister Ehud Barak agrees to form a coali-  7. 4. Iraq and the US tion with the conservative Likud party under  3. 4.–4. 4. NATO US President Barack Obama makes a sur- the new Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanya- A two-day summit commemorating the 60th prise visit to Iraq during the first interna- hu. The Centrist Kadima party criticizes the anniversary of 28-member organization tional tour of his presidency. US troops coalition. takes place in the German cities of Baden greet Obama with enthusiasm as the presi- Baden and Kehl, and in Strasbourg, France. dent calls for a near complete withdrawal  25. 3. The Czech Republic Former Danish PM Anders Fogh Rasmussen by the end of 2010. The Czech government falls when Mirek becomes the new Secretary General. US Topolánek of the Civic Democratic Party President Barack Obama fails to receive the  9. 4. The Czech Republic (ODS) receives a no-confidence vote in the troop commitment increase to Afghanistan Czech President Václav Klaus appoints Jan Chamber of Deputies. that he sought. Fischer as interim prime minister to lead a non-partisan caretaker administration until  26. 3. Egypt  4. 4.–5. 4. Czech Republic and the US early elections take place in autumn 2009. The day marks the thirtieth anniversary of US President Barack Obama arrives in Head of the Czech Statistical Office, Fischer the Israel-Egypt Peace Agreement of 1979. Prague and delivers a speech on the 5th in must now steer the country through the eco- Since Israel’s offensive in Gaza in January, front of a 20,000 person crowd. Obama in- nomic downturn and the EU presidency. neighboring states have increased pressure vokes the history of US and Czech relations, on Egypt to annul the agreement. calls for nuclear arms reduction, and casti-  10. 4. Somalia gates North Korea for their rocket launch. Somalian pirates take hostage Richard Phil-  1. 4. NATO lips, captain of a US navy ship. The boat was Albania and Croatia join NATO, and become  5. 4. North Korea the sixth ship to be hijacked in the past week, the 27th and 28th members of the alliance. North Korea launches its Kwang including two Egyptian fishing boats, a Greek myŏngsŏng-2 rocket. Supposedly a sat- bulk-carrier, and a MV Seahorse from Togo.  1. 4. Russia and the US ellite meant to enter space, the rocket US President Barack Obama meets Rus- passes over mainland Japan and falls into  9. 4. Georgia sian President Dmitry A. Medvedev for the the Pacific. The launch garners immediate Tens of thousands of Georgian citizens pro- first time. The two leaders agree to a “fresh condemnation and speculation as a ballistic test on the streets of Georgia’s capital Tbi- start” in relations as they look to future missile test. The UN Security Council calls lisi, and call for the resignation of Georgian

[ 4 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 news roundup Czech and Global Events from the Second Quarter of 2009

president Mikheil Saakashvili. Protestors administration’s envoy to the Middle East. tigate Iranian President Ahmadinejad who accuse Saakashvili of mishandling the war Netanyahu asserts that before a two-state uses the conference to level racist remarks with Russia, ruling Georgia with an authori- solution can be found, Palestinian authori- at Israel. tarian hand, and deserting the democratic ties must first recognize Israel as a Jewish platform he was elected on five years ago. state.  24. 4. Thailand Thailand’s Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva  9. 4. Iran and the US  17. 4. The United States lifts the two-week long state-of-emergency. The United States announces that it will The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) now engage with other nations in nuclear officially declares that carbon dioxide and  1. 5. Global Protests disarmament talks with Iran. Iranian Presi- five other heat-trapping gases are health The traditional May Day worker protests oc- dent Mahmoud Ahmadinejad welcomes talks and air-polluting substances. cur throughout the world in response to the with the US as long as they are “honest.” global economic crisis. The protests turn  17.–19. 4. Trinidad and Tobago violent as demonstrators clash with police  10. 4. Fiji The Summit of the Americas takes place in in Germany, Turkey and Venezuela. President Josefa Iloilo suspends the gov- Trinidad and Tobago between the 34 nations ernment in response to a suspected coup which compose the Organization of Ameri-  7. 5. The Czech Republic d’etat planned by Prime Minister Laisenia can States. The Summit takes place with An EU Eastern Partnership summit takes Qaurase. unexpected ease as US President Barack place in Prague. The summit marks the last Obama and the notoriously anti-American instance in which former Czech PM Mirek  11. 4. Thailand and ASEAN president of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez, greet Topolánek acts as a representative of the The Prime Minister of Thailand Abhisit Vej- each other with friendly terms. EU before interim PM Jan Fischer takes over jajiva postpones the 14th ASEAN (Associa- the duties of the EU presidency. tion of Southeast Asian States) summit be-  18. 4. Venezuela tween sixteen countries which was meant Seven months after the Bush administra-  12. 5.–13. 5. Athens to discuss collaboration in the economic cri- tion and Venezuela ended diplomatic rela- The Institute for Climate and Energy Secu- sis. Vejjajiva calls a state-of-emergency af- tions, President Hugo Chavez appoints Ven- rity holds a summit on “The Road to Copen- ter violent anti-government protests break ezuela’s representative to the Organization hagen: Managing Climate Change & Energy out in Bangkok and in the resort town Pat- of American States, Roy Chaderton, as the Security in Southeast Europe and Beyond.” taya, the site of the conference. new ambassador to Washington.  20. 5. China  13. 4. Cuba and the US  18. 4. Mexico The EU-China summit takes place. The sum- US President Barack Obama demonstrates First outbreak of the so-called Swine Flu mit was supposed to take place last De- a willingness to normalize US relations with is detected in Mexico City. The swine flu cember but was delayed over China’s row Cuba after previous administrations have spreads quickly throughout the world, caus- with Tibet. followed a decades-long hard-line approach. ing further economic slow-down and giv- ing rise to xenophobic sentiments against  21. 5.–22. 5. South Korea  16. 4. Chechnya and Russia Mexicans. The annual Connected Urban Development Russia announces the official conclusion of Global Conference takes place in the South its ten-year and so-called counter-terrorism  20. 4. Iraq Korean capital of Seoul. The theme of the offensive in the Russian republic of Chechy- The Sunni Arab lawmaker Ayad al-Samma- conference is “Connecting Cities for Sus- na. The troubled region in Russia has seen raie becomes the new speaker for Iraq’s tainable Living: An Urban Revolution.” two separatist inspired wars since the col- parliament after months of stalemate. lapse of the Soviet Union in 1989. Despite  30. 5.–1. 6. United Arab Emirates assertions of stability, the region remains  20. 4.–25. 4. Geneva The 2nd annual Global Studies Conference torn by violence and killings. A UN review conference on racism takes takes place in Dubai to discuss globaliza- place in Geneva. Several states protest the tion in the world today.  17. 4. Israel controversial conference by not attending, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu including Israel, the US, Canada, Germany, meets with George J. Mitchell, the Obama and Holland. Several states formally cas-

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 5 ] world press

The Axis of Upheaval

orget Iran, Iraq, and North Korea – was characterized by so much brutal 2009, though probably not as much as it Bush’s “Axis of Evil.” As economic upheaval. I pored over primary and did in the early 1930s, because govern- Fcalamity meets political and social secondary literature. I wrote more ments worldwide are frantically trying turmoil, the world’s worst problems may than 800 pages on the subject. And to repress this new depression. But no come from countries like Somalia, Rus- ultimately I concluded, in The War of matter how low interest rates go or how sia, and Mexico. And they’re just the be- the World, that three factors made the high deficits rise, there will be a sub- ginning. location and timing of lethal organized stantial increase in unemployment in Seven years ago, in his State of the violence more or less predictable in the most economies this year and a painful Union address on Jan. 29, 2002, U.S. last century. The first factor was ethnic decline in incomes. Such economic pain President George W. Bush warned of an disintegration: Violence was worst in nearly always has geopolitical conse- “axis of evil” that was engaged in assist- areas of mounting ethnic tension. The quences. Indeed, we can already see the ing terrorists, acquiring weapons of mass second factor was economic volatility: first symptoms of the coming upheaval. destruction, and “arming to threaten the The greater the magnitude of economic In Gaza, Israel has engaged in peace of the world.” In Bush’s telling, this shocks, the more likely conflict was. And a bloody effort to weaken Hamas. But exclusive new club had three members: the third factor was empires in decline: whatever was achieved militarily must Iran, Iraq, and North Korea. Bush’s When structures of imperial rule crum- be set against the damage Israel did to its policy prescription for dealing with the bled, battles for political power were international image by killing innocent axis of evil was preemption, and just most bloody. civilians that Hamas fighters use as hu- over a year later he put this doctrine into man shields. Perhaps more importantly, action by invading Iraq. social and economic conditions in Gaza, The bad news for Bush’s succes- which were already bad enough, are sor, Barack Obama, is that he now now abysmal. This situation is hardly faces a much larger and potentially more likely to strengthen the forces of mod- troubling axis – an axis of upheaval. This eration among Palestinians. Worst of all, axis has at least nine members, and quite events in Gaza have fanned the flames possibly more. What unites them is not of Islamist radicalism throughout the so much their wicked intentions as their region – not least in Egypt. From Cairo instability, which the global financial to Riyadh, governments will now think crisis only makes worse every day. Un- In at least one of the world’s regions – twice before committing themselves to fortunately, that same crisis is making the greater Middle East – two of these any new Middle East peace initiative. it far from easy for the United States to three factors have been present for some Iran, meanwhile, continues to support respond to this new “grave and growing time: Ethnic conflict has been rife there both Hamas and its Shiite counterpart danger.” for decades, and following the difficul- in Lebanon, Hezbollah, and to pursue When Bush’s speechwriters coined ties and disappointments in Iraq and an alleged nuclear weapons program the phrase “axis of evil” (originally “axis Afghanistan, the United States already that Israelis legitimately see as a threat of hatred”), they were drawing a parallel seems likely to begin winding down its to their very existence. No one can say with the World War II alliance between quasi-imperial presence in the region. It for sure what will happen next within Germany, Italy, and Japan, formalized in likely still will. Tehran’s complex political system, but it the Tripartite Pact of September 1940. Now the third variable, economic is likely that the radical faction around The axis of upheaval, by contrast, is volatility, has returned with a venge- President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad will more reminiscent of the decade before ance. U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman be strengthened by the Israeli onslaught the outbreak of World War II, when the Ben Bernanke’s “Great Moderation” in Gaza. Economically, however, Iran Great Depression unleashed a wave of – the supposed decline of economic is in a hole that will only deepen as oil global political crises. volatility that he hailed in a 2004 lecture prices fall further. Strategically, the The Bush years have of course – has been obliterated by a financial country risks disaster by proceeding revealed the perils of drawing facile chain reaction, beginning in the U.S. with its nuclear program, because even parallels between the challenges of the subprime mortgage market, spreading a purely Israeli air offensive would be present day and the great catastrophes of through the banking system, reaching hugely disruptive. All this risk ought to the 20th century. Nevertheless, there is into the “shadow” system of credit based point in the direction of conciliation, reason to fear that the biggest financial on securitization, and now triggering even accommodation, with the United crisis since the Great Depression could collapses in asset prices and economic States. But with presidential elections in have comparable consequences for the activity around the world. June, Ahmadinejad has little incentive to international system. After nearly a decade of unprec- be moderate. For more than a decade, I pondered edented growth, the global economy On Iran’s eastern border, in Afghani- the question of why the 20th century will almost certainly sputter along in stan, upheaval remains the disorder of

[ 6 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / winter 2009 world press

the day. Fresh from the success of the exacerbating domestic political conflicts. are asking what all this means for U. S. “surge” in Iraq, Gen. David Petraeus, the And let us not forget the plague of piracy foreign policy. new head of U.S. Central Command, is in Somalia, the renewed civil war in the The answer is obvious: The resources now grappling with the much more dif- Democratic Republic of the Congo, the available for policing the world are ficult problem of pacifying Afghanistan. continuing violence in Sudan’s Darfur certain to be reduced for the foreseeable The task is made especially difficult by region, and the heart of darkness that future. That will be especially true if for- the anarchy that prevails in neighbor- is Zimbabwe under President Robert eign investors start demanding higher ing Pakistan. India, meanwhile, accuses Mugabe. The axis of upheaval has many yields on the bonds they buy from the some in Pakistan of having had a hand members. And it’s a fairly safe bet that United States or simply begin dumping in the Mumbai terrorist attacks of last the roster will grow even longer this year. dollars in exchange for other currencies. November, spurring yet another South The problem is that, as in the 1930s, Economic volatility, plus ethnic dis- Asian war scare. Remember: The sabers most countries are looking inward, grap- integration, plus an empire in decline: they are rattling have nuclear tips. pling with the domestic consequences That combination is about the most The democratic governments in of the economic crisis and paying little lethal in geopolitics. We now have all Kabul and Islamabad are two of the attention to the wider world crisis. This three. The age of upheaval starts now. weakest anywhere. Among the big- is true even of the United States, which gest risks the world faces this year is is now so preoccupied with its own eco- that one or both will break down amid nomic problems that countering global escalating violence. Once again, the upheaval looks like an expensive luxury. economic crisis is playing a crucial role. With the U.S. rate of GDP growth set Pakistan’s small but politically powerful to contract between 2 and 3 percentage middle class has been slammed by the points this year, and with the official collapse of the country’s stock market. unemployment rate likely to approach Meanwhile, a rising proportion of the 10 percent, all attention in Washington Foreign Policy country’s huge population of young men will remain focused on a nearly $1 tril- is a US-based journal on international af- are staring unemployment in the face. It lion stimulus package. Caution has been fairs. is not a recipe for political stability. thrown to the wind by both the Federal Niall Ferguson This club is anything but exclusive. Reserve and the Treasury. The projected is a Laurence A. Tisch Candidate members include Indonesia, deficit for 2009 is already soaring above professor of history at Harvard University. Thailand, and Turkey, where there are the trillion-dollar mark, more than 8 already signs that the economic crisis is percent of GDP. Few commentators March / April 2009

Rodong Sinmun, “The Newspaper of the Workers”, on the Successful Satellite Launch

he successful launch of the satellite The DPRK’s successful satellite launch all their wisdom and energy to the Kwangmyongsong-2 marks a his- is a fruitful example of General Secretary prosperity of the country. They have Ttoric event in fully demonstrat- Kim Jong Il’s Songun policy and his revo- remained true to the Workers’ Party ing the national power of the DPRK. lutionary leadership. He has directed his of Korea with revolutionary faith and The nation’s scientific and technological ardent patriotism. progress clearly indicates that the DPRK The army and people of the DPRK is building a prosperous and powerful will wage a more dynamic drive to bring nation. The DPRK’s Kwangmyongsong-2 about a new revolutionary surge to build satellite and Unha-2 carrier rocket also a prosperous and powerful nation while reveal the success of our “Military First” upholding – at any cost – the Songun or Songun policy. utmost efforts to boost the nation’s leadership of Kim Jong Il. DPRK scientists and technicians military, political, scientific and techno- independently solved all the scientific or logical potential despite the worst trials Rodong Sinmun technological problems that arose during and tribulations. At the same time, he or the “Newspaper of the Workers” the satellite’s development. They have ex- foresees a bright future for the country. is the most widely read daily in North Korea. hibited an extraordinary spirit of inquiry The successful launch of the Kwang- It is the official organ and perseverance. As a result, they have myongsong-2 satellite rests on the heroic of the Central Committee. brought our nation’s space technology to endeavors of the nation’s trustworthy a global level. scientists and technicians who devoted 7 April 2009

winter 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 7 ] domestic affairs in the cr Euroskepticism’s New Face? The Party of Free Citizens

The new Czech Party of Free Citizens (SSO) has established themselves as a primarily anti- Lisbon party which aspires to become a formidable political force. The reality presents a far bleaker future.

Linda Witters

tanding at the helm of the Euro- European integration, is accused by its any binding decision led us to found pean Union, the Czech Republic opponents of awarding the EU too much a new party.” Shas faced its fair share of hurdles, power while chipping away at national The ODS has an “identity problem,” from the gas dispute between Rus- sovereignty. But “when the ODS entered believes Jiři Pehe, a political analyst and sia and Ukraine to a snowballing eco- the government, they simply changed former advisor to President Václav Havel. nomic crisis to a sudden collapse of its their mind, probably to continue in the “It is a party split basically between the government. And then there’s President government and to have friends abroad followers of Klaus who support him no Václav Klaus, who never hesitates to air in France and Germany,” continued matter what he stands for and the follow- his grievances against the political and ers of a liberal-conservative program,” economic bloc. The most prominent and which is represented by the former vocal Euroskeptic on the continent, the Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek. Klaus fiery 68-year old has been a constant crit- The SSO’s future resigned as honorary chairman of ODS ic of the EU, and the Czech presidency in Czech politics last December, parting ways with the has failed to derail his stream of inflam- depends on party he founded in 1991. matory rhetoric. While Klaus has long a respectable The SSO, on the other hand, has been the voice of Czech Euroskepticism, received some media attention for its his former party, the center-right Civic outcome in the EP anti-Lisbon stance as the Czech Republic, Democrats (ODS), has inched towards elections. along with Ireland, remain the only two a more pro-European stance. The evo- EU nations who have yet to approve the lution of the ODS platform has led Petr treaty. While Topolánek supports rati- Mach, Klaus’ protégé, to establish the fication, Klaus has referred to himself as Party of Free Citizens (SSO) in hopes of Mach. “They simply betrayed their basic a “EU dissident” and remains a steadfast matching Euroskeptic rhetoric with real principles or maybe forgot them.” opponent of further European integration. political power. Mach was not alone in his frustra- “Klaus is throwing little bombs by tion with the ODS’s failure to uphold its saying horrible things,” says Monika The ODS’s Identity Problem original Euroskeptic platform. A former MacDonagh-Pajerová, the chairperson The “corruption of ideas” within the ODS ODS member of parliament and current of the pro-European organization YES prompted Mach to band together with SSO member, Jiři Payne, adds that the for Europe in Prague. “We need the Lis- those as dissatisfied as he and announce ODS has been unchallenged for too bon Treaty because suddenly, we have 27 the creation of the SSO on the 12th of long. “The ODS has declared its inten- [EU member-states]. The EU is huge and January 2009. “Originally, the ODS was tion to become the catch-all party to we need new rules of governing it.” against the Lisbon Treaty and promised address centrist voters,” says Payne in In a poll conducted by STEM in a referendum,” says Mach in an inter- an e-mail interview. “The absence of January, 64 percent of Czechs stood view in Prague. The treaty, which would dialogue and free discussion and the with Topolánek in supporting Lisbon, reform EU institutions and further inability to influence party politics with a 19 percent increase from last October.

[ 8 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 domestic affairs in the cr

STEM analysts believe that the numbers Petr Mach are swollen due to a fear that should the treaty fail to pass, the Czech Republic could lose prestige. Most believe, however, that its eventual ratification is likely and that Czechs are more pro-Europe than it would seem. “The majority are happy with EU membership,” says Pehe. “The Euroskeptic image has been created by some top, very vocal politicians, especially Klaus.” The process began to move forward in recent weeks and the treaty was approved by the upper house of Parliament on the 6th of May, leaving only one more step. Klaus must now sign the Lisbon Treaty before ratification is complete, but it remains unclear when that will happen. The SSO’s Challenge Mach believes, however, that there is an anti-Lisbon void to be filled. “Most Czechs are supportive of EU membership, but at the same time, I think that many people believe that we must defend our national interests within the EU.” That, for Mach, means abstaining from further integration as outlined by Lisbon. “We believe that for some countries, the EU is just a tool, a framework for pushing their own national interests. Since some countries are bigger, they have a better chance of pushing their wishes through than others.” Mach is especially concerned with the switch from unanimous to qualified majority voting in certain policy areas, which would give more weight to countries with larger populations. He fears that the Lisbon Treaty will allow the EU to be dominated by large member states like France and Germany, which have populations of 65 million and 80 million, respectively. The Czech population, on the other hand, lies around 10 million. The upcoming European Parliament elections in June present the first challenge to the SSO and will test whether Mach’s message has resonated with voters. The goal is to pass the five percent threshold needed to elect one representative. While one MEP may sound insignificant in the 785-member parliament, it will indicate a considerable step forward for the small party at home. “In national elections, rational voters don’t want to lose their vote so they are not willing to vote for a party whose chances of getting into

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 9 ] domestic affairs in the cr

parliament are low,” explains Mach. “But the SSO is merely a platform for Klaus to in the EP elections, people will be willing undermine the establishment of a tighter to experiment. If we gain five percent or European community. Pehe continues, “The majority more, people will see that we are electable, “His party may succeed in meeting their [of Czechs] are and they will give us a chance later on in goal, but I am not sure how much of happy with EU the Czech parliamentary elections.” that should be attributed to the party’s membership.” Anticipating a wave of political Euroskeptic views and how much to the influence, Payne reveals even greater fact that it is viewed as Klaus’ party.” Jiři Pehe expectations for the SSO, which as of Not immune to the criticisms of the now still remains relatively unknown. public, Mach maintains that the SSO is “I am one of the founding members of not connected to Klaus, despite converg- the ODS. I know how to start a success- ing on similar party platforms. “What he party a bit more publicity and promise, ful political project,” says Payne. The says about European integration is also whether they will be able to take ad- criticism does not faze him, as the ODS what we think, about 90 percent prob- vantage of a divided ODS and find their faced far harsher and louder opposition ably. We share most of his attitudes.” But elusive core remains to be seen. With the at its beginning. Confident that the SSO in regards to the whispers that Klaus is EP elections in June, however, their first the brains behind the party, Mach firmly real test is fast approaching. The SSO’s replies, “It is simply not true. I cannot future in Czech politics depends on their do anything but say that it is not true.” ability to pull a respectable outcome and The Civic Mach may need to continue denying prove themselves resilient. Democratic Klaus’ alleged role as the puppet-master If the SSO is unable to make their mark since recent developments will surely fuel on the EU as a Euroskeptic and anti- Party has inched rumors and inject some media attention Lisbon party, then it seems that any hope towards a more into the SSO’s lifeline. The Czech maga- to become a formidable force in Czech pro-European zine Týden reported on the 28th of March politics requires a quick injection of real- stance. that the SSO plans on nominating Klaus’ ity. Like Mach himself pointed out, the sons Václav and Jan as party candidates EP elections are one of the few instances for the early parliamentary elections where voters can afford to be daring and following the dissolution of Topolánek’s experimental. If the SSO cannot prove its government. The collapse was brought on critics wrong and fail to snatch a pleasantly will blossom into a formidable political by a no-confidence vote in which a few surprising result in June, can they expect party, Payne discloses that their goal is to ODS members voted alongside the oppo- to perform otherwise in the upcoming “replace the ODS in the future.” sition. The event garnered international Czech parliamentary elections?  Work on promoting the SSO platform attention as it came during the middle of has already begun as Mach and other the EU presidency and two weeks before Linda Witters members campaign around Prague and Obama’s visit to Prague for an EU-US studies International Politics the Czech Republic’s 13 regions. Mach’s summit. It also followed a war of words and Media Studies at New York University younger brother also helped build a web- between Paris and Prague, seemingly ful- in the United States. site, www.svobdoni.cz, through which filling French President Nicolas Sarkozy’s members can vote for their desired barely lukewarm expectations of the candidates in primary-style elections. Czech’s ability to handle the prestigious Despite these promotional measures, position. Currently, no official date has Suggested Reading media interest in the SSO has greatly been set for the early elections but they subsided. Since their popularity remains are likely to take place in October. Griller, Stefan, ed. The Lisbon Treaty: EU Constitutionalism Without unmeasured by elections or polls, it is Mach maintains that his connections a Constitutional Treaty? (Springer, imperative that they succeed in the up- with Klaus’ sons are rather coincidental: 2008). coming EP election. Václav is the director of a private high Hanley, Seán. The New Right in the school where he used to teach econom- New Europe: Czech Transformation An Uphill Battle ics, and Jan was a schoolmate at the and Right-Wing Politics, 1989–2006. “I do not see a big future for them,” says Prague School of Economics. Mach (Routledge, 2008). Pehe. “They focus too much on the EU, emphasizes, “We know each other and Harmsen, Robert and Menno Spier- and almost nothing is known about them we feel similarly” towards the ODS. ing. Euroscepticism: Party Politics, in regard to other issues.” Mach’s position Mach and the SSO have faced an National Identity, and European as executive director at Klaus’ think-tank uphill battle since its conception as Integration. (Rodopi, 2005). the Centre for Economics and Politics Klaus’ rhetoric has overshadowed the The SSO party statement: http://www. (CEP), as well as the parallels between the party platform and media interest has svobodni.cz/files/docs/eng-press- party platform and Klaus’ own perspec- been difficult to sustain. While recent release.pdf tives, has also created speculation that developments seem to have granted the

