Terms and Processes in Translation Between Indonesian and English

The University of New South Wales Department of Chinese and Indonesian Studies

Terms and Processes in Translation between Indonesian and English

Richard K. Johnson

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

February 2006

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the inspiration and help from my supervisor, Dr. Rochayah machali, from the very beginning of the work in 1997. In approaching translation, from the mid 1960s I have been indebted to the late Mr. H.W. Emanuels, lecturer in Indonesian, and the late Professor A.R. Davis, who taught me Chinese translation.

Synopsis

A multifaceted approach to translation will enable translation to be viewed in much the same way as the kinds of demands it places on the translator, who needs constantly to be aware of author~reader, source~target culture, syntax, semantics, semiotics, even geography and even politics. The use of metaphor and illustrations to describe the theoretical processes of translation is justified in the same way that imagery is justified in literature. To go a step further, it is important to see through the artificial distinction often made between interpretation and translation, so that translation acquires flexibility and a deeper ethical structure. A symbolic approach may be used by the translator., involving the perception of modules within text, identified with symbols, that can facilitate the process of translation.

With Indonesian, the influx of foreign words occurred in three identifiable stages, Sanskrit, Arabic and Dutch/English. In relation to Indonesian~ English translation, the levels of Javanese and the co-existing presence of the Jakarta dialect may be compared to English vocabulary levels, for example Anglo- Saxon versus Latinate forms. This means an awareness of the existence of layers on the part of the translator. It does not imply a match between the layers in each language, philological layers between English and Indonesian, or strict equivalence between one set of borrowings in English and one in Indonesian. The hypothesis put forward is that there are advantages for the translator in being aware of waves of foreign and regional input that are part of the history of Indonesian as well as English, and that there is potential for creative utilisation of the resources of the two languages. Although a match between the layers in each language or strict equivalence between one set of

3 borrowings in English and one in Indonesianis not implied, it is useful to recognise word origins where this may impact on the appropriate translation.

Examination of the corpus presented in this thesis has shown that the history of Indonesian words can readily affect their meaning, while the history of English words may affect the choice of terms/. Nevertheless it has proved difficult to demonstrate any particular effect of the history or layer of meaning on the choice of terminology in translation. It seems that once the Indonesian term has been understood, the translation that will emerge will not particularly be bound by reference to the history of English terminology. The hypothesis then may be reduced to an observation that the derivation of Indonesian terms, like that of English terms, is important in fully understanding the scope of meaning of the terms.

The other hypothesis in this thesis is that texts or terms can be viewed as a root system containing various nodes content that the translator can respond to and wrap into the translated version, with the form of the target text possibly differing from that of the source text. The process of translation can be compared to a process of unpackaging various semantic and other elements in a unit to be translated and repackaging them for the target version. The undbundling~rebundling hypothesis is in the end a very practical matter. It aims to enlarge the discretion of the translator to carry over content with judicious changes in form.

It is fair to summarise examination of the corpus by concluding that evidence of the need for unbundling~rebundling has not been convincingly presented in this thesis. It is also fair to say that in general the English translation has followed the order of the Indonesian original quite closely, and this means that a process of unbundling~rebundling is often unlikely to be necessary. Nevertheless the validity of the unbundling~rebundling approach remains, and if a text requires this kind of analysis there is ample justification for its use.

Contents

Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Aim of the Thesis 8 1.2 Communication Models 9 1.3 The Translation Process 13 1.4 Indonesian~English Translation 20

Chapter Two Literature Review

2.1 Purpose of the Literature Review 25 2.2 Translation Method and the Practice of Translation 25 2.3 First and Second Language Translation 39 2.4 Concepts and Translation 31 2.5 Culture and Translation 38 2.6 Social Aspects 39 2.7 Conflicts in Language Use 47 2.8 Textual Issues 53 2.9 Symbolic Treatment 56 2.10 Language as Art 75

