REP O RT O F THE RO Y AL CO MMISSIO N

APP NTED BY DE R - I N - C U N C L O F DATE M AY 2 0 1 9 1 9 O I OR O I ,

3 m m A . TO INVESTIG TE THE PO SS IB ILITIES O F

THE REINDEERAND MUSK- OX INDUSTRIES

I N THE

ARCTIC AND SU B - ARCTIC REGIO NS O F CANADA

F O HN G NIO N R THER RD . . J U U O , C M G . JAM ES STANLEY M cLEAN JAMES BE RNARD HARK IN

c$ P 8 1 0 1923 1x

OTTAWA

F A. A LAND . C P RI NTER TO THE K I NG’ S MO ST EX CELLENT MA$ESTY 1922 42627—1

LIST O F ILLU STRATIO NS

— Frontispiece ( M u sk - ox Horn a d ay) M u sk - ox C a lves

u k- ox a M s wool , c rded

u - ox wool oversocks t a a B 1909 M sk , knit ed by M d me ernier ,

u —ox l a 1920 M sk woo sock (Stef nsson , ) M u sk - ox c a lf

W . T . a Herschel Isl a nd N. ( Rolling Pr irie)

. u Herschel Isl a nd N . W . T S mmer

a W T . a Herschel Isl nd , N , Veget tion Herschel Isl a nd

a a u a a n d a Herschel I sl nd , N t r l Shelter Veget tion

B a a u u a ern rd H rbo r , S mmer Veget tion

u a l a a E rope n Reindeer , Teller , A sk

u a . Reindeer , $ st rrived

u are a Reindeer , The yo ng very h rdy

a a Reindeer , Origin l Grenfell herd , imported from Norw y “ ” a a B Reindeer M e t , shipped Ve l dressed (with hides on ) , est method when properly z fro en .

a a a M ethod of P cking Reindeer , Al sk Cross between Reindeer a n d C a ribo u

u a a a E rope n Reindeer , Teller , Al sk

a Bu a la a A Winter C orr l on the ckl nd River , A sk M odern Al aska n Reindeer Corra ls for m a rking Reindeer

a a a Reindeer on the Tr il , Al sk Grenfell Herd Reindeer

Ba Govern ment Reindeer Herd , Lobster y

a u a a a . C ribo ne r C rey L ke , N W T C a ribo u C a ribo u C a ribo u

u a S mmer M igr tion , Copper Eskimo ( Coppermine River) l Reindeer , Horns in the Ve vet .

E I I o a e ort o the Committee o the P riv Cou ncil C RT F ED CO PY f R p f f y , approved by His Ex cellen cy the Govern or General

2 t 1 1 9 . P . on 0 h Ma 9 C. y, (

P C Th e Commi ttee of the rivy ounci l h ave h ad before them a report , d ated 9 19 19 : M ay , , from the M inister of the Interior , stating as follows

Special atten tion has recently been di rected to th e potentialities of th e

- Arctic and su b Arctic regions of Canad a as a grazing coun try . I t is represented th at in these regions there is an abundan t growth of vegetation in the summer , wh ich forms nu tritious food for grazing an imals i n win ter as well a s summer . I t is estimated that there are at least a million squ are miles of such grazing f t oo ground s in Northern Canada . The winter climate o these areas is severe for - ox an d ord inary domestic cattle , bu t musk reindeer can graze there in the open al l the year round . The d imension s o f the reindeer indu stry in Lapland o f and in Siberia , and the great d evelopmen t the reindeer herd s of Alaska suggest that correspond ing developmen t can reasonably be an ticipated with is o u t respect to Northern Canada . In this connection it pointed that herd s of barren land caribou , aggregating , i t i s estimated , twenty or thi rty million C animals , frequent Northern anad a and that biologically , these animal s are practically iden tical with reindeer .

- ox Vilhj almu r Stefansson , the Arctic explorer , i s convinced that the musk can be read ily domesticated and h as u rged that steps be taken in that con i n ect on . , with the obj ect of d eveloping herd s for commercial purposes

The d evelopment of large reindeer and mu sk - ox herds in Northern Canad a wi ll represent a very important add ition to the meat production o f the Dominion . The developmen t of mu sk - ox herd s will represen t not only an add ition to th e meat production bu t also to the wool produ ction . The value and att ractiveness - ox of reind eer flesh for food p u rposes i s well establish ed . I n regard to musk meat , M r . Stefansson clai ms it is p ractically indistinguish able from beef .

o f In all parts of the world , there is a constan t redu ction grazing areas u th rough the d evelopment of su ch areas for field crops , and , i n conseq ence , the meat and wool p roblems are every year becoming more acu te . — Th e Arctic and sub Arctic regions o f Canad a lie too far North to be included o f in the land su itable for the profitable cultivation cereals , and therefore may be regarded as permanen t grazing areas .

In view of the foregoing , the M inister considers that there are good ground s for believing that the C anadian North may become a great permanent meat C and wool producing area , and that a ommission shou ld be appoin ted for the pu rpose o f making a thorough investigation into the subj ect from a bu siness and national standpoint , and to report thei r finding . The M inister therefore recommend s :

P o f Th at , under the provisions of art I the I nqui ries Act , Ch apter C C o f : Revised Statu tes of anada , a ommission consisting

u n ion J ohn G Rutherford , of O ttawa , Rai lway Commiss ioner ;

McLean o f J ames Stanley , Toron to

- M anager , H arris Abattoi r Co . ;

J ames B ernard Harkin , of Ottawa , Comm i ss ioner of Dom in ion Parks '

Vilhj almu r Stefan sson ;

ion f . Gu n o wh ich M r John Ru therford shal l be Chairman , be appoin ted for the pu rpose men tioned ; That the Commission be withou t remuneration except expen ses and be o f C au thorized to employ , with the approval the Governor in oun cil , su ch assistan ce as the members may determine ; C That the du ration of the ommission be du rin g pleasu re , and that i t report with the least possible delay u pon the feasibility of the proposition s men tioned

“ togeth er with recommendations in regard to the best method s to follow to brin g abou t efficien t d evelopmen t in case i t i s found cond ition s warran t action on the part o f the Govern men t . The Commi ttee concu r in the above recommendations and submit the same r fo approval .

P (Sgd . ) ROD OL H E B OUD REAU ,

l h P ou n l C erk of t e rivy C ci . To His Ex cellency the Govern or in Cou ncil :

C i The Report Of the Royal ommission , appointed to enqu re in to and concern ing the possibilities of the Canad ian Arctic and sub - Arctic for the establishmen t of reind eer and mu sk - ox herds :

MAY Ir PLEASE YO U R EX C ELLENC Y : C We , the commissioners appointed by O rder in ouncil Of date M ay 2 0 19 19 o f C n , , to i nqui re in to and concerning the possibilities the anad ia Arctic and sub - Arctic for the establishmen t of reindeer and musk - ox

herds , have the honou r to present ou r report to You r Excellency

“ You r commissioners , after several con ferences , at which the qu estions above referred to were fu lly d iscu ssed , decided that it would be advisable to hold a number of public hearings for the pu rpose O f secu ring and placing on record the evidence of persons having a knowledge of the variou s matters coming within the scope of the inqui ry .

: Fou r hearings were accord ingly held at O ttawa , as follows 1 2 4 1 2 ( ) J anuary , 9 0 . 2 4 5 1920 . ( ) February and , 3 2 9 1 2 30 9 . ( ) April and , 0 4 12 1 2 9 0 . ( ) M ay ,

a s The evidence , taken at these hearings (Volumes I and I I ) , together with the several su bmission s , docu ments and other information Obtained du ring the cou rse of the inqu i ry , is submitted herewith .

Following is a list of the witnesses who gave evidence at the hearings , in the order of thei r appearance : 1 C C f ( ) Captain George omer , ommander o wh aling and other ships in the

Arctic for over fifty years . 2 ’ O Neill . . . M . Sc Ph . D . C ( ) J J , , , Geologist with anad ian Arctic Exped ition

th ree years in the North .

3 . . . . E C . ( ) W E B Hoare , , M issionary , Chu rch o f England ; fou r and a hal f

years in Arctic .

4 - ( ) Righ t Rev . B ishop Lucas , M issionary , Chu rch of England ; twenty nine — years in Arctic and sub Arctic .

5 . . C . E S . ( ) K G hipman , , Topographer , C anad ian Arctic Exped ition ; five

years in Arctic . 6 x Co . . . . M Sc E ( ) J R , , Topographer , C anadian Arctic xped ition ; th ree years

in Arctic . 7 B Mc Inn es . . . C ( ) Wm , , Directing Geologist , Canadian Geological

- Su rvey ; several years in Canad ian sub Arctic . 8 C Ex e it i n s evera l ( ) Frits Johansen , Natu ralist , anadian Arctic p d o ; years in 1 906 1908 . Arctic , includ ing to in Greenland 9 P C o f ( ) Reverend Wi lliam eck , M issionary , hu rch England ; in Arctic from 18 76 1 1 to 9 8 . 10 . in M . c . ( ) D Jenness , S , Ethnologist , Can adian Arctic Exped ition ; six years

Arctic .

9 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

Rev . Righ t B ishop S tringer , B ishop and M issionary of Chu rch o f England ;

t - - twen y six years in Arctic and sub Arctic .

- P . r M . i D . n Alfred Thompson , , represents the Yukon House Of Commons .

Lived for m any years in Yukon Territory . P C . C . arker , I nspector of Indian Agencies , Ontario and Quebec .

. . . C E Rev W H Fry , M issionary , hu rch of ngland ; ten years in Arctic . ’ C o f for C aptain M ack , Superin tendent Transport Hudson s B ay ompany .

Spent over eighteen years in Arcti c .

E . . C Captain J B ern ier , Arctic Explorer , commanded two anadian Arcti c

Expeditions . ke r r r S t o r . St o k e son P Vilh a lm a r T , Commanded I ce arty under j Stefansson , C anadian Arcti c Exped ition .

C . on t C Frank Hennessey , accompanied Captain B ernier wo anad ian E Arctic xped i tions .

A . H . H awkins , Topographer , engaged in Canad ian Governmen t Topo

graphical Su rvey . Spent some time in northwestern Canad a and

C - anad ian sub Arctic .

. . C G E Herriott , Topographer , anadian Governmen t Topograph ical Su r

vey . Spent some time in northwestern Can ad a and Canad ian sub

Arctic .

G . S . M acdonald , Topographer , C anadian Governmen t Topograph ical n Su rvey . Spe t some time in northwestern Canad a and Canadi an su - b Arctic .

S . . a e wc t t . D F , Topographer , Canad ian Government Topographical Su rvey i - Spent some time n northwestern Canada and C anadian sub Arctic .

. . C H F Lambart , Topographer , anadian Governmen t Topograph ical Su r

vey . Spent some years in northwestern Canad a and C anadian

Arctic .

. . C e G H B lanchet , Topographer , anadian Governm n t Topographical Su r

vey . Spent some years in Northwestern Canad a and Canadian sub

Arctic .

. . . . Ph . D . B A. M . Sc . P C Dr E M Kindle , , , , alaeon tologist , anad ian Arctic

Exped ition . Three years in Arctic .

. . C A. E . . B . Sc on J B raig , , , Dom in ion Land Su rveyor , engaged Canadian — v . Government Su r ey . Spen t some time in Arctic and sub Arctic

. . Ma L h l c a c an C . E . B W , , Engineer in charge of terminal s H udson B ay

P . . on e on Railway , ort Nelson Spen t and a hal f years H udson bay

. M Ev E c o M . . M aj or Jas y , , M ining Engineer , formerly with Dominion

Governmen t Su rvey . Spen t some time in northern B ritish Columbia

and Albert a , also in Hudson B ay cou ntry .

. f . Righ t Rev B ishop Reeve , M issionary , Chu rch o England Spen t twenty

C - eigh t years in anad ian Arctic and sub Arctic . C James White , Assistant to the Chairman , Canadian ommission

of Conservation . R ev . . . r C W G Walton , M issiona y , hu rch of England , stationed at Fort

- George , J ames Bay . Thirty eigh t years i n Ungava . L - l C . C . . t . o C P Starnes , Royal anad ian M oun ted olice Spent some years

C . in Yu kon , and in the Hudson Bay ompany

. o f J Bu rr Tyrrell , Arcti c Explorer , formerly with Geological Su rvey C 18 92 h as C anada . Since spent a large portion of h is time in anad ian

- Arctic and su b Arctic . 10 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

i 34 . MacM llan D . Sc . . ( ) Donald B , , Arctic Explorer Accompanied several

United States Arctic Exped itions .

35 . . C . ( ) D r Rudolph M Anderson , Geologist , anadian Arctic Exped ition Five C years in Arctic . I n command Southern party , anad ian Arctic

1 1 - 1 9 3 6 . Exped ition , The evidence as given by these witnesses in the cou rse of the inqu i ry is f n extremely i nteresting , dealing as it does with many di ferent matters havi g an i mportan t bearing on the natu ral resou rces of Northern Canada and thei r possible fu tu re developmen t .

— - D H r Z i c N M u s k x a es u rtes o r . W . T . n ad a ca l S iet . Y . o C lv Co y f o y , oolog o y ,

You r commissioners , therefore , strongly recommend that th i s evidence be printed in fu ll as Append ix No . I to thi s report , in order that the valuable information which i t contains may be disseminated as widely as possibl e among the people of the Dominion .

In addition to the evidence taken at the hearings , written submissions were received from a nu mber o f persons conversant with cond itions in the

- C . C anadian Arctic and sub Arctic , and in Alaska ertain of these submissions h ave been attached as append ices to this report .

ilh a lm ar 12 1920 . V On M arch , , M r j Stefansson , having applied for a lease fo r f grazing pu rposes Of a large area in Southern B a fin I sland , resigned from the Commi§s i on .

1 1 RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSION

I t will be observed that the Commission held no meetings and took no evidence ou tside o f Ottawa . You r commissioners had contemplated the taking o f C evidence in Western anad a , and especially at certain points on the Paci fic wa s o r coast , where i t though t probable that more less d i rect information wou ld be available as to the work o f the Uni ted States Govern men t in establish ing reindeer herd s in Alaska , and the cond itions u nder which that indu stry was , and is being carried on . You r commissioners also discu ssed the ad visability O f visi ting the Yu kon O f fo r Territory and Alaska for the pu rpose seeing cond itions themselves , and at the same time secu ring the testimony of residents possessing actual experience and local knowledge .

These plans were , however , not carried ou t , inasmuch as owing to p ressu re o f other duties you r commissioners were unable to devote to them the time which wou ld h ave been necessary . t o I t was found possible secu re in Ottawa most , i f not al l , of the available evidence bearing upon cond itions in the northern portions o f the western p ro ou r own - vinces and Arctic and sub Arctic regions , wh ile you r commissioners f felt that in so far as Alaska was concern ed , the O ficial reports of the United States Governmen t which deal in minu te detai l with the reindeer situ ation as f i t o . exi sts there , cou ld very properly be accepted in lieu evidence

R n P a i ie He sch el s l an olli g r r , r I d .

A statemen t of the facts as su mmarized from these docu men ts , including

o f . . . C extracts from the evidence D r E W Nelson , h ief o f the United States B u reau o f C Biological Su rvey , before th e ommi ttee on Appropriations at Wash ington ,

. i D C . s , attached as Appendix No . I I to thi s report . C By the Ord er in ouncil , you r commissioners were d i rected to investigate and report as to the feasibility o f the developmen t of herd s o f d omesticated - ox C reind eer and mu sk in Northern anada . Th is investigation h as natu rally involved the study o f many other phases r of the situation , having a more o less d irect bearing u pon the main issue . These n o t l includ e on ly such matters as vegetation , soil , c imate , topography and su rface f conditions , bu t also th e questions o the conservation and fu rther provision of a food su pply for the natives and such wh ites as may from time t o time have to on su bsist the coun try .

1 2 RE I N D EER AN D M USK - O X

Among the matters less d irectly related to the subj ect under inqui ry , bu t f o f O f in regard to wh ich evidence was O fered , are those the protection , not only on the natives themselves , bu t of the animals which they su bsist , from exploita o f tion and mistreatment by ou tsiders , this in some cases involving th e question f territorial j u risdiction ; the habits and customs of the natives and the e fects , o r o f beneficial detrimental u pon them contact with the white races , as also the mineral and other natu ral resou rces , the development of wh ich may later create ' r an in cre a s ed demand fo local food supplies .

n o f s et B earing in mi d the limitations the inqu i ry , as forth in the Order i n C o f ou ncil , this report deals only with the general aspects of each the phases of : the investigation , as follows

( 1) M USK- O X : (Habitat ; Characteristi cs ; Numbers ; Domestication ; Con

servation ; Flesh ; Fu r and Wool . )

(2 ) RE I N D EER : ( Possibility o f M aintenance ; Necessity of Restraint ; Grazing and H erding Problems ; Experimental Herd s ; Selection o f

Locali ties ; Reindeer M eat . )

(3) CARI B OU : (Habitat ; Varieties ; Numbers ; M enace to Reindeer Herd s ;

Domestication ; Caribou M eat ; Conservation . )

M USK - O X Ha bita t

Thi s animal , wh ich evidently at one time existed over the greater portion f o f C o the northern hal f the North American ontinen t , has apparently been r extermi nated , so far as the mainland is conce ned , except in that comparatively small region lying north and east of a line extend ing from Chesterfield inlet on

Hudson bay to the western side o f Bathu rst inlet on Coronation gu l f . There is no exact or eve n approximate knowledge as to the nu mbers o f

- ox mu sk su rviving in the area in question , bu t from the evidence given , it wou ld appear that they are now comparatively few . Evidence was read ily available from many witnesses as to the existence of

- ox mu sk in this area du ring recen t years , either th rough these witnesses having or seen the animals themselves , thei r recent tracks , thei r fresh skins in the possession o f natives .

n o - ox According to the evidence Of Captain George Comer , there are musk on M elville peninsula , and no reliable evidence was addu ced as to thei r existence on B ooth ia peninsula .

- x on f There is a tradition that a musk o was once killed B a fin island , bu t they do n ot now exist on Southampton island o r any o f the other islands in b a a Hudson y , or , so far as the evid ence ind ic tes , on any of the larger i sland s lying north of the mainland and sou th O f Lancaster and M elville sounds .

- ox Th ere is , however , ample evidence as to the existence of musk in M el ville island , North D evon island , Axel Heiberg island and Ellesmere islan d

- while they are also found on the northeast coast o f Green land .

Cha ra cteristics

The musk - ox can apparently sustai n li fe on the natural vegetation found in most parts o f the Canadian Arctic . REPO RT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSION

Witnesses wh o testified on th is point were agreed as t o h is preference for n ot grass , bu t i t was also sh own that where grass was available , l ich en , moss or willow shoots were read ily eaten . -ox Unli ke the caribou , th e musk i s not a migratory an imal , preferring to remai n indefinitely in areas where food i s available . He apparen tly grazes n qu ietly in much th e same way as do d omestic cattle , movin g only as food co d it ion s render this necessary . Considerable doubt exists as to the real reason fo r the comparatively small f - ox ex lan p roportion o calves and youn g animals found in musk herd s , variou s p a t ion s being advanced by d ifferen t Observers . B y some i t i s held that the female breed s only in al ternate years ; others attribu te th is cond ition to mortal ity among the calves from wolves , as also to the fact that while the calving season on o f extend s well into the mon th June , many calves are d ropped shortly after — April first , when the weather cond itions are most un favou rable for new born an imals .

Nt imbers

No exact o r even approximate estimate of the number o f musk - ox now to n C be found o th e anad ian island s is available , bu t th e eviden ce wou ld ind icate that i t i s smal l , and , at least in certain areas , decreasing . t orke r t orke rs on 191 7 M r . S S estimated that in there were fou r thou sand on h ead M elville island , of wh ich he and h is party ki lled some fou r hund red for food . Every year a small party o f Greenland Esquimaux cross over to Ellesmere

P . Ma Mill n . . c a island and kill a comparatively limi ted nu mber rofessor D D , who showed perhaps greater familiari ty with this part of the north th an any r o f other witness , th inks that this is not likely to cau se any se iou s d epletion the

- mu sk ox herd s .

I t mu st , however , be borne in mind that the Esqu imaux are rapid ly adopting of ~ the use of firearms and that , as a consequence , the extermination the mu sk ox will , in al l probability , speed ily follow as has been the case in some localities . The rapid extermination of the musk - ox i s largely du e to th e fact th at

o r . unlike the caribou , he does not flee from hun ters oth er enemies I t is possible t o k for man approach with in a very short d istance before the animals ta e alarm , d o n ot and when they finally , they do ru n far , bu t , especially i f th e hun ter is o r accompanied by dogs , they form a circle square wi th the cows and calves n insid e and the bu lls facing ou tward , and they will thu s remai until the whole herd is shot d own .

Witnesses agree that the Esqu imaux , like the I nd ian , is natu rally improvi o f f dent in the matter food su pply , and th at he will , when Opportuni ty o fers , destroy an entire herd withou t regard to possible fu tu re requ irements .

Domes tica tion

- ox The natu re of th e mu sk is apparently mild and gentle , al though there is in as evidence that , the ru tting season , the bu lls wi ll , is Often the case among

f . d omestic cattle , take the o fensive when the herd i s approached by man I t is also stated that the bu lls frequently figh t and kill each other . - ox There is ample p roof that the young mu sk can be readily domesticated ,

the evidence showing that when cows h aving young calves are killed , the calves or show no fear Of man and are easi ly led away , will Often follow withou t being

led . I n many cases they h ave been taken on board sh ip and h ave become pets , 14 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X though unfortunately these li ttle animals often fall victims to the Esqu imaux

t o . dogs wh ich , unless constantly watched , will tear them pieces C As will be seen from the submissions Of Professor W . T . Hornaday , u rator

NO . Of the New York Zoological Gardens , wh ich appear as Append ix I I I to thi s - x report , mu sk o have been kept in domestication for many years in the u nfavou r 192 0 o f . able climate New York ci ty , while M r Stefansson , when in London in , — saw two healthy yearling mu sk ox females in the Zoological Garden s there . The eviden ce goes to show that there wou ld be no insu perable d ifficu l ty in f —ox e fecting the captu re and transportation Of even ful l grown mu sk , though i t goes withou t saying that for pu rposes of domestication , the younger an imals wou ld be greatly preferable .

o f I n the matter domestication , you r commissioners wou ld recommend that a station be established at some carefu lly chosen , su itable poin t in the f northern i slands , and that a small sta f of intelligen t and competen t men be of charged with the task of capturing a nu mber the younger an imals , these to be kept under reasonable and proper restraint until they become familiar with and friendly to hu man beings .

Wh ile some expense will be involved , i t wil l be apparen t that thi s w ill be small as compared with the cost Of transportin g any considerable nu mber of wild mu sk - ox from thei r present habitat to poin ts farther south and more m a in t en . for accessible Later , when su itable arrangements have been mad e the or r o f ance Of a herd herds , possibly on one o other the island s in Hudson bay , i t wi ll be much easier and safer to ship a nu mber o f these domesticated animals than it wou ld be to at tempt thei r transportation when newly captu red and wild . I n add ition to the establish ment of a station in on e of the northern islands a small nu mber o f young mu sk - ox migh t be brou gh t down for pu rposes o f domes t icat ion f x , in the even t o an e perimental reindeer herd being located in th e

Hudson bay region .

Conservation You r commissioners would strongly recommend that all possible steps be taken to safeguard and preserve su ch musk - ox as still remain on the Canadian

. t o ad v is mainland I n order facilitate such conservation , they think it wou ld be t o able to endeavou r ascertain ei ther by aeroplane reconnaissance or otherwise , the approximate nu mbers and locations o f these animal s .

In so far as those on the northern island s are concerned , similar steps sh ou ld x rmin also be taken , as although there may be no immed iate danger o f their e t e or ation depletion , it i s u ndo u bted ly advisable to su rround them with p roper for safeguards and to provide against possible fu tu re contingencies , su ch as ,

E . instance , that of the local squimaux becoming possessed o f modern firearms

Flesh of Mu sk - ox

Al l the wi tnesses were agreed that the flesh Of the musk - ox is very nu tritious n d alat a b le p , comparing most favou rably with beef , though more tender and O au 1 sc ou s . I t is generally admitted that the flesh of the Older bu lls i s somewhat rank and musky in flavou r , and in this connection i t will be noted that Captain M unn

. n (see Appendix No IV) recommends that i f domestication is undertake , a nu m ber of the male animals shou ld be castrated .

15 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

Qu ite apart from the meat question , th is wou ld be a proper measure , as i t

‘ would permit o f i ntelligen t selection of the best males to be u sed fo r breed ing pu rposes .

Milk

o f - ox o f The mil k the mu sk , while , cou rse , small o f in qu antity , is said to be excellen t quality .

Fu r a nd W ool

- ox From a fu r stand point , the skins of the mu sk are apparen tly of bu t little value except for u s e as t o robes , bu t th ere i s no reason dou bt that they wou ld

make good leather .

O f Un like those the caribou and the reindeer , the hide o f the mu sk - ox i s apparen tly free from inj u ries

cau sed by warble flies .

Th e value o f the wool which constitu tes the inner

- ox . coat of the mu sk is , as yet , problematical In itsel f

the wool i s Of fai r quality , bu t thou gh experimen ts to

that end are now in progress , no mach inery has so far been perfected which will su ccessfu lly - separate it from f the coarse hai r o the ou ter coat , with wh ich i t becomes

mixed when bein g shed .