[ 10 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 domestic affairs in the cr A Look Beyond Labels for Equal Education

Michelle Favin

The presence of racial dis- education will help the Czech Republic were taken to non-Roma families for become more tolerant towards the Roma re-education. crimination against Roma community. World War II brought the harshest in the Czech school sys- period of Roma discrimination. Almost A Brief History of Roma all of the original Czech Roma popula- tem can be properly addressed in the Czech Republic tion perished in Nazi concentration The Roma have, in fact, experienced camps. But the Czech Roma population through a careful race-blind prejudice for centuries within the Czech grew under communism when the state reform of multicultural Republic. Since their arrival in the CR in brought Roma from rural Slovakia to the 15th century, they have faced waves of perform unskilled labor. An echo of education that teaches stu- discrimination laws, poverty, and anti- Maria Theresa’s pitfalls, the insensitive Roma sentiment. dissolution of Roma culture into Czech dents to reject stereotypes. In 1547, Prague’s Roma population culture crippled the Roma identity. was exiled after receiving blame for a fire These past efforts to socialize the which broke out in the city; in 1697, Roma into what is seen as the authentic killing a Roma was not a crime; in 1710, Czech culture have led to their social espite prior attempts at school Joseph I issued a decree to hang all Roma exclusion and subjugation. They live reform, racial discrimination re- men. While such outright discrimination a life of cultural stagnation. The major- Dmains rampant in Czech class- against the Roma ceased under Austrian ity of the Roma community now live in rooms. Roma children are forced into Empress Maria Theresa, the Empress set a perpetual state of poverty and crime, substandard separate schools and if kept paired with both direct and underlying in regular classrooms, are often treated as discrimination from Czech society. inferior to their Czech peers. Persistent The present insensitivity towards negative Roma stereotypes in the Czech Most Roma culture characterizes laws that both Republic fuel these actions, which bring governmental hinder and advocate their liberties. Most the Roma into a vicious cycle of dead- measures for governmental measures foster animosity end schools, poverty, and crime. the Roma foster among Czechs, many of whom view the If schools fail to properly educate Roma culture as degenerate. While the Roma children, there is little hope for animosity among state has recognized the Roma’s struggle their social mobility. But if schools fail Czechs. and has implemented policy support to educate Czech society and teach such as public school reform, this sup- tolerance towards all ethnic minorities, port fails to address the real issue – how there is little hope for any governmental to integrate the Roma into Czech culture policy reform to be successful. Education in place a policy that remains the root of without seeking complete assimilation or remains a vital socializing institution, the problem today: socialization. In at- exclusion. and discrimination against Roma can tempting to assimilate the Roma, Maria improve through a careful, race and Theresa weakened their distinct culture. The Current State culture-blind reform of education in She sought to settle the nomadic Roma of the Czech Classroom the Czech classroom. While the results people quickly and perhaps insensitively. On the 13th of November 2007, the Euro- may not be immediate, the effective and Nomadic life was forbidden, the Roma pean Court of Human Rights highlighted nuanced introduction of “Transcultural” language was banned, and children this exact problem. They declared that the

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 11 ] domestic affairs in the cr

The Czech government has failed to end the segregation of Roma children. Roma children remain the majority in these former remedial schools. Accord- ing to research conducted in 2008 by the European Roma Rights Centre and the Roma Education Fund, Roma children represent more than half of the student population in 74 percent of the “practical” schools visited by researchers. These “practical” schools continue to provide a substandard curriculum and inadequate support for its disadvantaged students. These schools do not cultivate the tools necessary to break the cycle of poverty many Roma children are born into. Dana Moree, an expert on multicultural education at the Faculty of Hu- manities at Charles University, believes the segregation is deeply rooted. The direct discrimination in schools is just the top of it. “When the whole society thinks that the Roma are a problem, then Classroom in Grafická 13, a school dedicated to “Intercultural Education” in Prague. Roma children in schools are going to COURTESY OF MICHELLE FAVIN be looked on as a problem,” she explains in an interview in early March. Nikolai Czech state continues to practice policies system since its existence. The Court agrees. “The separation is not only in of exclusion against its Roma minority found that the tests used to label children schools. It is in real life,” he says. and specifically this minority’s children. as “mentally inferior” were insufficient, The Czech government should seek Eighteen students from the Moravian given with haste, and culturally biased. to end this history-long prejudice. region of Ostrava, a town 60 miles from The court declared in its decision that, Czech society must be taught tolerance Prague, initially challenged the Czech “in 1999 Roma pupils made up between towards the Roma culture and all ethnic state in 2000. They stood as voices for 80 and 90 percent of the total number of minorities. Sensitivity to unique aspects the Roma children who were sent, solely pupils in some special schools and that in of culture must be cultivated. Aid for based on their Roma origin, to remedial 2004 ‘large numbers’ of Roma children Roma families must go beyond welfare schools for children with mental disabili- were still being placed in special schools.” programs that further estrange the Roma ties. The process of segregating Roma The case was a landmark victory for from Czech society. Neither cultural as- children in separate remedial schools Roma and the NGOs fighting their cause. similation nor exclusion is the answer. has been a fixture of the Czech school In addition, during the case’s seven-year The answer lies, however, in a race-blind fight, the Czech Education Act of 2004 reform of the Czech school system. Population Breakdown supposedly eliminated these special for Minority Groups Living in the CR schools and replaced them with “practi- A Blinding Spotlight cal” schools. The “practical” schools were on Culture 1991 Census 2001 Census meant for students who were not meeting Multicultural education was introduced Minority Total: Total: 10,302,215 10,230,060 the achievement levels of their peers in the into the Czech school system through regular school system. However, a year curriculum reform under the new Edu- Slovaks 314,877 193,190 after the ruling and four years after the law cation Act of 2004 – the largest official Poles 59,383 51,968 became effective, a coalition of European school reform since the initial changes Roma Rights NGOs said that little had following the 1989 Velvet Revolution. Germans 48,556 39,106 changed. Tomáš Nikolai, child psycholo- But its introduction has been largely Roma 32,903 11,746* gist and Intercultural Education Coordi- ineffective. While meant to promote nator for the largest Czech NGO People cultural understanding and tolerance, Magyars 19,932 14,672 In Need, says, “there is not a big difference the act’s vague terminology has induced Ukrainians 8,220 22,112 between the current situation and the old teachers to respond to the new curricula Vietnamese 421 17,462 school reform. Just the labels are different. in an ad hoc manner. The ‘practical’ schools are the same. The According to research done by Moree, * The real number of Roma living in the Czech Republic is estimated to Roma children are in this separate school, the Education Act did not sufficiently be 220,000. Most of the Roma living in the Czech Republic choose to identify as “Czech” when filling in the census forms. and the others are in the normal schools.” prepare or motivate teachers to imple-

[ 12 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 domestic affairs in the cr

ment the required multicultural cur- in their unique intersections of culture. ricular changes. The government did not “The individual person is in the middle provide extra compensation or training of this approach. Culture is something Insensitivity for teachers who now had to devise new that is influenced throughout your entire towards curricula. In addition, a “bottom-up” ap- life – small place, big city, where you live, Roma culture proach was implemented, which allowed hobbies you have. You can be policeman characterizes laws each school to decide how they wished to or an anarchist who speak the same teach “multiculturalism.” language, but you can have different that both hinder As a result and despite the act, is- cultures,” Moree says. and advocate sues of discrimination are left truly Moree and her colleagues created the Roma liberties. unaddressed. The influence education website Czechkid.cz to illustrate this ap- can bring towards ethnic tolerance has proach to cultural differences. The website gone untapped. Many of the old and – currently receiving around 9,000 hits culturally insensitive teaching methods a month – is an online interactive teaching “Intercultural education.” The program persist such as an approach known as the tool for both teachers and students. On its provides courses, materials, techniques, “cultural standard” model. According to home page, ten children are shown togeth- and support aimed at training teachers this model explained by Moree, teachers er in a park. The nationalities vary from to adopt this reform of multicultural follow general “cultural standards” which Ukrainian, Vietnamese, Slovakian, Czech, education. “Our concept of Intercultural only stereotype groups and further ostra- Iraqi, Roma, “Czecho-Western” (a child education is different from others in the cize one culture from another. This ap- born to a Czech mother and a Dutch fa- Czech Republic, mainly from the schools. proach deepens the separation between ther) and an Afro-Czech (a child born to We want to teach that intercultural Roma and Czech children and does a Czech mother and African father). education starts from the personality of nothing to lessen the tension between The website highlights discrimina- each child. We don’t see the difference minority groups and the Czech majority. tion in the Czech Republic by conveying between Roma and Czech children. They The following situation illuminates concrete stories and situations from the are all equal. We don’t want to speak the “cultural standard” model: During lives of these ordinary though culturally about typical Roma or Czech children, the holiday season, a primary school may different children. The website portrays which is the way many schools do,” he unintentionally disrespect the diversity how each child’s uniqueness undermines says. of cultures by asking a Roma child to de- the cultural stereotypes that exist in Grafická 13, a primary and second- scribe how he or she celebrates Christmas Czech society. ary school in Prague, exemplifies this or by asking a Vietnamese student how Nikolai with People In Need is student-centered approach. The school he or she decorates the family tree. These working with a similar approach called is 85 percent Roma, but prides itself in questions assume cultural homogeneity and create further feelings of alienation. A Multicultural Approach without Culture The current Education Ministry has addressed this issue and is finally working towards a more appropriate school reform. Representing the Faculty of Hu- manities at Charles University, Moree is part of the movement on the Ministry of Education’s counseling board to instill an individualized, stereotype-free approach to multicultural education in the Czech school system. Moree and a number of NGOs wish to revolutionize the fundamental way culture is taught. They believe that teachers should receive training for a “Transcul- tural” model that caters to the personality of each child. Teachers would leave behind assumed cultural stereotypes and approach their students as individuals, not as representatives of their culture. Followers of the transcultural model “The Voices of the People” wall decoration in Grafická 13 understand that all students are equal COURTESY OF MICHELLE FAVIN

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 13 ] domestic affairs in the cr

its academic excellence. The school’s de- tailed attention to their students is clear. Suggested Reading The hallways are covered in student art Education remains projects and murals. There are scribbles a vital socializing Council of Europe, ed. Education of of (school-sanctioned) graffiti under institution. Roma Children in Europe: Texts and a sign that says “Voices of the People.” Activities of the Council of Europe Grafická even holds special “aesthetic” Concerning Education. (Council of Europe, 2006). classes for students who show specific talent in the arts. Various after-school You are their teacher. It gives me great Moree, Dana. How Teachers Cope programs meet the students’ interests satisfaction to help them,” she says. with Social and Educational Trans- formation. (EMAN, 2008). such as dancing and singing. Each child This individualized approach to is viewed, taught, and cultivated as an education must reach all Czech teachers Unesco. Education for all by 2015: individual with a unique background, and schools. A child must not be viewed Will We Make It? (Oxford University Press US, 2007). not just as a Roma, a Ukrainian, or and understood simply as a Roma, but a Czech. as friend, a skateboarder, a painter, or Ringold, Dena, Mitchell Alexander A Czech English teacher at Grafická, a musician. This sensitive reform to edu- Orenstein, and Erika Wilkens. Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking Jarka Koukolová has worked at the school cation can revolutionize Czech attitudes the Poverty Cycle. (World Bank Pub- for two years now; during this time, she towards the Roma by encouraging toler- lications, 2005). has seen other teachers only last a couple ance and their successful integration into  Zouev, Aledandre and Peter Ustinov. months. One left after her first day,- al the Czech Republic. Generation in Jeopardy: Children in legedly due to her inability to work with Central and Eastern Europe and the Roma children. But Koukolová does not Former Soviet Union. (M.E. Sharpe, ascribe negative Roma stereotypes to her 1999). students. “You have to be friends with Michelle Favin each of your students so that they come is a Journalism student to you for help or with their problems. at New York University in the United States.

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[ 14 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 domestic affairs in the cr

Between Alexandra Vedrashko Atheism and Catholicism

Czech religious scepticism is a political problem. The country, however, bears great potential to overcome its religious crisis.

n the 26th of September 2009, the Czech Republic currently belong to dif- that the party’s religious obscurity is its most atheist country in Europe ferent coalitions, they have expressed crucial mistake; the party should clearly Owill greet the leader of the Catholic dissatisfaction with their current politi- represent Czech believers. Nonetheless, Church. The religious and political au- cal partnerships and mutual interest in the fact that parties on both sides of the thorities in the Czech Republic are there- each other as coalition partners. The political spectrum are seeking a coalition fore discussing lingering issues between chairman of the Social Democrats, Jiří with the KDU indicates that partnership the Vatican and the Czech state. As a re- Paroubek, links his party’s diminishing considerations are important politically. sult, the present political and particular popularity to its collaboration with the spiritual conditions in the country could Czech Communist party, and thus, he Waffling Atheism lead the Czech Republic to reassess its sees a possible partner in the Christian Yet, outside of parliamentary politics, the stance towards the Catholic Church. religious situation appears less malleable. Unlike in the United States, where The Czechs have long had a problematic Christian values are a strong component relationship with Christianity. In the 14th of the Conservative right which calls for One of the first century, the Bohemian philosopher Jan market deregulation and a smaller gov- Czech Christian Hus brought Christian reformist think- ernment, in continental politics it is the ing to the Bohemian lands. Now looked Catholic Church and affiliated parties parties was the upon as a predecessor of Martin Luther which promote social programs based Christian-Social and the Protestant Reformation, Hus was on increased governmental involvement. Party, formed burned at the stake in 1415 for heresy. For example, in Germany, the Social and in 1894. Until the dissolution of the Austrian- Christian democratic parties make up Hungarian Empire in 1918, the Catholic the country’s centre-left governing coali- Habsburg emperors attempted (and suc- tion. In the Czech Republic, the current ceeded during the Counter-Reformation) Christian Democratic Union (KDU) to forcefully place the Bohemian lands follows a tradition in which Czech Chris- Democrats. The chairman of the KDU under the hand of Rome, which created tian parties have associated themselves Jiří Čunek also admits that his party has joint anti-Habsburg and anti-Catholic with left and centre-left politics. moved too far to the right; he would like sentiments in the rising group of Czech One of the first Christian parties in to regain the party’s former supporters intellectuals during the 19th century Czechoslovakia was the Christian-Social who have since been won over by the Czech nationalist movement. During Party, formed in 1894 after Pope Leo XIII’s left. The party has sided with the Social Communism, religion was targeted and Rerum Novarum established the founda- Democrats before, most recently in the atheism promoted. Since the last Papal tions of Christian democracy. In the Czech parliamentary election of 2002. visit twelve years ago, the number of Republic, Christian parties do not serve as In addition to changing its political atheists and non-organized believers has political tools of Catholic Church. Though orientation, certain members of the now grown from 55 to 81 percent. In the Church stands above political parties, KDU would like to replace the label comparison, only 29 percent of Germans it still bears authority. Furthermore, most “Christian” with the more neutral identify themselves as atheist. KDU members are Catholic. label of “Conservative.” This decision Despite the above, the number of threatens to estrange members, says the Czech clergymen and church institutions Shifting Alliances editor of The Catholic Weekly [Katolický has doubled in the last eight years, and the While the Social Democratic Party and týdeník] Antonín Randa. Theologian and vast majority of Czechs express belief in the Christian Democratic Union in the Catholic priest Tomáš Halík also believes “some sort of spirit or force.” Tomáš Halík

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 15 ] domestic affairs in the cr

believes that Czech atheism is fragile, Despite the above, Halík expresses regime’s nationalization of the churches because it lacks essential critical thinking scepticism regarding the Czech political has remained unresolved for more than and notes that the Czech Catholic Church attitude towards the Vatican. He conveys, twenty years. What then, can come of the should address “the majority which calls however, that outside of politics, Czech Pope’s visit to the most atheist country in themselves atheist, but is ignorant.” citizens appear to be increasingly curi- Europe? In any case, the Czech Republic Since the majority of Czech believ- ous about Christianity. As a priest, Halík shall in all likelihood have to reassess its ers are Catholics, the country’s religious notes that he baptises more people each aversion to religious matters in order to issues primarily concern the Catholic year. settle its aforementioned issues with the Church. A few years ago, a new treaty William Miller, professor of political Church. was proposed by the Vatican and signed theory and a member of the International Therefore, September does not in the Czech Republic by the country’s Institute for Christian Studies, supports promise that the Pope’s visit may solve Halík’s point of view on the Czech’s “ignorant” atheism. The Pope’s visit could encourage the religious potential of the “I am such an country as well as the emergence of new The Pope’s visit utter atheist, that coalitions between the Christian and So- could encourage I am afraid God cial Democrats as a result of their similar the religious ideological orientation, critique of capi- potential of the will punish me.” talism and tradition of cooperation. Jará Cimrman The editor of The Catholic Weekly, country. Antonín Randa states that Topolanek’s gift to the Pope, a facsimile of the Book of Short Devotions from the fifteenth two largest parties, the Social and Civic century, conveys Topolánek as a “humble everything, but the visit does highlight Democrats. Known as the Czech-Vatican and seeking man” despite his apparent the country’s present attitude towards treaty, the document seeks to increase the atheism. Referring to Czech agnosticism, Christianity and its dissatisfaction with Church’s position in the Czech Republic. Randa explains that the religious situation the Czech Republic’s present religious The Chamber of Deputies, however, in the country is not as simple as it seems. obscurity. Whether or not the majority rejected the treaty because it supposedly The Czech’s particular aversion to religion of Czechs are indeed true atheists, the contradicted the Czech constitution and presents itself in the words of Jará Cimr- time for a mutual dialogue between undermined the equality of religious insti- man, a famous Czech fictional character: Czech politics and religion has come.  tutions. Since then, further revision of the “I am such an utter atheist,” he says, “that I treaty has been postponed several times. am afraid God will punish me.” With the upcoming visit of the Pope, the Alexandra Vedrashko studies “Humanities, treaty is once again coming under review. Overcoming Communism Society and Culture” at Anglo-American The current cultural minister in charge At this time, both the Vatican and the University in Prague. of religious matters and KDU member Czech government could still find “or- Václav Jehlička, believes that the ratifica- ganizational reasons” to postpone the tion of the treaty coincides with another visit of the Pope. According to Randa, current issue – the settlement of church this time it is the Pope who has taken the property which had been confiscated initiative to visit the Czech Republic. The by the former communist regime. Over Czech Bishop’s Conference notes that Suggested Reading the past few years religious and politi- the invitation to the Pope was made ac- cal authorities have been discussing the cording to the standard procedure from Halík, Tomáš. Patience with God: The Story of Zacchaeus Continuing in future of nationalized churches under both Czech bishops and the head of state. Us. (Doubleday Books, 2009). the communist regime. If a settlement is Thus, whether the Pope indeed initiated McGrath, Alister E. The Twilight of reached, the Catholic Church will receive the invitation therefore is a matter of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Dis- the restitution of church property as well speculation. “Foreign trips are pastoral belief in the Modern World. (Galilee as monetary compensation. journeys meant to support believers in Trade, 2006). While the aforementioned issues may their faith and encourage all others,” Domenico, Roy Palmer and Mark remain unresolved after the Pope’s visit, says the spokesperson of the Conference. Y. Hanley. Encyclopedia of Modern the Church will still push to settle these “It would be beautiful if the visit could Christian Politics. (Greenwood Pub- issues, as Archbishop Jan Graubner not- solve the injustice left after the 20 years of lishing Group, 2006). ed. The very fact that the Pope received communism” Randa says, “but the Czech Madeley, John T. S. and Zsolt Enyedi. an invitation from Czech President Va- Catholics are rather sceptical about it.” Church and State in Contemporary clav Klaus and a gift from Czech Prime Czech believers have reasons to be Europe: The Chimera of Neutrality. Minister Mirek Topolánek indicates a sceptical regarding the reconciliation be- (Routledge, 2003). newfound respect towards the Church. tween Church and State. The communist