Chapter Three Hypothetical Framework

3.1 Propositions 84 3.2 Hypotheses 86 3.3 Layering 86

Chapter Four Methodology

4.1 General Approaches 88 4.2 Methods of Research and Analysis 90 4.3 Ethnographic Methodology 95 4.4 Explanation and Prediction of Translation Processes 96 4.5 Characteristics of English 97 4.6 English as Metalanguage 101 4.7 Characteristics of Indonesian 103 4.8 Semantic and Pragmatic Frames 107 4.9 Culture and Translation 118 4.10 Translation and the Creation of Myth 124 4.11 Translation Style 126 4.12 Selection of Texts 135 129 Chapter Five Case Examples

5.1 Beyond Word Equivalents and Basic Grammar 131 5.2 Options in Indonesian News Reports 136 5.3 Translation of Material on Islamic and Political Issues 142 5.4 Defining Unlisted Terms 159 5.5 Style 162 5.6 The Social Role of Rhetoric 163 5.7 Abbreviations and Acronyms 164 5.8 Translations of Indonesian Documents 171 5.9 Translation from English 179 5.10 Opaque Indonesian Text 180 5.11 Humour 183

Chapter Six The Potential Impact of Translated Items

6.1 Religious and Political Issues 187 6.2 Rules of Rhetoric 189 6.3 Affixes 192 6.4 Translation of Formal Phrases 201 6.5 Poetry 203 6.6 Translation of English Fiction 215 6.7 Indonesian Writing in English 218 6.8 Pramoedya Ananta Toer 222 6.9 Unbundling and Rebundling 228 6.10 Layering 231

Chapter Seven Analysis

7.1 Dimensions of Vocabulary 240 7.2 Undbundling-Rebundling 243 7.3 Symbols, Concepts and Intuitive Factors 248 7.4 The Transeme 250 7.5 Philological Layering and Linguistic Interfaces 262 7.6 The Background of English 266 7.7 Differences Between Indonesian and English 269 7.8 Influences on the Translation Process 270 7.9 Symbols and Culture 272

Chapter Eight Conclusion

8.1 The Layering Hypothesis 284 8.2 The Level of Indonesian~English Translation 287 8.3 Literal Translation and Interpretive Translation 289 8.4 Drafting the Translation 291 8.5 Unbundling~Rebundling 302 8.6 Issues for Indonesian~English Translation 303

Bibliography 309

Figures

Figure 1.1 Schramm’s Communication Model 9 Figure 1.2 A Translation Model 11 Figure 1.3 An Overview of the Translation Process 13 Figure 1.4 The Actual Process of Translation 15 Figure 2.1 Depth of Field 108 Figure 2.3 Fractal Images 111 Figure 2.4 Gunungan 115 46gure 7.1 Bundled Sticks 246 Figure 7.2 Symbols, Concepts and Intutive Factors 249 Figure 7.3 Transeme Root System 251 Figure 7.4 Identification of Relevant Meaning 252 Figure 7.5 Nodes of Elements in a Root System 253 Figure 7.6 Root Systems 253 Figure 7.7 Differing Root Systems and Foliage 254 Figure 7.8 Nodes of Various Kinds 281 Figure 8.1 Analogies of Translation Processes 305

8 Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Aim of the Thesis

This thesis aims to examine particular problems that the Indonesian language poses for translators, whether translating from Indonesian to English or English to Indonesian. The notation Indonesian~English translation substitutes the swung dash ~ substitutes for the hyphen -. This notation is used in this thesis to indicate translation either from Indonesian to English or from English to Indonesian. It is a convenient way to make it clear when translation is in both directions. Apart from an introductory study of classic translation difficulties in Indonesian, the approach uses contemporary materials where there is considerable contact between the two languages and where new concepts and terminology often emerge. Indonesian magazines and newspapers, and the Internet, are key sources. Some Indonesian poetry is examined as a genre that tests the limits of translation. The thesis puts forward a framework for understanding key elements in translation between Indonesian and English, and for diagnosing errors in translation and misunderstandings of cultural events between the Indonesian and Western culture. The unbundling~rebundling hypothesis developed here provides a picture of the workings of the translator’s mind during translation that give a translator confidence in personal ability to undertake translation effectively.