The sh edding i s a gradual process , the new wool o ld taking the place Of the as this i s shed , and there is o f , th erefore , grave doub t as to the practicability removin g the latter u ntil i t has been properly replaced

- . Card ed M u sk O x W ool . by the fresh growth In thi s connection it wil l be noted that Pro fe s s o r Ho rn ad ay states that on e o f the musk - ox in the New

Yo rk Zoological Gardens , from wh ich comb ed d ied the Old wool was , some th ree weeks later from pn eu mon ia . I t i s well known th at a sudden change to severe weather wil l fre qu ently cau se seriou s mortal ity among sheep th at have been recently clipped .

W olves The evidence goes to show that - ox the matu re mu sk , in normal heal th and cond ition , does not fear , and it is not attacked by , wolves or M us k -ox W l e -s ck s K n i t t e b Ma a me oo Ov r o , d y d other pred atory an imals , bu t there — 1 9 Be rn ier 90 . t o u rtes o a ta in $ E Ber nier . is every reason su ppose that , as Co y f C p . . 16 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

o f in the case domestic cattle , any young calves

wh ich may become separated from the herd , fall a ready prey -to the wolves which are always on the

lookou t for opportunities o f this nature .

NO evidence was secu red as to the susceptibility

- o f the musk ox t o flies and other insect pests . The northern island s appear to be largely free from o f th is d rawback , bu t in any case , the hai ry coat the musk - ox is o f such a natu re as to render h im p ractically immune t o such attacks .

$ You r commissioners are o f the opinion that the conservat ion and domest ication Of the musk - ox a re matters o f great domest ic i mportance .

o f The existence an animal capable , in these far

northern regions , Of su staining life , reprodu cing i ts s pecies and laying on flesh , i s a matter not to be

l igh tly regarded .

is I t more than doubtfu l i f , even after years f f o painstaking e fort , i t would be possible to pro du ce from any o f ou r most hardy strains O f domestic cattle , an animal which cou ld even approximate the musk - ox in those qu alities which so ad mirably fi t h im for his environmen t and for the needs not only o f the natives bu t of the white men who will

M usk - ox W S ck unquestionably , and that in the near futu re , be ool o . u rt Co esy Of V S tef a nsson , 1 92 0 inhabiting ou r northern possessions . There is apparently no question as to his adaptability to domesticati on a nd you r commissioners are convinced that i f t he matter is gone abou t in an i - ntelligen t and business like way , any expenditure wh ich may be incu rred in r h is preservation and fu ther developmen t wi ll be amply repaid .

— S mm H s h e s an u er er c l I l d . 4 26 2 7— 2 1 7 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSION

RE I N D EER

P ossible Main tena nce in Ca nadia n Arctic a nd su b -Arelic

There is no reasonable dou bt as to the possibility Of reindeer being abl e to live and thrive in most parts Of northern Canada . o f The experience the United States au thorities in Alaska , that Of the Gren ' t h e res en ce o f fell herd s in Newfound land and Labrador , p the wild caribou i n large nu mbers in many d i fferen t parts o f the north and the ample evidence which has been Obtained as to the nature o f the d ifferen t areas and the vegetation e and other natu ral condi tions found therein , all ind icate that while ther may be

f a n or . d i ficulties in the way , these are neither fund mental insu perable

Eu ean Re in e e le Al a k rop d e r , T l r , s a .

That the wild caribou , which is a member of the same species , with very few o f f points di ference , and these insign ificant , can exist in large numbers in th e

- Arctic and sub Arctic regions of Canada , fu rnishes practically ind ispu table evidence as to the suitability of these regions for the maintenance o f reindeer herds .

Necessity of Restrain t

In r this connection , however , it mu st not be forgotten that i f the reindee is u to retain h is qual ity of domestication , which i s , after all , the only arg men t in as o f h is favou r against the caribou , he mu st necessity be kep t under a measu re o f restraint .

Th e caribou , ranging at will from season to season and from place to place , has a d istinct advan tage not on ly i n the matter Of grazing areas , bu t in being able to avoid in sect pests and other cond ition s which may from time to time interfere with his well being .

— Grazing P roblems P a rasitica l I nfesta tion “ As evidence that t he United States Governmen t is beginning to appreciat e this phase Of the question , i t is noteworthy that D r . E . W . Nelson , Chief of the e Un ited States Bu reau of B iological Su rvey , in giving evidence before the H ou s

1 8

RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISS ION

Reind eer Moss

r From a statemen t regard ing Reindeer in No way , prepared by M r . N . Wid th for the in formation o f the Bu reau o f Edu cation o f the United States i s . Departmen t of th e I nterior , the followin g quoted The reindeer moss ( Clad onia ra ngiferina s) is greyish - white when i d ried , bu t with a greenish shade when moist ; i t takes t s nou rish men t

ch iefly from the ai r , avid ly absorbing the hu mid ity , wh ich makes i t in swel l and become elastic ; a d ry cond ition , however , i t is very brittle . I t contains flo u r and gelatin stu ff wh ich makes i t no u rish ing to the rein

deer and cattle . I t grows very slow l y . When eaten by the

reindeer , wh ich eat only the tops and fine parts

of the plan ts , the moss requ ires abou t twen ty years t o regain i ts full

size . I f taken u p with

the roots , i t will hard ly

grow again . Th ere wou ld seem to be a considerable d ivergence o fOpin ion as to how long this reindeer moss or l ich en takes t o repro duce itself after being closely

grazed . M r . J ames White ,

F . Assistan t to the Chai rman o f the Commission

of Conservation , states that in Norway the period o f re ‘i cove ry is from five to . seven

years .

The question would seem , on e however , to be largely of n f locality , as the atu re o th e

soi l , the amoun t of precipita tion and the exten t t o wh ich the lichen is eaten down are al l o f factors gimportance , wh ile the fact that when i n grass

producing d istricts , the rein deer is largely independent Of o f the lichens , i s one great i mportance in arriving at any decision as t o what constitu tes

e et at i n He sch e s a n a grazing unit . V g o , r l I l d

— Larg e Herd s Difiicu lties Arising from Necessity for Restrain t o f t o There are n ow over reindeer in Alaska , all wh ich , in add ition fo r the tens of thou sands wh ich h ave been killed meat , h ave come during the - o f l ast twenty eigh t years from the original importation animals , pu r

20 RE I N D EER AN D M USK - O X

18 92 t o 1902 . chased in the years inclu sive Th is i s a remarkable showing , bu t it i s worthy O f note that as the animals increase in number and the herds in f o f size , unforeseen d i ficu lties are encou ntered and that most these resul t from the restraint wh ich i t is necessary to impose on the domesticated reindeer as compared with the caribou in it s natu ral state of freedom .

The caribou , in h i s relation to the reindeer industry , i s deal t with fu lly u n elsewhere in thi s report , bu t at thi s j unctu re it shou ld be noted that h e questionably constitu tes the greatest Obstacle in the way of establishing herd s of o f domesticated reindeer in Northern Canada , and especially in that portion the main land which lies between H udson bay on the east and the Alaskan boundary on the west . M uch evidence was secu red as to th e nu mbers and habits o f the wi ld caribou t which inhabi t this region , and wh ile hi s evidence is not as full and complete as it migh t be , i t is qu ite clear that these animals exist in such nu mbers and are so widely distribu ted , that there wil l be con stan t danger of their attractin g and absorbing any herd s Of domestic reindeer which may be established in this area .

Esta blishment of Ex p erimen tal Herd s

f r While the d i ficu lties are not to be ignored o minimized , you r commissioners are o f Opinion that there i s no doubt as to the advisability of establ ish ing a number o f experimental herd s in the most su itable locations which can be : selected , for the following reasons ( 1) The cre ation and de v e l o p m e n t of su ch herd s wil l provide reliable and economical food and cloth ing supplies fo r the natives , both Esquimaux and

Indian s . As wil l be seen from the evidence s u b m i t t e d , there have been most distressing in stances of actual

‘ S t a I V a t l O 11 — R n ee Th e u n re e h a ei d r yo g a v ry rd y .

0 11 t h S Co u rtes o ar L men N me a a m g e e y f C l o , o , Al ska . t o people , due o f failu re their usual food su pplies . In this connection i t wou ld appear to be necessa ry to provide fu rther safeg u ard s against the possible extermination of

and other wild l ife , such as had al ready taken place in certain 1oca1 the ci taireisb. ou (2 ) To provide fu tu re food su pplies for whi te men who may g o in t o develop o r f exploit , as the case may be , the mineral and other natu ral resou rces o the north . I t may be here poin ted ou t that the food su pply fu rnished by the reindeer herd s in Alaska has proved to be a very valuable factor in the developmen t of u that co ntry . 2 1 RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

(3) To lay the foundation for a possible fu tu re comme rcial meat indu stry .

From the evidence , as also from certain memoranda submi tted with th is report , i t wil l be seen that such industries h ave already been established in No rway and in Alaska .

’ You r commissioners und erstand that the H udson s Bay Rei nd eer Company i on on ff s now inau gu ratin g a commercial herd the concession Ba i n island , lm r ilh a a . . V f gran ted a year ago to M r j Stefansson I n view , however , o the

- enormous areas available , there is no reason why many simi lar enterprise s sho u ld not be established in Northern Canada .

o r fo r Fu rther , shou ld th is scheme prove abortive any reason fail to succeed , u n mu ch val able ti me wou ld be sacrificed , whereas the developmen t by the Gover o f f ment i tsel f , several smal l experimen tal herd s , in d i ferent carefu lly selected O f localities , wou ld largely remove th e elements d oubt and uncertainty , and so tend to encou rage private en terprise and investment .

o f o f As a matter fact , there is no limi t to the possible extension the industry , i f gone abou t properly and on sound lines . There are , however , certain lessons to be learned from the experience of o ther countries .

o f Even in No rway , the home the reind eer , there is , i f we may j ud ge from v ke r rke r . S t o r S t o s on o the e idence O f M r , ro m for conside rable improvemen t , e f at least in the matt r o winter feeding .

— Orig in a l Gre n fe ll Herd I mport e d fro m Norw ay . s o r A Co u rte y f G enfell s s .

o u t - con fid en ce O f In Alaska , as has already been pointed , over and neglect

“ o f o f the first princi ples an imal hu sband ry , h ave produ ced a crop parasitic and

ou r . other troubles , wh ich i t will be du ty to avoid

’ D r . Gren fel l s experi e nce in Newfoundland with i ts d iscou raging sequel at

- e Lobster bay , as also the ill starred att mpt to locate a herd of reindeer at Fort

Smith , all point to the necessity for the employment Of cau tion , care and fore s i h t a s e g , w ll as sound practical knowledge in any action wh ich may be take n . _ “

N . N . . O . o (See Append ices V , No V I , and V I I )

2 2 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

S election of Loca lities The evidence ind icates that great care must be exercised in selecting location s for any herd s which i t may be decided to establish .

Veg eta tion

on e in In the fi rst place , the d istrict mu st be wh ich the vegetation is of such a fo r . _ nature , and in such quanti ty , as to provide ample sustenance the herd _

The evidence of those witnesses best qualified to express an opinion , i s to the f e fect that the reind eer and his relative the caribou , read ily eat both grass and n o lichen , having apparently special pred ilection for either , bu t u tilizing which ever is most prevalent in the locality in which they may happen to be .

Su mme e e t a t n Be n a Ha b u N . W . T . r V g io , r rd r o r ,

Herd ing The natu re of the country must be such as will permit O f effective herd

. on on control The evidence ind icates that in some d istricts man , either foot or

horseback , wou ld find it qu ite impossible , especially du ring the su mmer season , to travel over the su rface in an v given direction at such a speed as to permi t of

effective herd ing .

Flies

is While the evidence on this point somewhat conflicting , i t h as been fairly well established that du ring the su mmer season , when the flies are bad , both reindeer and caribou endeavou r to reach the seashore or betake themselves to as high er and more open land s , where they h ave the advantage of such breezes f may O fer .

Na tu ral Shelter

I t is claimed by some witnesses that there is no tendency on the part o f r either the reindeer o the caribou to seek shel ter in extreme weather . B e this as

i t may , the fact remains that the woodland caribou are much larger than those of s o - ou t the called barren land variety , their carcasses d ressing at from two of hund red to two hund red and seven ty pound s , whi le the carcasses the barren

land caribou do not weigh over one hund red and fi fty pou nds .

23 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

o f Of the barren land caribou , those herd s which spend at least a portion -r the year in the wooded coun try , are much large and stronger than those found i n the north ern island s , the extreme example being the Peary caribou , found in Northern Grant island and Axel Heiberg island , which is a small ligh t animal , n o very slim and with fragile bones , thou gh there is lack Of lime in that area . is o f I t , therefore , reasonable to su ppose that the existence winter shelter wou ld be an advantage .

Da nger from W ild Ca rib ou Th is i s unquestionably the most important poin t t o be considered in select

fo r on . ing the locations reindeer herds , especially the mainland M any witnesses read ily ad mi tted the d anger o f the absorption of a small of herd of reindeer by a large herd wild caribou , bu t the danger is by no means t o o f confined the large caribou herds , as a smal l band wild caribou wou ld be qu ite as likely to lead O ff any reindeer n o t under close and constan t Observation an d control .

Nat u al Sh e t e an d e et a t i n He sch e l slan N.W . T . r l r V g o , r I d ,

Fencing

Ih o f o f most parts the north cou ntry , fencing wou ld be a matter great ' f on o f cas e it d i ficu lty accoun t frost conditions , wh ile in any wou ld add enor m sl ou y to the cost o f operation . The di fficu lties in connection with the effective herding o f reindeer h ave of al ready been referred to . I t is therefore plain th at the selection a location for a reindeer herd on the mainland will necessi tate a very carefu l study o f the area o f under consideration , so as to utilize to the best possible advantage , as means r e control , any sui table valleys o other sp cial topographical featu res which may be available .

Sp ecial Loca lities While you r commissioners do n ot feel that they would be j ustified in making an y defini te recommend ations as to localities in which experimen tal reindeer t herds shou ld be placed , they desire to cal l a tention to certain facts brough t ou t in the evidence which bear d irectly u pon this phase of the question .

24 RE I N D EER AN D M USK - O X

I sland s in Hu d son Bay

O n 2 7 192 0 J anuary , , you r commissioners asked that , as a precau tionary C measu re , certain i sland s in Hud son bay , namely , Sou thampton island , oats f r i sland and M ansel l island , shou ld be reserved o the pu rpose of provid ing grazin g ground s fo r reindeer and mu sk - ox and thi s request was granted by Order 1 1 2 RC . 0 9 0 . in Counci l of date M arch , (

I t would appear that in some respects , the most desirable of these island s n is Southampton island , which from all the i formation wh ich you r commis s ion ers have been able to obtain , is su itable in every respect except that it is t oo large , being abou t equal in size to I reland . There are also on i t at present several herd s Of wild caribou and a number of wolves .

These cond ition s would involve a considerable expend itu re for fencing , as wi thou t fen ces it wou ld be qu ite impossible to keep the reindeer from j oining the wild caribou , and there wou ld also be constan t danger from wolves .

There i s a fu rther danger of the ice setting solid on Rowes Welcome , thu s f r t o o u . giving access the mainland , wh ich , variou s reasons , wo ld be undesirable C oats island , wh ich l ies sou theast of Sou thampton i sland , is abou t sixty mi les long and twenty miles wide . Accord ing to Captain H . Toke M u nn ,

NO . whose submissions , attached as Append ix IV to this report will be found on wel l worthy of perusal , the food thi s island is excellen t , there are no wolves , and on the north side there are plenty o f wal ru s available for food for any

Esquimaux that migh t be employed as herd ers . There are some barren land caribou on th is i sland which Captai n Munn recommends should be reduced to a small nu mber , and the young caugh t and pu t in with the reindeer . The on ly animal s which migh t prey on the reindeer on Coats island are th e polar bears , wh ich are nu merou s . I t is said h owever , that these animals seldom succeed in catching caribou , wh ile they themselves are easily killed and will soon abandon a place where they are frequently hunted . On There is a trad ition that in one season many years ago , the caribou O ff n Coats and M ansel l island s were killed by weather cond itions , a heavy rai followed by freezing creating a hard crust th rou gh which the animal s were unable t o reach the food underneath .

This , however , is a cond ition which migh t occasionally be met with on any o f o r the lands in tribu tary to Hudson bay , and one against which it wou ld be

o f . possible to provide , at least in the case a small reindeer herd C n n ot oats island is deficie t in harbou r facilities , but this shou ld prove a seriou s d rawback , at least du ring the earlier stages of the experiment .

You r commissioners und erstand from the evidence , that M ansell island is r of very ugged and short vegetation , al though it migh t possibly , on fu rther e investigation , be found wel l adapted for r indeer . j

0 ngava

The whole o f Ungava would appear t o be well su ited for reindeer . There i s an ample supply of su itable vegetation and in the northern and western parts

Of the peninsula there are very few caribou . Th is latter cond ition has existed 18 8 3 f of since , when , as a resul t o forest fires , they d isappeared from that part o f of the country . As a consequence , probably this disappearance , the nu mber wolves is also insignificant . 25 REPORT O F THE ROYAL COM M ISSION

The natives , both I nd ians and Esquimaux , on the eastern shores of Hudson f bay su fer , perhaps to a greater exten t than any others , from period ical scarcity o f as . food , also from lack Of deer skins with which to make su itable clothing I t wou ld therefore seem h ighly desi rable that on e o r more herd s o f reindeer shou ld be established on this coast .

t o . . Attention is called the evidence of the Reverend W G Walton , M ission C o f as ary Of the hu rch England , station ed on J ames bay , also to the special statemen t wh ich he has prepared at the request Of the Commission , and which is attached as Append ix NO . V I I I . I t will be noted that he has no hesitation in stating that any tame reindeer located there would be qu ite safe from attack r by either I nd ians o Esqu imaux . C o f in The Reverend William Peck , M issionary of the hu rch England ’ Baffin s 18 76 19 18 Com i sland and Ungava from to , in h is evidence before the o f mission , corroborated the statements of other witnesses as to the su itabili ty f o f Ungava both in the matter o vegetation and the absence caribou , and was strongly o f opinion that the establishmen t of reindeer herd s wou ld be O f great assistance to the natives , both Esqu imaux and I nd ians . f co - As Ungava forms part of the p rovince o Quebec , the Operation of the provincial au thori ties wou ld be necessa ry in arranging for the establ ish men t of experimental herds on that peninsula .

W est Coa st of Hu d son Bay

. . . o f . . . . , M W From the evidence M r J H D Tyrrell , Colonel Starnes r D MacLach lan C E o f , , and others , i t i s evident that the area comprising a stri p

' land abou t th irty - fiv e miles wide on the west coast Of H ud son bay and to the o f o f north Fort Nelson , is bu t i ll adapted to the mainten ance domesticated

. f reindeer h erd s Wh i le in the sou thern part O this area , there i s a certain amou n t o f u f ro gh food , the su rface cond itions are such as to rend er e fective herd ing ou t o f C th e question . The northern part , between Fort hu rchill and Wager inlet ,

i s said to be s o barren and rocky as to fu rnish bu t little feed of any kind .

Arctic Coa st

You r commissioners were fortunate in bein g able t o secu re much valuable

information as to the potentialities , from a reindeer poin t of view , of the terri n f tory lying with i abou t thirty miles o the Arctic coast , between the I nternational

on . Boundary on the west , and Kent pen insu la the east As will be seen from the

evidence accompanying this report (Appendix NO . I ) the witnesses familiar with this coast were practically unanimou s in the opinion that wh ile some o f localities are better than others , by far the greater part thi s area is eminently

adapted for the maintenance o f reindeer . in I t could , fact , scarcely be otherwise , as the vegetation and other con d it ion s are almost exactly similar to those wh ich prevai l in those portions o f

Alaska where the reindeer indu stry has proved most successful . f in Al l were , however , agreed that there would be more or less d i ficul ty in keeping the reindeer separate from the wi ld caribou , wh ich , herd s varying i n . greatly size , constantly frequen t this region

There i s a definite migration of caribou northward in M arch , April and M ay , n in which the animal s cross the ice to Victoria island , either at Dolph in and Unio

strai t or at Dease strait t o the east of Coronation gu lf . As they do not move in a body , bu t in small detachments , the migrations

occupy considerable period s , and i t will be evident that great trou ble wou ld be

experienced in keeping reindeer herd s clear of these migrato ry bands .

2 6

REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSI ON

caribou meat . From evidence , both d irect and ind irect , it was clearly shown that there i s practical ly no d ifference between the meat o f the reindeer an d that o f the caribou .

Information secu red by M r . Stefansson was to the effect that in Norway and Sweden there was developed du ring the war period an excellen t market for reindeer meat , and that as the people became accu stomed to its u se the price f increased with the growing d emand , u ntil i t sligh tly exceeded those o both beef and mu tton . That i t also finds a market in North America i s shown by the following excerp t from a most comprehensive memorandu m fu rni shed by D r . James w Wh ite , from hich more exten sive quotation s wou ld have been made f bu t for th e fact that before i t reached the Commission , much O the in formation wh ich i t con tains h ad already been secu red and compiled “ 19 19 150 Du ring , abou t reindeer carcasses , averaging pounds o f each , were sh ipped from Nome to Seattle , making an aggregate

7 . 2 o r 5 8 . . . pounds , ton s Th is meat sold for abou t cents , f o b Seattle , makin g th e total value o f the trad e ab ou t “ The carcasses are shipped with the hides on , the h ides being valued

at abou t $5 each . “ These shipments were made by the Lomen Company which owns

abou t reindeer .

The average valu e o f reindeer in Alaska i s abou t $2 5 per head .

Reind eer Skin

n r The ski of the reindeer which , when properly d ressed , is ve y soft and o f n pliable , i s the principal clothing material in u se among the Lapps Norther

Eu rope and thei r kinsmen in Siberia . I t i s almost solely used for clothing pu r f h poses by those natives O Alaska w o h ave reindeer , as also largely by the white C inhabitants Of that territory . The Esqu imaux of Northern an ada u se in stead

r . the skin of the ca ibou which is , of cou rse , practically identical In Ungava , owing to the d isappearance of the caribou , the natives have been forced to wear f cotton cloth ing , and as a con sequence , endu re great physical su fering and are very liable to di sease .

Milk

Although th e yield from the domestic reindeer i s small , the milk i s richer n than that of the cow , and among the Lapps rei deer milk and i ts various pro f du cts form an importan t part o the d iet .

CAR I B OU Habita t

All the evidence relating to the vast interior territory , beginning in the 60 P P sou th at abou t township in the rai rie rovinces , extending to with in abou t O f O f thirty miles the Arctic coast , and from a short d istance west of the coast

Hudson bay on th e east , to the Alaskan bou ndary on the west , indicates that “ f o f thi s region i s tenan ted by vast nu mbers o wi ld caribou , principally th e

B arren land variety , which migrate annually over practically the same rou tes .

2 8 RE I N D EER AN D M USK - O X

a s C In Newfoundland , well as in all parts of anada which , while not com in prised the area specifically defined above , yet fu rnish a congenial habitat , t f caribou are o be found , bu t these , though d i fering widely from each other in minor points , are mostly of the Wood land variety .

Va rieties

Zoologists h ave somewhat arbitrarily , bu t by no means unanimou sly , o f f d ivided the caribou North America into some eleven di feren t groups , of ” “ ” as which six are classed B arren Land and five as Wood land caribou . The authori ties appear to be far from agreement in the matter of clas s ifica comm is s ion ei s tion , and you r h ave therefore though t i t best to refrain enti rely from the u se of the scientific names wh ich have been bestowed on the variou s “ ” “ t o n types”, and to refer them only in general terms as Wood la d and B arren Land caribou . The Zoolo g i s t s a r e a p p aren t ly agreed that all the d if ferin g varieties of caribou are capable of inter breeding , and as there are no arti ficial restraints and bu t few hard and fast natu ral barriers , it is not unreasonable to suppose that as in the case o f

a ib u nea a e Lake N. W .T . many other an i C r o r C r y , P hoto by $ . B . Tyrr ell . mals , the more pronounced poin ts o f d ifferen ce between the variou s types have had thei r origin in local conditions , and that many of the minor variations have resulted from the invasions of males from other herds . I n the reports o f school teachers and others who are in charge of reindeer n h erds in Alaska , appear from time to time , refere ce to wild male caribou j oining the herd s in the breeding season and leaving progeny larger and stronger than that from the domestic sires . f Similar exch anges undoubtedly occu r between herds o wild caribou , f r possibly di fering somewhat widely in size , form o other characteristics , with r the resul t that intermediate types are produced , leading to more o less confusion in classification .

I gnoring the finer d i stinctions , therefore , i t may be general ly accepted for the pu rposes Of thi s report , that in the coun try north O f the 5 5 t h parallel of latitude and east of the M ackenzie river , the herds seem t o be comprised almost altogether o f Barren Land caribou f 55 t h On the other hand , in the territory lying sou th O the parallel , as also in C f northern B ri ti sh olu mbia , and the sou thern hal f o the Yu kon Territory , the Wood land caribou seem to be in possession . RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

VVO O d land O f Th e caribou in these Western areas , which there are said to be two varieties , are of large size and i t i s from this d istrict o r the adj oinin g portion o f Alaska that the Un ited States Governmen t proposes to secu re th e o f males to be u sed in raising th e standard i ts reindeer herds .