[ 16 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 immigration

European policy towards contemporary views about immigration Saint Paul was an immigrant from today’s from third countries. Through techno- Israel and Saint Augustine from Tunisia. immigration from third logical advances, distances have “shrunk;” While the EU is attempting to elimi- countries is subject to cer- immigration between continents today nate all restrictions on the free movement is similar to immigration between Eu- of EU citizens, we have kept in place tain restrictions which must be ropean countries in the past. But it will restrictions for immigration from coun- be a long time before inter-European tries outside of the European Union. It is removed to provide a fair continental immigration truly means the necessary, however, to recall that policies working environment for “free movement of EU citizens.” related to immigration from non-EU This is because several states on the countries have obvious parallels to past all immigrants to Europe. European continent – the west Balkans, immigration between European states. Ukraine, Russia, the Caucasus – remain outside of the European Union. In ad- Why do we Need dition, while North African and Middle the European Dimension? Eastern countries share the common The European Union must create a com- Mediterranean region with certain Euro- mon EU-wide policy for immigration pean states, these non-European states are, from third countries. To insist that the indeed, extremely far from EU member- EU’s member-states create their own ship. Emigration from these regions to Eu- policies towards non-EU immigration is Vladimír Špidla rope is, however, embedded in its history; hypothetically possible, but unfeasible in Immigration Policies in the European Union

ince the second half of the nine- practice. So too, it is ethically unaccepta- teenth century, nationalist mythol- ble for immigrants to be protected against Sogy has created the notion that im- exploitation in one member-state and not migrants are marginal or even disruptive in another. On EU territory, basic rights components of a homogenous society. should be guaranteed. Core European Among some individuals, this primitive values do not uphold slave-like living and argument still prevails today. History re- working conditions for immigrants. veals, however, the important role immi- Some may believe that relegating im- grants have played in creating the collec- migrants to the lowest levels of society tive cultural heritage of Europe. and exploiting them for marginal wages brings economic advantages. This per- Free Movement of People spective is extremely shortsighted. As vs. Immigration history has shown us, it is advantageous In the present era of European integration, for states to encourage immigrants to im- we do not label immigration between mediately integrate. individual European states as “immigra- There is thus a clear European respon- tion,” but rather as the “free movement of sibility to address the right that non-EU people” within a common European area. citizens have to long-term residency The European Commission recognizes within Europe. The European Commis- that some member states, however, clas- sion has already submitted a proposal for sify citizens from other EU countries as a general law which establishes integra- “immigrants,” i.e., the same category as tive measures for legal immigrants who those who emigrate from outside Europe. are waiting for their long-term residency. Historical examples related to im- The needs of the labor market neces- migration within Europe influence our sarily rely on immigration. In the past dec-

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 17 ] immigration

ades, the labor market has struggled with alone dictate how we approach immigra- a shortage in the qualified work force; the tion policy. A sensible immigration policy Vladimír Špidla demand for immigrants has subsequently must take into account the needs of actual is the European Commissioner risen. The European Commission reacted immigrants. In this respect, it is necessary for Employment, Social Affairs by drafting four legislative proposals re- to help immediately integrate immigrants and Equal Opportunities. lated to legal immigration. Their purpose upon arrival. This is not strictly achieved was to devise a common EU-wide policy through the work force, but also through which would remove the current restric- specific integration programs. These pro- Suggested Reading tive barriers against legal immigration grams should aim to help immigrants ac- from third countries. quire intercultural knowledge and practi- Castles, Stephen and Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration, Third Edition: The Commission has already submitted cal skills necessary in life. These programs International Population Movements one law which provides highly-qualified should neither consist entirely of language in the Modern World. (The Guilford workers with a “blue card,” i.e., the right to requirements nor seek to indoctrinate Press, 2003). move freely around between EU member- immigrants with national histories and Moses, Jonathon W. International states. The other proposals should simplify mythologies (as sometimes done). Migration: Globalization’s Last Fron- the conditions for seasonal workers, who It is necessary to convey that immi- tier. (Zed Books, 2006). will be given guaranteed access to a certain grants are people with normal human OECD. Trends in International Mi- member-state a few years in advance, as needs – immigrants do not just fill gaps gration: Continuous Reporting Sys- well as for persons moving within a com- in the labor market. Past policies from tem on Migration: Annual Report pany (“intra-corporate transferees”) and Western states have treated immigrants as 2002. (OECD Publishing, 2003). for paid interns. reservoirs of cheap and low-maintenance Triandafyllidou, Anna and Ruby labor and have consequently left a bitter Gropas. European Immigration: More than a Work Force aftertaste in Europe. As one wise German A Sourcebook. (Ashgate Publishing, It is necessary to emphasize that the cur- politician once said, “We invited a work- Ltd., 2007). rent needs of the labor market should not force, but a people came.” 

inzerce

[ 18 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 immigration Shattered

The plight of migrant workers in Europe during the economic crisis. Dreams Sairah Zaidi as unaccountable and purely profit- A representative of a Prague workers’ driven, with the ongoing economic crisis agency Zajan s.r.o., Ljubov Rampilova, thrusting them into the spotlight as for- argues that the negative image of workers’ eign workers lose jobs en masse. agencies is unfair. “It’s a lot of work for us The role of these agencies extends far to find the migrant worker a job, equip beyond initial assistance in job placement him for work, and arrange for arrival and and arrival. Losing a job means losing the accommodation,” she says, pointing out uul Terbish works about fifteen purpose of stay required to legally remain that the government requires the agencies hours a day, six days a week in in the Czech Republic. Since it is difficult to also pay health and social insurance for Ta bakery in Plzeň. She has a degree to change employment and the Czech workers. She asserts that many migrant in dentistry but has not been able to find government does not provide much as- work in her field. Her long work hours sistance, foreign workers often rely on the prevent her from spending time with her agencies for the duration of their time in daughter, and she says that baking bread the country. Agencies often at a stove for such long shifts is difficult. The agencies often function as legal The workers’ agency that arranged for employers, controlling wage distribution function as the her initial job placement and arrival in and taking a large portion of their work- legal employers. the Czech Republic also serves as her le- ers’ salaries. This also means that - im gal employer, and takes half of her salary migrant workers do not enjoy the same each month leaving her with no savings. rights and worker protection measures She is worried that she will soon lose her that local Czechs do – in Tuul’s case, workers appreciate that mediators exist, job and be forced to return home. for example, the bakery isn’t subjected indicating the difficulties they would Her case is not unique; it illustrates to normal Czech labor law and is not otherwise have in the entire process. a common predicament among many of required to provide her with unemploy- Supporters of the workers’ agencies the 400,000 foreign workers in the coun- ment benefits. defend their profit margin, and argue that try. The onset of the global economic “The main purpose is to make money, their critics are simply stuck in an anti- crisis has thrown into sharper relief what so [the workers’ agencies] ask for as much profit mindset – a legacy of communism. critics describe as a flawed and unjust as people are willing to pay,” says Marie But the director of the Prague branch Czech labor migration system. Jelínková, one of the creators of Migra- of the International Organization for tion Online at the Multicultural Center in Migration, Lucie Sládková argues that the The Value of Workers’ Agencies Prague, a project that compares migration agencies value profit over people: “People A vast network of workers’ agencies ex- policy in Central and Eastern Europe. The are not a commodity. It angers me that ists in the Czech Republic which act as agencies charge initial fees for job place- we didn’t block the establishment of so intermediaries to help migrant workers ment, visa acquirement and arrival into many networks of agencies, considering find employment, assist with working the country. These fees vary from one na- that a certain percentage of their business permits and visas, and organize arrival tionality to another – Mongolians usually is totally dirty.” into the country. Now numbering ap- pay $3,000 to $4,000, while Vietnamese proximately 2,600, these agencies have workers often pay upwards of $10,000. The Project capitalized on the Czech government’s Tuul paid her agency $5,000, but re- on Voluntary Returns failure to provide information and prac- calls that promised assistance for finding As late as the middle of last year, the Czech tical assistance to migrant workers. accommodation was not provided. She Republic was actively recruiting non-EU NGOs and watchdog groups have, instead relied on the help of strangers and foreign workers to alleviate a significant la- however, criticized the workers’ agencies acquaintances. bor shortage resulting from low birth rates

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 19 ] immigration

and increased westward migration from initial 2,000-person threshold if the plan yourself in debt to come here, would you Eastern European member states brought sees sufficient demand. be so quick to return?” on by the EU’s open-borders policy. The project, which triggered criticism “This plan is not bad in and of itself, but As one media outlet aptly put it, how- in some circles as protectionist, met luke- it does not do enough. It is only the tip of ever, Europe at large seems to have fallen warm reception from foreign workers; the iceberg,” Jelínková continues. She be- out of love with labor migration, and the only about 1,300 accepted the offer in the lieves that Czech policy towards migrant Czech Republic is no exception. When first few months. The Vietnamese com- workers was inadequate and discrimina- the global economic crisis hit the coun- munity responded by asking the Interior tory long before the economic crisis hit, try earlier this year and foreign workers Ministry to offer some alternatives, such and points to unjust visa policies, arcane started losing their jobs in droves, the as community work. bureaucracy, incomprehensible legal government announced its Project on “For some of these people, the trans- application processes and inadequate Voluntary Returns. The plan offers laid- actional costs of return are too high,” regulation of unscrupulous employment off foreign workers 500 euros and travel explains Jelínková. “If you had paid agencies as some of the real culprits. costs to return to their countries of ori- $10,000 to a workers’ agency, sacrificed Terbish, who is one of 13,000 Mongo- gin. The government intends to raise the your savings, sold your property and put lians living in the Czech Republic, says

[ 20 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 immigration

will encourage 100,000 of the 2.8 million non-European migrant workers in the country to return home. Workers’ agencies The United Kingdom also instated are criticized to a voluntary returns program in an effort to be unaccountable deal with the economic crisis. The country and purely profit- has seen wildcat factory strikes protesting the hiring of foreign workers and protec- driven. tionist government rhetoric calling for “British jobs for British workers.”

Future Alternatives The economic crisis has highlighted It is noteworthy that the protectionist the numerous flaws in Czech and Eu- directive that restricts the agencies to ropean policy towards foreign workers. skilled labor employment is the only These policies are not only harmful for instance of increased governmental foreigners but in the long run hinder Eu- regulation on these workers’ agencies. ropean prospects for dynamic economic The directive effectively restricts these growth. Whether it is the proliferation of agencies from finding jobs for foreign unscrupulous employment agencies or workers who often work menial labor the obvious undertones of rhetorical and jobs. The Interior Ministry has compiled practical protectionism, the inevitable an agency watchlist, and reportedly filed conclusion is that the Czech Republic and complaints against about 500 of them. greater Europe must reevaluate its labor But according to Sládková, concrete migration policies. This crisis offers the results are not yet available. opportunity for just such a makeover.  The Czech approach to dealing with foreign workers in the economic crisis is incomplete in practice and short-term in Sairah Zaidi attends Cleveland State Univer- its vision. Eventually, the economic crisis sity in the United States and studies Political will retreat and the Czech Republic – and Science and International Relations. Europe at large – will need foreign work- This article was written in conjunction with ers again. Demographic trends make this a profile of Tuul Terbish that appeared in the inevitable. Assisted voluntary return is New York University student web-zine The not necessarily a negative or protectionist Prague Wanderer in April 2009. approach, but it is ineffective. On the other hand, requalifying or training laid-off workers would ensure that a productive and qualified workforce is available when the economic crisis abates. Suggested Reading “Trapped” was created by Miloš Bárta for Czech Terbish, for example, is actually Made?, an exhibition on migrant labor developed a valuable asset to the Czech Republic – Gropas, Ruby and Anna Triandafyl- by the Multicultural Center in Prague 2009. a country that just so happens to have lidou. European Immigration: an acute shortage of dentists. But instead A Sourcebook. (Ashgate Publishing, that even if she manages to keep her job, of receiving language and requalification Ltd., 2007). her visa will expire soon and she will have training, it now appears likely that she Laczko, Frank. New Challenges for to return to Mongolia’s capital, Ulaan Baa- will have to leave the country. Migration Policy in Central and East- ern Europe. (Cambridge University tor. She does not understand the changing The government must also simplify the Press, 2002). visa requirements, and says her agency incomprehensible visa system and make has not explained the situation to her. it more accessible for foreigners. They Miles, Robert and Dietrich Thrän- hardt. Migration and European In- must improve embassy staffing abroad Voluntary Returns tegration: The Dynamics of Inclusion and provide information to foreigners in and Exclusion. (Fairleigh Dickinson in Greater Europe their native language. Such efforts would Univ. Press, 1995). Spain also initiated a voluntary return eliminate foreign workers’ dependence Organisation for Economic Co- program; in recent years Spain attracted on these profit-driven agencies. Finally, operation and Development. more guest workers than any other Eu- it is imperative that migrant workers Migration for Employment: Bilateral ropean country due to its high economic receive greater rights and protection, and Agreements at a Crossroads. (OECD growth and construction labor demand. that agency intermediaries cease to dif- Publishing, 2004 Prime Minister José Zapatero hopes it fuse employer liability.

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 21 ] immigration The Czech Foreign Police and Immigration

An Interview with the director of Czech Foreigners Police Lubomír Sedlák Department Colonel Vladislav Husák.

Some time ago, the Czech press published Anyway, as I already said, we have no mentation which is now no longer valid a report which estimated that the number idea how many illegal foreigners are in and he or she should have thus left the of people staying in the Czech Republic the Czech Republic. The only thing we country. without a permission is approximately do know is how many illegal residents the same as those who are here legally. we find during our various checks: in From which countries are the persons with- Do you agree? 2008, for instance, we identified 3,661 out valid permits primarily from (whether I cannot very well agree or disagree; we illegal immigrants. In the past few years, they have initially held one or not)? simply do not know how many illegal In 2008, Ukrainians were by far most fre- immigrants there are here. As of the 1st quent perpetrators of illegally living in of January 2008 when the country joined the country. We found 1,547 of them or the Schengen Agreement, we basically Last year we more than forty-two percent of the total. stopped controlling the frontiers and had 127 people Vietnamese immigrants came in second therefore cannot keep count of illegal at 316, followed by 269 Mongolians, 232 immigrants. Checks are now done else- who flew in with Slovaks and 190 Russians. where in regions of Europe where the invalid documents. Schengen area borders the rest of the At present, how many foreigners are le- continent, for instance, between Slovakia gally living in the Czech Republic? and Ukraine. Their number is currently 480,000. This, incidentally, is also why in 2008 this number has more or less stagnated. 170,000 have a permanent residence the word “border” was dropped from the In other words, it has neither risen nor permit and the remaining 310,000 hold official name of the Czech Foreigners fallen. a temporary or long-term one. Police Force. The truth is, on the other I would like to point out in this con- hand, that we still continue to look for text that the typical illegal immigrant The local media recently reported a case of anyone who doesn’t have the right to we deal with is not someone who has four people who were detained by the po- be here; my people simply moved some arrived without permission and wants lice in the western Bohemian town of Cheb twenty to thirty kilometres away from to stay here, but someone who was for arranging a fake marriage between the frontiers into the country’s interior. actually in possession of legal docu- a foreigner and a Czech citizen in order for the foreigner to obtain a residence permit. Does this happen often? The Foreign Police Service Yes, lately this has indeed become quite The Czech Foreigners Police Department, or the “Alien” Police as the title techni- frequent. Last year alone, we had 24 such cally translates, issues permits which allow foreign persons to enter as well as cases. It is more common by the way to remain in the Czech Republic. The department seeks to bar illegal immigration find a Czech women pretending to mar- and uncover instances of illegal residence within the country. In February and ry a foreign man than vice-versa. The March, the Czech Foreigners Police March deported 433 people who had been staying in the country illegally. truth is that for two years following the respective wedding, we are allowed un-

[ 22 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 immigration

For some time now the media has also reported cases of immigrants with diagnosed tuberculosis. Is this a major problem? Yes, and as a result, in ten selected countries, for instance Mongolia, we will soon The Czech Foreign Police begin to ask for a certificate that the person who wants to enter the Czech Re- public is not infected with either tuberculosis, hepatitis, AIDS or syphilis.

I was recently travelling by train to Berlin and Immigration and there were surprisingly enough two der current legislation to check and con- policemen – one German and the other trol whether the two really live together. Czech – at the border between the two While actually entering their household Colonel Vladislav Husák countries. They were inspecting passen- would be rather complicated, we can in- gers, even if only some. Did the Schengen quire at the door after ringing the bell. for several weeks – if not actually months – Agreement not end controls at borders in- Incidentally, another 26 cases in 2008 in- at Prague’s international Ruzyně airport. side its territory? volved a situation in which a local female Since he could not provide his passport, According to the respective regulations, claimed a foreigner was the father of her the authorities did not allow him to enter such checks should not be “systematic” child; this is another way one might try the country but for the very same reason, and “regular,” but the problem is that the to legalise a stay in the country. he wasn’t able to return home either. How documents do not define what is “system- would your people proceed if such a situa- atic” and how often is “regular.” The fact The Foreign Police’s website informs about tion was to happen again? remains that the initiative to make these a young Ukrainian woman who had man- What actually happened is that he ate his checks comes from the German side, aged to stay in the Czech Republic illegally passport. In such a case, we must try to while most of the complaints come from for seven months before she was caught. find out the person’s identity. If I remem- Czechs who visit our western neighbour. Where do you usually come across foreign- ber correctly, in this case we were even- Austria is also less strict in this regard, but ers who do not have a permit to stay here? tually successful although it did indeed this may result from the fact that fewer il- The checks we make are undertaken any- take a long time. What you have touched legal immigrants attempt to enter Austria where really, although they occur most on, however, is that the five international as Germany, even though its standard of frequently at workers’ dormitories, mar- airports in the Czech Republic – located living is just as high.  ket places and various means of trans- in Prague, Brno, Ostrava, Pardubice and port. We are quite mobile because we of- Karlovy Vary [better known abroad un- ten operate in what are called Schengen der its German name Carlsbad] – are in Lubomír Sedlák buses. These buses have all the necessary fact the sole places where one can try and is a Czech freelance journalist who writes for databases, such as a pan-European one enter this country illegally by arriving various British magazines. In the 1990s, he with some twenty million inputs, as well from outside the Schengen area. was an Alfred Friendly Press Fellow as other information technology. The case of the Lebanese man was at The New York Times. unusual in that his passport ended up Several years ago, a representative of the in his stomach, but last year we actually Czech construction industry’s trade union had 127 people who flew in with invalid organisation called for the establishment documents or forged official invitations. Colonel Vladislav Husák has been of a special police force that would control Airlines do, however, face high fines if the director of Czech Foreigners Police Department since the 1st of worksites for illegal workers. Was this es- they carry such a person onboard. We June 2008. Before that Husák served tablished? have therefore placed special immigra- as the Service’s deputy director, To date, we still do not have such a body, tion officers at airports in seven cities: and from 2005 to 2007 he was the but I of course welcome the idea. My Cairo, Hanoi, Kiev, Lvov, Moscow, Peking president of the Czech Republic’s people do, however, make regular checks and Ulan Bator. We do not feel the need police force. Under his command, at construction sites. I should note as to place officers in all countries because he oversaw the successful protection well that this is a problem which does most people do have their documents in of Prague’s Congress Centre during not relate solely to the employee but also order. We have one in the Russian capital demonstrators against the Interna- to the employer who is in almost all cases because approximately two hundred tional Monetary Fund meeting in a Czech, not a foreigner. and fifty thousand people apply for the year 2000. The New Presence spoke respective visa a year, not because a large to the colonel about illegal immigration in the Czech Republic in his Some years ago, there was a case here number try to enter the Czech Republic office in Žižkov, a neighborhood in reminiscent of Steven Spielberg’s film Ter- with false papers. Prague. minal in which a man from Lebanon lived

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 23 ] immigration Racism Zoe Aiano and Reform The Treatment of Immi- Czech police gather at an anti-missile defense grants and Minorities in system rally in Autumn Law Enforcement. of 2008.

erhaps it is not surprising that the senseless killing of a 43 year old Vi- Petnamese immigrant in Brno last January failed to capture public interest; Czech society is well-known for xenophobia. What is surprising, however, is that the story of three respectable Czech policemen who beat a man to death with no apparent motive has left people equally indifferent. In reality, the two stories are the same. On the 4th of January the police received a call to supposedly deal with a domestic disturbance in the area known as the “Brno Bronx,” in Brno, CR. The details of what followed are still unclear, but it appears that three officers arrived broken up by riot squads using tear gas at the apartment of Huang Son Lam and water cannons resulting in the death and proceeded to beat the man severely. An independent of one party-goer. In December of last Following the beating, the officers took watchdog year, 900 police and three armoured cars him into custody without providing any commission would raided the largest Vietnamese market in medical care. Lam was eventually taken Prague known as “Little Hanoi” or Sapa. to the hospital, but died shortly thereafter. deter the police The incident provoked Vietnamese - stu It wasn’t until two weeks later that the force from abusing dents to protest what they considered to officers in question were suspended from their authority. be “an abuse of power by public agents duty, and yet another week before the case and an infringement of basic laws and reached the papers. What little informa- human freedoms.” tion has been made public is unclear and Clearly, there is a marked difference contradictory; the police initially insisted dercurrents are alarming in men whose between these incidences and that of that Lam died from a drug overdose. As fundamental duty lies in upholding Lam; while the aforementioned ac- of yet there has been no further mention the law and protecting the community. tions were government sanctioned, the of a trial, and the police decline to com- Though the specific men involved are Czech government frequently refuses ment. At present Lam’s death is poised to said to hold no previous convictions, this to admit any wrong doing when faced fall into obscurity, an anomalous incident is by no means the first time the Czech with accusations of abrasive activity. The that warrants no further consideration. police force has come under criticism. prevalence of both authorised and indi- Whether this case is an isolated oc- More notorious incidents include the vidual violence lies at the heart of police currence or not, its racist and violent un- 2005 Czechtek rave festival, which was violence.

