ESKIMOS, REINDEER, AND LAND Richard O. Stern Edward L. Arobio Larry L. Naylor and Wayne C. Thomas* Bulletin 59 December 1980 *Richard O. Stern is formerly a research associate in anthropology at the Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska. Fairbanks. He is currently historian for the Alaska Department of Nat•ural Resources, Division of Forest, Land, and Water Management. Edward L. Arobio is a research associate in economics at the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Larry L. Naylor is formerly an assistant professor of anthropology at the Department of Anthropology. University of Alaska. Fairbanks. He is currently anthropology director at North Texas State University, Denron. Wayne C. Thomas is an associate professor of economics at the Agricultural Experiment Station. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Figures Table of Photos Table of Tables Preface Chapter I–Introduction Chapter II – Reindeer Biology and Ecology Reindeer Biology and Life Cycle Forage Requirements and Carrying Capacity Antler Growth and Function Reindeer Ecology Generalized Yearly Herding Activity Chapter III – Introduction of Reindeer Herding in Alaska General Historical Summary Conditions Prior to the Introduction of Reindeer Reindeer Introduction Early Development Chapter IV – Non–Native Ownership of Reindeer: 1914–1940 Lomen and Company Epidemics, Company Herds, and Fairs Reindeer Investigations Reindeer Act of 1937 Chapter V – Native Ownership and the Period of Reconstruction: 1940–1977 The1940s The1950s The 1960s– 1970s General Summary – Reindeer in Alaska Chapter VI – Reindeer Herders and Social Relationships Historical Overview: Seward Peninsula Social Organization Contemporary Social Organization I–Household Personnel Village Organization Village Institutions The Herd Owner as Employer in the Village Herd Owner Characterization Chapter VII – Marketing of Reindeer Products Marketing of Reindeer Meat Marketing Methods Alaska Reindeer Meat Production: 1960–1977 Seward Peninsula Reindeer Meat Sales: 1960–1977 Price Received by Herders: 1960–1977 Protein Contribution of Reindeer Marketing of Reindeer Velvet Antler Harvesting of Reindeer Antler Price History Value of Reindeer Products Chapter VIII – Socioeconomics of Reindeer Herding Production and Herd Management Herd Sizes Herding Slaughtering Corrallings Calving Reindeer Enterprise Budgets Costs Revenues Net Herder Income 2 Regional Considerations Regional Employment Regional Personal Income Village Considerations Reindeer Industry Potential Chapter IX– Reindeer Herding and Land Alaska Land Issues Policy Considerations and Mitigating Measures Changing Land Ownership Subsistence and Wildlife Management Policy Fire–Control Policy Aircraft Policy All–Terrain Vehicle Policy Summary Bibliography Appendix 1 – Memorandum: E.W. Sawyer to Governor Parks Appendix 2 – Comparison of Reindeer Council Range Rules and Lomen Corporation Range Rules (l931) TABLE OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. Northwestern Alaska d(2) proposals by Secretary of the Interior Rogers B. Morton FIGURE 2. Northwestern Alaska geography FIGURE 3. Reindeer in northwestern Alaska FIGURE 4. Reindeer herd operations in northwestern Alaska, U. S. Reindeer Service, 1936 FIGURE 5. Reindeer herd operations in northwestern Alaska, government and private, 1948 FIGURE 6. Reindeer herd operations in northwestern Alaska, government and private, 1958 FIGURE 7. Reindeer herd operations, government and private, Seward Peninsula, 1968 FIGURE 8. Reindeer grazing permits, Seward Peninsula, 1977 . 90 FIGURE 9. Northwestern Alaska regional groupings circa 1850 FIGURE 10. Household social organization FIGURE 11. The kinship network of a herder in a Seward Peninsula village FIGURE 12. Seward Peninsula Land Status as of December 30, 1980 TABLE OF TABLES Table 1. Generalized Reindeer Herding and Seasonal Round of Activities Table 2. Traditional Subsistence Cycle (Buckland River Area) Table 3. Reindeer Belonging to Missions in Alaska, 1892–1902 Table 4. Reindeer in Alaska, 1892–1915. Distribution and Date of Establishment of the I–Herds Table 5. Ownership of Reindeer in Alaska, Compared: 1905, 1911, and 1915 Table 6. Ownership and Distribution of Reindeer in Deering Village, 1915 Table 7. Yearly Reindeer Meat Sales by the Lomens, 1914–1937 Table 8. Organization of the Alaska Reindeer Service in 1930 Table 9. Governor Parks’ Proposed Reorganization of the Alaska Reindeer Service in 1930 Table 10. Reindeer Herd Operation in Northwest Alaska, 1936 Table 11 Herds Established 1944–1952 Table 12. Reindeer Herd Operations, Government and Private, 1948 Table 13. Reindeer Herd Operations, Government and Private, 1958 Table 14. Reindeer Herd Operations, Government and Private, Seward Peninsula, 1968 Table 15. Annual Estimates