In the northern Yu kon , the B arren Land caribou are again in evidence , although i t is claimed that the variety there fou nd differs in several respect s f from those dwellin g to the east o the M ackenzie river . One witness suggested the existen ce i n the territory lying south and sou th o f o f west Hudson bay , another caribou combining the characteristics of the

Woodland and B arren Land varieties . While there was lack o f defin ite in form on o f ation the poin t , i t i s for reasons given above , qu ite within the range possi b ilit ma . y that in thi s borderland area , such a type y have been evolved

Nu mbers M any witnesses gave valuable in formation regarding the large interior o f region , bu t none had actually seen any the reputed ly extraord inary masses

f . . o . t o of caribou , though the evidence M r J B Tyrrell as the comparatively b y C 1 8 93 is large h erd seen him at arey lake in not only most in teresting , but of cou rse , absolu tely authen tic .

a b u n ea a e Lak e C ri o r C r y , Ph t B o o by $ . . Tyrr ell .

From time to time the northern patrol s o f th e Royal Northwest M oun ted

Police h ave reported the exi stence of enormou s herd s of caribou . The followin g P wh o 1908 extract i s from th e report Of Inspector elletier , in commanded a w C patrol which travelled from Fort Saskatche an , Alberta , to hesterfield Inlet

n . and Fu llerton o Hudson bay , and returned to Regina

on o r 2 0 While on Artillery lake , abou t Ju ly Of that year , he states that “ t At the sou th end of Artillery lake , coun less deer were seen ; the

bucks and does seemed to belong to separate herds . They were crossing

and recrossing at that point wh ere the lake i s qu ite narrow , ranging from

one qu arter Of a mile to a mile and a hal f in wid th . For a d istance o f w about two or th ree miles the h ills were covered with them , and the ater

w a s brid ged in two or th ree d ifferen t places at a time . Th is migh t appear to be exaggerated ; I wou ld never have believed there were so many

30 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

n w . deer in the North , only o that I have seen them , I mu st Th e natives that we met at that place told u s that what we had seen was not the main

herd , bu t part of it ; that th e main herd was a few mi les u p th e lake on the west shore ; that they h ad ju st been there in their canoes the previou s n o t o f day . I f what we had seen was the main herd , bu t part it , I wond er

h ow large the main herd cou ld be . As soon as the lake widened to two or o f on e th ree miles , we lost sight the deer , and we sighted after on the y b e beach appeared greatl worried y fli s , frequen”tly taking a run in the water and making as much splashing as possible . 15 19 1 7 Again , on December , , Inspector And erson , of the Royal Northwest f P e o . M ounted olice , writing from Fort Fitzg rald , east the Slave river , to D r ' K i le M . nd E . , states “ There is nothing new here except the caribou . They are within

forty mi les of this place in tens of thou sands , and the natives are getting

nu mbers of animal s and will therefore have plenty to eat this winter .

The deer (caribou) are passing north , coming from the southeast , most n likely from Fond d u Lac on Lake Athabaska . They cou ld ot cross

there on accoun t Of late frosts , and swung around toward s Great Slave

lake . They say the animals are scattered over hund red of miles and s o literally in millions ; the fu rth er east one goes , they say , th e more f n n ot there are , and the bu falo o the plains in the long ago is a patch on n th is for nu mbers . Eventu ally they land in the barren grou d s where

nobody bothers them until they take another treck . I sen t the sergean t ou t on a patrol to see , and he reports that th e snow is tramped down for ’ miles as close as ice by the anim”als feet where they h ave passed in great numbers . I t i s most wonderfu l .

o f of n ot as I n view the lack exact in formation , on ly to th e nu mbers bu t the t o O f of ou r c ommis sion whereabou ts from time time those large band s caribou , y e rs would strongly recommend th at steps be taken , either by the use of aero O r as t o planes by such other means may be considered best , secure au thentic data on those points .

Absorption of Reind eer Herd s by Ca rib ou It e will be vident that in View of the conditions as described , i t will be i mpossible to favou rably consider either the establish ment , at least withou t o f ex e ri adequate fencing , the cost which would be practically prohibitive , of p o r f r mental reindeer herd s , the granting o leases o other concessions for the raising of reindeer , anywhere within the interior area . Not only would i t be physically impossible for the lessees t o keep reindeer b u under such control as would prevent thei r mingling with the wild caribou , t , o f leaving aside the possibility wilfu l and del iberate exploitation , the existence f f o leased areas , even i f fenced , in the natu ral haunts o these animals and the consequent interference with their freedom of movement , would be likely to prove a seriou s detrimen t to what is , even as matters now stand , a very valuable on e national asset , and the value of wh ich cou ld be greatly increased under a definite policy Of conservation and developmen t .

Domestica tion

n o There i s reason to doubt that given proper facilities for restrain t , and with intelligen t hand ling , young wi ld caribou wou ld readily yield to domestica

tion .

31 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL C OM M I SS ION

on I t i s , the other hand , equally beyond question , that while the wild caribou n r is dou btless su sceptible to domestication , he will not become tame , o will f the domestic reindeer remain tame , unless kep t under close and e fective control . In this connection i t i s worthy of note that o f the reindeer handed over by . 19 19 f D r . Gren fell in to the Departmen t Of Ind ian A fairs , and since maintained under fence at Lobster bay , on the north shore Of the Gul f of St . Lawrence , a f f number h ave escaped , while the remainder , as a consequence o ine ficient of herd ing and lack skilfu l h and ling , have largely reverted to a wild cond ition .

f . C . P o . Attention i s d rawn to the report M r C arker , Inspector o f Indian 15 19 19 Agencies , Of date November , , which i s attached as Append ix No . V I

Ca ribou Mea t

The witnesses who appeared before th e Commission were , with one exception , unanimou s in the opinion that the meat Of the wild caribou is both nu tritiou s and palatable .

All were agreed that in the l ate winter , spring and early su mmer , th is meat e i h e ver f is n t n y appetizing nor nu tritious , the animals being then thin and ou t o condition , bu t they stated withou t hesi tation that in the fal l and early win ter , ’ when the an imal s were fat after the su mmer s grazin g , the flesh is an excellen t

or . food , many claiming i t is superior to beef , mu tton other domestic meats

Conservation The evidence Of variou s witnesses wou ld appear to indicate the necessity f r o increasingly stringent regulations governing the slaughter o f wild caribou . C The statements of aptain J oseph F . B ernard , of Tignish , after a fou r years ’ voyage i nto Coronation gu l f and the Victoria island region in h is

dd B ar . Te e . . f schooner y , as taken by D r R M Anderson , and forming part o th e IX . as submissions Of the latter (see Append ix No ) , i s very valuable showing the tremendous and often u nnecessary slaugh ter of caribou by n atives at d ifferent points on the Arctic coast . Captain B ernard states that if the slaug hter which h as taken place in the last fou r years , since the natives have been armed with rifles as a resu lt of the C establishment of trad ing posts on oronation gu lf , continues , there will be no caribou left in that region within ten years .

. . M The Reverend W H Fry , Anglican issionary i n the north for ten years , o f six which were spent on the Arctic coast , was strongly of the Opinion th at someth ing should be done to regulate the killing o f the wild caribou . H e states u that every spring , j ust before the young are born , large numbers Of caribo are f on slaugh tered by the Esquimaux . M uch O this slaugh ter takes place the tund ra between H erschel island and the mountains which run obliquely to the coast , this being the breed ing ground Of the caribou in that region . o f d o accom M ost the animals killed are pregnant females , as the bucks not in pany the spring migration any numbers .

M r . Fry states that there is no necessity for the killing of these caribou , i f as there is plen ty o f other food available at that season of the year . H e s o Opinion that if the Government were to forbid the spring shooting o f female E m en caribou , the squimaux would take i t in good part , as the wiser among them realize that i t is foolish a nd speak Of it in that sense . ‘ u n ot There is no do bt that only the Esquimaux and the I nd ian , bu t many o f in whi te men as well , are in the habi t kill ing caribou large numbers and at al l

o f y o f . seasons the ear , wi thou t regard to the first principles wild l ife conservation

32 RE I N DEER AN D M USK -O X

As - ox i n the case Of the musk , al read y referred to , the acquisition by the O f o f natives fire arms instead th e bows and arrows wh ich they formerly used , n is responsible for th e tremendous increase in th e number of animals a nually , and in many cases , wasteful ly destroyed . The evidence secured by your commissioners is no t of such a nature as to warrant them in reach ing any definite conclusion as to the extent to wh ich the wild caribou h erds have been red uced in numbers from th is and other causes . o f Th e statements many wi tnesses , however , convey the impression that in a n number of locali ties , the h erds have , d uring recent years , bee seriously depleted , and in some cases practically exterminated . This applies to a large portion of o f the Arctic coast both east and west H erschel island , to th e M ackenzie basin , t o practically all the territory immediately tributary to H u dson bay and to that wh ich now forms th e northern part o f the three Prai rie Provinces

W olves a nd W olverines It is unfortunately beyond question that wolves and wolverines , especially the former , exact a constant heavy toll from the caribou herds .

Apparently wherever th e caribou exists , wolves are also found , and the wh e o f . . . o vid ence M r J B Tyrrell , perhaps to a greater exten t than any other witness h as h ad Opportuni ties of observing the wild li fe of the l arge central region , furnish ed most valuable information as to the manner in wh ich the wolves secure their prey by est ablish ing their d ens in close proximity to the various river crossings used by the migrating caribou . H e , at th e same time , ind icated certain methods by wh ich the losses from this cause could be largely prevented . H e referred t o the wolverine as a most dangerous , though perhaps no t so general a menace t o caribou l ife .

ESQU I MAUX AS H ERD ERS .

M uch confl icting evidence was given as to th e l ikel ihood o f the Esquimaux f w h o o r the I nd ians d eveloping in to efficien t herders . M ost o th e witnesses o f have had an Opportunity studying the Esquimaux at close range , appeared to th ink that if properly trained by Lapp experts , they would develop in to excel len t herders . This view is of course strongly supported by the experience of those in f E charge o the reindeer enterprise in Alaska , where th e squimaux have cl early demonstrated their adaptabil ity in this regard . wh o on M r . D . Jenness , Ethnologist , spen t one year in Alaska and two

Coronation gul f with the Canadian Arctic Exped ition , was not sure that i t would be at al l an easy task to convert th e native Esquimaux into efficient fo r h erders . While intelligen t and trustworthy , they have been generations fish hunters and fishermen , and as long as game , and seal are plentiful they will not , in h is Opinion , turn away from that l i fe for the more humdrum l ife of herd ing . I f , however , game became scarce , they would , h e though t , develop into herders as they h ad d one in Alaska . Milla n n o t . Mac Professor D . B also stated frankly that h e could imagine

f - ox two or three Esquimaux guard ing a herd o musk or caribou , as such an occupation was enti rely at variance with their usual mod e of l ife . As h e knew in th em in the far north , th eir summers were spent hunting and laying up pro o f in visions for the wi nter , while th e winter itsel f was a season pastime , spent visi ting and other forms o f Arctic enj oyment .

4 26 2 7— 3 33 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL CO M M I SSI ON

I t was generally agreed , however , that the Esquimaux was more l ikely than the I nd ian to become a herder , but several of th e most experienced mission aries though t that the latter could also be trained , though i t would take some time and effort t o make him rel iable and effi cient . Your commissioners d esire to emphasize the importance Of securing th e services of skilled Lapp herd ers to take charge of any rei nd eer h erd s wh ich may o r wh be established , and to act as instructors to ei th er wh ite m en natives o may later be entrusted wi th the care of reind eer .

M h P k n R n — A k e t od of ac i g e i d eer l as a .

e e a r L men N me A aska . Cou rt s y of C l o , o , l

Lapp s a s Herd ers I n thi s connection your commissioners d esire to call attention to Append ix X I N . o to this report , in which are embod ied excerpts from letters written by C c D r . Grenfell to M r . J ose M ach ad o , Secretary Of the anad ian B ran h of the o f I nternational Grenfell Association , and by M r . W . A . Kj ellman , Los Angeles , P o f o f Cali fornia , to the National arks B ranch th e Department the I nterior , suggesting that immed iate steps be taken by th e Canadian authorities to secure w h o as settlers i n the Canad ian Labrador a considerable number Of Lapps , , now fu llv owing to the reindeer ground in Norway and Sweden being taken u p , are d ebarred from extend ing the i nd ustry in th ese countries . You r commissioners are o f Opinion that the movement of th ese people from Lapla nd to Canada at the present j uncture would be most d esi rable from _ every point Of view , and would strongly u rge that the matter be given immed iate attention . i I f , as s suggested , th ey could be induced to bring wi th them considerable f o f t o numbers o reindeer , they would be th e greatest possible assistance the Government in carrying ou t the policy recommended i n this report of planting experimental herds in a number of d ifferent local ities . 34

REPORT OF TH E ROYAL CO M M I SSION

RECOMM EN DAT I ONS

I n conclusion , you r commissioners would respectfully recommend

HA n o f T T steps be take , ei ther by the use aeroplanes or otherwise , to ascertain at the earliest possible date the approximate numbers o f S - O X n in n M U K stil l in existe ce Northern Ca ada , and the locali ties i n

which they are to be found .

HA O f o f T T th e pol icy preventing any further slaugh ter these animals , o r o f ei ther by natives by wh ite men , except in case di re necessity , be

rigidly enforced .

HA one T T a station be establish ed i n of th e north ern islands , where m usk - O x now exist and where young animals may be read ily obtained for o f h ‘ purposes domestication , wit a View to later bringing considerable m t o nu bers some poin t furth er sou th and more readi ly accessible , at wh ich thei r d evelopment from a national ecOn omic stand poin t may b e

carri ed on and extended . of in Need less to say , the success this undertaking will , from i ts ce t ion on p , d epend entirely the personal and tech nical qualifications of

those who may be entrusted with i ts management . THAT small experimental REI N D EE R h erd s be established in a o f number such locali ties as may , after searching Departmental investi

a t ion of . g , be found most d esirable i n points vegetation and otherwise

HA o f for T T in th e selection th e locali ties these stations , the needs o f of the natives , in the matter food supply , be given the most careful

consideration . HA T T wh ere suitable arrangements can be made , the various mission ary bod ies be requested to co - Operate in an earnest effort to ensure th e o f n o t success the und ertaking , only by influencing the natives to protect h ow the animals , bu t also by encouraging them to learn to hand le and for care them , so that , as in Alaska , they may become herders and

even tually owners Of herds . Th is wil l involve the gradual working ou t Of a system sim ilar to that s o successfully followed by th e United States Government in n Alaska , whereby small numbers of reindeer are give to the natives in

recognition of the interest and ind ustry which they show i n the work .

THAT at least o ne experienced Lapp deer - man should be d etailed

to each herd , th is being necessary , not only to avoid mistakes i n hand ling t o the deer , but to ensure th at th e instruction given the natives is of a

sound and practical character .

THAT in View o f the information furnished by D r . Grenfell and M r . X I . . s e t . W J Kj ellman , as forth in Append ix No , and referred to else in f o f - where this report , to th e e fect that a number Lapp deer men migh t

be induced t o come to Canada and bring their herds wi th them , steps be

taken at once t o ascertain the exact cond itions in that regard .

o THAT if these conditions are found t be as represented , negotiations be entered in to immed iately wi th th e View of securing as many o f these

d esirable people as possible , in ord er that their services may be utilized in the d evelopmen t of the reind eer ind ustry in such areas as may be

approved for that purpose .

36 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

Your commissioners d o not feel that th ey would be j ustified in

recommend ing at the present time , any d efinite pol icy with regard to the granting o f further grazing leases to persons d esirous o f securing

such concessions . Your commissioners approved the grazing lease granted in 192 0 to m r . Vilh a a f M r j Stefansson on B a fi n island , because the local cond itions

as regards isolation are , i n that case , such that i t should be reasonably possible t o enforce th e limitations imposed by the lease with regard to

th e absorption of wild caribou i n the reindeer herd . Owing to the fact that on the mainland such enforcement would be o f quite impossible , especially in the case large , and , therefore , only very

partially domesticated reindeer herds , the reindeer would either become

al together wild , or the caribou , i f not d el iberately exploi ted for gain , be

driven to seek other pastures , thus interfering with their regular , periodical

migrations , and in all probability , causing them serious inj ury . The granting of leases on Victoria island or B anks i sland would also involve th e large h erd s o f wild caribou which annually cross from the o f on mainland , and many wh ich remain these island s from year to year . The information at the d isposal of your commissioners is not sufficient to warrant them in expressing any Opinion as to the feasibi lity o f fencing off of any of the peninsular areas on th e northern portion the mainland , so as t o permit of thei r being leased for grazing purposes withou t damage

t o th e wild caribou . I n this connection it should be remembered that in those areas in

Alaska to wh ich the reindeer were brough t , the wild caribou had been

previously al most altogether exterm inated .

For : the reasons above set forth , your commissioners would advise

HA o f T T great caution be exercised in th e granting grazing leases , and that no such leases be considered until after a most careful Depart

men tal investigation O f the local cond itions and possibilities .

Al together apart from the proposed introd uction of domestic reind eer the vast herd s of wild CAR I B OU wh ich undoub tedly still exist in the i n terior t o mainland area , repeatedly referred in th is report , consti tute a valuable o f national asset , the importance wh ich , if properly d eal t with , can be enormously enhanced , and your commissioners therefore respectfully recommend

( 1 1) THAT an earnest effort be made t o ascertain as soon and as closely

as possible the numbers and movements of the B arren Land caribou , especially those o n the mainland and o n the islands adj acen t thereto ; o f o f as also the numbers and movements the caribou other varieties , particularly those in the Yukon Territory and in northern B ri tish Colum

bia . THAT a comprehensive survey be made o f the vegetation and other condi tions having a bearing on the support o f h e rb iv e rou s animals in o f a s com the interior area , with th e obj ect securing information to the p ara t ive value of th e various d istricts for grazing purposes ; the exten t to which these natural pasture lands are now being used by the caribou ; the approximate numbers o f add itional caribou o r reindeer which migh t

reasonably be expected to find sustenance in the d ifferent districts . 37 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSION

I t will be obvious that in securing accurate and reliable d ata o n i o f these po nts , the migratory habits the caribou and the length of time t o required reprod uce the reindeer moss after i t has been eaten down , will have t o be closely studied THAT special attention be given to the enforcement of such regula tions as wi ll effectively prevent the wasteful or useless slaughter O f the

o r . wild caribou , ei ther by natives others

HA ina u r u ra t ed T T an intelligent and systematic campaign be g , o f having for its obj ect the extermination wolves , wolverines and such

oth er animals as prey upo n th e caribou .

HA T T at each of the Reindeer Experimental Stations , the establish o f for ment wh ich i s recommended herei n , provision be mad e the domestic o n o f o f ation , intelligent l ines , such nu mbers young wild caribou as may be conveniently hand led with the reindeer herd

All o f wh ich is respectfully submi tted .

. . . O (Sgd ) J G RUTH ERF RD ,

Chairma n .

(Sgd . ) J . S . M CLEAN , i Comm ssion er .

(Sgd . ) J . B . HARK I N , Commission er

m Cro ss b et w ee n Re ind eer and C arib o u (very s u p erior an i a l) .

u rtes o ar l L men N me A as ka . Co y f C o , o , l 38 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

APPENDICES

-I Evid ence taken at hearings , Volumes and I I (bound in separate cover) . f Reindeer I nd ustry in Alaska . Resume of the Operations O the Uni ted

States Governmen t .

- : f P ox o . . M usk in Domestication Statement rofessor W T Hornaday ,

C . urator , New York Zoological Society

M - ox : Reindeer and usk , H ud son Bay region Statement prepared by

C . . ap tain H Toke M unn , Arctic Explorer

’ D r . Gren fell s Experiment wi th Reindeer in Labrador : Statemen t pre f Mr . . o C pared by Jose A M achad o , Secretary anad ian B ranch ,

I nternational Gren fell Association .

Reind eer herd at Lobster B ay : Statements re herd taken over from D r . 1 Grenfell in 9 18 .

Reindeer herd at Fort Smith : Statement re h erd o f reind eer purchased o f by the Department the I nterior and taken to Fort Smith , on th e 1 1 1 9 . Slave river , i n

. : C . . c V I I I Ungava Submissions of Reverend W G Wal ton , hur h of England

M issionary , stationed at Fort George , J ames bay .

— Barren Land Caribou and M usk ox : M emorand um prepared by D r .

. C . . R M . And erson , from in formation secured from aptain J F

Ted d Bea r . B ernard , command ing schooner y Reind eer in Sibe”ria : Extract from Chapter X V I I I o f the Cruise O f 1 C 19 7 . th e orwin , by J ohn M uir , B oston ,

Lapp I mmigration to Northern Canada and Lapps as H erders : M em

o ra nd u m . C prepared by M r omm issioner Harkin , from corres

n n Mr . . . o d e ce . p passing between D r Grenfell , Jose A M achado , M r f . o Wm J . Kj ellman and the National Parks B ranch th e D epart f men t o th e I nterior .

Lapps and Reind eer in Swed en and Norway : Copy o f memorandum h m o f . Lu nd b o prepared by M r Hj almar , Delegate the Royal of o f E Swed ish Government , for the information the B ureau duca f tion o the United States Governmen t .

: X I I I . Reind eer i n Northern Eu rope M emorandum prepared from letter

Allana ch . add ressed to Commission by Captain A . X I V . Reind eer in Siberia . M emorandum prepared from information furnished o f C by Commodore B ertholf , formerly th e Un ited States oast

Guard Service .

39 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL CO M M I SSI ON

E D APP N IX No . I

o f E Transcript vid ence taken a t four h earings O ttawa , bound separately 1 2 as Volumes and , and submitted with th is report as Append ix No . I , assembled as follows

24 1 2 1— 1 4 1 7 . First hearing , January , 9 Volume , pages to 4 5 1 2 0— 1 75 2 8 0 Second hearing , February and , 9 Volume , pages to . 2 1 20 — l 2 2 1 4 9 30 9 8 33. Thi rd h earing , April and , Vo ume , pages to 1 2 1 2 — 9 0 2 t o 58 6 . Fourth hearing , M ay , Volume , pages

4 0 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

APPENDIX No . I I

REV I EW O F TH E ALASKAN RE I N D EER SE RV I CE OF TH E UN ITE D STATES D EPARTM ENT O F TH E I NTE R I O R AS COM PI LED FROM TH E OFF I CIAL REPORTS OF TH E UN ITED

STATES GOVE RN M ENT .

O f 18 90 . I n the summer , Dr Sheldon Jackson , Uni ted States General Agent Bea r o f Education i n Alaska , accompanied th e revenue cu tter in i ts annual t h e on cru ise in B ering sea and th e Arctic ocean , visiting all important villages both the Alaskan and Siberian shores . H e found the Alaskan Eskimos in a ou t deplorable cond ition . They were eking a precarious existence upon th e few in whale , seal , and walrus that they could catch , while , across B ering strait ,

Siberia , bu t a few miles from Alaska , wi th climate and country precisely similar , were tens of thousand s of tame reind eer supporting thousand s of natives . Th e o f flesh and milk th e reindeer furnished food , i ts skin provided clothing and n n bedd ing , and in wi ter the reindeer made possible rapid communicatio between

Eu ean e i n e Alaska rop R deer , T ll er , .

the scattered vil lages . Dr . Jackson was impressed wi th th e fact that i t would be wise national policy to introd uce domestic reind eer from Siberia into Alaska on as a source of supply for food and clothing to the Alaskan Eskimos , and t o 18 90 h is return Wash ington , in September , , brough t the matter to the atten o f o f tion the Commissioner Ed ucation , D r . W . T . H arris , who endorsed th e P proj ect and gave i t h is enthusiastic support . end ing the approval of a congres sion al t e t h e appropriation for h support Of enterprise , an appeal was mad e to benevolent ind ividuals for a preliminary s u m i n ord er that the experiment

. o f migh t be commenced at once Th e sum was secured , and sixteen ’ 7 2 reindeer were purchased in and 1 1 in 1 8 9 . These deer were obtained Ca Serd e on from pe q and South H ead , Siberia , and were brough t over th e B a revenue cu tter e r to Port Clarence . Siberian h erders were brough t over

4 1 . REPORT OF TH E ROYAL CO M M I SSI ON

. t o with th e reind eer Arrangements were mad e that these herders were be fed , h o r cloth ed and housed , also furnis ed wi th tobacco i ts equivalen t , at Govern t o 50 men t expense , and i n add i tion the above $ worth Of barter good s at the end o f the year . 18 92 I n , th e Tel ler Reind eer Station was established at the extrem e north

f P , o . east corner ort Clarence bay , near Grantley harbour Th is , as th e work o f o f grew , became the base supply from wh ich new centres the reind eer ind u stry were established . 18 93 I n , Congress mad e th e first appropriation of for th e work . D r . in n r J ackson , ord er to secure some intelligen t Norwegi a o Swed e accustomed o f to the method s caring for reind eer in Lapland , sent a notice to th e Scand inavian newspapers in the Uni ted States that the Government wished to secure the services of a man acquainted wi th the managemen t o f reindeer . Abou t 2 50

. f . o . replies were received , and M r William A Kj ell man , M ad ison , Wis , was o f selected as superintend ent the reind eer station , as he had had consid erable ex e rien ce p in buying and selling reindeer and reindeer prod ucts in Lapland . I t was almost the universal opinion of those from whom replies were received that

— — — A s k a c ns t uct e s u ce es and b u sh c e s se e a a c es A win t e r corra l o n t h e Bu ck l a n d River . l a o r d of pr pol r ov r v r l r will acco m mod a t e fro m e ig h t t o t en t h o u san d re i nd ee r .

u rtes o ar L men N me Alaska . Co y f C l o , o ,

- a nd l there were no full blood ed Lapps in the United States , that i t was essentia to th e success Of the movement that a few fami lies o f Lapps should be secured

t o . to d o the h erd ing , and also to give instruction the Eskimo young men Th ey also expressed the Opinion th at the trained dogs O f Lapland were necessary for h erd ing . They further took the position that the Lapps have method s for the n care o f reind eer superior to th e customs o f the Sib erians . Upo the selection o f M r . Kj ell man as superintendent of th e station , he was at once sen t to Lap C 18 94 land for the necessary Lapps and dogs . Th e reindeer fund of ongress for being exh austed , i t become necessary to again appeal to private ind ivid uals n for t o d efray the expenses Of send ing M r . Kj ell man to Lapla d , and to pay th e transportation of th e Lapps and thei r families to the Uni ted States . 18 93 12 7 During the summer of , add itional reind eer were purch ased in

Siberia . f 1 8 4 I n the summer o 9 , as the fi rst herd s were purchased from private t o 100 o f : funds , i t was proposed give reindeer to each th e fol lowing stations o f E the Congregationalists , at Cape Prince Wales ; the Swedish vangelical

4 2

RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION and acknowledges the fact that the Lapland er is far ahead in that matter and practically the only people wh o could be used ' t o sa t is fact orily t rain th e native

Eskimo .