[ 24 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 immigration

Underlying Theories culture theory.” The theory addresses is- crucial that the police force, acting as Violence and racism on the part of the sues such as the prolonged opportunity representative of the government, dis- police is a problem that affects most if to accept bribes or abuse authority and entangle themselves from rhetoric and not all countries throughout the world, trust, as well as notions of group identity behaviour which implicates racism and yet no one thus far has given a unified ex- and alienation from the rest of society. discrimination. So too, the absence of planation or a unified solution. In many One possibility suggested by sociologists any public outcry at the brutal treat- politically unstable countries, the police Lori Lahue, Jim Ruiz, and Pare Clarke in ment of Huang Son Lam indicates that are used as a tool for both suppression 2008 even considers how the levels of se- the Czech citizens themselves must take and uprising. The question remains as rotonin produced by police work affects some civic initiative and hold the police to why the police commit such atroci- behavioural patterns. accountable. The problem lies not, ties and why, then, are similar concerns therefore, solely on the Czech police found in supposed democratic nations? Policing and Minorities force, but on the Czech citizenry itself. Whatever the underlying causes of police aggression, it has a tangible effect on its individual victims and the public as a whole. Police racism – or rather the Violence and perception of police racism – has a large racism on the bearing on the way minorities interpret part of the police their social standing. As Weitzer and Tuch explained in their book Race and Policing is a problem in America, “policing is not simply a re- throughout sponse to individuals or isolated crimes… the world. but is also responsive in a more subtle way to a city’s racial order and the interest of the dominant groups.” They also referred to studies by Professor David Harris of the Addressing the Problems University of Michigan conducted in 2002 Numerous other countries have been which found that four out of ten blacks forced to acknowledge and redress and Hispanics in the United States “some- problems within the police force because times feel afraid that the police will stop of scandal. In Norway in 2006, for ex- and arrest you when you are completely ample, a Nigerian citizen Eugene Ejike innocent.” Only one out of six whites Obiora was choked to death in a trivial surveyed shared the same fears. Evidence altercation with the police. Contrary to suggests that both groups are reacting to Lam’s case, the Norwegian public quickly genuine discrimination by the police. reacted to the story and held demonstra- Another experiment conducted by tions alongside several MPs in five dif- COURTESY OF ELENA GREEN Harris in 1992 analysed 48 hours of ferent cities. The publicity led to police One of the most widely known theo- videotape filmed in a traffic police ve- training reforms and sparked a general ries, and incidentally the most widely hicle on duty in Florida. He found that review of the Norwegian police depart- propagated by police representatives, is though only five percent of the passing ment, as well as promises of future open- the “rotten apple” theory. First proposed cars were driven by blacks or Hispanics, ness regarding police misconduct. in the Knapp report of 1974, this perspec- this group constituted 70 percent of all Similarly, in the UK, police were active asserts that misconduct is limited to drivers stopped for questioning. Such cused of mishandling the investigation individual “rotten” officers, who either findings not only indicate the profusion of black teenager Stephen Lawrence manage to hide their anti-social tenden- of police racism, but surely demoralize who was stabbed to death, prompting cies during the initial screening process law-abiding citizens of minority groups. the famous Macpherson report in 1999. or are corrupted by the opportunities The result is obvious – the victimization The report condemned the British forces that present themselves during quotidian and mistreatment of innocent people. as “institutionally racist” and suggested police duties. In the case of departments Whilst the majority of the statistics 70 separate recommendations for re- with numerous problematic policemen, concerning police violence and racism form. Many of these recommendations this is attributed to the influence of the are based on American studies, they are were in fact implemented, including the original bad apple. not irrelevant in the Czech situation. creation of a mandatory quota of ethnic This approach is idealistic and overly Neo-Nazism and extreme right-wing minority officers in every department. simplistic. Many sociologists instead nationalism are on the rise in the Czech This case helped to raise awareness of subscribe to the opposing “rotten barrel” lands, and it seems like hardly a day goes police racism and elevate its importance theory – that the nature of police work past without news of a riot or protest as a topic of national concern. itself alters the officers’ behaviour. This against ethnic minorities, particularly Huang Son Lam’s case in the Czech theory is also known as the “deviant sub- the Roma. As violence increases, it is Republic presents a similar potential for

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 25 ] the middle east

police reform. The question remains, would deter the police force from abus- however, whether Czech society – its ing their authority as agents of law and people and the state institutions – are order – hopefully, with time, the force willing and able to recognize this poten- would become a more just administer of tial and confront the issue at hand. so-called justice. Finally, it would reflect In the Czech Republic, police reform the government’s desire to create greater should consist of an education program accountability and restore the public’s for its officers and the creation of an in- faith in the state, while condemning rac- dependent body to monitor and address ist and discriminatory behaviour. police officer crime. The Minister of the Socio-criminologists Ronald Weitzer Interior Ivan Langer did in fact recently and Stephen Tuch note in Race and initiate reforms throughout the police Policing in America that “major change department. The reforms took effect has occurred in some nations… usually on the 1st of January 2009. It appears, precipitated by one or more of the fol- however, that these reforms fall short of lowing: a disturbing scandal; sustained addressing racism and discrimination. pressure from the media, political lead- While Langer describes education ers or civil rights groups; a change in as “both the key to professionalism and leadership of the department; or outside one of the ten pillars of reform,” he cites Czech police stand guard in Prague at Obama’s intervention by some authority.” The first language and managerial courses as the speech on the 5th of April 2009. of these could have come to pass, and COURTESY OF ELENA GREEN two foremost priorities. No mention the second is attainable. If the Czechs is made of sensitivity towards ethnic want to earn international credibility or groups or increased training in the cor- The Czech branches of NGOs such demonstrate a concern for its citizens, rect use of force. In fact, one of Langer’s as Transparency International and then police reform based on racism most significant changes gives officers Amnesty International have repeatedly and aggression is a highly effective way the right to use electroshock weapons! identified and criticized the lack of an to achieve it. Moreover, victims such as impartial police watchdog. The Euro- Huang Son Lam could finally see justice pean Roma Rights Centre, who believe being served.  that the Roma community in the Czech “Police recruits Republic are unfairly victimised by the police, consider the current judicial do not receive system to be “lack[ing] objectivity and Zoe Aiano a moral base for credibility and would seem to facilitate has a M.A. from the University of Glasgow how to behave impunity for police involved in human in Film and TV Studies and Slavonic Studies. in corrupt rights violations.” On their website they She lives and works in Prague. request that the government “establish situations.” an independent body with authority to Czeslaw Walek receive and investigate all complaints of excessive use of force and other abuses of power by the police.” Transparency In- ternational, who dedicate themselves to When conducting an investigation the fight against institutional corruption into “The Emerging Ethics of the Czech and better governmental communication Suggested Reading Police Force” in 2000, a member of the with the public, have cited Slovakia as an Cerrah, Ibrahim and M. R. Haber- prominent NGO Transparency Interna- exemplar country which is now “more feld, eds. Comparative Policing: The tional, Czeslaw Walek, asked 71 experts successful in investigation of corruption Struggle for Democratization. (Sage from 35 countries what they considered crimes” thanks to the establishment of Publications, 2008). to be the most effective way to combat a Special Court and Special Prosecutors Mason, Paul, ed. Criminal Visions: police corruption. The response was office. Media Representations of Crime and “permanent and compulsory integrity As criminologist Jerome Skolnick Justice. (Willan Publishing, 2003). training.” Walek also asserted that “the summarised in his 2002 work Corrup- Savage, Stephen. Police Reform: subject of professional ethics is not tion and the Blue Code of Silence, “cops Forces for Change. (Oxford Univer- taught on satisfactory level. Police re- are not trusted to investigate and reach sity Press, 2007). cruits do not receive a moral base [or] decisions about the alleged miscon- Tuch, Stephen and Ronald Weitzer. knowledge how to behave in corrupt duct of other cops, even when they are Race and Policing in America: situations.” Though it has been almost perfectly capable of doing so, and even Conflict and Reform. (Cambridge a decade since this report was published, when they make the right decision.” University Press, 2006). there are still no signs of improvement. An independent watchdog commission

[ 26 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 the middle east The Hopelessness of a Middle East

Peace Process Irena Kalhousová

The ability to find “Security for Israel, Justice for Palestine” will remain elusive until the people of Israel and Palestine renew their trust in each other.

ince the Second World War, no rial struggle has therefore a dramatically Jordan have signed one), Israeli-Arab re- other conflict has attracted as larger impact than conflicts that have lations have significantly improved in the Smuch constant attention as the taken place on greater swaths of land and past few decades. Many states cooperate Israeli-Palestinian conflict. But with ap- affected millions of people. In the West, more or less on an economic, martial and proximately ten thousand fatalities, the it has become a question of duty, and even political level with the Jewish state. conflict’s victim count ranks 50th in perhaps honor, to transform the Arab- Israel has become a legitimate player post-WWII conflicts. The conflict- re Israeli conflict into a Middle East peace even in the eyes of states which refused ceives a disproportionate degree of at- process. to acknowledge its existence for many tention from international organizations years. such as the UN, which has sent more And although relations between Israel disapproving resolutions to Israel than to and most Arab states in the region are by any other country. no means good, the last Arab-Israeli war Peace requires took place in 1973. Since then, mutual Interest in the Conflict reconciliation disputes have been settled on a diplo- in the Middle East between Israel matic level. The next step to Arab-Israeli A conflict between Jews and Arabs in and other states reconciliation should be a peace treaty and around Jerusalem is simply too between Israel and Syria. Both coun- emotionally, historically, politically and in the region. tries embarked on indirect negotiations religiously charged to go unnoticed. Nei- before the appointment of the Obama ther Christians nor Muslims can remain administration. Syria’s emergence from indifferent to a conflict that takes place international isolation is dependent on such significant land. In addition, Israeli-Arab Relations on these negotiations. They will also Jews have always been, for better or for A Middle East peace process must strengthen its role as an important player worse, a very distinctive minority in the take place on two fronts. On one hand, in the region as financial aid and interna- Western world as well as in the East. peace requires reconciliation between tional investment mitigates the present The role of Western and Arab coun- Israel and other states in the region; on economic problems. In return for peace, tries in the formation of the Israeli state the other hand, peace must bring an end Syria would return Golan Heights to Is- and “un-formation” of the Palestinian to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. While rael and expel Hamas leadership from its state has elevated the Arab-Israeli con- Israel’s conflicts with other Middle East- territory (and thereby end its intermedi- flict to prominence in international rela- ern nations have not always ended in the ary role between the regime in Teheran tions. This regional and mainly territo- past with a peace treaty (only Egypt and and Hezbollah).

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The Threat of a Nuclear Iran ons of mass destruction, Israel would Israeli territory to connect Palestinian But for many people in the Middle face an even greater threat. While Israel land is controversial and complicated. East, Israel remains an eyesore. Iranian has not waged a war with an Arab state President Ahmadinejad leads the move- for more than thirty years, direct mili- Refugees ment that denies Israel’s right to exist. tary conflict with Hezbollah and Hamas Palestinian refugees also pose a problem Even though it has been commonplace has occurred in the last two years. Thus, for the peace process. Palestinian repre- for Middle Eastern leaders to call for Is- the most salient issue Israel must face is sentatives assert that Palestinian refugees the prospect of a nuclear Iran and the (classified as individuals born on the influence of these radical organizations territory of today’s Israel and their de- on its borders. scendents) must be able to return to their For many people original homes. Thus, the Palestinians in Internationalizing the Israeli/ Gaza and in the West Bank, who live per- in the Middle East, Palestinian Conflict haps only a few kilometers away from their Israel remains While Israel’s threats are not isolated to original homes, are still technically refu- an eyesore. one state in the Middle East, the inter- gees. The same applies to those who fled to national community expects Israel to neighboring countries (with exception of focus on negotiations with Palestine. Jordan) during the Arab-Israeli war. Despite the improvement in Israeli- This situation, which is unique to Pal- rael’s destruction, Iran’s nuclear program Arab relations in the last few decades, the estinian refugees, has sustained strong presents a particular threat and worry to Israeli-Palestinian conflict has stagnated emotional territorial ties. No Palestinian Israel. A nuclear Iran would completely in a vicious and cyclical state: unsuccess- politician has had the courage to open change the balance of power in the Mid- ful negotiations, attacks and counterat- a discussion on this subject or state that dle East. tacks, lack of trust. Despite negotiating the refugees who immigrated to neigh- As a Shiite and non-Arab nation, and even signing internationally drafted boring countries during the wars will Iran’s acquisition of nuclear weapons peace plans, the conflict between Israel return to a future Palestinian state rather would weaken the position of Sunni Arab and Palestine has not ameliorated. than to Israel. regimes and thus lead them to develop The first direct talks between Pales- On the other hand, the refugee ques- their own nuclear programs. Nuclear tinians and Israelis took place in 1991 tion presents an existential problem for armament would spread throughout the at a conference in Madrid, where the Israel. Since the label “refugee” encom- Middle East among states that are po- United States helped define the basic passes second and third generations litically unstable and economically weak. motto for the negotiations: “Security for of Palestinians, the number of original Countries such as North Korea, Pakistan Israel, Justice for Palestine.” This motto refugees (700,000) has swelled to 4 mil- or Russia would collaborate in nuclear remains the fundamental basis of the research and supply nuclear technology peace process. (albeit less reliable) at a better price. After two decades of negotiations, the main parties have in fact arrived at A problematic Role of Non-State Players a conclusion: the peace talks should aim issue involves As threatening as this scenario may be, to create an independent Palestinian Israel warns of another danger that a nu- state and establish peaceful coexistence. the question clear Iran poses. Since Iran must under- Certain issues, however, continue to of Palestinian stand the consequences that an attack on elude compromise. refugees. Israel or any other Western target would have, Iran could simply hand over its nu- Borders clear arsenal to non-state players. Some One of the most problematic issues is of these non-state players are perfectly the border between Israel and the future lion. Their return would undoubtedly capable of influencing domestic and Palestinian state. Since taking control of mean the end of the Israeli state as we international policies in the Middle East. the West Bank of Jordan in 1967, Israel know it today. The regime in Teheran supports some of has built Jewish settlements and towns these organizations ideologically, finan- on Palestinian territory. The question Security cially, and technologically. remains, “What can be done with these After its experience in Gaza, Israel ques- There is, for example, the Lebanese settlements?” Their complete dissolu- tions whether or not Fatah is willing and Shi’a organization Hezbollah, which tion is economically and politically ready to face Hamas. Fatah lost control of is almost entirely dependent on Iran. unrealistic. But meanwhile, Palestinians Gaza when Hamas killed or expelled the Palestinian Hamas is another suitable call for the preservation and territorial majority of its supporters only two years Iranian ally. Aside from financial sup- continuity of the West Bank. Western after Israel retreated from the region. De- port, Hamas also receives military and peace-makers seek to compromise with spite Western help and encouragement, technological aid from Teheran. If these territory exchange, but one solution, Fatah leadership has proven corrupt and radical organizations had access to weap- a corridor which would pass through ineffective.

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“Security for Israel, Justice for Pales- tine” has become the mantra for all nego- Suggested Reading Opposition to any tiators involved in the Israeli-Palestinian type of peace reconciliation. While this may be a long- Dowty, Alan. Israel/Palestine, 2nd ed. process term solution, the current distribution (Polity, 2008). is mounting. of domestic political power makes it Finkelstein, Norman G. Image and entirely impossible. If the diplomatic Reality of the Israel-Palestine Con- process is to continue, the negotiators flict, 2nd ed.(Verso, 2003). must consider the complications which Gelvin, James L. The Israel-Palestine obstruct immediate solutions. Any new conflict: one hundred years of war, Lack of Trust efforts must first renew Israeli and Pales- 2nd ed. (Cambridge University The greatest impediment to reconcilia- tinian trust in the peace process.  Press, 2005). tion is, however, lack of trust and loss of Lerner, Michael. Healing Israel/Pal- hope. Given the continued construction estine: A Path to Peace and Reconcili- of Jewish settlements on Palestinian ation. (North Atlantic Books, 2003). territory, Palestinians do not believe in Irena Kalhousová is an AMO analyst. Lesch, David W. The Middle East Israel’s professed willingness to create She studied political science and the United States: A Historical an independent Palestinian state. For at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and Political Reassessment. (Perseus Books, 2007). their part, Israelis suspect that Hamas and European Studies receives widespread support from the at Cambridge University. Reinhart, Tanya. The Road Map to entire Palestinian population. Opposi- Nowhere: Israel/Palestine Since 2003. (Verso, 2006). tion to any type of peace process is mounting.

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spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 29 ] the middle east

Islam, Christianity and the Struggle Petr Pelikán for Rationalism

The longstanding dichoto- After Europe effectively detached it- vantageous nature. According to Muslim self from its religious roots, it succeeded thought, God created these ordinances my between Islam and in gradually subduing the whole of the because He, as the Creator, knows best. Christianity shows no Islamic East. Muslim theologists who A serious Orientalist will obviously continue to lambast Christianity are not accept the popular “rational” expla- signs of abating. coming to realize that Christianity and nation for the Islamic ordinance requir- the West are no longer one and the same. ing women to hide their faces and bodies, They have now recognized the new and which states that God wants to give every real threat that Europe poses: the spread woman, whether pretty or ugly, the same nstead of bridging the cultural gap, of atheistic rationalism. chance. This explanation calls to mind Muslim and Christian religious schol- Consequently, since the 1950s Muslim the bad marketing slogan from the inven- Iars repeatedly emphasize the differ- theologists have popularized a new ap- tor of the drum revolver: “Samuel Colt ences between the two belief systems to proach to religious thought which seeks gives an equal chance to the weak and the suit their own agenda. Nonetheless, there to defeat Europe with its own weapon. strong.” Furthermore, it is patently obvi- is evidence that Islamic mysticism has Drawing directly from European meth- ous who came up with it and why. begun to take some lessons from Euro- ods of analyzing Islamic thinking and Concurrently, Europeans smile when pean rationalism. Muslim religious practices, the approach they hear the popular explanation that Armed and ideological conflict has seeks to rationalize domestic Islamic God forbade pork in Muslim societies defined the long and hostile coexistence idealism. This rationalism stops short, because it eradicates jealousy, which is between the Islamic East and Christian however, of validating untouchable believed to be an admiral quality. The West throughout the ages. This rivalry Western dogmas. Muslim perception of the moral degen- has never, however, resulted in a real dia- eration and spread of promiscuity in logue. Very few religious scholars have Western culture attests to this supposed ever attempted to learn the teachings of truth. But when we read in seemingly their counterparts in depth. When they Many of the serious Western works that pork was have, the scholars have simply criticized banned because the fatty meat decays the opposing dogmas to reinforce their traditional faster in warm climates, we do not ques- own existing and prejudicial convictions. invectives tion this absurd statement. Many of the early invectives between between Muslims Orientalists often make such claims Muslims and Christians still remain and Christians still because they lack sufficient knowledge today. Western discussions of Islam on on the subject. The explanation regard- the Internet, for example, often accuse remain today. ing the duty to fast during the month the prophet Muhammad of sexual devi- of Ramadan provides another example. ancy, but the contributors to these debates Some renowned scholars have asserted rarely realize the ethnocentricity of their that the month long abstention from views. Muslims for their part still perceive Since Western Orientalists do not food cleanses the body. Others suggest the West’s economic and strategic maneu- acknowledge the transcendental divine it lessons class conflict as it forces the vers as an attempt to degrade and uproot origins of Islamic ordinances, they seek rich to periodically undergo the same Islamic faith in the whole world, accusing different explanations for them. Their hardships as their starving fellow believ- the West of continuing the Crusades. appreciation of these doctrines conforms ers. Another theory proposes that the Moreover, while traditional preju- to their rational view of the world and fasting month was introduced just before dices against Islam have survived, new to the benefits of secular life. Muslim harvest to prevent the depletion of the prejudices continue to develop. And theologists have readily seized this thesis previous year’s food stocks. Even Mus- although they are largely based on ide- and spun it on its head. Modern Muslim lims often emphasize the health benefits ology, the people who eagerly embrace theologists seek to legitimize the exist- of the month-long fast. these prejudices are generally the least ence of Islamic ordinances with popular They tend to forget, however, that knowledgeable on the subject. explanations that reveal their socially ad- believers must refrain not only from

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food, but also from liquids. This is clearly Another example rests in the commonly all. On the other hand, Western experts impossible to justify from a medical held belief that circumcision offers nu- on Islam who derive all knowledge from perspective. Nor does liquid abstinence merous health benefits in supposedly the comforts of a library only create eth- strengthen social unity. Also, since the preventing mycosis, cancer, and other dis- nocentric molds of a virtual reality. Muslim calendar is lunar, the period eases. According to the Western “rational- After a millennium and a half of of Ramadan does not correspond with ist” argument, an ancient council of elders misunderstanding, nothing has changed; found scientific evidence of circumcision’s new ways of thinking have only sought to health benefits, but then described the authenticate old misconceptions. While procedure as a spiritual ordinance to the both sides profess to share a dialogue and Even Muslims “common people.” Muslim theologists, search for common values, in reality they however, deny the scientific origins of this maintain a monologue which deepens often emphasize ordinance, and profess that circumcision the ideological abyss.  the health unequivocally verifies God’s existence. benefits of the Islamist rationalism is so successful Petr Pelikán month long fast. because it imbues its followers with a is an expert on Islamic Law. feeling that the rivalry with Christianity is actually inherent within their religion. It promises to show Muslims how to wield Europe’s own weapon against them. Suggested Reading vegetation cycles, but occurs at different Backed by science, they can conquer the Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim. Intellectual times every year. West once more. Muslim theologists who Origins of Islamic Resurgence in the In his book Islam Between East and therefore “discover” elements of Western Modern Arab World. (SUNY Press, West, the former Bosnian president Alija science and technology in Islamic texts 1996). Izetbegovic boldly claims that scientific enjoy great popularity and generous Hourani, George. Reason and Tradi- research has proven the exercise value financial support. tion in Islamic Ethics. (Cambridge in the system of movements for the five But Muslim theologists who seek to University Press, 2007). daily prayers. Several Orientalists have justify their religion in the face of suc- Kepel, Gilles. The War for Muslim repeated this view in writings about cessful secular rivals only contradict Minds: Islam and the West. (Harvard Islamic religious practices. themselves and their own fundamental University Press, 2006). These examples therefore convey a de- beliefs. After all, faith in God’s omnis- Said, Edward. Orientalism. (Pen- gree of inadvertent cooperation between cience is one of the pillars of Islam. Reli- guin, 2003). Western rationalists and Eastern idealists. gion without mysticism is no religion at

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 31 ] global security Targeting the World: Assessing the Lawfulness of the “Bush Doctrine”

Marcel Kaba

Contrary to former Presi- owadays when one mentions an- “one percent doctrine,” which may very ticipatory, often referred to as well be perceived as the most mali- dent George W. Bush’s be- Npreemptive, or as many in the cious modus operandi for aggressive Bush administration [unknowingly, but war-waging offered in the modern era, lief that “I don’t care what correctly] preferred to label it “preven- suggests that even the slightest chance the international lawyers say, tive” self-defense, the first example which of an attack on the US ought to be ap- comes to mind is the US invasion of Iraq proached militarily as if it were beyond we are going to kick some ass,” in March 2003. Also known as Operation any doubt. Iraqi Freedom, the invasion occurred preventive war-waging, as dem- despite the lack of, among other factors, onstrated in the Bush Doctrine, international support. The United States government failed to provide any con- “Preventive war does not kick ass. Preventive clusive and convincing evidence of 1) the alleged link between Al-Qaeda and is like committing self-defense is an illegal, coun- Iraq; 2) the existence or at least build-up suicide out of the ter-productive policy which of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. fear of death. It Yet those two notions were precisely the causes the very sets deadly precedents for “popular” justifications for invading the sovereign state of Iraq in the first place. thing one hopes other states to follow. The misleading fear-factor/security- to forestall.” Otto paranoia propaganda along with signifi- von Bismarck cant catastrophic-scenarios purported by the media proved to be considerably effectual in the initial phases of the operation and rallied massive US popular support for the invasion. President Bush’s most perplexing In September 2002, President Bush’s claim came after the breakdown and National Security Strategy rematerial- refutation of all previously introduced ized the long forgotten and sensibly factual and/or legal justifications for abandoned doctrine of preemption; the invasion when the administration sensibly because as historian Andrew sought to establish moral grounds for Bacevich indicates in his article “The their actions. Or, in their eyes, some sort Lessons of Endless War,” “history has of legitimacy. But if their actions were repeatedly demonstrated the irrational- ostensibly based in legitimacy, were they ity of preventive war. Iraq shows us why also grounded in legality? No. the Bush Doctrine was a bad idea in the Many people conceded that the US in- first place and why its abrogation has vasion of Iraq was illegal under interna- become essential.” Furthermore, former tional law standards, but simultaneously Vice President Dick Cheney’s reckless acknowledged that it was legitimate; it