The thesis, focusing on concepts and structure in translation between Indonesian and English, also aims to examine problems faced by translators generally. Out of the research here, propositions have been evolved, supported by evidence and argument. The capacity of translated documents to acquire status in their own right as valid texts is one issue. The Bible in English is an example: extremely exacting demands made of the translation, to the point where it is as far a word by word rendering as possible, have been allowed

9 because of the sacred nature of the text. The translation then exerts a back- influence on the language into which it is translated. The standing of the King James version is legendary. In other words a translation can become a definitive text in the language into which it has been translated. This feedback concept can be applied to consideration of English semantic, syntactic and even phonetic influences on Indonesian. One of the implications is that subsequent translations may be able to utilise terms that have already been translated rather than having to devise new equivalents—and that the target language may have undergone partial but definitive change.

1.2 Communication Models

The linear model of communication1 has a certain applicability to the written translation situation, but needs to be adapted since there is a strong concentration on text to text rather than person to person. Schramm’s early model of two parties communicating is very simple. It has a source, encoding, signal, decoding, and destination.

Figure 1.1 Schramm’s Communication Model

source ------encoding ------signal ------decoding ------destination

1 For example as shown in http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~culler/cs258- s99/slides/lec03/, accessed 3 April 2003.

10 The encoding and decoding fields are not directly part of the conceptual structure of this thesis, although they may relate to the hidden semantic infrastructure discussed under unbundling~rebundling in following chapters. Schramm’s model two encloses the process in a field of experience, and only the part that lies within the field of experience of both communicators is communicated. Information theory, deriving from the work of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, marked the beginning of communication theory proper. Information theory had important applications in engineering and other disciplines, and it brought in basic terminology, such as source, message, receiver, information, noise and redundancy. 2 The communication model involves the source/sender, who needs to encode the message. The message is influenced by the media. The receiver needs to decode the message sent by the sender. In the end, the receiver will respond with feedback. The feedback from the receiver can vary, and the feedback does not necessarily mean that the receiver will react positively. The audience must be able readily to understand what is being put to them. In addition, various kinds of noise may be present to affect the receipt of the message. The communication model can become part of an interactive marketing communication model. This version of communication process also depicts a two-way communication. It is also a loop that starts with the sender, where the receiver on the other side return responds to the sender. The interactive model appears to have become more popular with the coming of computer technology and the Internet in particular, because interaction is now more convenient and economical.

The communication definition is flawed as applied to translation because it has a double encryption stage which does not involve translation. In translation the message is actually the target text. The only appropriate concept is the draft which may be used—and this could involve the use of a metalanguage in relation to aspects of the source. The result may be shown as follows, with modular gaps for filling in technical elements as appropriate:

2 www.colorado.edu/communication/ meta-discourses/Theory/infotheory/sld002htm, accessed 25 December 2003.

Figure 1.2 A Translation Model

graphics

layout

summary

comment

The world in which the linear model of communication was developed was a different world in many ways. Waisbord goes to the heart of many communication issues when he asks whether a prime minister or president’s broadcasts developed national sentiments, whether Hollywood helped integrate migrants, whether Life Magazine helped form a national consciousness. These questions go far beyond what a two dimensional linear diagram can effectively demonstrate.

Was the globalisation of television responsible for redrawing nationally bounded cultural maps and heralding a global consciousness? Do new information technologies generate transnational affiliations and communities?3

These questions have been important in communication studies for some time, and interest travels across boundaries between subjects also. ‘By eliminating distance and bringing together remote locations, technologies make possible the development of cultural bends not tied to the immediacy of space.’4 The technology is not to be equated with communication itself. But communication relates strongly to technology. Distance however is not to be eliminated so easily. Äustralia’s interest in Indonesia and Indonesian is related

3 Waisbord, S. 1998, ‘When the cart of media is before the horse of identity: a critique of technology-centred views on globalisation,’ Communication Research, August, vol.25 no.4 p377ff. 4 ibid.

12 to distance, and the proximity factor appears to have resulted in the significant research from Australian sources into Indonesian affairs.