18 97 S o f I n , reindeer were purchased from iberia at an average cost to $4 in barter good s . 18 98 S A further purchase of reind eer was mad e in in iberia , amounting 1 to 16 .

on 31 1903 D r . Jackson reports that there were December , , reindeer gathered in eleven herds at n ine central stations . and that during th e spring of

1903 . , fawns were born and lived Th e total appropriations up to th is time covering a period o f t welve years mad e by the United States Government

Re n ee on t h e T a A a sk a . i d r r il , l

u tes o ar L men N me Al as ka . Co r y f C l o , o , for th e in trod uction o f reind eer amounted t o for wh ich th e Govern ment had to show reindeer used for the instruction and support Of about

300 natives .

n 8 00 The North Eastern Siberia C ompany , Limited , had agreed to del iver female reindeer to the Governmen t at Teller Reind eer Station . Th e company i s said to have secured in Siberia 700 d eer in fulfilmen t o f its agreemen t wi th the in sea n Government , bu t before navigation Opened northern B ering th e Russia

Government recalled its permission to export the deer to Alaska . On account o f n o of this action th e Russian Government , deer were exported from Siberia t o 1 Alaska d uring th e year 903.

I n the same year i t was pointed ou t that owing to interbreed ing withi n the herd s th ey were d eteriorating , and i t was then suggested that there should b e an interchange o f bu cks between th e various reindeer stations . 4 4 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

Th e report of 1904 gives the following statistical table showing the increase from the time of the introduction Of domestic reindeer into Alaska up to 1904 :

Yea r

Tot al

The following table shows the increase of fawns from 18 93 to 1904 :

l u 10 26 7 Tot a fawns s rviving , , .

a a a 18 93- 1904 4 5 Aver ge incre se of herds by f wns , , per cent .

190 7 e I n , rules and regulations were cod ified for the reind eer s rvice in

Alaska . They provided for the supervision o f herds and stations to be includ ed in the d uties of the District Superintend ent of Schools under the United States

. on B ureau of Ed ucation An apprentice entering the reindeer service , if h is is o f work approved by the local superintendent , receives at th e end th e first year of his apprenticeship six reind eer (fou r females and tw o males) ; at th e o f h is fiv e end second year , eigh t reind eer ( females and th ree males) ; at th e end o f s ix h is third year , ten reind eer ( females and four males) ; at the end Of four 4 5 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

f years , i f the apprentice has been sati sfactory and successful in the ca re o rein - o ne is on f d eer and is twenty years of age , h e th e recommendation o the local

. P n superintendent , certified as a trained h erd er rovisio is also mad e for th e o f extension th e apprenticesh ip i f h e has failed to quali fy in four years , bu t he no o f is granted extra d eer d uring th e period the extension . Upon the termin

$ ation of h is apprenticesh ip , th e apprentice becomes a herder and assumes charge o f h is h erd , subj ect to the su pervision Of the school au thori ties ; the herder whose herd numbers at l east 50 reind eer shall train apprentices and d istribu te to them reindeer unti l h e shall have trained and rewarded th ree apprentices ; h is first during th e period wh en h is herd numbers at least 5 0 and not more tha n 1 50 ; the second wh en h is h erd numbers at least 1 5 1 and not more th an 2 50 ; and the th ird apprentice when h is h erd numbers at least 2 5 1 and not more tha n

300 reindeer .

NO native herder is permi tted to sell , exchange , give , kill (except in cases o f mercy) o r in any way d ispose of any female reind eer except to th e Government o f n the United States or , with the writte approval of the District Superin tend ent o f Schools , to another native inhabi tant of Alaska . “ ” The term native o f Alaska as used in the rules and regulations signifies o f o f f a d escendant any th e aboriginal inhabitants o Alaska . Realizing that th e establ ishment O f an export trad e in reindeer prod u cts O f was essential to th e success the enterprise , the bureau encouraged the sh i p o f men t reind eer meat and h ides from Alaska t o th e States . Th e last steamer to leave Nome before the closing of navigation by ice brough t to Seattle in 19 14 - five October , , twenty carcasses of reindeer , wh ich were pl aced on sale at 20 3 5 . Seattle , retailing at from to cents per pound The Ch ief of th e Alaska Divi sion also brough t from Nome three carcasses to be d istribu ted among th e five n ou t o f continental railway li es running Seattle , in order that reindeer meat on w m igh t be given a trial d ining cars , with a vie to securing for the natives f contracts for the delivery o reindeer meat each season .

’ o f 19 14 - 15 is During the winter , the B ureau s Superintendent , who stationed o f t h e o f E u at Nome , wi th the approval Commissioner d cation , d istributed among th e Eskimo herd ers in northwestern Alaska a proposal from a cold for storage company operating between Seattle and Nome , to market i n Seattle E n . skimos on a commissio basis , th e reindeer meat consigned to said company This action will probably resul t in the sh ipment of a consid erabl e quantity o f

’ reindeer meat from Nome d uring each summer . Th e responsibili ty of accepting or rej ecting th e proposal o f the cold - storage company rested with th e native owners Of reind eer , the superintend en ts acting in an advisory capaci ty and assisting in making the necessary arrangements .

Soon after the inception of the reindeer enterprise , certain Lapps were brough t from Lapland to Alaska and employed by the B ureau as instructors o f E o f th e skimos in the care and managemen t th e reindeer , each Lapp receiving a certain n umber of reindeer in payment for h is services . D uring the summer o f 19 14 , a company , organized at Nome , purchased abou t reindeer from o ne o f these Lapps . Th is company intended to purchase other h erds owned

t o f . by Lapps , and engage in the exportation o reindeer meat and h id es 19 14 I n , th e reindeer ind ustry extend ed from the mainland to the ou tlying

. 19 14 island s D uring August , , upon the request of th e D epartmen t of th e n n o f f I nterior , the revenue cu tter Ma ni g conveyed a herd orty reind eer from o n t o Ugash ik , th e Alaska peninsula , Atka , a remote island in th e Aleu tian w as chain , wh ere it a valuable factor in alleviating th e deplorable condi tions

4 6 REI N DEER AN D M USK - O X

o f wh ich have h itherto prevailed upon that d esolate island . The extension the w a s 19 14 reind eer industry into south east Alaska begun during October , , by the m t o on o f sh ip ent M etlakatla , Annette island , eigh t reindeer from th e herd i n the vicini ty o f Nome .

N UMBER O F R EI ND EE R BELO NGI NG TO E ACH C LASS O F O W NE RS i N 19 14 - 15

NO . of Reindeer I ncrea se Per cent owned Owners Per cen t

Governmen t

n L a pps a d other whites . N atives

A NNUAL I NC REASE AND D ECREASE O F R E I ND EE R

Yea rs

Tot al

- Two h u ndred a nd forty six killed in Ba rrow relief expedition .

Some of the fig u res which m a ke u p these tot a ls a re estim a ted .

a u a a a 4 0 a 23. Per cent of nn l incre se by f wns , ; net since im port tion , 4 7 REPORT O F THE ROYAL COM M I SSION

M NT PPR PR ATE R W TH AND E LT O F NTR T O N O F E N EER NT LA K A. A OU S A O I D , G O , R SU S I OD UC I R I D I O A S

First Next Last ten five eight yea rs yea rs yea rs Tot al ( 18 93- 1902) ( 1903 07) ( 1908 15 )

75 000 307 000 Appropriations $ , $ f 60 76 N u mber O herds est a blished . N u mber of n atives becom ing owners of

reindeer . Average cost to Government per owner N u mber of reindeer pa ssing into na tive 3 5 6 5 4 0 277 ownership , Vaa t ion of sa me I ncome received by n a t ives N u mber of Government reindeer at end of period Val u ation of sa me

WEALTH PROD UC ED BY I NTROD UCTION O F R EI ND EER I N ALAS K A

V a l u ation of reindeer owned by n a tives in 19 15 at $25 each ” al a 18 93 19 15 ” Tot income of n tives from reindeer , u a 2 3 5 6 0 al a a nd wt a nd Va l tion of , reindeer owned by missions , L p nders other hi es , 19 15 Government , a l i a a and 18 93 Tot income of missions a r d L pl nders , other whites , from reindeer 19 15 ”

a l a u nd Tot v l a tion a income . l 18 93- 19 15 Tot a Government a ppropriations ,

Ga in ( 62 1 per cent)

19 16 of for n I n , the appropriation the d istribu tio of reindeer among th e natives and the training of th e natives in the care a nd manageme n t Of reind eer was used to establish herds and t o support native apprent ices being o f trained in the ind ustry . The increased cost food and clothing h ad mad e i t i mpossible for the Government to train as many apprentices with the same appropriation as formerly . The fairs during the winter proved to be a great stimulus t o the natives e ngaged i n th e reindeer industry . A conservative estimate would place the total number of reind eer i n Alaska o n 30 19 1 7 e is u J une , , at Th is larg number the resul t Of the introd ction fo r into Alaska o f reindeer from Siberia . The statistics the year end ing

30 19 16 o f n 8 5 . J une , , show a total rei deer , d istributed among h erds r 8 o r Of th is number o 5 per cent , were owned by natives ; 4 or 6 per cent , by the United States , per cent , by missions ; and f o r 33 i . o per cent , by Laplanders ar d other wh ites That this ind ustry is para mount importance to the natives interested i s recognized i n the fact that i n 191 7 n o f the income o f the natives from this i d ustry , exclusive meat and h ides used

9 1 4 30 . by themselves amounted to $ , While the primary Obj ect o f the ind ustry was t o assist the natives and for 19 14 1 7 this reason i t had been restricted to them as much as possible , the years s aw the entrance o f the wh ite m an into the enterprise . The rules and regulations n forbade natives t o sell female deer excep t to natives . H owever , certai Lap landers who were b rough t to Alaska fo r the purpose o f instructing natives in 4 8 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

o f r the care deer , for wh ich they received reindeer , we e not subj ect to this restriction and consequently a herd O f about d eer w as acquired by Lomen 1 15 C 19 14 . 9 and ompany , o f Nome , d uring During , th is company desiring to increase its herd and not find ing any more Lapp deer conveniently available , negotiated a purchase o f abou t d eer from herd s of th e Swed ish Evangelical

C . M ission ovenant of America , at Golovin These h erd s were th e resul t Of a of u loan of deer mad e to the mission during the earlier d ays th e ind stry , wh en i t wa s th e desire o f th e B u r ea u of Ed ucation to d istribu te the deer a s quickly as possible . The appropriations being small and the philanthropi c enterprise o f being in l ine with missionary work , i t was though t th at the loan a small h erd o f to each mission in the fi eld , with th e und erstand ing that th e same method as d istribution to the natives should be used in the Government herds , would o f o f be mutual assistance , and would aid materially in th e rapid d istribu tion the d eer . Some of the earlier contracts covering such loans were d rawn very ’ loosely . I t appears that Golovin M ission s loan was mad e under oral agreement with the then local missionaries . Years later , th e missionaries had changed f o f and the agreemen t was gradually forgotten , so that when the o fer about

C . was mad e by Lomen and ompany , it was forthwith accepted The matter has since been the subj ect o f controversy be tween the B ureau and the mission board , i n wh ich the former has tried to Show th e board that , although o the legal reasons may be poor , the board is morally bound t preserve the o f o f d original obj ects th e in troduction d eer into Alaska , namely , the istribution among the natives . The Norwegian Evangelical Lu theran Church , at Teller , 19 16 300 n in sold abou t deer to Lome and Company . Th e loan to this mission is covered by written con tract , wh ich , i t is alleged , has been del iberately broken by the mission by this sale of femal e d eer t o other than natives . Th e matter o f was referred to th e Departmen t J ustice , and its final ou tcome will be import f ant , since i t will a fect the status of all d eer now held by missionary organiza tions in Alaska . 1 916 a n I n , increased appropriation was recommended for the purpose o f fo r employing two specialists , whose d uties would be to introd uce methods improvement of breeding and scientific handling of the deer ; to investigate m reindeer d iseases and establish means of co batting them , and to give special attention to all matters pertaining to the improvement Of the ind ustry . Th e enterprise had then assumed such p roportions as made i t imperative that i t be hand led in a scientific manner . Th e past appropriations had been only large enough for the work of d istribu ting the d eer among the natives . B ecause of O f the lack fund s this d istribution had necessarily been limited and very gradual . The following table shows what a financial success this phase O f Govern ment enterp rise has been during th e 2 5 years since i ts inception :

a ua 6 7 4 4 5 19 17 2 V l tion of , reindeer owned by n atives in , a t $ 5 ea ch . a a 18 93- 19 17 25 Tot l income of n tives from reindeer , ( yea rs) ” a u a nd O wte and V l tion of reindeer owned by missions , La pl a nders a ther hi s , 19 17 Government , . a a nd a a a nd 18 93- 1917 Tot l income of missions L pl nders , other whites , from reindeer ,

Tot a l va l u a tion a nd income a a 18 93- 19 Tot l Government ppropri ation , 1 7

a 926 25 a n 37 2 930 34 5 G in ( per cent for ye rs , or a avera ge a nn u a l ga in of per cent) ” $ , ,

T — N O E . The 16 reindeer st a ted in ea rlier United Sta tes Government Reports to h ave been a a 190 1 a a a a u as a imported to Al sk in , were pp rently p id for by priv te s bscription , they h ve been u a nd a u omitted from the sched les c lc l ations of the Bu rea u of Ed u ca tion . These l a ter reports 17 1 a u 18 92 s show the he d p rch a sed in , a the commencement of Government importa tion , the a 16 origin l not forming pa rt of the tot a l import ation of hea d . 4 2 6 2 7 —4 49 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSION

The reind eer ind ustry in Alaska , wh ich as shown by the foregoing statement , was inaugurated by the B ureau o f Ed ucation Of the Uni ted States Department of the I nterior , has now attained such proportions that the D epartment o f

Agricul ture h as been asked to assist in i ts d evelopment .

D uring th e past year th e officers Of the B ureau of B iological Survey h ave accord ingly been investigating the ind ustry , with a view t o improving the of s o methods breed ing and handl ing , as to increase th e size and weigh t of th e t o u animals , and at the same time take s ch steps as will prevent th e parasitic infestation and oth er cond itions wh ich h ave h ad so d etrimental an effect upon th e herds .

1 1 . . f f 9 9 E . O u o I n J uly , , D r W Nelson , Chief the B reau B iological Survey , Ha e n . d w P visited Alaska , taking with h im D r , formerly Chief arasi tologist of n the Canadia Government , as also a range expert from the Uni ted States Forest

Service .

o n A reind eer experimental station has been located at Unalakleet , th e f one t w - five coast o B ering sea , about h und red and enty miles from the mouth o f of the M ackenzie river and eigh ty miles east Nome , th ere being many reindeer herd s in that region . Th e investigations wh ich h ave been since cond ucted h ave shown th at certain simple changes in th e methods o f handling the reindeer herd s will be of great benefit in redu cing losses and prod ucing better stock .

o f - M uch the land has been over grazed , resul ting not only in depreciation f on n o f o th e vegetation the range , bu t in serious in festatio the reindeer wi th parasi tes of fiv e or six di fferent kind s . An endeavour is being made to determi ne t o h ow n o f a grazing uni t , that is learn much land , u der the condi tions th e range , one reindeer needs to maintain i t for a year .

When th is information is secu red i t wi ll be possible t o work o u t a system o f allotments of terri tory to the owners o f d ifferent h erds .

The natives now own reindeer , which will increase rapid ly , and their interests must be safeguard ed .

Th e following quotations from the evidence given by D r . N elson , before C : the ommi ttee on Appropriations , at Wash ington , are very interesting “ A rapid survey o f the country t o determine the area sui table for reindeer and its camping capaci ty will be Of prime importance in develop o f ing th e i ndustry . At the same time th e proper method s h and ling th e

‘ herds must be worked ou t . I nterest in th is industry will d evelop , and i t

wil l be of the greatest value t o the fu ture o f Alaska .

o f one As a matter fact , i t appears to be the great outstand ing

opportunity for new developmen t in th e near future in northern Alaska . t o The presen t reindeer in Alaska , in addi tion tens of thousand s

- killed for meat , all came d uring the last twenty eigh t years from an u n b eliev original importation o f animals . Th e increase is almost o f able . People have asked me what th e future th e industry is l ikely to ‘

be , and I have replied by asking them the question , I f reindeer

- in twenty eigh t years prod uced the present animals , what i s likely to be the increase from animals in the next twenty - eigh t $’ years I n o”ther words , the industry , properly handled , should have a great futu re . 50

REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

APPENDIX No . I I I

M US K - O X

re sed to the Commission b P ro essor W . T . Hornad a Cu ra tor New Letter a dd s y f y, , l o t York Z oo ogica l S cie y .

NEW O RK O O LO GI AL O E Y Y Z C S C I T ,

1 L . E . O HERN O E ARD 8 5TH ST . S UT B U V 1 2 8 19 9 . M ay ,

— EAR IRS M - O x D S , y personal experience with th e musk species h as been confined to efforts to maintain that species here in th e Zoological Park . I t is qui te true that we have been very successful in keeping musk - ox specimens t o al ive , and rearing them to maturi ty in the , them , unfortunate climate of ' w e h a ve N ew York C ity , and i t is also true that secured the best record thus

- far in the longevity o f captive musk O x . Th e specimen wh ich l ived longest we had with us fo r very nearly eigh t years .

- — N u rt es o Dr . W . T . Hornad a Z ica l S ciet y , . Y . Mu sk ox Ca lf Co y f y , oolog o

- ox In add i tion t o th is I have read , and at times stud ied , every scrap of musk literature that I could obtain . Need less to say , I have always been keenly interest ed in that remarkable animal . 5 2 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

I have tal ked wi th M r . Stefansson and have had several very interesting

- conversations with h im regarding h is plan for musk ox domestication . While I is f feel that the undertaking beset with many d i ficulties , I shall be the last person in th e world t o d iscourage experiments . I realize quite fully the value that would accrue t o civil ization in Northern Canada if the domestication of

- th e m usk ox could be accomplished o n an extensive scale . I think that th e stake is worth playing for , patiently , skill fully and determinedly . The chances against a quick and easy winning are , in my opinion , about as n ine to one ; but

‘ in view of what man has accomplished in other d irections , i t does seem worth

- wh ile to pursue th e musk ox idea .

for o u I n my Opinion , th e very first thing y to call for is a thoroughly can u on d efinite and fully d etailed plan , that be considered and j dged i ts merits ,

and or . of either adopted , modified discarded At presen t I know nothing more

o f . available for d iscussion than the mere outl ine the idea . I have no doub t M r S t efan nson t o would , i f asked , be glad enter into details covering the selection o f a locality as being most suitable and advantageous for the experiment , the

o f . capture and transportation specimens , and finally , their care in captivity

I t must be remembered that in the domestication of a wild species , fenced a lim areas are absolutely essential . I think there is no such th ing possible as cc a t iz in - ox O f - for g the musk in a state semi domestication , such subsequent use f W o . as man may elect , ithou t resorting to wire fences , and plenty them I n my opinion , large areas will need to be enclosed in order that the animals may be as free as possible and yet not be permi tted to wander away .

I th ink that any specimens Of th e musk - ox that migh t be brough t into any C ivilized settlement would i n the first instance h ave to be most carefully guarded against being killed by dogs ; and in the second place , they must be imprisoned by fences o r they ass u red ly would wander away and come to grief . An The capture o f specimens would be a comparatively easy matter . exped ition could be sent to Ellesmere Land in the spring season , and i f con i i P . d t o ns are at all as they were in th e d ays when M r . aul J Rainey captured a u s o f f - five h erd for , it would be a matter no great di ficulty to Obtain twenty young specimens . These specimens could then easily be transported to Fort C or O f u hurchill , some other point on the west shore H udson bay , which I sho ld j udge would be the best locali ty available for the experiment .

I will not enter upon th e subj ect o f the care Of the musk - ox in captivity b n ow when first captured , for y reason of our experience that has become a rou tine matter . Th e crucial test would come when the animals would be sent fo rth into th e

t o ow n f no t . world subsist through their e forts , only in summer bu t in winter Whether they would find food of a satisfactory character in their new home can be d eterm ined only by actual experiment .

t o O f Need less say , all these various steps must be mad e the subj ect careful study , and executed on a scientific basis . Fortunately , the cost involved would not be so great as t o be proh ibi tive .

- ox Thus far , the musk never has bred in captivity , and the calves that were on O f captured at Franz Fj ord , the east coast Greenland , and transported to

Norway for acclimatization in a similar local ity promptly failed to survive . I n the Uni ted States (save now and then an exceptionally choice ind ividual) the moose cannot l ive or breed south Of th e sou thern boundary O f the habitat that i t occupied when man became acquainted with i t . J ust why th e moose can

53 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

l ive in th e Ad irondacks and cannot l ive in the Catskills Of southern New York , many have wond ered , bu t nobody knows . Th ere have been only very few o f own e cases the moose breed ing outsid e of i ts natural haunts , and I r gard those as truly exceptional occu rrences .

- ox is I sincerely hope that th e musk experiment will be mad e , and if i t , th e Canadian Government may rest assured that all zoologists will be keenly

of . in terested , and will wish it a full measure success

I d o not believe that musk - ox wool ever can become a valuable commercial product . I th ink th ere is no practical way in wh ich th e wool can be mad e availabl e in commercial quan tities . We once combed the wool completely ou t o f a two - year - old musk - ox at a time wh en i t had b een sh ed and was read y to

ou t . work through th e long h ai r I t is a long and tedious operation , and abou t - ox f one month later that parti cular musk d ied o pneumonia . We never again attempted an experimen t of that kind .

- ox I n my opinion , the musk would b e valuable only as a domesticated food O f animal , but that factor alone would amply j usti fy the domestication the spec ies .

There are many th ings wh ich migh t be said abou t musk - ox temper and temperamen t , bu t i t is unnecessary to enter upon th at here .

a t o Concerning caribou , I believe that i t would be inadvis ble to attempt dom esticate th e B arren Ground species . I t is th e View o f th e biologist and stockbreeder that i t takes many generations really to d omesticate a wild species , so that i t ceases to be wild , and takes kind ly to captivity , generation after gener

- ation . M any generations of reindeer breed ing have produced that temperament

a n . i n the reind eer , and that is asset wh ich i t is well worth while to emphasize I t is my recommendation th at instead of attempting t o domesticate the B arren

Ground caribou , i t would be wiser to introduce reindeer . There is everyreason to suppose that reindeer can live and thrive wh erever caribou can live , and now , o f in view the reindeer breed ing in Alaska , it will be a comparatively easy matter t o secure not only breeding stock , but also natives who know how to hand le i t , and to instruct oth er parties in its care .