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was the right thing to do – the omni- 1969 and the United Nations Charter are sheds light on the real problem of the present conundrum between law and examples of a law-making treaty. US’s unilateral action in Iraq. ethics. The Bush Doctrine undermines The use of force in preemption in the inclusive multilateral character of The United Nations Charter itself is not, therefore, illegal under the United Nations and promotes illegal Self-defense, namely the right to use international law. The issue thus lies in aggressive unilateral action, and in doing force in preemption (in response to authority – Who has decision-making so sets highly dangerous precedents for a threat), prior to the United Nations power to authorize the use of force in other states to follow. Furthermore, the Charter had mainly been guided by the response to a threat? The UN Charter customary international law doctrine of clearly states that such actions must be Caroline. Since then states have endea- taken within a multilateral framework, vored, due in part to the horrors of the not on a unilateral ad-hoc basis. Codified “[The Bush two world wars, to create a structure that within the Charter, these arrangements Doctrine] could would ensure and guarantee peace and render international affairs more stable set precedents order. Articulating the noblest of ideas, and predictable. the United Nations Charter emerged The most widely debated element that will result as a result of those efforts to provide relating to the legality of anticipatory in a proliferation a framework where states can enter into self-defense and the US war in Iraq is of the unilateral dialogue, unite, and thus work to advance found in Article 51 of Chapter VII of the and lawless global peace. One of the most significant UN Charter in the clause: “… if an armed aspects of the UN Charter with respect attack occurs.” use of force, to reducing conflict and spreading peace A “restrictionist” school of thought, with or without is the effort to establish and formulate as suggested by its name, restricts the justification.” limitations on the use of force. interpretation of self-defense under Ar- Kofi Annan ticle 51 of the UN Charter to an actual Ban On the Use of Force armed attack. On the other hand, the so- In pursuit of maintaining international called “counter-restrictionists” propose peace and security, Article 2(4) of the that preemptive self-defense is a right of United Nations Charter states: “All Mem- policy is counter-productive in the sense bers shall refrain from the threat or use of that it leads to more hatred, suffering and force” if it were to violate the sovereignty death between and among peoples. of the state in question, or if it were to be If an adversary’s “in any other manner inconsistent with Shaping International Law the Purposes of the United Nations.” The mere potential Pertaining to the right of anticipatory Article thus clearly establishes a limita- becomes self-defense, the best and most frequently tion, more precisely a ban, on the threat a justifiable cause cited example of customary international or use of force, and sets the tone of the for preventive law is the Caroline doctrine of 1842. De- entire text of the Charter with respect to rived from a legal settlement following force – that it should be used as seldom war then we have an incident between a part of Canada as possible and solely as a last resort. a disaster-in- and the British Crown, the doctrine es- making on our The Focal Point of Debate tablishes two fundamental criteria for re- hands. active as well as anticipatory self-defense. Chapter VII of the United Nations The first criterion was necessity: an Charter lays down rules of “action with instant and overwhelming threat which respect to threats to the peace, breaches leaves the self-defending state with no of the peace, and acts of aggression.” other choice. The second criterion was Among others it gives Member States states under the UN Charter if the Caro- proportionality: the quantity of force the right of self-defense. Article 39 of line case’s two requirements are fulfilled: applied in preemptive self-defense must Chapter VII authorizes the UN Security necessity (the threat of an attack must be be commensurate to the danger sought Council to determine the existence of imminent) and proportionality. to be pre-empted. any threat to peace, and thus reinforces Professor Michael Bothe makes a very Treaty law, the second component of the applicability and relevance of the good point in his article “Terrorism and international law, consists of legally bind- UN Charter with respect to dealing the Legality of Pre-Emptive Force” when ing agreements between two or more with threats. In addition, Article 39 sug- he states, “It is hard to conceive that it parties referred to as “treaties” or “con- gests that measures taken in response was merely due to a drafting oversight ventions.” Treaties may be contractual or to a threat lie within the capacity and that the notion of threat was only men- introduced alongside newly developed decision-making capability of the Se- tioned in the rule and not in the excep- rules of international law. The Vienna curity Council, not individual Member tion.” In other words, the claim that the Convention on the Law of Treaties of states. That point is crucial because it clause was meant to include a threat of

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an attack, not only an actual attack, does defense for two reasons: a Soviet attack Osiraq not stand. While the UN Charter recog- launched from Cuba was not imminent, On the 7th of June 1981, Israeli fighter nizes responses to actual armed attacks and the Soviet’s decision to place missiles jets dropped sixteen tons of explosive (the exception – Article 51) as well as to in Cuba in the first place was a reaction to on Osiraq, a nearly completed nuclear threats (the rule – Article 2(4)), it clearly US missile capabilities already in Turkey. reactor in Tuwaitha, Iraq. Having failed In addition Nikita Khrushchev proposed to demonstrate an imminent threat of a secret and wholly non-violent deal to attack by Iraq, Israel’s strike was almost John F. Kennedy. The deal proposed that universally denounced. In fact, the The bona fide if the USA dismantled and removed its Security Council condemned the act as nuclear missiles from Turkey, the USSR a violation of Iraqi sovereignty and later question about would do the same with their installa- passed a resolution expressing strong and division of tions in Cuba. disapproval towards Israel for striking opinion over against Osiraq. preemption is who The Six-Day War On June 5, 1967 Israel attacked Egypt, US Airstrikes on Libya holds the power Syria and Jordan. The attack is now On the 14th of April 1986, the United to decide when perceived as the only case of legitimate States bombed targets in Libya. The preemptive force preemptive action in recent history. El Reagan administration claimed that the is justified. Fatah terrorist raids on Israel were con- bombing was in response to a terrorist ducted from Syria, and tensions in the attack on US nationals in Berlin. They area escalated given the Security Coun- justified the bombing as an act of self- cil’s failure to halt them. In addition, in defense under Article 51 of the United May 1967 Egyptian president Gamal Nations Charter. The justification hardly distinguishes between the two. Reading Abdel Nasser ordered the UN Emergency withstands scrutiny, however, since Article 51 of the UN Charter in a strict Force to leave the Sinai, a buffer zone the US government was never able to and most honest fashion leaves no room between Egypt and Israel, and began provide evidence tying the bombing in for deliberation. The phrase “if an armed mobilizing troops. Moreover, in their Berlin to Libya. In fact, faulty intelli- attack occurs” clearly refers to an actual paper “Preventive War and Permissive gence was used to justify an unnecessary armed attack. Normative Order” Professors Charles military strike against Tripoli. The attack W. Kegley Jr. and Gregory A. Raymond does not represent lawful preemptive State Practice indicate that “Gamal Abdel Nasser an- self-defense (in Reagan’s words during in a “United Nations World” nounced a blockade of the Strait of Tiran, Numerous instances in the past exist Israel’s vital waterway to the Red Sea and when states have claimed the right of Indian Ocean, and proclaimed that his preemptive self-defense to justify their goal in any war with Israel would be the Between actions just like the US government prior destruction of the Jewish state.” Consid- 1968–2006, to their invasion of Iraq in 2003. ering those events and the movement of military force was Egyptian and Syrian military forces and The Cuban Missile Crisis equipment toward the Israeli border, Is- only successful In reaction to the placement of So- rael launched a surprise attack: airstrikes in eliminating viet missiles on the islands of Cuba, on air bases in Egypt, Syria and Jordan. a terrorist group the Kennedy administration seriously The Israeli strikes were perceived as in seven percent considered and debated a military re- justified under preemptive self-defense sponse which went down in history as mainly for two reasons. First, there was of 648 cases. the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy’s legal an imminent threat of an armed attack on counsel cautioned him against invoking Israel by the military coalition of Egypt, the doctrine of anticipatory self-defense Syria and Jordan. The threat, judged for fear it may violate Article 51 of the mainly upon military mobilization, was his address to the nation that year) “to United Nations Charter and set a dan- buttressed by Nasser’s explicitly stated diminish Colonel Qadhafi’s capacity to gerous precedent. Acting upon that in- plan of destroying the state of Israel. Sec- export terror” because Libya was not formation, President Kennedy imposed ond, his article “Israel and Preemption: threatening the United States. The a quarantine against incoming vessels Striking First Under International Law,” world, including the UN, condemned into Cuba. Technically, that in itself was Professor Louis Rene Beres concludes the US attack on Libya. a violation of international law and the that “the Security Council’s failure to UN Charter. The action taken by the US condemn Israel for its 1967 preemp- Operation Iraqi Freedom government could not have been legally tive attacks against certain Arab states, The most recent and widely known case justified within customary international signified implicit approval by the United of alleged preemptive self-defense has law under the right of anticipatory self- Nations.” been the aforementioned US invasion

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of Iraq in 2003. Under the justification Operation Iraqi What? will result in a proliferation of the uni- of preemptive self-defense, however, Six years after the invasion it is still dif- lateral and lawless use of force, with or the 2003 invasion of Iraq was unlaw- ficult to comprehend why the war in Iraq without justification.” The Bush Doctrine ful. The operation was not legal under was labeled Operation Iraqi Freedom. ridicules and undermines the UN’s con- the UN Charter; the United States did Writer Tom Engelhardt notes in his ar- flict prevention and resolution efforts, as not act in response to an armed attack well as other inclusive diplomatic efforts. along the lines of Article 51, but to an If an adversary’s mere potential becomes alleged threat to which only the Security a justifiable cause for preventive war then Council is authorized to respond and/ The Bush Doctrine we have a disaster-in-making on our or decide to act upon. Further, the in- hands. vasion has no legal justification under leads to more What would and should stop China the customary international law norms hatred, suffering from invading Taiwan, or Russia from specified by the Caroline doctrine: the and death intervening in Georgia again? Does Tur- United States failed to provide evidence between and key have a right to invade Iraq in pursuit that an attack by Iraq was imminent. of Kurds? With the Mumbai massacre in It is thus not surprising that, for the among peoples. mind, should India and Pakistan attack most part, the international community each other? Would Azerbaijan now have refrained from supporting the US inva- legal justification to attack Armenia? sion of Iraq. Those countries may not have been bold Unlike the Six Day War, Operation ticle “The Global War on Terror Report enough before, but now that the banner Iraqi Freedom, which was a preventive Card” that while the Bush administration of liberty has provided such a leading rather than preemptive attack, is not was “in search of nonexistent weapons of example, they may very well find them- an example of legality under interna- mass destruction,” they brought nothing selves asking why not? tional law. A preemptive military attack but death and destruction to Iraq. Ap- This is in fact a legitimate concern. On requires the use of force to subdue and proximately one million Iraqis have died, the 9th of November 2008, The New York suppress an impending strike by an ad- up to five million have gone into exile, Times published a piece by Eric Schmitt versary. Clearly distinguishing between and more than 4000 Americans have and Mark Mazzetti exposing the US’s ag- preemptive and preventive military died. There is also no reconstruction in gressive military action in Syria, Pakistan action is crucial; the Bush administra- sight; unlike in East Timor, local Iraqis and elsewhere. The military raids were tion, on the other hand, made a habit of are not truly involved in the peace-build- authorized by a classified order signed confusing the two terms. ing process. The invasion itself would be by former Defense Secretary Donald H. The same administration seemingly more aptly named Operation Enduring. Rumsfeld and approved by President turned a blind eye to the positive prec- Since the Bush administration has left Bush. According to the article, “the secret edents set by its predecessors: Truman’s office, however, a clear strategy and exit order gave the military new authority to Cold War policies of deterrence and plan seem much more realistic. President attack the Qaeda terrorist network any- containment; Kennedy’s preservation of Obama plans to withdraw US troops where in the world, and a more sweeping peace during the Cuban Missile Crisis; from Iraq by the 31st of August 2010 and mandate to conduct operations in coun- the rejection of a proposal in the 1950s relocate them to Afghanistan. During the tries not at war with the United States.” to strike China to forestall the country’s first six months of the invasion of Iraq, Upon interviewing numerous American acquisition of nuclear weapons. more than a third of the Iraqi economy officials, Schmitt and Mazzetti mention was completely destroyed. Arguably, further that American forces carried out Implications one of the gravest mistakes made in the missions in Iran and Somalia as well. of the Bush Doctrine post-invasion period was the dissolution In his article “The End of Interna- While the implications of the Bush of the Iraqi army, the only coherent insti- tional Law?,” Robert Dreyfuss mentions Doctrine are most commonly viewed tution in the country. Furthermore, last that “Pakistan has been the subject of within the international context, they year 81 percent of Iraqis suffered from at least nineteen aerial attacks by the also present a challenge to the US Con- inadequate electricity. Transparency CIA.” Evidently, the Bush administration stitution. The doctrine 1) undermines International’s 2008 “corruption percep- acted under an unprecedented and vastly the constitutional power of Congress to tions index” listed Iraq as tied for 178th overstretched definition of preemptive declare war; 2) concentrates unparalleled place among 180 evaluated countries. self-defense in order to “justify” and powers in the office of the President; Iraqi freedom? Really? Not a misnomer? rationalize cross-border raids into sover- 3) strips the citizens of their individual eign nations without first seeking those freedoms and liberties (e.g. privacy); 4) A Deadly Precedent countries’ consent. gives little or no oversight over actions In his address to the General Assembly Let us hope that other nations will carried out by the military and/or special on the 23rd of September 2003, the be more sensible and less destructive in forces and approved by the office of the former UN Secretary-General Kofi An- their approach and response to potential president; and thus 5) throws checks and nan spoke of the dangers of the Bush threats than the US. On the 27th of De- balances out the window. Doctrine: “…it could set precedents that cember 2008, Israel asked the question

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 35 ] global security

why not, and raided Gaza in pursuit of apparently adopted a similar position the Middle East. This image, or more Hamas. According to the Ministry of agreeing to the “state secrets” doctrine precisely the reaction to it, may prove to Health in Gaza, 1314 Palestinians were in all cases brought by former detainees. be very dangerous. killed in the conflict, 412 of them chil- In April 2009, President Obama said that dren. CIA agents who used extraordinary in- Proliferation of Weapons terrogation techniques during the Bush of Mass Destruction Terrorism on the Rise era “will not be subject to prosecution.” The US government claimed to have The Bush Doctrine destabilizes the world In addition, Obama’s legal team, as entered Iraq in order to prevent Saddam and rejects the norms of international represented by the nominee for solicitor Hussein from developing and utilizing order by provoking and legitimizing general Elena Kagan, asserts that even his [nonexistent] arsenal of weapons of terrorism. Take Al-Qaeda for example; those suspected of financially supporting mass destruction. In the wake (after six one of their utmost priorities is to halt Al Qaeda deserve the same legal treat- years) of that invasion, the demand for the US’s involvement in the Middle East. ment as the perpetrators of terrorist acts nuclear missiles and other such weapons In not talking to terrorists, the Bush ad- themselves: that is, indefinite detention is on the rise since they provide a strong ministration provided reason enough for without the right to a fair public trial. deterrent against a US attack. No wonder the people of the Middle East to feel an While the new Obama administration increased degree of hatred towards the does seem to have a greater interest in United States. dialogue, in respect to countering terror- The use of force Earlier this year, the Obama admin- ism, the two administrations (Bush and istration decided to drop the “war on Obama’s) seem to be driven by a shared in preemption in terror” rhetoric. This is a positive sign fundamental belief that countering ter- itself is not illegal of progress, inclusivity, and increased rorist violence means dehumanizing and under the United mutual understanding; the phrase “war thus depriving suspects of fundamental Nations Charter. on terror” was frequently and largely rights and employing greater military perceived to mean a “war against Islam.” violence. This conviction, however, flies The issue lies in During his April visit to Ankara, Tur- in the face of the reality on the ground authority. key, President Barack Obama publicly and also contradicts and ignores empiri- declared that the United States’ struggle cal data. against terrorism is not a war against The RAND Corporation issued Islam. Rhetoric and reality can, however, a study entitled How Terrorist Groups why Iran apparently continues to de- End which examined and analyzed 648 velop its nuclear program to safeguard terrorist groups which have existed be- its regime. Nor would it be surprising tween 1968 and 2006. Their most signifi- if Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez The failure to cant finding is that virtually all terrorist accelerated his efforts towards nuclear groups disband in one or more of the capacity. And neither is it too perplexing prevent the following ways. In more than 43 per- to recognize why the US has not invaded invasion of Iraq cent of cases, most terrorist groups end North Korea, yet, especially given the in 2003 lies on through incorporation into the political country’s test launch of a long-range the shoulders process. Police and intelligence services rocket on the 5th of April 2009. effectively countered terrorist groups of individual in 40 percent of cases. Terrorist groups Relevance of International Law governments. achieved their goals and thus ceased to The question now at hand is, “How rel- International law exist in 10 percent of cases. Lastly, and evant is international law today?” Does itself is not to perhaps most importantly, military force international law no longer matter? Has was only successful in eliminating a ter- it become increasingly irrelevant, inap- blame. rorist group in 7 percent of cases. plicable, and obsolete? Is it on the verge From the invasion of Afghanistan of “extinction?” International law, namely and onward, the US transferred at least the UN Charter, was created to codify $10 billion to General Pervez Mushar- commonly shared noble ideas of peace often differ. The reality is that the current raf and his associates to gain support of and basic human needs within a multi- administration’s counterterrorism strat- the Global War on Terror. Today only lateral framework. When those “values” egy seems to resemble that of the former. a minority of Pakistanis has a negative collide with a widely condemned unilat- In February 2009, Obama nominees view of Al-Qaeda and a vast majority eral action it does indicate that the inter- endorsed the CIA’s extraordinary rendi- maintain strong anti-American senti- national legal system has malfunctioned. tion program which involves transferring ments. The country is destabilized and International law provides a guideline of terrorist suspects to third countries for civilian casualties continue to mount. what is legal and illegal, acceptable and interrogation and indefinite detention. The United States was very successful unacceptable in international affairs, and President Obama’s legal counselors have in reinforcing their image as a bully in that is why it remains to be important and

[ 36 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global security

relevant. After all, a state which follows no As author Charles Peña suitably points decide when the use of pre-emptive force other authority than its imperial dreams is out in his article “Why War?,” it is cru- is justified and when it is not. The United neither desirable nor safe for anyone. cial to ask: “Is the end justified?” “Is the Nations Charter clearly establishes that While the United States seemingly security of the United States at stake?” that authority rests within the mandate blatantly ignored international legal “Is war the appropriate and best means of the international community and is norms governing the rights of waging to achieve the end?” In addition to his delegated to the Security Council. The war, it concurrently provided legitimacy questions one must ask: “What is the fact that these provisions are codified and and relevance to international law. Under threat?” “How great is that threat?” vested in the hands of a multilateral or- the Bush administration, the US govern- These are the sorts of questions that ganization provides international affairs ment successfully justified its invasion of the current US president Barack Obama with greater stability and predictability. Afghanistan before the UN. But when must ask and for which he must seek Multilateralism, as writer James Traub the Bush administration failed to justify honest answers. The rest of the interna- mentions in his book The Best Intentions, Operation Iraqi Freedom under inter- tional community must find courage to does not imply a mere cooperation with national law (preemptive self-defense openly condemn the US’s recent actions others, but must also means acting in ac- and/or enforcement of the UN Security as violent, lawless, and unacceptable. The cordance with internationally accepted Council resolutions) it embarked on the institutions and standards. unilateral road. The fundamental problem with the Nevertheless, since the US govern- The Bush United States’ approach to freedom is ment sought to justify their actions that it wishes to have no limitations as under international law prior to com- Doctrine rejects to what it can or cannot do; it seeks not mencing operations, they indirectly and the norms of only to control its own actions, but the unwittingly rendered international law international order actions of others through unilateral and relevant. Moreover, the failure to prevent and destabilizes lawless use of force. The US government’s the invasion of Iraq in 2003 lies on the use of preemptive military action and shoulders of individual governments the world by the consequences of the Bush Doctrine which were not bold enough to enforce provoking and exemplify this point. Otto von Bismarck and apply international law strictly and legitimizing is reputed to have said: “Preventive war is indiscriminately. International law itself terrorism. like committing suicide out of the fear of is not to blame. death. It causes the very thing one hopes to forestall.” I cannot agree more.  The Underlying Problem It is absurd to claim, like Chaplain Frank- lin Eric Wester in his article “Preemption international community must also, fol- and Just War: Considering the Case of lowing the example of the International Marcel Kaba will be awarded a B.A. in Inter- Iraq,” that the Bush Doctrine “advances Criminal Court trial against Congolese national Economic Relations in June 2009. democracy… and is used to justify selec- militia leader Thomas Lubanga, find His research interests include conflict preventive killing of some to achieve a greater a way to prosecute those responsible for tion, resolution and transformation, the UN good of liberty for many others, driven the government’s unilateral aggressive Peace-processes, transitional administration by an idealistic approach for universal decision-making. This is necessary in and state-building. Targeting the World began human freedom.” There are no grounds order to bring closure and possible rec- as a seminar paper in the Honors course to claim legality or legitimacy behind onciliation to the adversarial parties. “Emerging Issues in International Law” at the the invasion of Iraq in 2003. Had the Ultimately, the bona fide question University of New York in Prague. US shown that Iraq posed an immediate about and division of opinion over threat to their security, the operation preemption is who holds the power to might have passed as legitimate under the Caroline doctrine. This however was factually disproven. Suggested Reading The Bush Doctrine is in every respect ill-conceived and implemented: it 1) Jones, Seth G. and Martin C. Libicki. How Terrorist Groups End. (RAND Corpo- contradicts the current international ration, 2008). legal norms governing the right to go Mayer, Jane. The Dark Side. (Doubleday & Co Inc., 2008). to war, 2) is ineffectual in its long term Peña, Charles. Winning the Un-War: A New Strategy for the War on Terrorism. goal of battling terrorism, 3) actually (Potomac Books Inc., 2006). provokes and legitimizes terrorism, 4) Ritter, Scott. Iraq Confidential: The Untold Story of the Intelligence Conspiracy to sets dangerous precedents, and 5) makes Undermine the UN and Overthrow Saddam Hussein. (Nation Books, 2005). everyone less safe. Schwartz, Michael. War Without End: The Iraq Debacle in Context. (Haymarket What then, can be done to ameliorate Books, 2008). the lethal legacy of the Bush Doctrine?