of Total Reindeer Number in Alaska, 1891–1977 Table 16. Reindeer on the Seward Peninsula, 1951–1977 Table 17. Northwestern Alaska Regional Groupings, Circa 1850 Table 18. Production and Sale of Reindeer Meat by Alaskan Reindeer Herders, 1960–1977 Table 19. Reindeer Meat Sales by Seward Peninsula Reindeer Herders, 1960–1977 Table 20. Price per Pound Received by Herd Owners for Reindeer Meat, 1960–1977 Table 21. Composition of Foods, 100 Grams, Edible Portion Table 22. Velvet Antler Sales – Alaska, 1975–1977 Table 23. Velvet Antler Sales – Seward Peninsula, 1975–1977 3 Table 24. Value of Reindeer Production – Alaska, 1972–1977 Table 25. Value of Reindeer product sales – Seward Peninsula, 1975–1977 Table 26. Costs – 600 Reindeer Table 27. Costs – 1300 Reindeer Table 28. Costs – 2400 Reindeer Table 29 Costs– 4000 Reindeer Table 30. Reindeer Herd Revenues Table 31. Net Herder Income Table 32. Potential Meat Production for Sale from Seward Peninsula Reindeer Herds Preface The following report is based on an interdisciplinary measures provided. The picture of reindeer herding which research study undertaken to investigate the social, eco- emerges from this study is one based on: 1) the biology nomic, and cultural aspects of reindeer herding in north- and ecology of the reindeer, to include the limits and pos- western Alaska. The project was funded by the National sibilities which these imply for Native herders and fed- Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, and car- eral agencies; 2) the historical continuity of reindeer herd- ried out by staff of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks. ing since its introduction to mainland Alaska in 1892; 3) The primary purpose of the research project was to gather the interplay of restraints on reindeer herding in the cul- data on the past and present reindeer herding practices tural milieu of contemporary village life; 4) the influence of the region, but also to seek information on herding and of the market economy on both the herder and consumer land uses, the future potential of this essentially Native of reindeer; and 5) the activities of local, state, and Fed- industry, and its impacts on the people and economy of eral governments, particularly as they relate to reindeer the area. Such a study was deemed essential – to assess herding and the ownership and management of grazing the potential impacts of any policy changes or land man- land. agement decisions which might stem from pending legis- Except for Chapter IX, the material in this study is lation to create new national interest lands in the region. based on research which ended in late 1977 and should This report responds to those needs as outlined in the provide an accurate picture of reindeer herding through contract between the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, and that year. Where possible, material published after 1977 the National Park Service. The entire history of reindeer has been included in an attempt to update the analysis. herding in the region is treated in the report, as well as Chapter IX was completed in 1980 and covers most of the the social, cultural, and economic aspects of the industry, major issues dealing with reindeer herding and land man- at present and given changes in certain of the variables agement between 1978 and 1980. identified as crucial in its continued operation. Many individuals and organizations have contributed There are many significant socioeconomic aspects of in both tangible and intangible ways to the completion of reindeer herding; these are addressed in Chapters VI, VII, this research. We especially thank the reindeer herders VIII, and IX of this report. The sociocultural analysis of of the Seward Peninsula and the surrounding region who reindeer herding (Chapter VI) examines the relationship willingly gave of their time and knowledge to the research. between the social structure of the village and the rein- We single out both Dan Karmum, Coordinator of the Re- deer herd owner who is a member of that village. For indeer Herders Association, and Clifford Weyiouanna, Eskimo villagers, ties of kinship and friendship have President of the Reindeer Herders Association, who were obligatory behaviors connected with them. In this regard, particularly helpful. The staffs of the Institute of Arctic the herd–owner’s role in the village, his status, his au- Biology, Agricultural Experiment Station, and Anthropol- thority, and his role as an agent of cultural change, an ogy Program of the University of Alaska contributed in employer, and a politician are all examined. Conceptu- many ways. Thanks to Bill Workman and Jack Luick of ally different from the sociocultural analysis, but inti- the Agricultural Experiment Station and Institute of Arc- mately allied with it, is the