T . (Sgd . ) w. H OR NADAY

5 4 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

APPENDIX No . IV

E E - O X R I ND E R AN D M US K , H UDSO N BAY REG I O N

mmi a a H e Mu nn Ar ti E l r r Letter ad d ressed to the Co ssion b C t in . Tok c c x o e y p , p

NIO R ARL O N L B J U C T C U , P LL A ALL . 1 M , S W , 1 1 2 5 0 . M arch , 9

— R SIR t o ou of 24 t h D EA , Replying y rs February I enclose here wi th some notes on the subj ect for the Commission . M r . V . Stefansson wrote me a series o f questions abou t two or three months ago to wh ich I replied very f fully . I understood th is was for your Royal Commission o wh ich he was a member . I have not th e copy of my reply by me . Had I been financially abl e to do so i t would h ave given me much pleasure to come to Canada to give evidence n for C o this subj ect , no doubt the ommission would l ike in formation on many not points I have touched , and also have some queries as to those I have dealt with . ' — — One somewhat serious obj ection t o using Coats or another island as a breed ing ground is th e d i fficul ty of transporting the d omesticated caribou or reindeer elsewhere unless a good harbour was available . Th is would not apply to any h erd s raised for food . I believe in some years the narrowest waters C bet ween oats and Southampton islands must freeze and set , and by careful F r Observation a herd cou ld be d riven across . o experimental purposes an a W island is vastly preferable , s all losses from wolves , straying into ild herds ,

o f . . native hunters unaware the domestication experiments , etc , would be avoided The Commission may consider my report unnecessarily unfavourable to ex p eri ’ P on Baffin s . ments Land ersonally , I should welcome such experiments there , thou g h I should consider them doomed t o failure except for the sl igh t benefit th e natives would eventually Obtain from skins and meat accruing to them . t oo Th e subj ect is long a one to deal with in a letter su ch as this , and I only need ’ add that the cost of m aintaining a h erd and protecting it on Baffin s Land would be altogether ou t of proportion to any benefits likel y to be obtained . I shall b e happy t o reply further to any queries you may send . I migh t state I 150 expect t o sail for the Arctic in June wi th our li ttle vessel ( tons) , and will be glad to bring the Commission back any particular information t hey may require i f I can Obtain it .

I am , sir , yours faith fully ,

(Sgd . ) H EN RY TOKE M UN N .

’ O T — N E C a pt a in M u nn s report follows .

55 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSIO N

Re i nd eer The establish men t of a herd Of “ reindeer in th e Arctic is quite feasible and th e best place for th e in troduction o f a nucleu s L cat n o io of on o f h erd would be one the islands in H ud son bay , preferably Nu c le u s Herd Coats island .

This island is abou t sixty miles long , th e feed i s excellent , no on of there are wolves th ere , and th e north side plenty walrus can be Ob tained for blubber and food i f Esquimaux are employed o f as herd ers . There is already a considerable number B arren

Land caribou there . These shou ld be reduced to a small number

and th e calves caugh t a nd pu t in wi th th e reind eer .

C a rib o u I am sligh tly familiar with th e Lapland reindeer : they are fo r all practical pu rposes id en tical , as far as I know , with the v ne Arctic caribou . I h a e known at least o successful instance

. of domestication Th e only animals , which migh t prey on tame o n reindeer Coats island are th e Polar bears , wh ich are numerous

on Coats i sland though th ey very rarely are able t o kill caribou . Polar bear are easy to kil l and wou ld soon aband on a place Domest icat io n of where they were frequently hunted ; a few Esquimaux dogs Barren Land Carib o u wou ld be necessary for th is work and would have to be trained n o t t o f hunt reindeer ; this presents some di ficul ty , b u t i t is

feasible .

So u th ampt on Southampto n island would be another possibl e reindeer I s l an d u ground , bu t the caribo are fai rly n umerous there and would cause some losses by reind eer j oin ing them ; also there are wolves

there . — — Ice Set t ing Rowes Welcome o n native reports freezes and th e ice t o Main l an d 19 16 19 1 7 sets to the mainl and abou t every other year . I n , ,

19 18 the ice did not set th ere to my own knowledge . There are

in e . . other island s H ud son bay , g , Salisbury , Nottingham ,

t h e s an s in for O r I l d M ansell , Charles , migh t be sui table reind eer , the first two Hu d so n Bay . are hilly and broken , also natives frequ ently w inter there

’ am Th e Hudson s B ay Company have , I told , recently pu t an o u t station o n Coats island ; before this no natives went there

to stay . The expenses o f experimentation wi th reindeer on Coats i sland could be largely d efrayed by i mporting North ern Pacific blue fox there and allowing them t o increase ; there are many

Arctic fox there and th ey seem t o d o well . I f this were done i t o f would have to be mad e a Governmen t reserve . I know no place where experiments in domesticatio n o f B arren Land

caribou could be better carried on .

’ So u t h e rn Th e establ ishmen t of reindeer herd s o n Baffin s Land Bafli ns Lan d C presents several d i fficul ties . aribou are very numerous round ’ Lake Ne t t iling and in the interior of Ba ffin s Land in summer . O f late years large herd s have come down to the northw est

Shores Of Cumberland gul f in winter , always followed by wolves , W olves for these pests l ive on the caribou ; wolves were nu merous at o f the above named locality last wi n ter . The risk loss , both

from reind eer m ingling with caribou and becoming wild , and

from wolves would be great . 5 6 RE I N D EER AND M USK - O X

The reindeer wou ld also have to be protected from th e Na t ive Do g s Esqu imaux dogs ; these are an importan t necessi ty to the natives and cannot be d one wi thou t . Reindeer could no t fill

o f o u t e . . sme l many the functions carried by the sled dogs , g , the ou t Do g s e s u s Re in ling of the seal breath ing holes in winter , travell ing over bad v r d eer for Nat ives or ligh t ice , bear hunting and protecting the native igloos from attack by bear . Dogs are , and always wi ll be , a prime necessi ty t o natives of Baffin s Land . Reindeer could not make many of the long j ourneys done no by dogs because they are done on the sea ice , and reindeer food i s ob tainable in places along the coast for many miles . n Dogs are fed on seal o these j ourneys as a rule . Caribou skins are a prime necessity to the natives for winter cloth ing ; they are killed for this purpose in September .

No t h e n The establish ment Of a herd Of reindeer o n Northern r r Baffins La n d B ffin a s Land would be d ifficul t and serve no useful purpose . C o f aribou are numerous , and , consequently wolves , and I know no small islands there accessibl e to a sh ip in any year (as Coats and other H udson bay island s are) and surrounded by moving o f pack ice in win ter , thereby ensuring the safety the herd from

or . Lancast e So u n d wolves , loss by wandering Even Lancaster sound generally r freezes over and makes i t possible fo r natives to cross to North f r - B ffin o ox . O n a s Devon M usk or pol ar bear Northern Land ,

Ice c n t n s p ractically al l winter travel in on the sea ice . This frequently o di io sets at certain places in a broken u p and very rough cond ition qui te impossible for caribou to travel over as draugh t animals . — I believe the number o f caribou on Ba ffin s north and south Nu mb er of C a rib o u to be very large ; th e natives are few and only hunt them in certain localities . B etween Home bay and Pond s inlet there are now no native settlements , whalers having ceased to come to these waters ; in consequence , the natives have been com N t p e lled to j oin other settlements (at Ponds inlet on th e north and a ive Se t t le men t s Cumberland gul f on the south) in order to procure their n ece ss i ties as ammunition , firearms , etc . Wi th these natives the days o f the b ow and arrow are gone ; they would starve were they P unable to Ob tain ammunition now . At ond s inlet , owing to a Nat ive Birt h fairly steady supply Of necessities , the birth i ate has exceed ed and Dea t h Ra t e the d eath rate considerably in the past ten years ; if they cannot n get necessities they will ot have child ren . I have no doubt Domes t icat io n whatever of the practicability o f domesticating th e caribou o f of C arib o u se e the Arctic , though I canno t where any useful purpose would n be served by attempting i t o Ba ffins Land generally .

I am Of th e Opinion reindeer o r domesticated caribou could W h ere Do mes t ic C arib o u W o u ld o f be very usefully employed on the south and west shores b e U sefu l H udson bay and up the rivers into the interior ; a rapid j ourney could be mad e by caribou from York Factory to Winnipeg in

or C . winter , from M oose Factory to ochrane Larger loads and quicker j ourneys could be accomplished wi th caribou than with dogs , especially where th e snowfall was considerable and the — — routes as on rivers wide and unencumbered wi th timber , etc .

Domestic caribou on Baffin s Land would be d ifficult to h old if Ba ffins Land 5 7 RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

f wild herd s come down , d i ficul t and costly to preserve from ’ wolves and natives d ogs and impracticable to use on most o f

the usual winter travel routes .

Navig a t io n Da t es The average date Cu mberland gul f is navigable by steamers is 1 1 or August , and they must leave by October , risk being P caugh t by th e pack ice closing th e mou th of the gul f . onds inlet is even a shorter season ; no vessel can get to the eastern Ea st Co ast of — Ba ffins nort h ab ou t Baffin s La n d coast of Land withou t ei th er going across — M elville bay or south o f th e midd l e pack and betwee n i t and

the land . This last route is seldom navigable til l after the first

week in August .

F a u e s o f ood V l From a food point View , caribou killed before August of C arib o u are not i n good cond ition . September , October , and with good

cond itions , November , are the fattest caribou months . Caribou quickly lose cond ition ; d uring the migratory period they are

generally poor . Th e fattest caribou I know of in the Arctic are those Of

Coats island . They are u nable to migrate , the food is good , the mosquitoes are not troublesome and there are no wolves to

harry them ; i f cond itions are the same , M ansel l island and F r Charles island would be equally good . o food purposes as a o r commercial proposition , I believe these similar islands to be

the only feasible places . I am not wel l acquainted wi th the

mainland between Churchill and York Factory . The idea propounded recently of d riving the herds Of caribou to a rail head with aeroplanes is ch ild ish ; they would ’ be unfit for food after a week s harrying . I ncidental ly , the natives d ependent o n them elsewhere would starve ; caribou

lose fat and flesh very rapid ly under unfavourable conditions .

Mu sk - ox There are no musk - ox on Baffin s Land ; west o f Prince

Regent inlet , to the north , and west from Wager inlet and

t o . Repulse bay the south , they are found

They were numerous on North Devon , but the natives have o n E red uced them considerably . Very large numbers occur lles o n mere Land , particularly to the west side ; they are plentiful

M elville island and Byam M artin island .

I have no doub t they would d omesticate read ily , and I

consider Coats island a very sui table place to experiment . M usk - ox and caribo u d o not interfere with each other and use

the same food .

As soon as feasible , th e experiment should be made of cutting (geld ing) th e young bull calves ; I have no doub t th ey would be - ox far more valuable for food purposes . M usk meat is excellent , “ except the Older bulls which are strong , and at the rutting

- ox no t . Th e season , musky . M usk hides have a great value average pre -war prices were abou t at the J anuary sales

. th is year some sold for £4 10s . The demand i s small for them — — — M usk ox are more local less migratory tha n caribou ; if food is plentiful they will stay a long while in one local i ty ; they

prefer hilly ground , though they are frequently in cons iderable 5 8

REPO RT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSIO N

APPENDIX No . V

’ X P E . D R . GREN F LL S RE I N D EE R E E R I M ENT I N LAB RAD O R

A . Machad o e reta r a n a i t temen t re a red b Mr . ose S c C d a n Bra nch o the S a p p y J , y, f

I n terna tional Grenfell Associa tion .

2 50 1908 . I n J anuary , , D r Grenfell land ed domesticated reindeer from

Lapland , wh ich were located in a comparatively small area , in northern New

fou nd la nd . , near St Anthony , where the d eer fed entirely upon th e moss wh ich grows in great ab und ance in all that part o f th e country .

I n fou r years t h e herd increased from 2 50 to over

n H R i n Gre fe ll erd e d eer .

Photo by R. W . Brock .

By th is time the l and originally provided was not ad equate fo r the proper care of the d eer , and the financial resources of the M ission were not adequate n n to d eal wi th the matter o a p roper scale . The location wh ich had bee utilized up to th is time was both l imi ted in size and located in a comparatively closely popul ated section . The Newfoundl and Government was approached with a ou t view to taking over this work , bu t then the war broke , and nothing was d one . Furthermore , the l ocal magistrates gave no assistance against poaching . f The herd su fered , therefore , in two ways , fi rst , from being crowd ed , and from th e d evelopmen t o f an attack o f some bronchial d isease which carried O ff o f was o n a nu mber th e deer ; and second , from th e poach ing wh ich carried both by settlers and by fishermen , as th e d eer were close to the sea . A large nu mber o f off deer were d riven into the h interland .

19 18 o f C I n , the remaind er the h erd were given to the anad ian Govern

f . . men t , and transported to th e north shore o f the Gul f o St Lawrence , near S t

Augustine . H ere th ey at once began to increase in numbers .

60 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

. 1 9 17 I beg to quote a memorandum written by D r Grenfell , in January , , as follows We have completely demonstrated here that the d eer can be success fully installed and herded without undue cost ; they can flourish and p ro ’ pagate o n the natural food ; need ing none o f the necessary provisions 2 5 0 mad e for el k on the Rockies . Our h erd of rose rapidly to and had we had any protection W hatever from the Government against — t o . poach ing , we should day have five thousand of th e an imal s Th e experiment is too large a o n e to be successfully initiated on any scal e

by a private ind ividual . I have been obliged t o economize to such an extent that we have been unable under the circumstances to protect o r o n th em , to keep them the only avail able headland s where poachers

n o t o r . t e could get at them , d rive them Th is , and h fact that we had t o o f make use almost barren promontories , made th e deer all the wilder

in trying to get th em to better pastures , and large batches escaped to

the south . Two winters ag o I d rove right into su ch a company far t o

th e south of here , bu t was unable to d rive them north again . This is a r h comparatively closely populated piece Of land . Th e h e d a s never yet

been tried in Labrador with its huge h interland . There is no doubt in any

of our m ind s b ut that th ey can flourish th ere .

6 1 RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSION

APPENDIX No . V I

C . P C C . RE PO RT O F ARKE R , I NSPE TO R O F I N D IAN AFFA I RS FO R E C P P O NTAR I O AN D QU B E , TO TH E D E UTY SU E R I NTE N D ENT E G N ERAL OF I N D IAN AFFA I RS , O N TH E H E RD O F RE I N D EER

TAKE N OVE R FRO M D R . GREN FE LL AN D M A I NTA I N E D AT

THE . E . LO BSTE R BAY , O N G ULF O F ST LAWR NC E

1 1 1 AW A 5 . OTT , November , 9 9

IR — S , Wi th reference to th e h erd of reind eer wh ich we are maintaining at

Lobster bay , I beg to report as follows

ou t u Following instructions received at Q ebec , wh ile en rou te to the gulf , I su cceeded in purchasing th e quanti ty of wire fencing asked for and had i t sh ipped o f o n a steamer wh ich at time sh ipmen t , was supposed to be going to a point o n no t far from Lobster bay . Th e steamer , however , accoun t of ice cond itions , turned back from H arrington H arbour , where th e wi re was land ed . Proceed ing

G nm n Re n ee He L b st e Ba . over e t i d r rd , o r y —~ A . Living .

’ down th e coast in th e D epartmen t s boat , I endeavoured at several places to engage boats to transport th e wire to its intend ed d estination . This entailed considerable delay and proved unsuccessful as th e fish ing season was on , and no

‘ person would leave t h eir t rap s fo r such a trip . I n the meantime a steamer wh ich was go ing as far as M utton bay passed down and I arranged for th e wire t o be forward ed to th at point . I finally reached Rocky bay withou t h aving found means of transport for th e wire . After a few days at Rocky bay , I succeed ed in engaging a large fishing boat and crew to make th e trip , and the wi re was land ed

6 2 RE I N D EER AND M USK - O X

P hal f at Rocky bay and hal f at Lobster bay . osts for th e fence had been cu t for and hauled d uring the previous winter , bu t no braces the posts had been provided . I started the h erd ers peeling the posts and d istributing them across t o fen ce off a the peninsula which i t was proposed , after first h ving selected th e AS most favourable route . the fence h ad to be erected , for the most part , over m sol id rock , making i t i possible to sink the posts , it was essential that a large number of braces be used . I t was impossible to ob tain these locally so that I was obliged to have tw o boats with I nd ians start from St . Augustine and cu t f n . o pieces o the way Th e greater part the coast is barren , and only in spots

. w as can poles be found Th is was done , and by the time I l eft the fence well und er way , the work being done by th e herd ers under the chief h erder , Sam f Feq u e t . Th e fence will require continual patrol and repairs in view o th e nature Of the ground over wh ich it is constructed .

C Bromfield The former chief herder , harles , left th e place th e day I arrived , although he knew I was on my way and h ad communicated with h im by wire

. m from time to time Fro h is record , which I had learned from d isinterested n ot parties and other parties while en route and at Rocky bay , I fel t that he was

t . trus worthy , and i t was eviden t that he was extremely lazy Under authority Fe e ou u t . ob tained from y by wire , I installed Sam q as ch ief herder Sam is a very energetic worker and appeared t o be conscientious and anxious to do all possibl e Bromfiel n t o keep the deer h erd intact . George d was allowed to go o account of ill P health . This l eft only Sam equet and John Sal vin as herders . I engaged Jack

Welman t o replace Bromfield . Three I nd ian families had been moved to the place to assist in caring for h a the d eer during the summer . Th e I ndians d done fairly good work bu t were

f o . o t t o . getting tired i t and wished to get back St Augustine prepare canoes , etc , ’ for the winter . I allowed them to return and gave ord ers to the Hudson s B ay

Company t o pay the three men at the rate O f per day . The deer are somewhat peculiar in th eir habits and the work o f th e herd ers is by no means easy . I n the su mmer the deer invariably travel to W indward . Fortunately the prevailing wind s are from the southwest or southeast wh ich W brings the deer ou t to the headlands , h ere the various varieties of flies both er them least . D uring the nigh t , however , when there is l ess wind they travel inland . The stags give the greatest troubl e as they separate from th e does during th e summer . B efore the fence was started the stags were usually found

o r . three m iles , more , inland by morn ing Fortunately , they stay in a h erd and n ff can be driven in this way . W he the wind comes O the land the herd ers are busy from morning to nigh t and sometimes all nigh t keeping the deer on the headlands . I n view Of the extremely rough nature Of the country this is no easy task and entails much running over rocks and morass . Th e ch ief herder , u p o f n until the time I left , had naturally worn u t eigh t pairs o sealski boots . The n dry moss o the rocks cuts the boots l ike knives . He had nothing left to wear when I was coming away , and I was obliged to leave h im my long rubber boots . s At Romaine , I purcha ed some sealskin boots and had them forwarded for th e

o f . f r use the h erders Their agreemen t calls o three pairs annually . C ounting the d eer is not easy as they are continually moving . This had been neglected by the late ch ief h erder . I instructed Pequet t o see that a proper count was made at least once a week .

t o While at Rocky bay , I end eavoured trace u p the herd from the time it 12 had been landed and to ascertain what had become O f them . Starting with 6 d eer land ed , I found that three had d ied from inj uries received d uring the trip .

63 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSIO N

o n e . Later on , had i ts leg broken and was killed Anoth er had d ied in M arch from unknown causes . Fou r h ad go t away during the win ter and proceed ed

. Brom field down to the coast Five had gone inside du ring the w inter , and ‘ had gon e after th em . He retu rned saying that h e cou ld g e t n o trace of Bromfield them . A h unter told me that h e had seen where turned back , ’ and that h e w as at the tim e o n the d eers tracks . Later in the spring two f . o t old d eer d ied with broken legs , and one fawn O those that g away and went down the coast , two were killed by Newfound land fish ermen . Wh ile I was at th e place two fawns d ied , one having been ki lled by a herding dog , and th e oth er from inj uries received by fal ling and th e other deer tramping on i t . In 2 on e o f th ese fawns some No . shot were found . Wh ile the late ch ief herd er 4 2 claimed there were fawns last spring , two of the h erd ers claimed th ere were only 36 . I n th is connection i t migh t be mentioned that th ere would probably have been more fawns had the d eer n ot been moved du ring the ru tting season . t o a s I t seems reasonab le expect more fawns next spring , the rutting season w ill 1 2 6 36 no t be interfered wi th th is fal l . Allowing for i n the original herd and 1 2 f 19 6 . o fawns th i s spring would give a h erd of Th e loss are accounted for , 14 2 12 5 wh ich should leave a herd of , b ut there are actually only abou t left o f o f accord ing to th e coun t th e ch ief h erd er from time to time . I am th e Opinion w n that the others go t a ay last wi ter as the h erd was well con trolled all summe r . o f Du ring th e summer , th e d eer were kept on th e neck land be tween Lobster and Rocky bays . Th is is a smaller area than th e Lobster bay place and makes o n control easier during th e summer mon th s . I n th e winter th ey will be the

Lobster bay location . Th e fence was constructed on th e Rocky bay place .

u Th ere will b e no fence on the Lobster bay w in ter park . To construct a fence o f there , would cost many times th e value th e h erd and be of little actual value d uring th e winter months as the greater part would be snowed und er . H owever , during th e W inter mon ths the d eer are more easily kept track o f as their tracks can be seen and followed . Th ere is abundan t food for th em there , and th ey , hav e already selected several locations where th ey remain as a rule .

The d eer are far from being d omesticated . Wh ile the herd ers can approach

o as . them to some extent , they cannot g so close to lay their hand s on one Wi th f a stranger th ey are qui te wild . I experienced great di fi cul ty in Obtaining some rath er unsatisfactory snapsh ots wh i ch are attached to this report . I f they are to be domesticated in ord er that th ey may be used for milking and transporta tion purposes , i t wi ll be necessary to use Lapps , who understand them better and are accustomed to using th em for domestic purposes . t o I n concl usion , I beg make some suggestions wh ich I trust wi ll be acted

. o f upon Fi rst , I have to urge that thi s D epartmen t be relieved the responsibili ty o f no t o the herd , as we have proper organization in that part of the country carry o n th e work . The annual visit of an officer o f the Department serves no practical purpose and d oes not protect the h erd . Th e building up of a h erd ,

o f . to be any value , will en tail a large expendi ture and con tinue for many years I would suggest that the animal Parks B ranch o f the I nterior D epartmen t be asked to take over th e work . I f th is is not done , I wou ld suggest that the matter be taken up with th e Anticosti island peopl e w h o are anxious to have the herd moved to th e island , and will give guarantees as to protection and the handing of over Of a certain part the increase , at some futu re time . On th e island they would be quite safe .

I f , however , i t is d ecid ed that this D epartment must continue t o care for th e h erd , then I would recommend that a warehouse be bu il t at Lobster bay ; ou r fo r that we stock i t with own provisions the h erd ers , and that a competent

64 RE I N D EER AND M USK—O X officer be placed in charge to look after supplies and to have supervision over

the h erd ers . I t will also be necessary to Obtain Lapp families and to move them there . All th is will entail much expend itu re spread over a long period , and in i r th e meantime there wi ll be no revenue . I t s absolutely useless fo this Depart l o f ment to continue the responsibi i ty the herd unless we have a trustworthy , competen t Officer on the ground all the time . There should also be a very strict law agains t killing o f the deer with in the limits o f th e park o r elsewhere . Th e f a nd ' I Newfoundland fishermen are the worst o fenders in this connection , look

for fu rther poaching this summer . Each year that I have gone down the gul f I have been obliged to make i consid erable use of the Government telegraph line . I t s th e only means Of qu ick communication and at times , almost ind ispensable . The service , however , has always been far from satisfactory and th is summer was no exception . There is a n f n o fice at Rocky bay , and I had expected to be able to se d messages from w as th ere . During th e seventeen days that I there the operator only spen t a fe w hours one day in the office . The rest of th e time h e was away fishing on

. f a nother part of th e coast To get to an o fi ce meant a trip of about twenty miles .

Th e Operators are far from satisfactory , and I Often h ave messages wh ich i t is f i mpossible to read . I n view o the fact that th ere is a Government industry at

Rocky bay , I consid er that better telegraph service should be provided at this point at least . I would al so suggest that Operators should be required to take an oath O f secrecy with regard to messages . A t the presen t time this is not always O b served and business messages are discussed from place to place . I n fact , the whole servic e is far from satisfactory . Wh en i t is consid ered that the telegraph line is abou t all th e people O f the coast h ave in th e way of modern convenience , i t does f not seem unreasonable to ask that i t be mad e as e ficien t as possible .

The supplies for the reind eer I ord ered from Whiteley B ros . , at Bonne Ne e ran ce n p , after learning from th e D epartme t that no suppl ies had been ’ sh ip ped by the M arine D epartmen t s steamer .

H erding dogs are bad ly need ed . There is left only o ne d og of the th ree

. old e that came with the h erd Th is dog is now qu ite and d eaf , and is also b com

. o n e of ing vicious After h e had ki lled of the fawns , i n spite the fact that his ff o . i incisors are filed , I ord ered h im muzzled I t s almost impossible to h erd the d eer wi thou t dogs , and if we are to continue i t wi ll be necessary to provid e

. h erd ing dogs Scotch collies would probably be suited for this work , especially i f stock could be obtained from some farmer wh o has already trained them in h erd ing sheep or cattle .

I have the honour to be ,

Your obed ient servant ,

P (Sgd . ) ARKER ,

I ns ector I ndia n A encie p g s .

4 2 62 7 5 6 5 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSIO N

APPENDIX No . V I I

S UM MARY O F REPO RT O F EX PER I M E NT I N C O N N ECT I O N WITH TH E I NTRO D UCT I O N O F RE I N D EE R I NTO TH E N O RTH WEST TE RR ITO R I ES B Y TH E D EPARTM ENT O F TH E I NTER I O R I N 191 1 (LOCAT I O N O F H ERD AT FO RT S M ITH O N TH E SLAVE

R IVER) .