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 37 ] ČESKÁ CENTRA CZECH CENTRES 24 Center — 20 Zemí — 3 Kontinenty 24 Centres — 20 Countries — 3 Continents

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Česká centra Do you Václavské náměstí 49 110 00 Praha 1 require tourist T: +420 234 668 211 information E: [email protected] www.czechcentres.cz about the Czech Republic? global security John Jack Rooney Missile Defense and Rising Global Tensions

The web of relations lations in Poland and the Czech Repub- their lowest point since the collapse of lic, marking the first time since the Cold arms control negotiations between Rea- between Iran, Russia, War that Russia had threatened the West gan and Gorbachev in 1986. At the center and the United States. with aggressive military action. of these hostilities lies the X-Band radar Not an entirely isolated incident, and the silo-based interceptor missiles, a resurgent Russia fueled by booming with the implications of its construction oil revenues has led to a more assertive foreign policy from the Kremlin, epito- hen Barack Obama was sworn in mized by last August’s military incur- with the solemn oath of the US sion into Georgia’s breakaway regions Russian Wpresidency, he was given a rude of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. With contractors awakening to the gravity of his new job US-Russian relations deteriorating sig- courtesy of Russian President Dim- nificantly during the tenure of the Bush strongly facilitate itri Medvedev’s address to the Russian administration, it should have come as the development Parliament. The first day after Obama’s no surprise to the new US president that of Iran’s budding historic inauguration, Russia declared Moscow would test him early on. Such nuclear program. it was positioning Iskander missiles in aggressive measures, nonetheless, were the western enclave of Kaliningrad in re- alarming. When President Obama took sponse to planned missile defense instal- office, US relations with Russia were at

reaching well beyond Central Europe to a new global power struggle. Undoubtedly, tensions between the two nations have built up over time, however, the missile defense installations scheduled for construction in Poland and the Czech Republic seem to present a threat that Russia can not leave unan- swered. Despite assurances from the US that the European missile systems are strictly defensive in nature and designed to protect from an Iranian ballistic missile, Russia has nonetheless regarded such deployments as urgent threats that demand aggressive actions. Certainly Moscow was uncomfortable with NATO expansion steadily moving to its front Flag at an anti-missile defense system rally in Prague in August 2008. “No Bases.” door, but the Kremlin’s heated rhetoric

COURTESY OF ELENA GREEN seems to suggest that there is more than

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 39 ] global security

meets the eye with these missile defense speculation surrounds whether missile sia’s response] could get airborne, [thus systems, and that the US is not telling the defense is actually directed towards Rus- seeming] not so much as missile defense whole truth of the matter. sia rather than Iran. When asked about as a deployment of first-strike capabil- According to the United States Mis- Moscow’s concerns over the installations ity.” While the Congressional Budget sile Defense Agency (MDA), the goal planned for Poland and the Czech Repub- Report on the system accounts for the of the system is “to defend US allies lic, Felgenhauer responded that “the Rus- deployment of a battery of ten Patriot and deployed forces in Europe from sian military says that these missiles will Advanced-Capability 3 (PAC-3) missiles, limited Iranian long-range threats” with be nuclear-armed [and that] the Ameri- if relations between the two nuclear pow- the breadth of the shield covering all of can notion of non-nuclear warheads, ‘bul- ers continue to deteriorate, having per- Europe except for portions of South- lets hitting bullets,’ is a smokescreen.” As manent installations certainly allows for east Europe like Turkey, Romania, and he explains further, nuclear warheads can additional deployments, not excluding Greece. Currently, however, the most ad- be used to destroy an incoming missile nuclear-armed warheads. Such a threat vanced Iranian ballistic missile capabili- due to the breadth of their blast; pinpoint gives the US significant leverage in the ties only reach a distance of about 2000 accuracy is no longer a necessity. relationship, but since Barack Obama is kilometers. Thus, the only countries in As Felgenhauer goes on to say, the not a hawkish military proponent like range of an Iranian missile are the exact implications of such forward-based his predecessor: why continue with the same countries which are not protected nuclear missiles are exactly what has system? by the missile defense shield. This begs provoked such extreme measures and Only a few weeks ago, President the question, what exactly is the missile heated rhetoric from Moscow. Painting Obama, after meeting with President shield designed to do, especially given the missile shield as more of a deterrent Medvedev just days before in London, the unlikeliness of an Iranian missile at- than a defense, Felgenhauer goes on to stood firm at the gates of Prague castle tack of Europe anyways. say that the Russian military believes and declared that “as long as a threat In a quite revealing interview with in- “that nuclear missiles will be deployed from Iran persists, [the US] will go for- dependent defense analyst Pavel Felgen- in Poland near Russia and these nuclear ward with a missile defense system that hauer conducted by Bernard Gwertzman missiles will have also a first-strike capa- is cost-effective and proven.” While the for the US Council on Foreign Relations, bility and could hit Moscow before [Rus- missile defense shield may not directly

Poster at an anti-missile defense system rally in Prague in August 2008. “A World Without War is a Possibility. A World without War is a Necessity.” COURTESY OF ELENA GREEN

[ 40 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global security

diffuse an Iranian missile by shooting nuclear program: the delivery of S-300 has been difficult to achieve. Underlying it down, Obama seems to be exercising air defense systems and the construction these tensions is a vision expressed by some clever diplomacy by going straight of the Bushehr nuclear reactor. Iran, Russia, and China of a “multipolar to the root of the issue – the funding and First, the delivery of S-300s, possibly world” in which US power is reduced development of Iran’s nuclear ambitions. the most advanced anti-aircraft systems and kept in check. By strong-arming Russia with the threat in the world, became a particularly Vladimir Putin’s speech at the St. of first-strike nuclear capabilities, Obama controversial topic as Israel promised Petersburg economic forum in June may be using missile defense to shoot to execute strikes against Iran’s nuclear 2007 exemplifies how global institutions down Iran’s military threats after all. facilities before the S-300s could be de- are becoming strained under increasing livered. While Russia reportedly agreed to send the advanced defense systems to Iran under a 2007 contract, delivery has A resurgent been stalled, temporarily quelling Israel’s Speculation boiling tone. In fact, recent reports have Russia has led to indicated that Russia and Israel reached surrounds whether a more assertive an agreement in which unmanned drones missile defense is foreign policy from would be supplied to Russia in exchange actually directed the Kremlin. for nullifying the S-300 contract. towards Russia. It should be no surprise, however, that Russia offered to sell S-300s to Iran given their certain purpose was to defend Iran’s nuclear facilities like the Bushehr reac- It’s no secret that Iran and Russia tor, which was constructed by Russian pressure to preserve a world order that maintain ever-increasing economic and contractors and employs thousands of may very well deny preservation. The military cooperation with “the value of Russians domestically and abroad. In missile defense shield and the attempt arms transfer agreements between [them a dense network of Russian-Iranian part- to limit Iran’s nuclear program may very increasing] from $300 million between nerships, Russian contractors strongly well be in vain as the rise of this “mutipo- 1998 and 2001 to $1.7 billion between facilitate the development of Iran’s lar” world looks more certain. It is yet 2002 and 2005.” Many Russian defense military capabilities, the development of known whether Obama will adapt with companies compete for contracts with their enormous oil and gas reserves, and concessions or if his steadfast stance, as Iran, and it is often the case that Iranian the development of their budding nucle- displayed here is Prague, proves to be the delegations will meet with Russian weap- ar program. When Obama puts pressure right one.  ons producers and manufacturers with on Russia via the missile defense shield, historical impunity from US sanctions. it is this network of partnerships that is The truth of the matter is that for these in his cross hairs. sanctions to be effective, a significant And yet, Iran’s nuclear program con- John Jack Rooney relationship with a US counterpart must tinues to develop, now with over 6,000 is an American writer exist, but most of these Russian weapons centrifuges fully operational, which is living and working in Prague. exporters have never partnered with US roughly enough to make about two nu- He is the co-creator and writer companies, let alone formed contracts clear bombs each year. Pressuring Russia for the Internet website, Prague.dj. with them. and other facilitators of Iran’s nuclear Really it was not until mid-2006 that program has only gone so far, and yet, the US gained ground by targeting two of the problem of Iran’s continued enrich- the largest Russian military enterprises ment still remains. Engaging Iran with – the state-owned weapons exporter direct diplomatic talks without precon- Suggested Reading Rosoboronexport and Sukhoi, a pro- ditions is the right path, however, while Fayazmanesh, Sasan. The United ducer of world-famous fighter aircraft. Iran prepares for national elections, the States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars According to a 2006 CSIS report, “Sukhoi Obama administration must be patient and the Policy of Dual Containment. has a subsidiary that carries out Russia’s and garner the trust of the international (Routledge, 2008). largest civil aircraft development project community. Heurlin, Bertel, Sten Rynning. with the participation of several US If Obama is able to convince the large Missile Defence: International, Re- partners, and Rosoboronexport recently facilitators of Iran’s nuclear development gional and National Implications. acquired a titanium producer with size- such as Russia and China that it is in (Routledge, 2005). able sales in the United States.” Because their best interest to increase pressure Shaffer, Brenda. Partners in Need: of their exposure to sanctions, the US has on Iran, his new path to diplomacy may The Strategic Relationship of Russia been able to conduct some influence over very well bear fruit. While an unstable and Iran. (Washington Institute for their cooperation with Iran, particularly Middle East poses grave threats to global Near East Policy, 2001). in two military contracts crucial to Iran’s stability, cooperation from these powers

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 41 ] global security Fighting for Salvation: Mr. Obama Comes to Prague William A. Cohn

The A-Bomb Dome from Hiroshima, Japan.

[ 42 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global security Fighting for Salvation: Mr. Obama Comes to Prague

In Prague, US President “As the only nuclear power to have interests in the status quo. The status quo, used a nuclear weapon, the United States however, is unsustainable with respect to Barack Obama set forth has a moral responsibility to act.” Mr. nuclear weapons proliferation. a comprehensive framework Obama’s direct recognition of simple Nuclear weapons are unlike any other truths is refreshing, underscoring his weapons – they cannot be used for any for nuclear disarmament. As nu- message of responsibility. His affirma- legitimate purpose; any possible use tion of the basic bargain underpinning violates international law. And so the no- clear threats are spreading, the the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation tion that nuclear weapons provide secu- movement to abolish nucle- Treaty (NPT) is essential. Under the rity is fundamentally flawed. Prevailing NPT, countries with nuclear weapons wisdom during the Cold War held that ar weapons is growing – but shall disarm, and other countries shall nobody would attempt a nuclear strike repudiate nuclear weapons. And the because it would prompt a counterstrike; time is not on its side. pledge to have the US ratify the 1996 mutual assured destruction (MAD) was Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty thought to provide an effective deter- (CTBT) is long overdue. While the Rus- rent against the use of nuclear weapons. sian Duma ratified the CTBT in 2000, the A small minority argued that they could US Republican-dominated Senate voted survive a nuclear attack and emerge vic- it down in 1999. Obama’s leadership torious. They were called nuclear utiliza- towards nuclear disarmament is vital. tion theorists (NUTs). The absurdity of umans – the big brained species; While we may criticize (Why was denying the prospect of nuclear devasta- so clever, yet so destructive. We there no mention of the 1972 Anti-Bal- tion is reflected in a comment from a top Hcan split an atom. And we can listic Missile Treaty? Why keep alive the Reagan administration nuclear strategist blow ourselves into oblivion. Albert US radar system in the Czech Republic? who said that in the event of a nuclear Einstein observed, “The splitting of the See The Fallacy of Missile Defense, TNP, attack, “If there are enough shovels to go atom has changed everything except our Fall 2006), Obama’s tactics are reason- around, everybody’s going to make it. It’s way of thinking, and hence we drift to- ably aimed at delivering us from doom. the dirt that does it.” NUTS now place ward unparalleled catastrophe.” A Chi- The same might be said of his efforts to faith and resources in shield protection nese proverb warns, “Unless we change confront the US auto, energy, healthcare against missiles (SPAM). SPAM, NUTS direction, we shall end up where we are and MAD offer false security. In 2009, headed.” Are we doomed? Does Barack none of these paradigms protect us from Obama’s ascendancy to global leadership nuclear annihilation. mark a turning point? We must stop our A US bipartisan commission on Listening amid the adoring crowd nuclear hypocrisy. the prevention of nuclear proliferation at Prague Castle on the 5th of April to recently concluded, “Our margin of United States President Obama as the safety is shrinking, not growing.” The sun rose behind him, one felt the flutter greatest danger is not the bogeyman of of our better angels. Yet as Earth, Wind and financial industries, the Pentagon so-called “rogue states” – the favored and Fire’s Shining Star played and flags and its defense contractors, and the very fear-mongering tool that former US were distributed, as the crowd fell into nature of business and politics. Obama’s Defense Secretary Rumsfeld used to a docile line for this globally televised challenge brings to mind Frank Capra’s justify massive missile expenditures. event, it felt both historic and a bit Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, or trying Rather it is the rising number of failed cheesy. Celebrities pass, but our great to fight City Hall. states and violent extremist non-state ac- global challenges will remain (at least the Tenacity, grace and grassroots mobili- tors capable of getting the Bomb. Obama Earth will remain, will humanity?). In his zation are required in fighting those with noted that “in a strange turn of history, Prague speech, Mr. Obama proclaimed vested interests in the status quo. The the threat of global nuclear war has gone that confronting nuclear proliferation is lack of buzz stirred in the mainstream down, but the risk of nuclear attack has vital to “our ultimate survival.” In vow- press on this atomic initiative is remark- gone up. More nations have acquired ing to rid the world of nuclear weapons, able. Conspicuous in their absence have these weapons. Testing has continued. President Obama has challenged us to been editorials and analysis on Obama’s Black market trade in nuclear secrets and choose survival over destruction. Can we nuclear framework in major media out- nuclear materials abound. The technol- close Pandora’s Box? lets. Of course they too represent vested ogy to build the bomb has spread.”

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 43 ] global security

Harvard political scientist Graham like the recent collision of British and narios for atomic annihilation are many Allison’s recent Newsweek cover story French nuclear submarines; misuse of and growing. (“Stopping the Ultimate Attack,” March the bloated nuclear arsenal of the former We now have a window of oppor- 23, 2009) highlights the danger of Soviet Union where poor safeguards, tunity to act, for as nuclear threats are nuclear terror and calls for revitalizing political instability and corruption have spreading, voices of reason are rising. the concept of deterrence. Author given rise to a booming black market The past two years have seen peace activ- of Nuclear Terrorism: the Ultimate trade in nuclear materials; nukes in the ists joined by hawks like Henry Kissinger Preventable Catastrophe and Nuclear and statesmen like the prime ministers Proliferation: Risk and Responsibility, of Britain, India and Australia calling Allison surely recognizes that the best to abolish nuclear weapons. And for deterrence is the abolition of nuclear The best the first time, a US president has been weapons. Nuclear theorists and strate- deterrence elected on a campaign pledge of nu- gists should heed the call of former clear weapons abolition. Obama’s Prague Pentagon chief Robert McNamara, who to nuclear speech makes this a centerpiece of his in 2003 acknowledged “it was luck that catastrophe is foreign policy, and his atomic agenda has prevented nuclear war” and catastrophe the abolition of received praise from leaders worldwide in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Luck nuclear in providing a roadmap, in more than may not save us next time. name, to disarm nukes. On the 16th of Nuclear threats now include: Al-Qae- weapons. April, President Reagan’s secretary of da, the Taliban or other religious extrem- state (1982–89) George Schultz called ists acquiring nukes; India and Pakistan nuclear weapons abolition “an idea possessing the Bomb (in light of their whose time has come.” bloody history and territorial dispute hands of militant separatist groups; Cynics suggest that Obama’s ideal of over Kashmir); various doomsday sce- Iran’s firebrand leader running a reelec- “the peace and security of a world with- narios resulting from a nuclear arms race tion campaign on nuclear nationalism; out nuclear weapons” is unattainable. in the Middle East; given the inadequate and, North Korea led by a lunatic who, But disarmament is best understood as safeguards, as more states pursue civilian impotent to meet the needs of his people, a process, a way of progressing, rather nuclear energy programs to meet their snubs cooperation at every opportunity than an event, the magical result of fuel needs, illicit use of nuclear material and whose only political capital is play- “zero” weapons. The movement to abol- and technology will spread; accidents ing the international pariah. The sce- ish nuclear weapons aims to rapidly reduce the world’s nuclear arsenals so as to US President Barack make nuclear weapons illegitimate. This Obama and First Lady movement is growing, but time is not on Michelle Obama wave to its side. the crowd in Prague on the 5th of April 2009. The increasing number of states with the Bomb inevitably follows from the failure of nuclear weapon states to disarm. As noted by former chief UN weapons inspector Dr. Hans Blix, “So long as any state has nuclear weapons, others will want them. So long as any such weapons remain, there is a risk that they will one day be used, by design or accident. And any such use would be catastrophic.” The fact is, NPT is in shambles. The 2005 NPT review was impotent; with its five- year review coming next year, failure to make prompt progress may mean atomic anarchy. We must stop our nuclear hypocrisy. The lesson drawn from India and- Pa kistan is that possessing the bomb en- hances state power. The perceived value of obtaining nuclear weapons increased after these states tested their Bombs just over a decade ago. The lesson drawn from Israel is that the US approaches nuclear

COURTESY OF ELENA GREEN proliferation geopolitically and applies

[ 44 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global security

double standards. All three of these states US President Barack Obama’s speech have flouted NPT and benefited. All -nu in Prague on the 5th of April 2009. clear weapon states must take concerted action to disarm in order to dispel these dangerous lessons and secure our future. On stopping the spread of nuclear weapons technology, Obama proposed “a new international effort to secure all vulnerable nuclear material around the world within four years” and “a new framework for civil nuclear cooperation, including an international fuel bank, so that countries can access peaceful power without increasing the risks of proliferation.” TheWall Street Journal reports that according to senior Obama administration officials, the fuel bank is likely to be based in Kazakhstan under IAEA (Inter- national Atomic Energy Agency) control and open only to states that renounce nuclear weapons and the production of nuclear fuel. Obama also vowed to host a global summit on nuclear security within a year which will transform efforts COURTESY OF ELENA GREEN such as the Proliferation Security Initia- to defend against them. NPT mandates will lead to further perilous appease- tive and the Global Initiative to Combat “general and complete disarmament ment, are skeptical of the strategic alli- Nuclear Terrorism into effective endur- under strict and effective international ance struck between Obama and Russian ing international institutions. control.” The fulfillment of NPT’s “grand President Medvedev to reduce their North Korea’s missile launch on the bargain” requires good faith implemen- nuclear arsenals and resume the 1991 5th of April underscored the urgency of tation and strict enforcement of NPT’s START I (Strategic Arms Reduction Obama’s call, made just hours later, for disarmament protocols. IAEA inspectors Treaty) negotiations. START talks only nuclear disarmament and a new treaty must be empowered to verify NPT com- concern long-range weapons as Russia banning fissile materials. IAEA Director pliance. As Obama noted, the present has refused to negotiate the roughly and Nobel Peace Prize winner Mohamed regime is ineffective. Once again, we are 4,000 tactical weapons it keeps to defend ElBaradei reports that there are 27, 000 left talking about how to get North Korea its borders. In his Prague speech, Mr. fully functional nuclear warheads in the back to six-party talks. So long as atomic Obama felt it necessary to proclaim world, and that now within a matter of hypocrisy exists, words will ring hollow. “I’m not naïve.” Given its history and months, nuclear energy for peaceful pur- Leading by example is the best way to the dramatic geopolitical shifts of recent poses can be transformed into nuclear make the world safer. years, Russia’s security concerns cannot weapons capacity. He warns that up to Mistrust of the Russian Bear runs be dismissed. Reportedly, Mr. Medvedev 30 states could possess nuclear weap- deep in Central Europe. Czechs, mindful initiated efforts to strengthen UN Secu- ons capacity by 2016. And if Pakistan of 1938 and fearful that Obama naiveté rity Council Resolution 1540 establish- continues to crumble, Al-Qaeda or the Taliban could have the Bomb by then. The Washington Consensus refers to the Washington-based International Yes, Pandora’s Box is indeed open. ElBa- Monetary Fund, World Bank and US Treasury Dept. and their standardized radei – whose term ends later this year neoliberal economic policy prescriptions for developing states. The main result and who on the 20th of April at a Beijing of the G-20 summit was a pledge of $1. 1 trillion for the IMF to help the countries conference on nuclear security endorsed hit hardest by the global economic collapse (the UN estimates that the financial Obama’s approach on Iran – recently crisis will push an additional 100 million people into poverty in 2009). Given the observed, “You can’t have nine countries IMF’s 60-year track record of failure in effectively promoting development or telling the likes of Iran (or North Korea democracy, it is tempting to conclude that this is much like former US Treasury or any other state for that matter) nuclear Secretary Paulson’s efforts to fix the financial system by throwing money at it. weapons are dangerous for you but we The G-20 summit failed to address how IMF governance and policy will change, need to go on refining our arsenals.” although it must – and soon. And so it remains an open question whether the Our international arms control Washington Consensus is truly finished. Also noticeably absent from the G-20 fi- nal communiqué were any commitments on climate-change or a green economic regime is based on the premise that we recovery plan. And so, amidst much talk of change, it is reasonable to ask: Is this are more secure taking steps to get rid the change we need? Is the G-20 just rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic? of nuclear weapons rather than trying