1 1 1 Early in summer of 9 fi fty (50) reind eer were purchased from D r . Grenfell

at per h ead .

o f - - O ld H erd consisted six four year stags , four geld ed stags trained as Sled deer ,

- - forty th ree to fo u r year old breed ing d oes . Arrangements mad e th rough D epartmen t M arine and Fisheries for transporta

f . f o . tion animals from St Anthony , New oundland , to Quebec

t o Voyage wh ich should have taken fou r d ays was , owing d elays en rou te , ex 4 tended to eleven days , d uring wh ich time four ( ) d oes d ied . On rai l j ourney from Quebec to Athabaska Land ing (stock car) four more deer

one . d ied , Of these being a stag

o f t o From end steel by wagon Land ing one doe d ied , th e herd being thus reduced 2 1 1 1 - 9 9 . as at September , , to forty one h ead

o f w Supply reindeer moss was taken from Ne foundland , and this giving ou t at f o n n . the end steel and at La d ing , gree oats were procured — At Land ing d eer were shipped on scows~ with remaind er o f moss and supply

o f . 10 19 1 1 green oats From report received October , , i t would appear h ffi t at great d i cu l ty was experienced in securing moss , and between Fort

- McMu rra C five . y and Fort h ipewyan six more deer d ied , leaving thirty t wo M ore moss was found about ten miles from Fort Chipewyan , bu t more

d eer d ied at camp twelve miles from that Fort , red ucing the herd to th irty

th ree .

15 1912 n u - one one At M ay , , the herd had bee still further red ced to th irty , sled

deer having been d rowned and one doe strayed .

20 1 12 2 n 9 t o No . o Abou t M ay , , herd was moved Camp , Wh itefish lake , about - five twenty miles east of Fort Smith . 19 12 2 3 19 12 From M arch , , to M ay , , the Ch ief Herder complained of troubl e

with flies , as the deer were liable to scatter , and on h is request a fence was erected o n the landward side o f the promontory on wh ich the camp

was si tu ated to preven t the d eer scattering in this way .

O n 10 19 12 t o July , , th e d eer were reported t o h ave stamped ed owing the h eat o f t w and flies , and in November th e same year only elve had been found , 7 1 13 a nd and on J anuary , 9 , anoth er was reported strayed (all the bucks

n t o n . trained sled deer being lost) , th e herd being ow red uced eleve does

2 n 9 19 13 NO . 3 o On M ay , , th e eleven does were brough t to Camp , the east sid e

o f - Slave river , hal f way between Fort Smith and Smi th Landing to a

poin t called M ountain Portage .

6 19 13 o f On J une , , the d eer again stamped ed on accoun t flies , and being fenced

o t . in on land side , all bu t th ree swam the rapid s and g away One was later 4 t o recovered , and the four ( ) does were taken t o Fort Smith a corral at the

n 4 . I nd ia Agency called Camp NO . 6 6

RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

APPENDIX NO. V I I I

E . . SUB M I SSI ON O F TH E REV REN D W G WALTON , M ISS I ONARY , C C E H UR H OF NGLAN D , STAT I O N E D AT FO RT GEO RGE O N

$

E . JAM S BAY , UNGAVA

2 4 1 2 9 0 . M ay ,

— SI R In u s e t , accordance with yo r wish , I beg to before you a few facts indicating why I think that the east coast o f Hud son and J ames bays is a sui tabl e place for testing an experimen t in th e raising of d omesticated reind eer . Th e grounds on wh ich I base my plea are th reefold : ( 1) Th e needs of the I ndians o f o f and Esquimaux that terri tory , and th e humanitarian cal l th ese people to their fel low citizens o f Canada to meet these need s : ( 2 ) Th e relief that reind eer will Offer i n th e face o f starvatio n and crime resul ting from d e sp a ra t e food shortag e : (3) The advantages which the locali ty Offers for th e successful raising o f reind eer in unli mi ted numbers .

D T PL I . THE N EE O F HE PEO E

Th e necessities wh ich arise among people wh o d epend entirely upon th e chase are at times such that no skill or d iligence can provid e against them .

Wi th the best h unters , even when game is ord inarily plenti ful , th ere is great “ ” r d ivergence in the quanti ty of the take . Th e e arise , however , cond i tions from or time to time wh en all effort fai ls . Food animals b irds may for a season change their feeding range . D isease may sweep th rough them and to a large extent f wipe them ou t of existence . Late severe frosts may destroy the eggs o game birds and thu s spoil the hatch . M any vicissitudes arise that are appreciated by o f sportsmen and mi li tate against the taking food and the capturing of fur , and these are th e sole means o f support upon which my people subsist . I have l ived amongst these people for twen ty - seve n years and know their circum stances and spirit th oroughly , and I know that there come times when hunger and starvation is und er present cond i tions unavoidable . That starvation does occu r let me give some specific instances .

- o f 18 92 3 15 0 of C . I n th e winter , I nd ians starved to d eath south Fort hime L . . w P . o This is corroborated by th e late M r A , of the Dominion Geological

o f . Su rvey O ttawa , who visited that post I n the same winter eigh t I nd ians started inland from Cape J ones o n a hunting exped ition to seek the fur that f on . o could not be found the coast Only one the party survived , and i t was currently bel ieved that he only subsisted by eating the bod ies o f those wh o fell by the wayside .

18 93 E I n January , , I met at ast M ain river an I nd ian youth who had escaped starvation only th rough feed ing upon the bodies Of other members of t o h is family . Although he never acknowledged th is me , he confessed to a missionary at Rupert H ouse wh o told me O f i t . When I first entered the M ission 1 2 f a n nab a lism o f in 8 9 , stories o c were commonly current , bu t this I had no other evidence o f their truth than the stories Of the people and the traders

e wh os veracity under the circumstances I had no reason t o doub t .

6 8 RE I N D EER AN D M USK - O X

D uring my time from 18 95 to 1905 th ere were three outstand ing instances o f crime . I n one season i t was reported to me that th irteen Esquimaux were

k . . . . illed , in another season nine , and a thi rd seventeen M r A A Chesterfield , a o ne on H udson bay trader , wrote a fiction story for of the magazines based the k i lling of th e latter seventeen persons .

o f 19 1 1 - 12 I n the winter , an Esquimaux woman and two young daugh ters perished eigh ty m iles north o f Great Whale river trading post . I n the spring t h e bones o f th e ch ild ren were found piled in such a way that only human hands

- f could have laid them there . Near by was found the half eaten body o the fo r on m other . The manifest conclusion was that the mother had l ived a time

h o f t o . W t e flesh her ch ildren , and then starved d eath hen found , the foxes had p artly devoured her body . 1 02 I n 9 , measles broke out at Fort George , my own h eadquarters , and while

- o nly seventy th ree d eath s were reported at fi rst , th e actual number was nearer o ne hund red . There was no food to feed the sick , and no capacity to properly T f f r . o o o care for them the l imit my power I fed and cared those with in reach , and estimate that I was thus the means of helping sixty people , many of whom w ould otherwise have perish ed .

19 16 . I n , eleven I ndians starved to death inland from Richmond gul f Two b oys were sent to th e post for help , but they returned with none . Three Indians s tarved t o d eath inland from Great Whale river , and nine from Fort George .

The winter o f 19 18 - 19 was o ne o f the hardest seasons in th e memory o f this

o f . g eneration owing to th e scarci ty rabbi ts , p tarmigan and other food A f family o f five d ied o f starvation north o Great Whale river . During this winter a n Esquimaux was ki lled by h is neighbours on the south Belcher islands . I of personally investigated the case last summer , and i t seemed to be a matter s el f d efence .

o f crim es f Wh ile I h ave given many instances _ and su fering extend ed over a q uarter of a century , I want i t d istinctly understood that the Spirit that has been gradually d eveloped in th ese people through Ch ristian missionary influence is the subj ect o f wonder and admiration to explorers and travellers from the out s id e world .

L I I . RE I EF THRO UGH RE INDEER

I t is hard ly necessary fo r me to enlarge upon the relief that would inevi tably c ome t o these people through the introduction of the reind eer i n sufficient f numbers . I t is obvious that the reind eer would furnish a reserve o food that w o f ould always be available in case d istress , and , ul timately , they would be the staple article of d iet when the supply became sufficiently abundant . They w ould furnish the skin clothing that is absolutely essential for life in snow h ouses and the extreme exposure to which the Esquimaux have t o submi t in their f r s eal hunting in winter . They would furn ish milk o the children and lower i n no t nfant mortality . They would also furnish transportatio facilities , only for the natives bu t for the explorers and the prospectors , the carrying of the mail , t h e o f h is carrying the doctor to patients , and the police in Search Of the criminal , u to say nothing abou t aiding the missionary in his work Of mercy . I n my j d g m f ent , no policy Of relief however generous can permanently solve the d i ficul ty -O f o n food supply unless that food is grown the territory , and I see no other suggestion that can compare in reasonable promise with the introd uction o f the r d omesticated reindeer within ou area . 69 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

I ABLE EA FO R THE EX PERIMEN I I I . SU T A R T I am assuming that the Governmen t of Canada is abou t to experiment on a large scale i n the breeding and d evelopment O f reindeer somewhere i n th e

o f . o f n o t northern latitudes this Dominion I , course , am an authority on th e f o f or cond itions existing i n B a fin Land , the west coasts H udson bay the M ac

Kenzie river d istrict , but I do know th e territory in wh ich , and th e people among whom , I have lived for nearly th ree d ecad es . I n th e fi rst place the great ’ inland reaches of barren lands that stretch from off th e coast of Hudson s bay clear across the Ungava peninsula to the Labrador h ave i n time past been th e for o f o f a n feed ing grounds hund red s thousands wild caribou , animal closely

t o . E x W allied the Siberian reind eer I ndians and squimau ith whom I am familiar , and who are perfectly reliable , have told me that some forty years ago that f country was literally al ive with caribou . Th ey speak o th e hoof beats of these vast migrating h erds as the rumble of d istant thunder . Trails l eading t o water o f ing places are still plainly visible , and written documents trad ers and hunters , of on 8 t h two which were copied by the reporter at our meeting the instant , o f corroborate th e testimony th e natives and the evidences of the senses . These animals suddenly d isappeared and th e cause is still more or less o f a conj ecture .

Some think i t was an epid emic o f d isease . O thers th ink it was a forest fire to the south whither th e d eer came t o feed upon the foliage in summer . Wh atever the cause , for many years they have never returned . Th e food remains . Th e n n cl imate has ot changed . Wh ere th e caribou once thrived in numberless ab u d ance , the reind eer may reasonably be expected to flourish .

E x I n th e next place , the native squ imau could soon b e taugh t to h erd and d evelop the reindeer . These people are particularly intelligent , qu ick to learn , ambitious to better their posi tion . I refer to those who h ave come under th e f x influence o Ch ristian civilization . Th e Esquimau in my d istrict can be depended upon absolutely to d o what is expected of them und er my au thority .

of Further , th e feed ing ground s are removed from th e vicinity native dogs , of poachers or sportsmen , a menace wh ich I understand was th e cause great loss to the Grenfel l experimen t . There are now bu t very few wolves in th at area

t o n . al though , I suppose , they are liable come wh e th e reindeer appear I n that respect i t migh t share th is nu isance with other places .

of is Finally , wh ile the territory I speak i s isolated up to a certain point , i t t o fairly accessible th e railway at Cochrane i n the sou th , and by water through the straits to the north . There are many aspects of th is subj ect that form interesting points of d is i n cu ss o . , bu t they cannot be deal t with here M ay I j ust say in conclusion that the development of importan t mineral resources in that territory may come at of no d istant date , and the adequate and successful d evelopment the reindeer may hasten the d evelopmen t o f many valuable commercial enterprises .

Yours faith fully ,

(Sgd . ) REV . W . G . WALTO N , Ca re Th e Mission ary S ociety of th e Ch u rch of

E ngland in Can a d a .

1 31 Con ed era tion Li e Bld f f g ,

oron to nt . T , O RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

APPENDIX No . IX

M EM ORAND UM O N BARREN LAN D CAR I B OU AND M USK O X

R . M . An r on h re a red b Dr . d e s C ie o the S ou thern P a rt an P p y , f f y, C adian Arctic Ex ed ition 1 91 3- 191 6 rom in orma tion secu red rom a t p , , f f f C p ain Joseph “ ” mman d in th P . B ernard Co e S chooner Tedd Bea r recen tl , g y , y retu rn ed from fou r years voya g e in to Coron a tion Gu lf an d i to a a V c r i I sl nd Region .

AW A ANADA 24 1 2 1 . OTT , C , J anuary , 9

EAR SIRS - I D , am enclosing a memorandum on B arren Ground caribou

- ox . n and musk , wh ich M r Harki asked me to prepare from the notes I got by C interviewing aptain Joseph F . B ernard , of Tignish , wh en h e was in ’ O ttawa last mon th , after a four years voyage into the Coronation gul f and h i Victoria island region in s schooner Teddy Bea r . Captain B ernard is a trust worthy and observant citizen , and h is information is o f great interest on account o f showing the very rapid Changes wh ich are taking place in the h ab its o f th e natives and the consequent d estruction of game in the region which he Visi ted ' very recently . As an illustration , he told me that there were still a good many u se C 19 1 7 1 1 bows and arrows in i n oronation gulf in , bu t in 9 9 there were only w r t o o so . th ree bows in use , far as h e could find O u t The natives now practically - o all have h igh p wer ri fles , and are using them freely .

Yours sincerely ,

. . E . (Sgd . ) R M AN D RSO N

71 RE PO RT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SS IO N

RR R ND - M E M O RAN D UM O N BA EN . G O U CAR I B OU AN D M USK O X

(R . M . Anderson)

— BARREN GRO UND CARI BO U Ra ngifer a rcticu s (Richardson)

a rd o choon er e ea r otes rom Ca ta in ose h F. Bern S T dd B a t ttawa N f p J p , f y , O , 1 2 December , 9 0 .

C After several years trad ing in th e B ering sea region , aptain B ernard went 1909 1909 - 10 o f K o a r in to the Arctic in , wintering at Barter island , ; at mouth g y u sk 19 10 - 1 1 river , eigh teen m iles east of Coppermine river , Coronation gul f , ; at 19 1 1 - 12 1912 Cape B ath urst , ; at B ernard harbour , D olphin and Union strai t , ’ 13 o f (on south side of th e strai t) ; at Lad y Richardson s bay , sou thwest side

- 1 14 1913 4 ou t 19 . Victoria island , ; went to Nome in Sai led in again from 19 16 19 16 - 1 7 K o ar u sk of Nome in , wintering at g y river again ; in late summer 19 1 7 , find ing ice cond i tions bad in Dolph in and Union strai t , he sai led east and ’ found li ttle ice in D ease strait and in Queen M aud s sea . Turning up into

a ib u nea a e Lake N. W . T . C r o r C r y ,

Photo by $ . B . Tyrrell .

off Victoria strai t , h e was blocked in by ice behind Taylor island , southwestern ° ° ’ 102 69 15 ou t o f side of Victoria island (ca . west , north) and could not get th e 1 1 n o t o ff place for over t w o years . 9 8 was a bad year ; snow d id go th e land except on the high er ridges and ice was fou r feet th i ck in harbour at end o f 1 1 w as su mmer . 9 9 the climatic cond i tions were better , although th e ice th en o f ten feet th ick , and sunshine most the summer mel ted the ice so B ernard got 1 19 19 o u t of Victoria strai t on September , , h aving only time to get back west K o a r u sk 19 19 k o f 1 19 . to th e K og aryu s river in fal l 9 H e wintered again at g y ,

2 0 ou t 1920 . , and came to Nome again in Sep tember ,

Migra tion of Caribou

K ar sk 1 . o u 19 6 (au tumn migration) At g y , eigh teen miles east of mou th of K o a r u sk o f Coppermine river . B iggest migration at B ig g y , west Tree river (in N C the fall) . O caribou at oppermine river that fall ; few a t Cape Krusenstern ( east end of Dolphin and Union strai t) or at B ernard harbou r (south side o f

Dolph i n and Union strait) . 72 RE I N D EER AN D M USK - O X

K o a r s k 19 1 7 . u C (spring migration) At g y , few ; some down the oppermine river and scattered al l over Coronation gul f . ff 191 7 . o ( fall) B ernard moves east to Taylor island , Victoria strai t , sou th ° ° 1 ’ o f 102 . 69 5 f eastern shore Vi ctoria island , abou t west , lat north , west o in King Will iam island . Knows nothing about migration Coronation gulf th at o f fall . A few caribou on Taylor island and th e adj oining mainland Victoria island ; some remained all winter .

1 18 . . 9 H earsay for Coronation gul f Otto Singer , trad er , told B ernard C that at H epburn island , oronation gul f , caribou were plentiful in the fall of

1 18 o f 19 19 . 9 , and extremely plenti ful also in spring Th ey were plentiful at

Tree river ( Port Epworth) in fall of 19 18 . I n fall of 19 18 there were no caribou ’ o f t o K len enb e r K le n enb er at mouth Coppermine , according Captain g g , and g g s r k people had to go t o B ig K og a yu s to get meat .

i u n a La ke N W T . C a r b o e r C arey , . .

Photo by $ . B. Tyrrell

1 C 19 9 ( fall) . Caribou extremely scarce all along coast ( oronation gulf)

K o ar u s k . None at g y , where B ernard was wi ntering again The C d etach men t at Tree river , Coronation gul f ( I nspector lay , had a bunch o f o t . natives ou t hunting , bu t scarcely g enough meat for themselves Few

K r k . . o a u s caribou at H epburn island A few at B ig g y , west of Tree river At

B ernard harbour , Dolph in and Union strai t , caribou were fairly plen tiful

1 1 - 2 9 9 0 . Al l winter caribou were found in pretty large nu mbers back of ’ N o f . O B ack s inlet , southwest corner Coronation gul f caribou around th e lower ’ - C 19 19 2 0 . oppermine in , whil e plenty at B ack s inlet There were a few for abou t three weeks in spring o f 192 0 i n valley o f (Little) K og aryu sk . Caribou were plentiful at D ismal lake . Several Copper Eskimos spent the winter trapping around D ismal lake and shot plenty of caribou .

I d id n ot question Captain B ernard on the caribou prior to summer of 19 16 r 19 10 , because I had the data for that egion in my own field notes from to

f 1 . . . summer o 9 16 . (R M Anderson)

Bernard says that there is a considerable migration across Coronation gul f , C al though somewh at variable , between the mou th of the oppermine river east to Cape Barrow ; also from Bathurst inlet . 73 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

C K o ar u s k C 19 16 - 17 aptain B ernard wintered at g y river , oronation gulf , ,

19 1 7 - 18 - 19 K o ar u s k 1 1 - 2 and at Taylor island , , and at g y river again 9 9 0 .

McClin t ock The ice in channel was very rough , moving in the centre un til ’ midwinter . Few , i f any , caribou cross Queen M aud s sea as th e ice is too rough . Th e greatest migration o f caribou in that region is across Dease strait from

t . Ken t peninsula to Vic oria island , and vice versa There are caribou on the mainland east o f th e Kent peninsula all win ter . Th e caribou from th at regio n migrate northeast to King William island and B oothia peninsula . “ on There are some caribou all winter th e Victoria Land peninsula , of

. o t u on sou theastern Victoria i sland B ernard g caribo al l winter Taylor island , o f and the mainland ( Victoria island) near there . B ernard says there are no enormous numbers of caribou anywh ere h e h as ever been . The caribou move abou t in smal l h erds . The natives have practically all been armed wi th rifles with in the past four ’ o f C years . Few posts the H ud son s B ay Company at B ernard harbour , opper f e . o min river , Tree river , and Ken t pen insula At the presen t rate slaugh ter

B ernard believes that there wi ll be no caribo u left wi thin ten years .

— S u mme m a t i n e Esk i m e mi n e Ri e n t e su mme e e t at i n . r ig r o , Copp r o Copp r v r ( o r v g o )

’ Th e trad er for the H udson s B ay Company ( Pete Norberg) on Kent penin o f sula has ind uced most the natives t o qui t seal hu nting in winter , and to l ive n o o the land and trap foxes i n win ter . He h i res some natives t hun t seal s on t h e E ice i n the Spring , buys the blubber , and suppl ies skimo trappers wi th blubber in the fall so th ey can live on the land . These natives (around Ken t peninsula) now l ive o n caribou meat in th e win ter instead o f seal meat . Formerly they lived on the ice from D ecember to

M ay , and killed no caribou at that season . They also are shooting d own all th e caribou they can i n the fall and winter , and only u se some of th e meat . They Tw o kill all the animals they can as the carcasses attract foxes o n the land . n or thousand foxes were take from th e Ken t peninsula (wh ite Arctic foxes) , 19 19 - 20 ot o f K len enb e r h is , Norberg g most them , bu t g g and agents got a few K len en er - hund red of them . g b g has several boys (half breeds) big enough to

- f r . trap , and they are established at sub stations o trapping and trad ing

K o ar s k o f 1916 19 1 7 . Th ere were few caribou at the g yu in fall , but some in 1 1 4 I n 9 9 abou t 00 crossed th ere . Practically no caribou crossed B ernard harbou r in fall of 1916 . 74

REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

M U SK O X (O vib os moscha tu s)

Victoria I sland

Captain B ernard says that the last musk - oxen were killed on southeastern

- w h Victoria island in 19 14 15 . Eskimos o h ad recently obtained guns were o f - chasing a polar bear north Taylor island , Victoria strait , found musk oxen - ox and killed some . The next year th ey wen t back and killed every musk , some

o n t o . o n the mainland , and others what B ernard though t be Gateshead island of H e h ad been some distance up the coast with some those natives , and they ' ’ had stated that this island was only t wo or t h ree d ays travel farth er .

Cap tain B ernard says th at th e Eskimos are killing no musk - oxen on

- the Ken t peninsula because none are left . There are no musk oxen near the o f coast of Adelaide peninsula , south of King William island . The natives east the Na t ch illing m iu t ( King Will iam island ) have been suppl ied wi th knives and

f r o f . iron o many years , beyond th e memory the oldest inhabitants Also , many o f them have had guns for a long time . They have been suppl ied from H udson

Aiwillikmiu t s . bay along th e Arctic coast , through the Th is is the common - i . P trade route from east to west ractically noth ing goes over land , via Ark k ll k k ik . E a u t o lin and Backs river , to Victoria island , as Stefansson imagined The o f river also empties into Wellington bay , north side Of Coronation gul f , instead o f as into Albert Edward bay on southwest end Victoria island , Stefansson sup posed .

B ernard says that d ried musk - ox meat is tasteless ; natives told h im that “ ou i meat of some old bulls is t o”o strong t o eat . Says y can magine what it would be i f natives s ay that .

Bernard thinks there are stil l a few musk—oxen on the mainland east o f

Tree river and south of Arctic sound . The natives bring i n a few fresh skins . 19 19 nor At the time he came back from the east in , neither he the natives knew — o f that trade i n musk ox skins was i llegal . Wi th the new habits the Eskimos is t o Of the region , that , going inland trap and hunt in winter , well suppl ied with

- a n off . rifles d ammunition , the musk oxen wil l soon be killed i n that region

(The Eskimos i n that regio n told me in 19 1 1 that they seldom killed

- musk oxen , because they were afraid to attack them with bow and arrows ;

- also that they never hunted inland in wi n ter . All the musk oxen at that time n e n e ra llv were found incidentally when o the summer caribou hunts , and were g — u n o t s R. . . stray b lls , as th e Esqu imaux d id care to attack h erd M A )

76 RE I N D EER AND M USK - O X

APPENDIX No . X

RE I N D EER I N S I B ER IA

Ex tract rom Cha ter X VI I I o Th e Cru ise o th e Corioin b ohn Mu ir f p f f , y J , t B os on , 1 91 7 .

M EA ER CO RW N P . ST I , lover B ay

This morn ing a party from the ship wen t t o th e head o f th e bay und er th e guidance Of a pair o f Chukch is t o see a herd o f reind eer that th ey told u s was

there . Th e d istance , we found , is abou t eigh teen miles from the lower harbou r , orwin where th e C is at anchor . Th e d ay was fi ne and we enj oyed th e sail very a much , skimming rapid ly along in th e ste m launch over smooth water , pas t th e — huge ice scul ptured h ead lands and moun tains that formed th e walls , and th e deep canons and valleys between them that swep t back to clusters o f glacial

foun tains . Th e naturalist mad e d esperate efforts now and the n to Ob tai n specimens of rare auks , petrols , du cks , wh ich were flying and swimm ing u s abou t in great abundance , making lively pictures of happy , exuberan t l ife .

Th e rocks bounding the bay , though beauti fu l in th ei r combinations and o f in flowin collections curves and peaks , g and tou ching d el icately , and rising in fo r bold , picturesque grou ps , are , nevertheless , in tensely desolate looking want o f o r trees , shrubs , vegetation d ense enough to give colour i n telling quantities , visible at a d istance . Even th e valleys Opening back from the water here and o f o r t wo th ere are mostly bare as seen at the distance a mi le , and have only faint h eat hw or t s tinges of green derived from dwarf willows , sedges , and that creep

. or low among the stones Yet h ere , i n the larger valleys adj acent , where th e P main tributary glaciers came into th e lover bay trunk , and in other valleys to t w o f th e northeas ard , large herds reind eer , wild as well as tame , find sustenance , together w ith a few wild sheep and bears . On the terminal moraine of the ancient glacier that formed the first main t rib u t a f P o f y of the lover bay glacier , some fou r miles from th e extreme head

two - th e bay , we noticed small skin covered h u ts , wh ich our guides informed us belonged to the reindeer people we were seeking , and that we should certainly o f fi nd them at home , because their h erd was only a li ttle o n e and found plen ty l r weeds and moss to eat i n th e va leys behind thei r hu ts withou t going fa away , ’ d o wh o as th e peopl e had to owned big h erd s . At two days d istance , th ey said , is wh ere the val leys are wid e and green , with plen ty to eat , th ere a big h erd o n e s o r belonging to of th eir fri end s , big th at they cover all the g ound there s ee n e n o t abou ts ; bu t the herd we were to was only a l ittle o , and the owner was a rich man .

As we approach ed the shore , a hund red yard s or so from the huts , a young t man came running o meet us , bounding over the moraine bould ers , wi th easy b o n i strength as if h is li m s had been trained the mountains for many a year , unt l running had become a pleasant indulgence . H e was presently j oined by three ou r others , who gazed and smiled curiously at th e steam launch and at party , wond ering suspiciously , wh en the in terpreter had told our obj ect , why we should h f so . w o o come so far and seem eager to see thei r d eer Our guid es , , course , und erstood thei r prej ud ices and superstitions , told th em that we wanted a big , — for it fat d eer to eat , and that we would pay them wel l tobacco , lead , powd er , 77 REPO RT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISS ION

ff . o . caps , sho t , cal ico , knives , etc , told in temp ting ord er B ut th ey said they o f t o had none to sel l , and i t required hal f an hour cautious negotiation get them t o over th ei r suspicious alarms , and ( induce th em to) consen t to sell the carcass o f t o one , provid ed we would l eave the skin , wh i ch they said th ey wanted keep for win ter garments .

off Th en two young men , fine , strapping , elastic fellows , th rew their upper l parkas , tied their h andsomely embroid ered moccasins firm y across the instep a and round th e ankl e , poised their long Russian spears , wh ich th ey said th ey always carried i n case th ey should m eet a bear or wolf , and away they sped after o f thei r h erd u p a long , wid e glacier valley along the bank a stream , bound ing l igh tly from rock to rock in easy poise , and across soft bits of tund ra and rough sedgy meadows wi th long , h eavy , undulating strides . Th eir gai t , as far as we cou ld see , was stead ily maintained and was admirably lithe and strong and t o gracefu l . Their small feet and ankles and round tapered shanks sh owed fine advantage in their tigh t - fit t in g leggings and moccasins as they wen t speed ing over the ground like trained racers glorying in their strength . We watched fiel - them through d glasses until th ey were abou t three miles away , du ring which time they d id not appear to slacken th eir pace a single moment . They w ere SO gone abou t three hours , that the herd must have been at l east six or seven miles from th e h uts . I n the meantime we ate lunch eon and strolled abou t th e neighbou rhood o f looking at the plants , at the views down the bay , and at the interior th e hu ts ,

e t c . o n We chatted wi th the Chukch is abou t thei r herd , abou t th e wild sh eep the mountains , the wild reind eer , bears , and wolves . We found that the family o f consisted father , mother , a grown daugh ter , and the boys that were after th e d eer . The O ld fol ks were evid ently conten ted and happy in their safe retreat among the h ills , wi th a sure support from their precious herd , and they were o f - proud their red cheeked girl and t wo strapping boys , as wel l th ey migh t be ; for they seemed as heal thy and rosy and robust a group of ch ildren as ever glad d en ed f o f the heart o Chu kch i parents . The boys appeared to be part owners as f everyth ing abou t the house , as wel l o the d eer , for in looking through the f hu ts we saw a few curious odd s and end s that we O fered to purch ase , bu t were

n ot . told , in mos t cases , that they could sell them unti l the boys came back

for After we had watched impatien tly some time , the reindeer came i n o f n o f sigh t , abou t a h und red and fi fty them , d rive gently wi thou t any that noisy shou ting and worrying that are h eard in d riving the domestic animals i n civilized coun tries . We left the hu ts and went up th e stream bank about th ree quarters of a mile to meet th em , led by th e owner and his wife and daugh ter , who — carried a knife and tin cup and vessels t o save the blood and the entrails wh ich s tirred a train o f grim associations that greatly marred the beau ty o f th e picture .

o f I was afraid from what I knew of the hab its sh eep , cattle and horses f f . o that a sigh t o strangers would stamped e the h erd wh en we met B u t th is , no f r as i t proved , there was t the sligh tes t danger ; o of all the familiar , tame animals man has gath ered abou t h im the reindeer is the tamest . Th ey can d omesticated n ot in h ardly be said to be , since they are sh u t around the hu ts ,

o r or . pu t u nd er shelter eith er win ter summer On they came , wh ile we gazed — a o f old eagerly at the novel sigh t th icket antlers , big and l ittle , and young , led o f of by the strongest , hold ing their heads low most the time , as if conscious that fact that they were carrying very big , branching horns . A straggler fel l f or beh ind now and then to cull a choice mou th ful o willow dainty gray l ichen , then made haste to j oin the h erd again . 78 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

u s They waded across th e creek and came straigh t toward , up th e sloping bank where we were wai ting , nearer , nearer , until we could see their eyes , thei r s ix o f smooth round limbs , the velvet on their horns , until within five or yard s us , the d rivers saying scarce a word , and the owner in fron t looking at them as they came up wi thou t making any call o r movement to attract them . After giving u s the benefit of thei r magnificent eyes and sweet breath they began to feed o ff back up the valley .

Thereupon the boys , who had been loitering on the stream - side to catch a n t wo sal mo trout or , wen t around them and d rove them back to u s . Then the deer stopped feeding and began to chew the cud and to lie down , wi th eyes partly closed and dreamy if looking , as profoundly comfortable , we strangers causing them not the sligh t est alarm though standing nearly wi thin touching d is tance o f them . Cows i n a barnyard , mil ked and pet ted every day , are not so h if gentle . Y e t t ese b eau t u l animals are allowed to feed at will , wi thou t herd ing to any great extent . They seem as smooth and clean and glossy as i f they were wild . Taming does not seem t o have inj ured them n in any way . I saw o mark o f man upon them .

They are not so large as I h ad been led to s u p pose , nor so rough and bony and angular . The largest would not much exceed three or fou r hundred pounds i n weight . They o f are , at this time year , SH‘ I O O t h d eliCa t e l i h , trim , y Re nd eer Horn s in t e Ve lvet .

u rt es o ar l L men N me A aska . Co y f C o , o , l moulded animals , very fat , and apparently short winded , for they were breathing hard when they came up , like oxen that had o n h o been working a t day . The horns Of the largest males are abou t fou r feet long , rising wi th a backward curve , and then forward , and d ividing i nto three or four points , and wi th a number Of short palmated branch es pu tting forward ’ o f and downward from the base over the animal s forehead . Those the female

. are very slender and el egant in cu rve , more so th an any horns I have seen 79 RE PO RT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSION

ne Th is species o f d eer is said to be the onl y o in wh ich th e femal e has horns .

Th e fawns , al so , h ave horns already , six inches to a foot long , with a few

. n ow blunt , knobby branches beginning to sprou t All are in the velvet , some o f wh ich is beginning to peel off and hang in loose sh reds abou t the h ead s o f o f fi h t some th em , produ cing a very singular appearance , as i f th ey had been g

- ing a rag bag .

so— The called velvet is a close , soft , downy fur , black in colour , and very

S - o r fine and il ky , abou t three eigh ths hal f an inch long , with a few hairs nearly f an inch in length rising sti fly here and there over the general pl ushy surface . All f the branches o their horns are covered , giving an exceedingly rich and b f n co n fid in . eau tiful e fect . The eyes are large , and in expressio g and gentl e

The head , contrary to many preconceived notions d erived from engravings , is , on the whole , d elicately formed , and muzzle long and straight , blunt and cow

. b u t like The neck is th in , tapering li ttle , rather deep , and held , while stand ing at ease , sloping down a li ttl e , and the large males h ave long hair on the under — . is not or Side Th e body round , almost cylind rical the belly at all bloated

o f ow . no t ben t out l i ke that a c The l egs are stout , but clumsy , and taper

finely into the muscles of the shoulders and hi ps . The feet are very broad and ’ spreading , making a track abou t as large as a cow s . This enables the animal to wal k over boggy tund ras in summer and over snow in wi nter .

I n colour they vary as much in some specimens as d o cattle and horses , showing white , brown , black and gray at the same time . The prevail ing colour — The is nearly black in s u mmer , brownish whi te in wi nter . colours Of the tame

n h . n animals are o t so constant as those o f t e wild The hair is , whe full grown , f very heavy , wi th fine wool at the bottom , thus making a warm covering su ficient t o enable the animal to resist the keen est frosts of the Arctic win ter without any shel ter bey ond the lee side of a rock or hill .

o f After wal king through the midst the herd , the boys selected a rather small specimen to be killed . One caugh t i t by the h ind leg , j ust as sheep are b o caugh t , and d ragged i t backward ou t Of the herd ; then the other y took i t by no the horns and led i t away a few yards from the herd , notice being taken of t o its struggles by i ts companions , nor was any tend ency take frigh t observed , a s b y of n such would , under the circumstances , have been shown any the commo domestic animals . The mother alone looked after i t eagerly , and further mani fes t ed her concern and affection by uttering a l ow , grunting sound , and by trying t o follow i t .

o n o f After i t was slain they laid it its side , one th e women brough t forward o n a branch of willow abou t a foot long , wi th the green leaves it , and put i t und er ’ r fi e o f the animal s head . Then she threw four o v hand ful s the blood , from the - of knife wound back the shoulder , ou t over the ground to the southward , making

o f n . me get out the way , as i f this d irectio were the only proper one Next she took a cupful of water and poured a little o n its mouth and tail and on the wound .

While this ceremony was being performed all the family looked serious , but as soon as i t was over they began to laugh and chat as before . The herd , d uring the time of the killing and d ressing , were tranquilly chewing their cud , not

. noticing even the smell of the blood , wh ich makes cattle so frantic

One of ou r party was anxious to procure a yo u ng one al ive t o take home

o n live . n with him , bu t they would not sell e a at any price Whe we inquired the reason they said ; that if they should part with one , all the rest of the herd - “ ie t o would d , and the same thing would happen if they were part with the head

f ne . o o Th is they exci tedly declared was true , for they had seen i t proved many 8 0 RE I N DEER AN D M USK - O X

times though white men d id not understand i t , and always laughed about it . When we ind icated a very large buck and inquired why they d id no t kill that w big one , and let the l ittle ones grow , they replied that that big fello was strong , h ow r u n o and knew to pull a sled , and could fast ver the snow that would come

- — b b oo . y and y , and they need ed him t much to kill him

I have never “ befo r e seen hal f so interesting a company o f t ame animals : ‘ I n some parts o f Siberia reindeer herds numbering many thousands may be f seen together . I n these frozen regions they supply every want o their owners

— ‘ as no d o other animal could possibly food , warm clothing , coverings for their tents , bedd ing , rapid transportation , and to some extent , fuel . They are not o f as nearly so numerous in the immediate vicinity the bay they once were , a f fact a ttributed t o the sale o several l ive specimens to whalers .

4 2 62 7 6 8 1 REPO RT O F THE ROYAL COMM I SSIO N

APPENDIX No . X I

LAPP I M M I GRAT I ON TO N O RTH ERN CANADA AN D LAPPS AS H ERD E RS OF RE I N D EER

Commiss ion er i mb o r m Memora nd u m re a red b Mr . Ha rk n e d in ex ce ts ro p p y , y g p f

G . letters add ressed b Dr . ren ell to Mr ose Macha d o S ecreta r o the Can a y f J , y f dian Bran ch o the I n ternationa l Gren ell As sociation a lso rom certain f f , f s ll l s li ornia corre on d ence assin between Mr . W . K e ma nn o Los An e e Ca p p g j , f g , f n i l a d the Nat ona P a rks Branch of the Depa rtment of the I n terior .

2 1 192 1 . April , M EMO RANDUM :

A suggestion has been made that the development o f the reindeer i nd ustry in $Canada could be promoted by arrangements by wh ich reindeer - owning - Lapps in Alaska and Lapland could be located o n su itable areas in that part of Ungava

n . n bordering o the northeast coast of the Gul f o f St . Lawrence The suggestio K llm n n f L . e a O os C was first made by Wm j , Angeles , alifornia , who was associated for a time i n United States Government reindeer enterprises in f . t o . o Alaska H e made the suggestion D r Grenfell , the Labrador M edical

t ho ru h . M ission , and i t was transmitted by him g M r J ose M achado , Secretary , o f a Canad ian B ranch the I nternational Grenfell Associ tion , to the Department o f the I nterior .

The fol lowing is an extract from a letter wri ten by D r . Grenfell on February

192 1 . : , to M r M achado “ I wish you would at once pu t the D epartment of the Government

in touch wi th this man . I t is exactly what we want in Canadian Labrador . The land north of Harrington and all the way along that coast from Cape

Whi ttle t o St . Augustine is j ust perfect for deer raising . I wish the Canadians would at once get in touch with the Lapps and get them to

come over and bring a whole heap o f d eer . I t would well repay outlay

fo r s . of their transportation in ti me , native would then get herds There o f are millions miles of reindeer moss barrens , and oth er adaptable vegeta

. C tion I feel sure Labrador , especially anad ia”n Labrador , is the best r adapted country fo deer food in the Dominion .

The following is an extract from a further letter written by D r . Grenfell

2 1 192 1 . : M arch , , to M r M achado “ Re K j ellm a n n : H e is really intensely i nterested in the d eer . H e

knows the Lapps well . H e says all the reindeer ground in both Sweden ’ and Norway is now taken u p . Herds can t expand for want of mileage .

The Lapps have wri tten him they want to bring herds over . I t would for C be ideal anada , and I th ink the Federal Government should certainly

hel p them with transportation . H e says the markets also are too far

from Lapland , and that big companies have to buy to and f n e h is kill and freeze them o r export . H e says o Lapp friend of in Alaska n 100 m in 190 1 took o n loa deer fro the United States Government , and

t o h as o f 2 2 . up date sold d eer from them , at average value $ 8 2

REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISS ION

APPENDIX No . X II

LA PPS AN D RE I N D EE R I N SWED E N AN D N ORWAY

Memoran d u m p repa red for the u se of the U n ited States B u rea u of Ed u cation by H alma r L u nd bohm Dele a te o the Ro a l wed is Govern men t a nd Mr . S h j , g f y , he n i I n ri a ea rin in Bu lletin No . 4 o t U ted Sta tes De a rtmen t o the te or pp g f p f ,

1 919 .

M ost o f the figures and some of the information in regard t o Swed en were gathered by a commission which at present is. negotiating with a Norwegian commission in order to settle the d ifficul ties wh ich are always t o be found when

Swed ish Lapps migrate into Norway . The figures are furnished by the forester , ' ‘ i h f Av d w o o . Mr . M ontell , is a member the commission The Norwegian data were mostly taken from a lecture given by the I nspector in f . o Reindeer and Lapps in Norway , M r Kristian Nisson , as published the year book of the Norwegian Geographical Society ( Det Norske Geog rafiSke Sels kab aa rsb ek 19 14 , Th is pamphlet gives a very good view of the whole Lapp situation in Norway , h istorical notes abou t the Lapps , and many other things o f value to those who are interested in these people . f f The total number o Lapps is not very great . The latest o ficial reports : give the following figures Norway , about Swed en , to

Russia , about Finland , abou t total ,

The total here given may , however , be a little low . The whole migh t be estimated at about

There is only a comparatively small percentage of Lapps who l ive o n the in m reindeer , a large number , especially Norway , getting their l ivel ihood fro n agricul ture a d from fish ing .

The agricultural Lapps are probably in most cases descendants o f the “ or t o n Nomads , reindeer Lapps , who have decided settle dow and do farming

f . f r on e instead o nomadizing There may be several reasons o th is , bu t is no o doubt that in certain districts there has been a lack of f od for the reindeer , and consequently i t has been easier to make a living , even if very simple and

. o r poor , by agriculture I n other cases , the Government other interested

’ parties have ind uced the Lapps to settle as agricul tural ists , as especially during w as t o t a certain period of time , it though t be very d esirable o have the land a ricu l settled and farmed . I n this respect i t has ofte n no t been real ized that g ture gives a very much smaller revenue than the reindeer service , and thus a o f part the population has been induced to l ive a poor life , without the possibil ity

f . o utilizing the opportunities of nature The Swed ish Government has , however , a ‘ n o f lways , but especially in the later years , real ized the importa ce giving the

Lapps the protection which makes i t possible to continue their original l ife .

in The fishing Lapps , most cases , originate from the Nomads , having pre ferred to get their l iving in a comparatively lazy l ife as fishers , instead of in the t o more strenuous life as nomads . I n ma ny cases poverty seems be the rea l f ’ o r r fish er s . reason the t ansition into the life I t is , however , not improbable that some o f the fisher Lapps in Norway have ancestors wh o came t o the country earl ier than the Nomads .

8 4 RE I N D EE R AN D M USK - O X

I f you d ivide the Lapps into groups , accord ing to their chief l ivel ihood , ou of reindeer service , agriculture and fishery , y will find that the nomad Lapps , “ ”

u . or reindeer Lapps , are very m ch fewer than the others

I n Norway there are only about or one - sixteenth of the whole number l iving exclusively on the reindeer . I n Swede n we d istinguish between nomad Lapps a nd forest Lapps ; the latter generally l ive i n houses , bu t at any rate get their livelihood chiefly from

. t o reindeer The reindeer , however , do not migrate as do these belonging the o f f nomad Lapps . The reindeer the forest Lapps are a l ittle d i ferent from the other , but somewhat larger , and the year around these deer rove abou t in the neighbouring woods .

: - The latest statistics are as follows Sweden nomad Lapps , forest

4 6 5 . Lapps , ; total , These Lapps l ive exclusively by the reindeer service

- 1 900 300 . . Finland reindeer Lapps in , about Russia , unknown

One can , however , with certainty estimate the whole number of nomads in

Sweden , Norway , Finland and Russia t o be between and

t o 19 1 1 19 15 Accord ing statistics collected d uring and , the number of reind eer in Norway was I n this case calves younger than one year are not counted . N isson has expressed the opinion , however , that this figure is t oo a l ittle low , and suggests that there are at least

in 1909 1 1 of Accord ing to statistics made , the number migrating reindeer , or - as they are called mountain reindeer , was , in Sweden , and forest f reindeer , making a total o

n I n Norway the nomad Lapps l ive chiefly i the northernmost province , Pin m arken in f ; residing the summer along the coast o the Atlantic ocean , and t wo in the woods nearer the Swed ish border in the winter , especially in the K ou t okc ino r k parishes of and K a aaj o . Smaller in number are the reindeer f herds in the parishes o Palmak and Syd v ara ng er . Further south there are o f Trom so T rond h em san t reindeer Lapps in several sections o , Nordlands and j , but there the number of reindeer is much smaller . I n the southern part of the kingdom a number of efforts have been mad e to utilize the vast high mountains for reindeer service . The first time , as far “ i in . ex er as known , about the d istrict called Hard a ng ervid d en These p ments d id not Show any good resul ts , bu t they were renewed again several

of Bu s koru d o . times later in a number places in the Kristians amt , and the amt The manner in wh ich these experiments were carried ou t was generally the of f forming small companies by armers and others owning the herd , sometimes of o f consisting a couple thousand animals . M ost of these small companies have failed , bu t after a while new companies have been formed and the business

. 18 8 0 19 10 started again D uring the years to , there was great prosperity ; the chief reason , however , being that young Lapps were engaged to keep the herds owned by small companies , whose shareholders usually were farmers of the

. t o d istrict D uring this period the number o f reindeer continued grow , and probably went as high as up to Since then , there has been a decl ine , and the number of reindeer in the southern part o f Norway outside of the old reindeer d istrict is at present estimated at about Th e reason for this no t d ecline in the reindeer service is supposed by K . N isson to be that there is f su ficient food ; the reindeer moss , which is the chief winter food , occurring in a

. o comparatively small amount Another very imp rtant reason , N isson says , is is that there are numerous wild reindeer in the d istrict , and it impossible to 4 2 62 7— 7 8 5 RE PORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

keep tame deer where the wild animals are in abundance . The wild reindeer n n i n many ways spoil the tame , and further , very ofte the antagonism betwee f the hunters and reindeer owners causes great d i ficul ties .

I n Sweden the rei ndeer nomads l ive i n all the parishes along the boundary i n o t o between Swed en and Norway , from Finland the n rth Idre i n the provinces — o f Darlecarlie a o f 6 00 d istance about Engl ish miles , or more than hal f the whol e length of the country .

Lapland , the northermost of the Swedish provinces , reaches from latitud e

6 4 t o 6 9 - degrees nearly degrees , and comprises about one fourth of the total f o f is . o area Sweden , which area about square miles M ost the Lapps es t e rb ot t o n l ive in this province , bu t even in the provinces V , J amtland , Har elalo n Darle a rlia j and c there are some Lapps .

I n al l the provinces the Lapps are , of course , in a great minority ; only in o ne parish , in the northernmost part of Sweden , d o they amount to more than hal f of the whole population .

no The mountain Lapps , or nomads , d o t live in any particular place , but t wo d ivide into tribes migrating in certain d istricts . For instance , in the northernmost parishes in Sweden , where the Lapps are most numerous , they migrate in the forest region south o f the Norwegian border the whole winter ; in the spring they move over the frontier a nd continue slowly down from the t o o f h igh mountains the Norwegian coast , from where some the reindeer herds , t o t o o f amounting many thousands of animals , swim over the fj ords out some the big islands where they are pastured the whole summer . I n the fall they n move back to the high mountains , and from there down agai to the forest region . The d istance wh ich some of the Lapps move twice a year is in certain 100 15 0 o n n cases to miles , and in this way they have gone movi g for hund reds o r f perhaps for thousands o years .

From the southern part of Lapland , the Lapps only move twenty to thirty in of miles into Norway , bu t there , and the provinces south Lapland , they n usually go dow into the forest region in Swed en , sometimes as far as to the i n coast o f the Bal tic sea . Thus the whole northern hal f of Sweden s i habited by migratory Lapps d uring a part of the year The forest Lapps are found chiefly i n some small d istricts situated between 100 the Bal tic and up to miles therefrom .

The Nomads , as a rule , live in huts al l the year round , moving with the reindeer herds . Th is , especially in the winter , makes an extremely hard life ,

v . bu t still , i t is ery heal th ful I n later years there has been a certain tendency f f among some o them t o build houses o r more substantial huts o wood , and to ' n keep their families there . This has a v e ry b a d influence upo the reindeer ' a s as o n h e al h f service well the t o the Lapps . I t has been observed that tuber c u losis is much more prevalent among the famil ies that l ive in houses than among those who keep t o their old mod e of l iving in huts mad e of cloth . f The Swed ish Lapps , however , as mentioned before , have many d i ficul ties t o d eal with . The farming settlers in Sweden h ave gradually gone farther north in the d istrict where the Lapps formerly were alone , and as the reindeer some t o times spoil the hay belonging the farmers , conflicts very often arise in which

f . the Lapps , who commonly are held responsible for the damage , are the su ferers is f t o Still worse i t in Norway , wh ere both the O ficials and private people a certain d egree work against the Lapps .

8 6 RE I N DEER AN D M USK—O X

At present there is a Swedish Norwegian commission working on the o f solution these problems , and trying to establish rules wh ich can make the exist ad ence of the Lapps safer . The big mountains along the frontier can not be v a n t a eou sl n g y util ized by other people tha the nomads , and to the whole country the reindeer service is a very important a nd useful ind ustry .

is o u t I t very often said that the Lapps are dying , bu t experience does not

. as prove th is Of course , soon as railways are buil t through the country and the in o f Lapps get touch with another kind cul ture than their own , some of them a s ow n o f will be lost , but a rule , they try to preserve thei r mode l iving and to avoid mixing with other people . o f at : The value the whole reindeer stock was , before the war , estimated f 2 . 10 o r w k r . 4 k r co kr . 1 kr . 33 5 , ; for ox , ; for cal f , ; for cal f born i n the year , ; ' o f in now the prices are , course , much higher , and may be estimated the four 4 5 5 0 6 0 t o 8 0 2 5 10 . groups at to , , and crowns , respectively

of The following data abou t the sale reindeer meat , hides , hoofs and horns m av be interesting :

The reindeer meat is of course used as food by a great number of people .

M any consider i t better than cattle meat . The steak is used either fresh , dried , r sal ted o smoked . This is the part o f the reindeer meat which is most largely

i . e . exported to the southern part of the country . Other parts of the animal , , ribs and legs , are generally d ried in the air and sligh tly smoked in the Opening of the hut and used by the Lapps themselves . Th is is an excellent food , very

n . concentrated , and very easy to carry o the long wand erings and travels I t is

o r . eaten either d ried and cold , roasted Th e ff e is hide , immed iately after being taken o the kill d animal , put on i n wooden stretchers and dried the open air , and as soon as i t is properly d ried ’ it can be either sold for export or used for the Lapps ow n purposes . I t has in manifold uses . The Lapps , as well as other people l iving in the woods the o f u se northern part Sweden , it for bedd ing , and it is for this purpose very of adaptable , being very warm and easily transported , the weight the h ides being four to six pounds .