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 45 ] global security

ing legally binding security standards for Our nuclear arms control regime is good and wise man is using his power nuclear facilities. in peril. The rise of instability, failed and celebrity to lift us up. I recall at one As holders of 95 percent of the world’s states, extremist non-state actors, and TNP symposium when the publisher nuclear weapons, cooperation between black market trade in nuclear weapons lauded candidate Obama, I responded the US and Russia is essential to nuclear technology compels us to consider how that he was just a pretty face in the beauty disarmament and nonproliferation. In- the international community can best contest that is the nominating process. deed, progress cannot be made in ab- turn back the doomsday clock. Yes, Well, President Obama is proving to sence of a joint US-Russian commitment there are many global challenges: climate have substance as well as style. Even this to disarm. On the 1st of April, Obama change, food scarcity, economic collapse, skeptic must give praise to Mr. Obama’s and Medvedev, who pledged to make pandemics, narcotics, terrorism, piracy, pitch-perfect and ambitious use of his deep cuts in their nuclear arsenals within failed states, depleted fish stocks and extraordinary leadership skills. a year, issued an unprecedented joint “The old Washington Consensus is statement “commit[ing] our two coun- over,” declared U. K. Prime Minister Gor- tries to achieving a nuclear free world.” don Brown on the 3rd of April at the close But getting there is like fighting City Hall. The fact is, the of his G20 summit meeting.* The world On the 16th of April, former Soviet Nuclear Non- has changed. Change is the only con- President Mikhail Gorbachev welcomed stant. Can humans change in accord with Obama’s call for a nuclear weapons-free Proliferation the demands of our age? Leadership – world, but warned that huge military Treaty is in the integrity, ability and moral authority expenditures may prove an “insur- shambles. to inspire – has arrived (Mr. Obama, not mountable obstacle,” as “defense budgets Mr. Fischer). Can we the people rise to far exceed reasonable security needs.” the challenge and opportunity?  Obama’s 2009 budget proposal, which allows a 4 percent increase in Pentagon other ecological decay, and the list goes spending to $655 billion, reveals the grip on. But nuclear proliferation rightly be- William A. Cohn that defense contractors have on Con- longs at the top of the list. We started it is a member of the California gress. Gorbachev, who calls for slashing (by unleashing and using this force upon and International Bar Associations conventional weapons as well as nukes, humanity), and must end it. As with all and a long-time advocate for demilitarization. thinks that US-Russian disarmament these challenges, the solution must be He is lecturer at the University of New York cooperation will set an example for other multi-polar and inclusive. Fortunately, in Prague. states and will remove any excuse for not President Obama has embraced a mark- getting rid of their nukes. He believes edly different attitude towards interna- that, despite serious obstacles, there is tional law, organizations and diplomacy now a real chance for significant nuclear than his predecessor. disarmament. Despite NPT Article VI requiring Suggested Reading On the Czech radar base, President nuclear weapon states to pursue ne- Caldicott, Helen. Missile Envy: The Obama stated: “As long as the threat gotiations leading to complete nuclear Arms Race and Nuclear War and from Iran persists, we will go forward disarmament, the international com- Nuclear Madness: What You Can Do. with a missile defense system that is munity has done precious little to rid (Bantam Books, 1986). cost-effective and proven.” This state- the world of the scourge of nuclear Dyson, Freeman. Weapons and ment has been widely misinterpreted. In weapons. As noted in Abolishing Nuclear Hope. (HarperCollins, 1985). fact, Obama has previously stated that it Weapons, the September 2008 report of Green, Robert. The Naked Nuclear is neither cost-effective nor proven, and the International Institute for Strategic Emperor: Debunking Nuclear Deter- he has now explicitly linked the need for Studies and the Carnegie Endowment rence. (Disarmament & Security the Central European missile defense to for International Peace, “Representatives Centre, 2000). a perceived threat from Iran. As Obama of nuclear weapons states pay lip service Keyes, Ken. The Hundredth Monkey. has begun talking with Iran, there is to the principle of nuclear disarmament, (Devorss & Co. 1984). reason to believe that US missile defense but none of these states has an employee, Rhodes, Richard. Arsenals of Folly: in the Czech Republic and Poland will let alone an inter-agency group, tasked The Making of the Nuclear Arms soon be obsolete. After leaving Prague, full time with figuring out what would Race. (Knopf, 2007). Obama went to Turkey where he ex- be required to verifiably decommission Scheer, Robert. With Enough Shov- tended a hand of friendship to Muslims. all its nuclear weapons.” The report calls els: Reagan, Bush and Nuclear War. In Prague he stated, “When nations and for simultaneous movement on both (Random House, 1982). peoples allow themselves to be defined the disarmament and non-proliferation Schell, Jonathan. The Fate of the by their differences, the gulf between fronts, which is precisely the framework Earth. (Knopf, 1982), and his many them widens. When we fail to pursue set forth by Mr. Obama in Prague. other writings on nuclear weapons peace, then it stays forever beyond our Mr. Obama’s coming to Europe was issues. grasp.” a moment of grace. With credit due, this

[ 46 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global security Big Things in Small Packages Benjamin Cunningham

Steps to limit nuclear arms are admirable, but an international effort to regulate small arms would do more to save lives.

ommendable as it is to seek an in- for difficult to quantify radiation related of other types of weapons. In December ternational reduction in nuclear deaths, the same number of people die 2008 in Oslo, 94 countries signed a treaty Carms, and it is commendable, the from small arms about every 62 weeks. pledging not to use cluster munitions, degree to which US President Barack Nuclear weapons have, of course, though notably not the United States. The Obama’s campaign will actually save lives evolved, becoming more powerful and Ottawa Treaty banning the use of anti- is directly proportional to the political deadly. Use of a nuclear weapon now has personnel land mines has 156 signatories, risk his proposal entails – which in both the potential to kill many times more peo- but not the United States, Russia, China, cases is negligible. ple than either bomb dropped on Japan. India or Pakistan. A 1993 treaty outlawing While the specter of a nuclear-armed It is also likely that any terrorist organiza- chemical weapons now has 187 countries terrorist attacking a major international tion that is capable of deploying a nuclear on board. So while there is precedent for city is frightening, so is Godzilla, a po- weapon on an innocent civilian population international agreements producing re- tential alien invasion, or Nostradamus sults, no global agreement regulating the forecasting the end of the world. The trade in small arms exists. A UN commit- most effective thing about both terror- tee vote in 2006 on a resolution titled “To- ism and nuclear weapons is not the ac- An increasing, wards an Arms Treaty” saw 139 countries tual body count they produce, but rather more dangerous voting “yes,” 24 abstentions and only the the ability they have to sow fear and as United States voting “no.” In December of a result, distort priorities. challenge than that year, the resolution went before the Every single innocent civilian killed nukes, is the entire UN General Assembly resulting in by a terrorist is a tragedy, just as every rise of the black 153 yes votes, 24 abstentions and a lone person who has died as a result of nuclear market economy. “no” from the United States. weapons is appalling. More people died Obama says, “In a strange turn of his- of bug bites last year than from terrorist tory, the threat of global nuclear war has attacks. Nobody has died from a nuclear gone down, but the risk of a nuclear at- weapon in more than 50 years. tack has gone up.” This statement rests on An estimated 140,000 people died will do so with a relatively weak and hast- the logic that since the end of the Cold from the atomic bomb dropped on Hi- ily constructed weapon operated in less War new states have acquired weapons roshima and another 80,000 at Nagasaki. than ideal conditions. Though such a sce- and non-state actors have risen with The International Action Network on nario paints a bleak picture, the number of the capacity and desire to acquire these Small Arms (IANSA) estimates that 1000 deaths would have to surpass 30,000 (ten weapons. However, Obama misjudges people are killed every day by small arms times the deaths that occurred on Septem- the most geopolitically destabilizing and another 3,000 seriously injured. Even ber 11, 2001) to equal the number of gun post-Cold War development. if we were to double the total number deaths in the United States each year. While the rise of violent non-state of estimated deaths for Hiroshima and In recent years there have been effective actors is an increasing challenge, more Nagasaki – up to 440,000 – to account international campaigns to limit the use dangerous than nukes is the black mar-

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 47 ] global security

Automatic Kalashnikovs, i.e., AK-47s

ket economy such groups use to finance trade network able to efficiently deliver themselves and procure weapons to dangerous and effective arms through push their agenda. These black market market mechanisms wherever the high- operations clearly manifested themselves est demand and ability to pay exists. in Europe during the Balkan wars of While globalization has spread the small arms, which was negotiated by the the early 1990s and have been a feature wonders of lamb vindaloo to London Clinton administration and ratified by of every armed conflict since – with the and English football to Thailand, the 24 of 34 members of the Organization of possible exception of the brief Russo- dark side of this international wild west American States, but has been stalled in Georgian War of 2008. Rogue militia of commerce is that sinister elements the US Senate since 1998. Another ini- groups have formed networks with have equally increased their ability to tiative, and one that would be politically criminal smuggling operations and in move merchandise, whether it be drugs, more difficult, would be to reinstitute many cases morphed into singular enti- people or guns. As the book Global an assault weapons ban in the United ties capable of bypassing international Transformations, written by a team of States which expired in 2004. In Mexico, arms embargoes. Such dynamics have British scholars, rightly observes of the long plagued Colombia and are now arms trade: “In few other domains has submerging Mexico in chaotic violence. globalization been more extensive.” A re- The same phenomena fueled civil wars port by Control Arms, a collaboration Trade in weapon in Somalia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, the between Oxfam, IANSA and Amnesty Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iraq International, notes the logic behind glo- components is on and remain the chief accelerant to vio- balized arms trade, sounding much like the rise. lence in Afghanistan. a general lesson in globalization: “When Who are NATO forces fighting in major Western arms companies are able Central Asia? An alliance of internation- to co-operate with partners in other al jihadists and local tribes, financed by countries they can develop and penetrate assault weapons and guns larger than. heroin smuggling, armed by professional new markets, while their partners gain 30 caliber are illegal. About 6000 people dealers and assisted by operatives in the access to cutting edge technology.” have been killed in drug related violence Pakistani intelligence service. More recently, Obama has rightly in Mexico during the past year, and 90 The international community should spoken on the need to curb American percent of drug gang guns recovered by absolutely try to prevent a Pakistani nu- arms making their way into Mexico and authorities came from the United States, clear weapon from falling into the hands fueling deadly drug cartel wars along many legally purchased. Last year 20, of such people, but it seems obvious that the US-Mexican border. Obama says he 000 weapons were seized from gangs by the more pressing, immediate and deadly will push for Congressional ratification Mexican authorities. In 2007, the US Bu- problem is an unregulated globalized of the Inter-American convention on reau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms

[ 48 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global security

traced nearly 2,500 weapons seized in to kill have in true free market fashion tive diplomatic brinksmanship. If the Mexico directly back to legal US dealers, proliferated most effectively. The most proposal hopes to generate excitement 1,800 of these were matched to dealers in popular of weapons is the Automatic and to foster cooperation between the the border states of California, Arizona, Kalashnikov of 1947, or AK-47, which left-leaning activist generations of the New Mexico and Texas. the World Bank estimates number 75 1960s and 1970s now leading in his own Gun violence in Latin America is not country and abroad, then it is a shrewd limited to Mexico; the most recent statis- act of political calculation. If it is a policy tics available from the UN Office of Drugs initiative intent on making the world and Crime lists eight of the world’s top Nobody has died a less deadly place, there are better places ten gun homicide rates in the Americas, to start, in particular, by reducing the and seventeen of the top twenty with the from a nuclear proliferation of weaponry that manifests United States amongst them. One study weapon in more deadly efficiency on a daily basis. on small arms proliferation in Latin than 50 years. It is true enough that international America estimated there were more than leaders can simultaneously pursue 80 million in circulation in 2006. Despite a reduction in nuclear arms and smaller the temporal relevance of this issue to the conventional weapons, but the rhetorical 32-nations attending April’s Summit of million worldwide. In some African emphasis on nuclear arms risks sidelin- the Americas, talk of arms and violence countries, they sell for as little as 12 USD, ing the small arms agenda and exposes was quickly sidelined by the mere men- indicative of both accessibility and near the nuclear initiative for what it is: a pub- tion of thawed US relations with Cuba, total market saturation. The Kalashnikov lic relations-fueled proposal and not the a country not even in attendance. is pictured on the flag of Mozambique, quickest and most real way to make the If Obama was to move on small arms the coat of arms of Zimbabwe, the flag of world a less deadly place. proliferation, after he finished taking on Hezbollah and in the insignia for Iran’s An attempt to curb the trade in small the gun lobby in the United States, he Islamic Revolutionary Guard. arms and light weapons would be a sign and Russian President Dimitri Medvedev “I don’t worry when my guns are that Obama is a humanitarian truly could talk about reducing Russia’s $442 used for national liberation or defense,” seeking to limit the death of interna- million in annual licit small arm exports, Mikhail Kalashnikov, the weapon’s crea- tional innocents, and would furthermore or the United States $618 million worth. tor told The Times of London in 2006, be illustrative of a man serious about Italy and Germany could join the discus- reflecting Cold War-era thinking. “But confronting the fundamental problems sion, with their $390 and $306 million in when I see how peaceful people are killed posed by rapid globalization of which we respective yearly exports. None of these and wounded by these weapons, I get are now all too familiar. numbers account for black market sales very distressed and upset.” Now that would be truly inspiring which some estimate surpasses $10 bil- Now, unlicensed carbon copies of the leadership.  lion annually, or the sale of slightly larger Kalashnikov are manufactured the world weapons – larger than. 50 caliber – char- over, including the infamous “Khyber acterized as “light weapons.” Pass Copy” made in the Pakistan-Af- Benjamin Cunningham These topics are worthy of discus- ghanistan border region. While the bo- is the managing editor sion alongside general talk of reducing geyman of Pakistani scientist A. Q. Khan of The Prague Post. the eight-million small arms and light – who sold nuclear designs and secrets to weapons which are produced each year, the highest bidder – is the poster child for or trying to account for the one-million market driven nuclear proliferation, the guns lost or stolen each year. cottage industry proliferation of small Next the Americans and Russians, arms based on blueprints of effective Suggested Reading both members of the UN Security weapons is a contemporary reality pro- Bhagwati, Jagdish. In Defense of Glo- Council, could go to New York and urge ducing actual not just potential deaths. balization. (Oxford University Press, progress on the stalled UN arms treaty. There is no single face on spreading 2007). The aforementioned “no” votes by the small arm or light weapon technology, as Buzan, Barry. People, States and United States, if still a measure of Ameri- it is pervasive and significantly harder to Fear: The National Security Problem can policy, would have the potential to monitor. Trade in weapon components is in International derail the whole process through a Secu- also on the rise, allowing exporters – of- Relations. (University of North rity Council veto. ten from several different countries – to Carolina Press, 1983). Just as the killing capacity of a nu- send ambiguous pieces of weapons to be Glenny, Misha. McMafia: Crime clear weapon has grown in the past assembled into arms elsewhere. Without Frontiers. (The Bodley Head half-century, the same can be said for If Obama’s drive to reduce nu- Ltd., 2008). small arms and light weapons. In ad- clear arms is a gateway to pursuing Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars: dition to becoming more effective and other geopolitical agendas, like Western Organized Violence in a Global Era. efficient killing machines in general, the rapprochement with Russia, then the (Stanford University Press, 1999). most efficient and cost-effective ways proposals are an exercise in innova-

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 49 ] the global economy An Interview with Economist

Bruce Caldwell Lukáš Kovanda

A reassessment of posi- that is very different from pure math- quantity, numbers, and formulas were re- ematics. The world needs to see more garded as the Holy Scripture or the guar- tivism in economics. economists who approach “economics antee of Truth? Is positivism’s influence so with common sense,” rather than econ- strong that it could surpass reality? omists who simply dress it up as math- That could be true. This leads me to recall ematics. another famous example – the collapse of the US hedge fund Long Term Capi- Some economists, like Bruno Frey or Ed- tal Management. LTCM’s collapse came mund Phelps, believe that the current fi- in 2000 after employing complex trading nancial crisis results from excessive trust strategies throughout the 90s. What’s sur- in the ability to model and predict risk. Is prising is that two Nobel Prize winners it possible that bankers in a certain sense for economics were even on the Board of More than 25 years ago you wrote the suc- yielded to the magic of positivism and for Directors: Myron Scholes and Robert C. cessful book “Beyond Positivism,” in which all their numbers, formulas, and equa- Merton. Initially, everything seemed to you claimed that positivism (a philosophy tions lost an overview of the market as be calculated to the very last detail. In the which holds that authentic knowledge is end, the surprise came when mathemati- acquired solely through observation and cal models failed to predict the future and experience) may see a revival if it’s an- provide all the answers. tithesis, the so-called post-positivism of Economists need Thomas Kuhn or Paul Feyerabend, proves You profess to advocate pluralism in eco- ineffective. Has positivism seen a revival to approach nomic methodology, but it seems to me you since that time? “economics with strongly prefer the aforementioned econo- Certainly, positivism still influences common sense.” mist Hayek and the Austrian school. Why? some social sciences, especially econom- Well, on the meta-level I am a pluralist. ics, in the sense that there is a conviction I think that it is advantageous to have in the cumulative development of sci- several competing schools of economic ence. Many economists speak of the need a whole? The market is after all a myriad thought which view social phenomena to develop and improve theories, without of “mere” human beings, not robots with differently. On the level of individual realizing that they have squeezed every- easily predictable behavior. schools, however, Hayek presents a con- thing out of them already. An exception I partly agree, but the problem is a lot vincing argument about the limitations to this rule is, however, Friedrich Au- more complex. The impulses received of understanding in the sphere of social gust von Hayek (1989–1992), a world- by market participants were misleading. sciences. This also refers to the limita- renowned economist of the Austrian I think that the problem stems from very tions of social engineering and the con- school and defender of classical liberal- complex derivatives which many people struction of society from top down. This ism. He was well aware of the limits of do not fully comprehend. It also stems is what Hayek based his argument on re- human knowledge. from individual models, wrong signals, garding the free market. It is really quite and the difficulty in appraising property convincing. Hayek was a critic of the mathematical ap- within the market. As we see today, the proach to economics. What do you think housing bubble popped because growth As a methodological pluralist, do you agree about this trend? was not based on real value. with Imre Lakatos’ view that scientific I believe that mathematical economics progress is predicated on taking into ac- is incredibly important in understand- Do you believe that in the last few decades count competitive and diverging theories ing basic economic theory and reasoning of the twentieth century people became and conciliating them within his so-called about the phenomena of our world. But influenced by positivism to the extent that research programmes? This contrasts, of

[ 50 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 the global economy

Economist Bruce Caldwell

lapse of aforementioned LTCM fund, but right to experiment with our society. But Bruce Caldwell is a professor of mathematical modules could not and did you cannot experiment with society. You economics at Duke University in North Carolina. He is one of the not predict the crisis. cannot enclose it within a lab and repeat most prominent current methodolo- a failed experiment under different con- gists in economics, and is known as In the American political sphere, Hayek’s ditions. So I also believe that it would be an expert on the work of Friedrich advocates often enthuse over the libertar- better if no one received the Nobel Prize August von Hayek. He is married ian candidate. In the 2008 US presidential for Economics.  and has two teenage children. election, the candidate was Ron Paul. Did you support him? Lukáš Kovanda studies economics course, with Thomas Kuhn’s espousal of As much as I might have desired it, Ron at the University of Economics in Prague. revolutionary science: the idea that scien- Paul’s election was not realistic. We need tific thought does not progress via linear to be concerned with the real world. In accumulation but through paradigm shifts my opinion, the best option is therefore which transform science from one domi- “gridlock,” or when one party governs nant paradigm to the next. the White House and the other controls Lakatos theorized on how science devel- the Congress. Suggested Reading ops and also on how it should develop. Caldwell, Bruce. Beyond Positivism: I would not label myself as a “Lakato- Who should get the Nobel Prize for Eco- Economic Methodology in the Twen- sian,” someone who prescribes how sci- nomics in 2009? tieth Century. (Routledge, 1994). ence should develop. I believe that com- After receiving the Nobel Prize for Eco- Caldwell, Bruce. Hayek’s Challenge: petition between various scientific views nomics, Hayek opined in his speech An Intellectual Biography of F. A. is useful, especially if they attempt to that an economics Nobel Prize should Hayek. (University of Chicago Press, clarify social phenomena. Such competi- not even exist. He believed that the ex- 2004). tion produces interesting findings. If we istence of a Nobel Prize for Economics Frey, Bruno. Happiness: A Revolution look at the world solely through a posi- contributes to the belief, held by many in Economics. (MIT Press, 2008). tivist prism, certain essentially immeas- economists, that economics is compara- Taking Hayek Seriously. Ed. Greg urable phenomena are lost on us. For ble to natural sciences. Just as a chemist Ransom. http://www.hayekcenter. example, the Russian financial crisis in experiments with acid in his laboratory, org/ 1998 was a major contributor to the col- they arrogantly believe that they have the

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 51 ] the global economy Developing Countries in the Global Economic

Josef Mladek Slowdown

Reform and participation in sand Nepalese residents there. Central on the development of the real economy American families in countries such as and not the financial sector. international trade present El Salvador, Honduras, and Haiti find the only possibilities for no solace either as they face decreas- False Champions ing funds from relatives working in the of Globalization economic growth in devel- wounded American economy. More During a visit to South Asia last au- than three million Guatemalan citizens, tumn, former president George W. oping countries. Aid is not or one fourth of the country’s popula- Bush declared that India holds a great the answer. tion, face a similar fate. Falling prices future. Bush was not the only optimist. of traditional export commodities such Analysts believed that developing as cotton, tea, coffee and fresh flowers economies would become independ- threaten East Africa. In Zambia, the cri- ent engines of growth. And because sis has even affected football players; due increases in foreign demand created to a crippled demand for copper, mining economic progress in these countries, companies have annulled contracts with much needed structural reforms were local football clubs. scrapped; now, however, the drop in roblems associated with the slow- The whole world now faces complex demand has revealed the superficiality down of the world economy are and country-specific changes, but devel- of this economic growth. Pgradually spreading into countries oping nations face an especially unique India is such an example. Rather than in the developing world and exacerbat- pushing for social reform, politicians ing their unsolved problems which were consoled the public with a yearly growth ignored in times of growing prosperity. rate at ten percent. A wave of social re- The World Bank estimates that textile Aid cannot stand forms in the early 1990s and the growth factories in Cambodia have laid off about of the information technology sector one tenth of its employees – approxi- in as a substitute saved Indian politicians from introduc- mately thirty thousand people. In the for investment; ing difficult reforms that would have capital Phnom Penh, construction ma- aid undermines met resistance from the privileged but chinery has fallen silent. Elaborate plans Africa’s self- benefited the poor. These reforms would to build luxurious residential skyscrapers have, however, helped India adapt to the have been postponed due to insufficient esteem. economic problems it faces today. funds from South Korean investors, the Instead, the government spent the main financiers of the Cambodian real- growing tax income on welfare pro- estate boom. grams in rural regions where the larg- In Malaysia, Indonesian immigrants challenge. In regions such as Sub-Saha- est electoral group (two thirds of the are beginning to emigrate from the ran Africa and in countries like India, population) reside. The state introduced country they once considered to be their the banking sector and stock market are a program for relieving the poorest In- Promised Land. A similar destiny and too undeveloped to speak primarily of dian farmers of debt and implemented a much longer journey home awaits the a financial crisis. In the examination of a program guaranteeing one hundred majority of the three hundred thou- their existing problems, one must focus days of employment per year for one

[ 52 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 the global economy

member of every family. These social reduce inter-caste fragmentation only down, continued to grow in developing welfare programs only created, however, intensified the age-old disputes. economies. We must remind ourselves a long-term fiscal burden. Rather than Inter-religious disputes are also evi- that despite the decline, opportunities solving socio-economic problems, the dent. In the state of Orissa, Hindus and still exist. This March, local Zambian plan merely preserved the status quo by Christians live together in areas widely businessmen began to produce mobile artificially sustaining over-employment populated by the original animistic phones. Chinese investors looking to in a rural economy devoid of technologi- tribes. Thousands of Christians were cal development. forced to flee last year as local violence Furthermore, in the last few years escalated. a problematic employment law has sig- India is also threatened by its lack of Despite the global nificantly deterred foreign investment; centralized control; Maoists are in power economic decline, it has unnecessarily increased workforce in about half of the Indian states. The des- opportunities still costs by imposing superfluous bureau- perate situation in agricultural regions cratic obstructions. provided fertile ground for rebels to exist. seize power and become self-appointed Wasted Opportunity for Reform protectors of the villages. Indian Prime The timing of the Oscar-winning film Minister Manmohan Singh described Slumdog Millionaire was rather appropri- the Maoist rebellion as the biggest threat invest in laptop production have made to national security. The Maoist regions overtures to Rwanda. With the construc- are also rich in natural resources such tion of a new underwater optical cable in as coal, bauxite and iron. But since the East Africa, telecommunication expenses The whole world national government failed to improve may soon fall and an outsourcing sector now faces complex the farmers’ situation during times of may develop. and country- economic prosperity, it is unlikely that Individual developing nations will the people of India will turn to a govern- undoubtedly fight the economic crisis specific changes. ment that has failed them before. differently. It is difficult to predict how they will manage. It is clear, however, In Want of Investment that states that are willing to enact ef- In light of the economic slowdown, ficient reforms and utilize opportunities ate. The film debuted just as the poorest Western voices assert that we must resulting from international trade will Indians began to feel the effects of the increase aid to developing countries in steer a smoother sail through the crisis. global economic slowdown. Africa. Many Africans believe, however,  To a certain extent, the social strati- that aid is counterproductive. Rwandan fication of Indian society complicates president Paul Kagame said in March the adoption of reforms. For this reason that Africa must stop relying on foreign Josef Mládek it was vital that the government imple- aid because it has become a substitute for is research fellow at the Liberal Institute, ment reforms when the oil of economic investments and economic growth. Aid a Libertarian think-tank in Prague. growth was greasing the mechanisms simply continues to undermine Africa’s of society – something it did not do. self-esteem. Now, the economic slowdown has Others believe that Rwanda is torn open old wounds and scars. The a unique case. In the last few decades, decline in GDP will hit the poor hard; the government has abolished the state Suggested Reading they were accustomed to receiving aid monopoly on coffee exports and gradu- and employment guarantees in times ally opened the country up to a number Griffiths, Robert. Annual Editions: Developing World 09/10. (McGraw- of prosperity. As social polarization of voluntary activities, businesses, and Hill/Dushkin, 2008). worsens, policy changes will fall farther investments. Rwanda’s coffee farmers out of reach. To overcome this problem, now supply high-quality coffee beans Moyo, Dambisa and Niall Ferguson. Dead Aid: Why Aid is Not Working India must develop a common vision of to Starbucks and Costco. The Rwandan and How There is a Better Way for collective prosperity which will motivate government also supports information Africa. (Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, individual groups to compromise. This technology; Google’s CEO Eric Schmidt 2009). is, however, an unrealistic goal because is a friend of President Kagame. The Nilekani, Nandan. Imagining India: regional political parties will strengthen president is well aware that while aid may The Idea of a Renewed Nation. (Pen- as the economy worsens. be useful, Rwanda needs to strengthen its guin Press, 2009). The polarization of Indian society is export-oriented economy and maintain Rogers, Peter P., Kazi F. Jalal and visible on various levels. Positive dis- a system of international free trade. John A. Boyd. An Introduction to crimination policies such as quotas for Companies from developed nations Sustainable Development. (Earths- members of specific castes in public should capitalize on the opportunities can, 2008). offices and schools that were meant to that have, despite the economic slow

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 53 ] the global economy The Paradox of Failed States

Martin Riegl The key to strengthening failed states is not developmental aid or democratization, but infrastructure.