The Lapps themselves , and even the tanners , prepare the h ides for making

. u se as o r shoes , gloves , etc I n other words , it has the same the skin of cattle

. for . calves I t is to a great extent , even exported such purposes The hides of the calves , wh ich are killed in the fall , are used by the Lapps , as well as by the a s settlers in the d istrict , winter clothing , with the fur on the outer Side ; these furs are very warm and comfortable . The hair , however , has a great tendency

k r . 90 . r 0 to shed A fine fur coat o f reindeer skin would cost about k . 6 to to The h ides from the head and limbs o f the reindeer are used for shoes . The hair i s used for a number of purposes and is highly valued as an article of

. fo r export I t is used upholstery purposes , and on account of the air channel in each hair , i t is also used in large quantities for manufacturing l ife preservers .

f r The horns were formerly used mostly o manufacturing glue , but now the u u large bea tif l horns are also used for decorative purposes , and making kn i fe handles and shields for knives , etc .

The sinews from the legs of the reindeer are always saved . When th e u animal is killed they are taken o t and dried , and in this shape they can be kept for a long time . The Lapps are exceedingly clever in making thread of these

for o f . sinews , which is used sewing clothes as well as shoes They are very strong and stand water very well . They are also exported to a great extent to

Norway . 4 2 62 7— 7% 8 7 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

The use o f reindeer for transporting purposes is not so great as i t was before road s were buil t in Lapland . Along the Finnish frontier the mail , however , is re still , to a certain extent , carried by reindeer between M uonionalusta and K a su of f r ando , a d istance abou t sixty miles , otherwise the reindeer is used o trans n of u porting mail , only whe the cond itions the roads are s ch that horses cannot travel .

As long as the Settlement o f the forest and mountain d istricts of northern no t n Sweden had progressed very far , cattle raising was entirely dependent upo in the fodder crops fields around , and in swamps and brooks , which were often im os i situated far away from the farms . B efore the swamps had frozen i t was p s ble t o go over the ground with horses and later in the winter the deep snow made i t impossible to bring anything home from the meadows . With the reindeer o ne ca n o n get over the ground as soon as there is snow the ground , and for th is reason the reindeer was the only suitable animal for transporting p u rposes .

The abu ndant supply of reindeer moss furnishes these animals with plenty o f fodder arou nd the farms without any expenses or trouble for the owners . u for On the other hand , the fodder s pply horses around the farms was often very so scarce , and this constituted another obstacle , the more as one had very l i ttle f n a n . o o e c other use for horses B esides the bringing home fodder , also use the reindeer t o convey food supplies from the trad ing centres and for the transport of a nd game and fish reindeer meat , wh ich are the ch ief nutriment in these

. for d istricts Further , the reindeer were used to a large degree the transport of goods from the coast cities to the market places in the interior of the country . of I n the beginning the last century , iron ore was also transported by reindeer from the mines of Lapland to the furn aces along the coast .

When the l u mber ind ustry was started on a large scale up in the river t o r com valleys , and the roads the iver where the timber was floated were not le t ed for in n p , reindeer were largely used transport purposes , especially certai parts of Norrb ot t onslan . f As the settling continued and the number o people increased , the game in and fish d ecreased . Th e settlers were , therefore , obl iged to engage a l ittle more intensive farming and the keeping of horses became a necessity .

At the same time the ab u nd ance o f reind eer moss around the meadows t o and farms also began to d iminish , d ue forest fires , increase in reindeer , the use

f f r u . o the moss as fodd er o the cattle and other similar ca ses As a resul t , the use o f reindeer for transport has become less and less prevalent , and they are now used on wi th the exception of those used by the nomad Lapps their wanderings , only o n the more d istant farm land for send ing the products of the reindeer industry t o the tow n W here they are sold .

8 8 RE I N D EE R AN D M USK - O X

APPENDIX No . X I I I

RE I N D EER I N N O RTH ERN EU ROPE

ommission b t i Memorand u m p repa red from letter ad d ressed to the C y Cap a n A .

Allanach .

Re RE INDEER I give you below some o f the details I gathered wh ilst in the Arctic regions n wh ich I trust will be of interest to the Commissio enquiring into this matter . There are two questions which have arisen in my mind wi th regard to this of reindeer question since my last letter , the first being that the wild reindeer , of purely for the qual ity and quantity extra meat production , and the second that o f domesticated reindeer and their usefulness for packing and transport purposes whilst snow is on the ground . — Cost The prices asked by the Finnish owners at the time of my visi t last

r 5 00 . M arch and Ap il , was marks each The marks at that time were worth 4 0 En liSh n ow 6 0 to the g sovereign , bu t as the Finnish exchange is about to the

o f f. o . b . pound , the cost at the present time reindeer Bugo Fj ord or Kirkenes , i 4 £ 9 . e . 0 50 . both in northern Norway , would be abou t each , abou t $ to $ each A resume o f my work in connection with the reconnaissance in northern ou n Finland will , no doub t , give y much informatio wi th regard to the habits

f . . o etc , these animals

of Owing to the gul f stream flowing around the most northerly poin t Norway , t o i t is possible to sail from Bergen on a d aily steamer Vadso and Kirkenes , the latter place usually having a channel for the boats t o get in and out even in the

o f . n d ep th winter I disembarked at the end of M arch at Vadso , and was take

Vera n er t o . across the g Fj ord B ugo Fj ord This latter place , together with for o f Kirkenes , are the winter trade routes the reindeer trains from the middle o ne or o f northern Finland to the seaboard , and either the other these places would be the most suitable place from which t o ship the reindeer . I n the summer i t would be a comparatively short j ourney d irect from northern Norway across the Arctic sea to the H udson bay . The packer and guide of a reindeer is v a oose o n e is train called a p , and the sleigh which rides in a sort of half canoe , with prow in front and runner underneath . This is called a pul ka . The reindeer

v a oose . are driven in single file , the p going in front and the other following I have a large number of photographs of the trip which I shall be pleased to forward to you from England if you consider same would be useful . Practically everything in connection with reindeer d riving is utilized from ’ f the reindeer itsel f . The hal ter round the reindeer s neck is made o reindeer ’ of l eather , and this is attached immed iately in front the animal s forelegs with a n of cross piece made from reindeer horns , to this is the attached a p iece reindeer a leather , bou t three inches in d iameter and four feet long , and this is fastened ’ to the prow of the pul ka . This passes under the animal s belly between its fore and hind legs . The reindeer utilized for trail work are male and female and they are al tered fo r 8 0 100 domestic use . They weigh from about to pounds and can pull at least six times their own weight for abou t ten hours per d ay . They cannot stand any weight whatever upon their backs .

8 9 RE PO RT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

5 00 o f I d rove about miles behind the reind eer , three lots reindeer being provided at various places . This was owing to the fact that we were able to .

t o s u n . work twenty hours per d ay , owing the shining for twenty hours Th is w as t wo country I was i n all in the Arctic circle , and a week or after I left the sun

f r - would be shining o twenty four hours for th ree months .

— Horns The reindeer all cast their horns yearly , th is taking place in th e spring , about M arch or April . Their enemy the wol f is natural ly busy abou t t a nd one his period , we lost one of ours which had cast its horns nigh t whilst on this trip . The Finlanders and Laplanders collect these horns , and prior to the t o war they were mostly sent Germany for souvenirs , and were also u til ized in f r . o the making of buttons , etc The Norwegians are now utilizing them various purposes , and the Laplanders appear to get a good revenue from the same .

— Food of Reind eer . Th e Sphagnum moss grows in abund ance and is their fo r sole food . Unless they get this they d ie , and i t must be very well provided t o them if they sho u ld decid e to try a herd o n th is side . I n ord er save time for the domestic reindeer the peasants stock large quantities of th is moss on the main reindeer trails and this obviates the reindeer having to d ig out its ow n

. as food when i t has been running all day I never saw them drink water , they always ate the snow when they were thirsty .

— I f C O wners etc . o , was met in the interior northern Finland by aptain S u ve ren n i o f C , Ivalo , North Finland , who is a aptain in the White Guard s

a nd . against the Bolshevik , and he speaks wri tes English very well

Mr . The Food Controller in this northern d istrict inland is Kangasniemi ,

of m n . I air , North Finla d

f rein eer : u n nari v ia O ther owners O d are Enok G , Bugo Fj ord , Vadso , ' n Northern Norway ; Knut Evanger , Vadso , Northern Norway ; J oh Berg , — K a n a s n iem e Gu n nari C Sv olv a r . B ri tish Vice onsul , , Norway g , , Evanger and

B erg are all associated in the same trad ing companies , and as I am in negotiation with them at the present time wi th regard to fur and lumber , I have mentioned the matter of the reindeer to them and expect t o give you later definite inform v a oose ation as to the quantity there are available , cost , h ire of p , and if they could quote a price for a herd del ivered to Sou thampton island , H udson bay , next summer .

— va oose wh o Vapoose . The p look after about ten reindeer when on the f 5 ow n no trail are in receipt o about $ per day in their country , and I have doubt that some o f them would willingly exchange the fil thy cond itions o f l ife in o f v a oose Lapland for a good l iving wage in Northern Canada . Some the p I

met had been to various European countries at exhibitions , and they real ized ff f that they were far better o financially ou t o their own country , and with the added knowledge that they would be upon work which they had been at since n o their ch ild hood , I have doubt that arrangements could be made with the

shipper of the reindeer to provide the necessary men for the pack .

— The Mea t The meat is practically the same as your ow n venison . The

tongues are considered a great del icacy , are usually cooked and sold at a h igh

figure . — i es Skins eta ones m os t l Re H d , , The skins of the younger animals are the y ' esks for used for the making of their trousers , p (which is the name thei r over

. coats , this has hole to slip head and arms through) , and moccasins 90

REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M I SSI ON

APPENDIX No . X IV

RE I N D EER I N S I B ER IA

mi i Ex cer ts rom su b ss on s o Commod ore B . P . Berthol ormerl Comman p f f f, f y d er of U nited Sta tes Coast Gu a rd Service in eri B ng S ea .

18 97 Commodore B erthol f first went to the B ering sea in , as one of the f o f Bea r w as O ficers in charge the Government schooner , which sent to the rescue o f wh alers at Point Barrow .

H e was a member of the overland exped ition , which was separate from the p ar ty which accompanied the deer from Cape Prince of Wales to Point B arrow a nd could , therefore , give but li ttle information regard ing the handling o f the deer o n th is particular exped ition overland . With regard to the d eer purchased by h im for the United States Govern ment at Ola he states

. n f D r Jackson , being thoroughly convi ced that the plan o estab lish in g domestic reindeer herds in Alaska was successful , turned h is mind

to improving the breed . H aving learned that in the neighbourhood of the O khotsk sea there was a larger and hard ier breed o f reindeer than those

usually met with on the northeast coast Of Siberia , h e suggested that I o f should g to that region to investigate , and if possible purchase some o

the larger d eer .

I t was believed that better time could be made by travel ling t o the sea Okhotsk sea overland in winter , rather than going by in the summer

for . and waiting the country to become passable Consequ ently , I

f . o . j ourneyed to Ola by way St Petersburg , M oscow and I rkutsk From there we travelled by horse - post down the Lena river to Yaku tsk ; from

- there over th e d ivide to Okhotsk by horse , reindeer and dog post . Leaving of o f Yakutsk , the first portion the post route was travelled by means

horses . Then we changed to reindeer until abou t fifty miles from Okhotsk , f and from t here along the coast o the Okhot sk sea t o Ola by d og post .

Arriving at Ola , wh ich is a small Tunguska village , couriers were sent ou t to the large d eerm en in the Vicinity t o come to town at my

request . After several conferences , arrangements were made to purchase 4 00 r 6 00 o f o d eer , and to have them d riven to the immed iate vicinity

Ola in the spring , as soon as the mail steamers began to run . We con r- f structed co rals for the rapid hobbling of the deer , and collected su ficient i moss t o feed the deer while on board steamer . I proceeded to Vlad v o P ro ress stock and chartered the steamer g , returned to Ola and took the d eer

P C . aboard , also the moss , and transported them to ort larence Th e u o f d eer purchased were very yo ng , mostly females , and the horns , f r . o course , were in the velvet We had bad weather the trip from Ola to O f Port Clarence and many the d eer d ied , so that if my memory serves

P 2 50 . me , we arrived at ort Clarence with about head These d eer were purchased with cash as the natives in that part o f Siberia understand

o f . modern ways trad ing We paid ten rubles”a piece for the deer , which was a good price from the native stand point .

92 RE I N D EER AN D M USK -O X

I n regard t o the comparative advantages and merits o f d og and reindeer z travel in Siberia , Commodore B erthol f stated A traveller in Siberia and Alaska would notice a very rad ical f d i ference between the two countries . I n Siberia , the great obj ective t o appears to be speed , while i n Alaska , the great Obj ective appears be

o f . the amount weight that can be carried I n Siberia they had , at the as time I travelled , well understood regulations to the amount that could on d o or s o be put ei ther a g sled a deer sled , and we were charged much

per sled o n the basis Of the weight assigned to the sled . Whenever the road was unfavourable the owners o f the deer or dogs would always o r furnish more sleds and more deer dogs withou t additional cost , in ord er

to l igh ten the load of each sled . On the other hand , i n Alaska sleds were w n al ays loaded to the utmost capaci ty of the a imals , and this necessitated some one to push behind the sled and someone else t o go ahead of the

dogs to break trail . I n Siberia along the post rou tes no one ever walks . The d river sits on the sled with the passenger when either reindeer or

dogs are used , even where there is no road . The dogs are given their

directions by word of mouth from the d river . The reindeer are d irected

t o . n by a line attached the horns I n addition to the forgoing , it is of i terest o f f to note that a d river a dog team always carries a very stout sta f , iron

t oo . shod , which he not infrequently uses to stop the dogs going fast e t h er down hill or when they get wind of some animal they d esire to rl c ase . “ The natives had practically no market for their d eer so far as I

. of know There was somewhat a market for deer skins , practically f those of the younger deer . Ola at that time was the s ea terminal o a

caravan route into the Kolyma river country . D uring the summer sup plies which the Government wanted to send into th e Kolyma country

were brought to Ola by steamer and stored in warehouses . I n the winter

when the snow travel has become settled , all these suppl ies are freighted eerm en into the Kolyma coun try by means of deer . Each summer the d would come to Ola and arrange wi th th e Government agent for the of number deer they would furnish for the W inter transportation . The

caravans began operations usually abou t Christmas time . Formerly all these supplies for the Kolyma country were freighted down the Lena

river , but the d eer caravans were found more advantageous and less

expensive . “ I t is most interesting to note the rel iability of these d eerm en . I n the summer when the agreements are made at Ola for the d eermen to o f transport the supplies in winter , they are paid in cash a certain portion

the freigh t money , and then they d isappear into the deer country . There

is no way to hold these men , beyond their word , bu t they have never

failed to turn u p at Ola with the outfit of deer accord ing t o agreement .

Whenever a particular man has lost his d eer or has d ied , some relative

will be there in his place to fulfil the agreement . I f the cond itions as t o the d eer herds have not material ly changed 190 1 f since , I think there would be no di ficulty in purchasing the deer o f on from these people , provid ing there is no interference proh ibition f the part o the laws of the country . After we had purchased the deer at ’ for Ola , the Czar s government forbade the further sale Of reind eer t expor ation . I have always surmised that the prohibition was issued

93 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISS I ON

through ignorance of the country and cond i tions . When I was at St .

Petersburg , arranging for the trip to Ola , I was astonished at the apparent ’ lack o f information at the Government s d isposal regarding reindeer matters in Siberia . I t was impossible to find out where the deer were or f ’ the number of deer , and I got the impression that the o ficials d id n t f much care . H owever , when i t d awned upon the o ficials that somebody in another cou ntry wanted these deer , the animals immed iately became n for more val uable , and that , I th ink , was the mai reason the order o f proh ibition . “ The moss to feed the d eer on the tri p was gathered by hand . I of o n employed a number coast Tungus to gather i t the h ills , bring i t i n and stack i t in piles , and in the spring we bagged i t . I t was al l gathered ’ by hand and brough t in to the moss piles o n the rei ndeer s backs . We r simply had the moss gathered and collected i n large piles nea the coast , i n order to be quickly available for transportation . All we d id was to turn the moss piles over at intervals in the hope o f preventing fire r spontaneous combustion . I doubt ve y much if i t is d ifficul t t o preserve in the moss . Always transporting the d eer from Siberia to Alaska , either n old o r o the revenue cutters on the ship I chartered , we simply gathered in the moss and transported i t bags until we used i t . We usually buil t troughs into which the moss would be dumped , and then water was poured w as over i t , because by the time the moss was given to the deer i t rather d ry . Bu t the d eer seemed to eat i t wi th a rel ish .

I f I had the same thing to do over again I would buy Older deer , ol t o say two years d , and I would endeavou r transport them by sea as late in the season as possible . I n other word s , I think i t would be wisest , ' in carrying reindeer any d istance by sea , to be as far as possible from the time of the growth of the new horns . “ All of the other d eer taken to Al aska for breed ing purposes were

o f . obtained from the northeastern coast Siberia , mostly Chukch i deer — One small lo t was brough t from B aron K or fa bay K oriak deer . The

Tungus d eer are in the vicinity o f the O t h o t s k sea . They are much larger and sturdier and have longer legs than the deer o f the northeast coast of C t o Siberia . I believe the interior hukch i and those some d istance the o n west o f East cape have d eer which are larger than those the coast , bu t n I believe that the Tungus deer are larger still . M y ow experience wi th transporting d eer was as I have described above , and there was a large

of . e percentage deaths On the other hand , sl d d eer were brought into the country from Norway , wh ich involved the voyage across the Atlantic , s ea then a railroad trip across the continent , and a further trip by and was land to Haynes M ission in Alaska . I f I remember rightly , there not a single death . Of course , the deer brough t from Norway were sled deer and were brough t at the season o f the year when the horns were hard . The d eer I brough t from Ola were younger and were transported at the five time when the horns were in velvet . Bearing in mind that some hund red d eer were brough t al l the way from Norway to Alaska , there would seem to be no reason why they could no t be brough t from Siberia to the H udson bay region , wh ich would not be a much greater d istance in point o f travel . “ K oriak I f you wanted to get the deer , they could be gotten quite

K o rfa on of . late in the season at B aron bay , the east coast Kamchatka

They are smaller d eer , however . Then , too , it migh t not be impossibl e 94 RE I N D EER AND M USK - O X

t o d rive a herd of deer from Ola over to the Kamchatka coast , where they could be embarked much more read ily than at Ola , and later in the season . When I was in Alaska there was no prej ud ice among' the white men against reindeer meat . Everybody was glad to get it . I t h ad never occurred to me that anybody would d islike reindeer meat until I heard

Captain Baylis say so the other d ay . B ut that appears to be on all fours with the fact that some people d o not l ike chicken and some do not l ike

fis h . C I n fact , aptain B aylis mentioned that he never ate wild duck for he does n o t care for the taste . “ for I n Siberia , along the post road s we had reindeer meat food when we wanted i t , and had time enough to get it , bu t when you are r u t avelling rapidly in Siberia yo carry as l ittle food as possible , and make i i t as ligh t as possible . I t s the custom in Siberia in preparing for a long trip to cook up meat and make a thick , heavy sou p . The soup is then strained and frozen in cakes about the size of a brick . The meat remain is of ing rolled in small balls , about the size a h ickory nut , and then

ou . rolled in dough , which gives y something about the size of a wal nut ou of This is also frozen , and all y need when travelling is a sack full these frozen meat balls and another sack full of soup bricks and some tea .

That can be stored away anywhere on the sled , and it is always handy . I n having these things prepared at the various towns there was no d eer o f meat available , so most it was beef , but as we got to the coast we had

. w as . deer meat at Okhotsk and at Ola I , of course , glad to get it That f was the cleverest way o travelling I ever s aw . “ I am very fond Of reindeer meat . I have always looked u pon rein ’

a s a . deer meat luxury , possibly because I don t often get i t B ut the

flavour of reindeer meat is very good , particularly when i t is fresh . ’ P of ersonally , I don t like venison of any kind , and when I speak venison

I mean meat which is a bit strong . I t has never struck me that reindeer n meat was venison . I have eaten reindeer meat which was o the order “ ” o f venison , bu t that was because i t was old , and I ate i t only from

‘ h e r . In o t necessity words , I have always considered venison as so much spoiled meat , j ust the same as if beef were treated the same way . Rein deer tongues I think are particularly fine , d ried and smoked . I have in eaten reindeer meat the summer and in the winter , both in Alaska and

f . Siberia , and I have never noticed any d i ference I l iked i t at all times , particularly if it is young deer . “ t o one I f the reind eer industry comes be a paying in Alaska , white men will want to go into i t on the same basis as cattle raising in M ontana and I should think it would be a very attractive proposition . That o f country in the past supported tremendous herds caribou , accordi ng o f to the annals the early explorers , and , therefore , i t can support as many herds o f domestic caribou at the present time . I think i t is only in the northern part of Alaska that the cl imate is ’ worse than in the Dakotas in the winter time . Certainly i t can t be a ou very dread ful country , when y can pick huckleberries a hund red of miles north the Arctic circle , and cut lettuce three times in the season a hundred miles south of the circle . “ I should pu t the old timers in Alaska in two or three classes . M ost of them were there because they l ike i t ; some of them went there origin ally because they though t they could make a better living tha n they 95 REPORT OF TH E ROYAL COM M ISSI ON

f could in the States ; and some were there from the spirit o adve n ture . B u t I think the number that migh t be classed as having left their ow n ’ f r country o the country s good is a very small percentage . M y experience has been that whi te men who go t o Alaska and spend a year there will always want to g o again . I think the outdoor life and freedom from conventions is a great attraction t o many peopl e . I t is the fascin ating prospect o f a new frontier that appeals to me . We no longer have

W . a estern frontier , bu t we have a northern frontier Th e same type o f e men that made the w st will make the north in somewhat the same way .

I think the chances o f success in Alaska will be increased by having

- in the country a food producing industry . Certainly the inhabi tants o f Nome congratulated themselves when they were able to get fresh of t o meat in th e shape reind eer , rather than to wait for i t be shipped i n ’ by refrigerator ships from the States . I don t think the d eerm en Of Alaska f h ave ever had any d i ficulty in d isposing of their carcasses .

I have s a t on a reindeer to see i f h e co u ld carry me . At that time 2 00 . f r I weighed pounds H e could , and d id , carry me o some l ittle d istance very read ily . The d eer are used by the Tungus as beasts o f

- burden and also for transportation d eer back . I have see n the d eer trot ting with a man on h is back . I have known the Tungus to travel d eer r — 1 1 back for ten o fifteen miles men weighing perhaps 5 0 or 6 0 pounds . H ’ ow much more they can carry I do not know . Y o u probably would n t r find the d ee m e n in Siberia load ing the d eer with heavy packs . I th ink you would find the packs exceed ingly l igh t , on the same principle as they keep the sleds exceed ingly l igh t . They would rather use more deer and less weigh t in the pack .

96 RE I N D EE R AN D M USK - O X

I NDEX

PAGE

Absorption of reindeer by c a ribo u l a A ska , reindeer ind u stry (Appendix I I ) . Alla nach a a u , C pt in , s bm issions of (Appendix X I I I )

Appendices , List of Arc t ic Coa st (Specia l loca lities for reindeer)

Ba rren L a nd C a ribo u (Appendix IX) B ern a rd , C a pt a in (Appendix IX) .

C a ribo u

H a bit at . Absorption of reindeer by

Conservation . Domestication u N mbers . M ea t

Va rieties . Wolves a nd wolverines

Skins . a u C ribo , recommenda tions re . Conserva tion of C a ribo u Conserva tion of M u sk - ox

Domestica tion of C a ribo u Domestica tion of M u sk - ox

Esqu im a u x as herders

Evidence (Appendix NO . I ) . Experiment a l herds of reindeer

Fencing ( Reindeer) Flesh of M u sk - ox Flies ( M u sk - ox ) Flies ( Reindeer) Fu r a nd wool of M u sk - ox

Graz ing leases (recommend a tions aga inst) Gra z ing problems a z u Gr ing nits .

Grenfell , D r . Experiments with reindeer RE PORT OF THE ' RO Y AL COM M I SSI ON

PAGE

H a bit a t of C a ribo u t u - ox a a o o H bi t of M sk o o o o o o o o o

Hea rings . Hea dings of report Herding of rei ndeer ffi u Herds of reindeer , l a rge , di c lties of u a u as Herders , Esq im x

a a s . Herders , L pps

I nterior Y u kon Territory I sl a nds H u dson Bay

a L pps , possible imm igration of (Appendix X I) L a pps a nd reindeer (Appendix X I)

L a pps in Sweden a nd Norwa y (Appendix X I I ) . L a pp I mmigra tion L a pps a s herders

L a pps as reindeer herders . . a ffi u L rge herds of reindeer , di c lties of

a . a Le se , V Stef nsson , Lobster Bay experiment (Appendix V I ) Lu nd b olm Hj a lm a r (Appendix No . X I I )

M acken z ie Ba sin M u sk - ox

H a bit a t . C h a ra cteristics u N mbers . m Do estica tion . Conserva tion Flesh Fu r a nd wool Wolves ( a tt ack by)

Flies .

M ilk . u - ox m a M sk , recom end tions re

u a a . . M nn , C pt in H Toke (Appendix No IV)

N a t u ra l s helter for reindeer Non - gra nting of lea ses N u mbers of C a ribo u

Order in Co u ncil

Pa ra sitic I nfest a tion (reindeer) 98