Global Phenomenon world’s population lives in effectively Failed State Index – Mogadishu, “the capital of the capitalist dysfunctional states constantly on the The Twenty Least Stable States: world,” is where the dreams of anarcho- brink of breakdown. The gap between capitalists and libertarians became these states and the developed world has 1. Somalia nightmares for local citizens and the been increasing ever since the seventies. 2. Sudan international community. From the According to the World Bank, between 3. Zimbabwe 4. Chad outside, it seems like the city is pulsating 1960–2001 the GDP in the Democratic 5. Iraq and business is booming. In a city where Republic of Congo decreased annually 6. Democratic Republic there are no official rules, restrictions, of the Congo taxes, or fees for licenses, shopkeepers 7. Afghanistan spend large sums of money on security, 8. Côte d’Ivoire and hotels prosper only under the pro- The club of failed 9. Pakistan tection of armed guards. It is one of the states is not 10. Central African Republic most dangerous cities in the world. based on exclusive 11. Guinea 12. Bangladesh The economy remains functional as membership. the strictly local character of economic 13. Burma/Myanmar activities renders them relatively acces- 14. Haiti sible. On the main market in Mogadishu, 15. North Korea 16. Ethiopia one can purchase the latest innovations 17. Uganda in electronics, access high-speed WI-FI, at an average rate of 3.3 percent and by 18. Lebanon and make an extremely cheap interna- 3.2 percent in Liberia. The states’ massive 19. Nigeria tional call. But under closer examination, potential for natural resources makes 20. Sri Lanka the glow of the economic activity fades this decline extremely perplexing. away in world in which all the armed The situation that Robert D. Kaplan men and politicians belong to a safe and described in the nineties still rings The Top Ten secure upper class. Upper class women true in many states of Central and East British historian Niall Ferguson pointed are safe as long as they do not go outside Africa, as well as in Iraq or Afghanistan: out that unlike sovereign states, the club at night. But the unlucky ones in Mogad- streets are often unlit, the police lack the of failed states is not based on exclusive ishu are members of the unarmed tribes petrol to run their cars, walking at night membership. Even though the same who are not permitted to own weapons. is not advisable. After sunset, organ- countries have occupied the top ten slots Those people are subject to unbelievable ized crime blossoms and takes over the since 2005, new entrants enter the top humiliation. government’s authority. For security twenty from time to time. In the last two decades, Somalia has reasons, sensible airline companies do Failed states are typically character- become a synonym and extreme example not fly direct flights to states like Iraq, ized by democratic dysfunction, high of a failed state. Failed states circle the Afghanistan or Somalia where govern- population density, high emigrant and entire developing world, and according ments change with the same frequency refugee numbers, a brain-drain, uneven to estimates, up to 25 percent of the as on the Apennine Peninsula. economic development between social

[ 54 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 the global economy

classes, economic decline from the fall/ rise of export/import commodity prices, the lack of foreign investment, the lack of pay for state sector workers and security forces, criminalization and delegitimiza- tion of the state, corruption, non-trans- parent decision-making, dysfunctional public services (health care, education, public transport), human rights abuses, ethnic cleansing, illegal military units and intervention from external actors. For the post-industrial world, weak and failing states are not just a sad reality show, but real strategic threats. Not only do they cradle drug production and trade, global terrorism, and AIDS pandemics, but they threaten economies with an over-saturation of illegal immigration. The Post-Industrial World vs. Chaos The underlying source of weakness dif- fers between individual states, though it is commonly derived from ethnic, religious or ideological conflicts which have helped destroy state institutions. The explosive cocktail in Sudan, Central African Republic, and Bangladesh is primarily one of social structure: illiteracy, high birthrates, massive unemployment rates and rapid urbanization run rampant through these societies. We can hardly expect any positive developments in the world of failed states from Bosnia and Herzegovina to Burma – countries whose borders were manipu- lated and created by the international Natives drag a body of an American soldier community and therefore to this day killed by members of General Aidid’s Somali remain devoid of historical or national faction through the streets of Mogadishu. PHOTO: ČTK unity. Three decades later, it is clear that providing developmental aid and pres- political situation, but are difficult to suring these states to democratize is inef- change within weak state institutions. Suggested Reading fective. As Francis Fukuyama pointed On the other hand, all failed states have out, the answer is state-building. While one characteristic in common: economic Fukuyama, Francis. State-building: relatively positive cases like Liberia and weaknesses and taxation issues, both of Governance and World Order in the 21st Century. (Cornell University Rwanda indicate that a bloody civil war which are directly connected with a low Press, 2004). can generate successful post-conflict standard of infrastructure. development, there exist too many ex- Insufficient infrastructure has a det- Herbst, J. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority amples of the contrary. rimental effect on foreign investment, and Control. (Princeton University and so the solution is simple: the key to Press, 2000). How to Build a State strengthening a state lies in bolstering its Kaplan, Robert D. “The Coming Individual failing states differ signifi- state institutions through infrastructure  Anarchy: How scarcity, crime, over- cantly in the extent of ethnic fragmenta- development. population, tribalism, and disease tion (90 percent in Uganda, 1 percent are rapidly destroying the social in Haiti), literacy rates, overpopulation, Martin Reigl is an editor of Přitomnost, fabric of our planet.” (The Atlantic unemployment, and urbanization. the Czech-language sister publication Monthly, February 1994). All these factors destabilize the intra- of The New Presence.

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 55 ] global warming Debunking the Myths of Climate Scepticism

Alexander Ač climate system. For example, Professor melting into account; uncertainty exists Bob Carter from James Cook University over how the large land-based icesheets Climate sceptics propagate in Australia wrote an article for The Tel- of Greenland and the West Antarctic egraph in 2006, “There IS a Problem with will react. Climatologist and oceanogra- false arguments based on Global Warming…it Stopped in 1998.” pher from the Institute for Research of Carter drew his conclusions from the Climatic Change in Potsdam, Germany, myths to forestall the fact that average global temperatures hit Dr. Stefan Rahmstorf, predicts that water implementation of poli- a record high in 1998, and all subsequent levels will rise more than 1m by 2100 years have been cooler. provided that greenhouse gas emissions cies which combat climate But using the same logic, we could do not decrease. claim that global warming ended in In February 2009, a publicist from The change. Washington Post, George F. Will argued in an article that global ice cover this cepticism, or disbelief, is an in- February equaled that of February 1979 evitable part of scientific develop- Combatting (when satellite measuring began). Will’s Sment and frequently accompanies global warming assertion is, however, empty. In February any new scientific hypothesis. The -glo requires global 2009, the area of global ice cover was bal warming hypothesis exemplifies this cooperation. lower than in February 1979 by approxi- situation – universal support for it does mately 1.34 million km. While periods not exist. exist when the breadth of glaciated areas The first evidence of carbon dioxide’s may exceed those of past cooler periods, heat trapping abilities was found in the climate sceptics decontextualize this nineteenth century. Physicists Tyndall, 1979, 1980, 1985 or 1986 when average information to combat climate change. Fourier and Arrhenius discovered a cor- temperatures declined for a number of Ice cover decreases in the Northern

relation between the rise in CO2 and the years. Focusing on short-term changes Hemisphere must be contextualized rise in atmospheric temperature. After in climatic indicators ignores the larger within seasonal differences. In the win- decades of intensive research, most sci- picture. In trying to justify his thesis, ter, for example, changes are less evident: entists have come to the conclusion that he overlooks the significant role the El even if global temperatures rise by 5°C, these original assumptions were indeed Niňo phenomenon (anomalies in surface snow will continue to fall. As past Arctic correct. sea temperature) played in generating summers have shown, however, floating It is also now widely accepted that the record high temperatures of 1998. ice has already significantly decreased. the unremitted increase in greenhouse Furthermore, a subsequent cooling is As older rough ice (five–six years old) gas concentrations will raise the Earth’s expected with El Niňo’s passing. has rapidly disappeared, it has left be- temperature and negatively affect the In 2008, the Danish statistician and hind younger, thinner and faster melting biosphere and mankind. According to author of Skeptical Environmentalist and ice (one–two years old). current findings, it is necessary to -de Cool It, Bjørn Lomborg, wrote in The crease carbon dioxide emissions by 80 Guardian that “in the last two years the The Sun’s Supposed Role percent before 2050. ocean’s water level has not risen.” While Some climate sceptics believe that the As with any theory which deals with technically right, he misconstrued the Sun causes global warming. While our worldview (e.g., evolution) or which facts. Data from any other two years changes in solar activity actually played affects the market economy or behav- reveals that ocean water levels have an- an important role in climatic changes in ioral patterns, global warming sceptics nually risen up to 9 mm. Data from the the past, the Sun’s role today is uncertain. exist. Understanding and refuting cli- last ten years conveys a long-term aver- Sceptics have drawn this conclusion mate scepticism is necessary in order to age increase of about 3 mm per year. because scientists have discovered a cor- garner political and civic cooperation on According to the Intergovernmental relation between a period of low solar a global scale. Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ocean activity known as the Maunder Mini- water levels will rise by 18–59 cm by 2100 mum (from the late-seventeenth into Reliance on Short-Term Trends (in the 20th century levels rose about the eighteenth century) and low sunspot Climate sceptics commonly point out 20 cm). This estimate is potentially low activity. Sunspot activity – magnetic short-term trends and changes in the because the IPCC did not take icecap activity on the Sun’s surface confined

[ 56 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global warming Debunking the Myths of Climate Scepticism

within relatively small regions of cool this one promote social development, temperatures and less convection – has land mass exploration, and greater ag- Suggested Reading therefore been attributed to influence ricultural cultivation. No one disputes global temperatures. Enough evidence the fact that significant climate changes Gore, Al. An Inconvenient Truth: is not, however, available to make this (especially regional) have occurred in The Planetary Emergency of Global conclusion. the past or that global warming may Warming and What We Can Do Moreover, over the last thirty years or have some positive effects. Nonetheless, About It. (Rodale Books, 2006). so, precise satellite measurements reveal we cannot forget that plants, animals and Gore, Al. Our Purpose: The Nobel that the Sun’s intensity has not increased lastly humans are accustomed to the cur- Peace Prize Lecture 2007. (Rodale but slightly decreased, and the strato- rent climate; any changes, warming or Books, 2008). sphere has cooled. If the Sun were a major cooling, increase the pressure to adapt. Spencer, Roy. Climate Confusion: factor in global warming, the stratosphere But in some cases, adaptation may not be How Global Warming Hysteria Leads would warm rather than cool. possible.  to Bad Science, Pandering Politicians and Misguided Policies that Hurt the Optimal Climate Poor. (Encounter Books, 2008). Climate sceptics often claim that “a small Alexander Ač degree of warming cannot cause any works for the Academy of Sciences, harm” – that warmer periods such as Czech Republic.

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 57 ] global warming Global Warming is Not an Acute Problem

As far as the future weather is concerned, we often accept Marek Loužek horrific disaster stories that almost seem more appropriate in a Hollywood film.

ccording to some, parts of Antarc- Humans are very adaptable creatures. will suffer from a serious lack of drinking tica are sinking into the sea, ocean They do well in climates which vary from water. The melting of icebergs, however, Awater levels are rising dramatically, 15° to 25° Celsius. While we’ll need to will increase river water levels, especially devastating hurricanes will bear down adapt to a new climate, adaptation is not in summer. Thus, many of the poorest on us, the Gulf Stream will stop flowing, unfeasible. In fact, global warming may people in the world will in fact have and Europe will freeze over. Will such even benefit humans; statistically, cold is more water at their disposal. Increased end-of-the-world scenarios actually hap- a greater killer than heat. prosperity and technological advances pen, or are these fears unfounded? for better flood protection will also offset any problems which could result from Temperature Discussion a rise. The climate has changed in the past, and An acute need Fearing disease outbreaks such as ma- it will change in the future. We forget laria is also unfounded. In Europe and that up until three million years ago, the for global climate the United States, malaria was eradicated Earth was permanently warmer than to- policy does not when the world’s temperatures were day. And, from a geological perspective, exist. increasing. Even though temperature has the contemporary climate is relatively a certain effect on malaria, it is negligible cool. when compared with a wide range of Global warming does not mean that other dependent factors like nutrition temperatures around the globe will uni- The decrease in the number of heat- and health care, income, as well as the versally rise. In his book Cool It (2007), related deaths in the past few decades drying out of swamps and elimination of Bjørn Lomborg points out that low proves that our susceptibility to heat has mosquitoes. temperatures increase much more than substantially diminished. Improvement The prediction that world hunger will high temperatures, and temperatures rise in health care services and access to escalate is equally unfounded. While more during night and in winter than medical treatment is probably the main the world population has doubled since during the day and in summer. He also reason for the decrease. The availability 1961, food production has tripled. states that temperatures in mild climates of air-conditioning has also increased The percentage of starving people has and arctic regions climb more dramati- our tolerance to heat. In time and with decreased from 50 percent in 1950 to cally than in the tropics: in Siberia, tem- enough resources, we will be able to 20 percent in 2000. This percentage is peratures rise 5° Celsius, compared with adapt to higher temperatures, and fewer projected to fall to 2.9 percent by 2050. 2–3° in Africa. Furthermore, while the deaths will result from overheating. Global warming will also only insig- frequency of heat waves will increase, nificantly influence economic develop- cold waves will decrease. As Lomborg Hunger, Water and Poverty ment and living standards. The climate’s conveys, speaking of a “global” or uni- Al Gore claims that unless the world impact on agriculture has almost no in- versal temperature rise is ineffective and adopts strict measures in the next fifty fluence on the global economy. By 2100, misleading. years, two fifths of the world’s population people in developing countries will have

[ 58 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009 global warming

more important than climate control. We ing climate policy, ensuring free trade, or cannot dictate to people who can barely fighting malaria and malnourishment, The supposed make a living to cut down on emissions. many try to skirt responsibility by ad- need to decrease Lombog estimates that while the gen- vocating change on all fronts. While this carbon emissions eral cost of compliance with the Kyoto sentiment may feel gratifying and appear is an artificial Protocol (with US involvement) would noble, it is erroneous due to budgetary exceed five billion dollars in the next limitations. We must focus on economic demand. century, the economic benefit would development and not embark on a long only amount to two billion. Even though and costly struggle with climate change. the treaty is incredibly expensive, many Our range of global problems is vast have surprisingly suggested that more but we must judicially choose where to more money than they have today. In is needed. The leaders of the G8 have direct our efforts; we cannot solve eve- this century alone, the world population agreed to decrease emissions by 50 per- rything. Many global problems are more will increase by three billion, but those cent by 2050. Such a demand is agoniz- significant and pressing than climate starving will decrease to 136 million. ingly ineffective. change. Let us regain our perspective In regards to water, global warming Environmentally oriented scientists and recognize our folly in focusing on will increase precipitation and therefore and media outlets have created a preju- climate change.  increase the accessibility to water. The diced and biased awareness of global challenge of the future is not global warming. An acute need for global cli- warming regulation, but utilizing hy- mate policy does not exist. From a long- Marek Loužek is the research director in the gienic equipment to give three billion term perspective, we are not ready for Centre of Economics and Politics. He lectures people secure access to clean drinking increasingly expensive sacrifices that will at the Philosophical Faculty at Charles Uni- water. Our future requires that we focus benefit more prosperous future genera- versity, Prague, and at Prague’s University of primarily on economic development. tions in a few hundred years. The cost of Economics (VŠE).

extensive and long-term CO2 reductions Emission Regulation will, without exception, exceed the ben- While everyone mainly focuses on mar- efits. ket regulation to combat climate change, we can solve several other environmental Our Only Hope is Development issues in a much more cost-effective According to the United Nations, people manner. Attempting to reduce and con- in both the developed and developing trol climate change is one of the least use- world will prosper in the coming years. ful ways in which we can help mankind In the industrialized world, the average and the environment. In short, we need income will rise six-fold; in developing to prioritize. Global warming is by no countries it will rise twenty-fold. These means the most urgent problem. increases play a fundamental role in the The supposed need to decrease carbon climate change dialogue. In 2100, when emissions is an artificial demand. If the problems related to global warming are Kyoto Protocol remained in force until expected to occur, an average person in the end of the century, the average global the developing world will earn about temperature would rise by 2.42° Celsius 100,000 USD (current value) per year. Suggested Reading instead of 2.6°. The difference is only As a result, the world’s population will be 0.18°. Furthermore, Kyoto only shaves able to adapt to new circumstances much Leroux, Marcel. Global Warming: five years off of rising temperatures; the better than today. Myth or Reality? The Erring Ways of Climatology. (Springer, 2005). temperature we would see in 2100 with- Even the worst-case scenario esti- out Kyoto will occur in 2095 with Kyoto mates an income increase of 20,000 USD Lomborg, Bjorn. Cool It: The Skep- tical Environmentalist’s Guide to in place. The Kyoto Protocol is by and per person. In this highly unlikely event, Global Warming. (Random House, large a symbolic treaty. people in the developing world will earn 2007). Emissions from the developed world on average the same as Portuguese or Michaels, Patrick J. Meltdown: The increasingly depend on how dramati- Czech citizens earn today. Attempts to Predictable Distortion of Global cally economies like China, India, and help the developing world now by reduc- Warming by Scientists, Politicians, other developing nations will grow. ing carbon emissions is well-intentioned and the Media. (Cato Institute, China has surpassed the United States in but shortsighted. One hundred years 2005). emissions, and it is now the largest pro- from now, inhabitants of the developing Philander, S. George. Is the Tempera- ducer of greenhouse gases in the world. world will be wealthier and more able to ture Rising?: The Uncertain Science of Neither China nor India will be willing adapt. Global Warming. (Princeton Univer- to accept further emission reductions When we are faced with the need to sity Press, 2000). because economic and social growth is prioritize and choose between develop-

spring 2009 / THE NEW PRESENCE [ 59 ] parting shots

Blowing It

n his speech announcing a new US-led If this wasn’t enough to endear the Obama had to take in Prague “on her initiative in arms reduction, Barack country to the EU, the never-ending pu- own” after being escorted by Mr. Klaus. IObama noted how unlikely it would bertal squabbling of the country’s politi- In the end, Obama had his one-on-one have been at the time of his birth to im- cians led to a vote of no-confidence and meeting with the only legitimate Czech agine that in the near future, an Afro- the downfall of the government in the politician who could be found – former American president would be speaking middle of the EU presi- president and dissi- in the free city of Prague. Even less likely dency. Predictably, the dent Václav Havel. would have been envisioning the Czech only person to welcome The following day, Republic as presiding over a new union the news was Czech Re- the Czech government of European states. Today, both scenarios public president Václav agreed to dissolve it- have been realized – the first one suc- Klaus, who refuses to fly self and install a tech- cessful, the second a total failure. the EU flag above Prague nocratic cabinet until Unfortunately, the Czechs have done Castle, claiming the EU the undetermined date their best to live up to their reputation is an organization just as of the next elections. as the political clown princes of Europe. dangerous as the former In doing so, they also Though Czech premier Topolánek had Communist empire. quashed the work of some success in his first few months as No wonder that the the most successful EU leader, he was soon eclipsed by the US presidential protocol minister of foreign row over the Czech Republic’s official team had an ulcer. The official state din- affairs in the country’s history, Karel work of art contribution to the EU, the ner welcoming the US president went Schwarzenberg and with him, any hope “Entropa,” a huge plastic mural with out the window, and was replaced with at all of a positive outcome to the coun- scenes caricaturing EU nations – Bul- a brief breakfast of the US and Czech try’s EU presidency. garia as a Turkish pisoir, Germany with presidents and lame-duck premier. And highways in the shape of a swastika, Italy since Topolánek, though married, has an with soccer players masturbating with official mistress (one of the pre-requisites Martin Jan Stránský the football, and so forth. for gaining Czech popularity), Michelle Physician, Publisher,

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[ 60 ] THE NEW PRESENCE / spring 2009