The linear communication model is old now. Its usefulness in terms of mass communication has been marked, and this seems to be because factors like non verbal communication may not be as important when it comes to mass communication. Culture, however, is still important, and the nature of the medium used is very important. The coming of the Internet does mean that the sender-receiver model of communication is simplistic in terms of contemporary needs. This does not mean that the model is no longer of any use. It still represents aspects of the process that is taking place. Problems of encoding and decoding as well as noise need to be emphasised however. The fact is that this model is not the whole reality of communication. It is an approach to understanding communication, and it represents a stage in the evolution of such approaches.

Marketing is a field where a great deal of work has been done on defining and understanding an audience. Arguably, linguistic research cannot afford to ignore marketing research or to consider it too commercialised to be accepted in the same way as social science research proper. ‘Demographic and psychographic enhancement data can dramatically improve a target marketing program because this information is critical to determining what to promote.’ The data can be used to create a database and build predictive models 5 Strategic communication standards need to include openness and accessibility, truthfulness and responsiveness. Lukaszweski argues that communication priorities in a crisis should emphasise first the people most directly affected by the crisis, employees, those indirectly affected, and the news media, in that

5 Wheaton, J. 1998, 'Unleashing the Power of Enhancement,' Target Marketing vol.21, no.10 (October), pp.106-111.

13 order.6 It should be noted that the concept of priorities in translation is not represented in the linear model. The concept of stakeholders seems to be relevant to a translation model also.

1.3 The Translation Process

The process of translation might be pictured in various ways. One way could be as follows:

Figure 1.3 An Overview of the Translation Process

SOURCE TEXT

DICTIONARY

TRANSLATE STYLE CONTEXT

CULTURAL BACKGROUND

TARGET TEXT

6 Lukaszweski., J.E. 1997, ‘Establishing individual and corporate crisis communication standards: the principles and protocols,’ Public Relations Quarterly vol.42 no.3, Fall, pp.7-8.

It is always worth considering whether a name is appropriate to what it stands for, and whereas ‘source text’ is likely to be accurate, it may be questioned on occasion whether a resulting text is in fact the same as the target. In a heuristic process the resulting text may well be different from the original target, and it also needs to be kept in mind that there may be various different versions of a translation. It is not wise to ignore developments in the treatment of literature. Modes of poetry is one issue—the end of rhyme and the change in metre. The rise of the short story and the demise of the long novel is one thing. Then there is the rise of multimedia and impatience with wordy writing; and the Internet has meant less reliance on printed forms. All this means that a translator’s work is in a different relationship to the world.

Along with these changes there will be other changes, so that the result often merely approximates the original. This can all come to a head when a word like becak is to be translated, for example. A becak is a three wheeled vehicle with a seat for two in the front, with the driver pedalling behind. If the translation pedicab is used, the impact is misleading, with pedi- of Latin origin and cab referring to a taxi. Clearly the equivalent tricycle 7 is inappropriate because it refers to a child’s three-wheeler. The word becak can be retained in the translation with an explanation. This is of course very different from using an Indonesian word to convey local colour when an English equivalent is readily available—say sepeda ‘bicycle,’ mobil ‘car’ and so on.

The following diagram expands elements of a diagrammatic representation so that what actually takes place in translation becomes clearer. It should be

7 Tricycle is used to explain becak in Echols, J.M., and Shadily, H. 1994, Kamus Indonesia-Inggris:, 3rd edn., rev. & ed. Wolff, J.U., and Collins, J.T., in collaboration with Shadily, H., PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.

15 noted that although translators need a language study background and also a certain linguistics background, it is insufficient to regard the conduct of translation as purely a process of matching linguistic forms to approximate meaning. An aim of this thesis is to demonstrate that impact and atmospherics among other elements are key determining factors in translation—and to apply an overall analysis to the conduct of Indonesian~English translation. The aim is to show that there is useful comment to be made about the practice of Indonesian~English translation.

Figure 1.4 The Actual Process of Translation

client

source text target text

translator

audience

In the above diagram, the arrows identifying the relationships between the identified elements in the translation process indicate the centrality of the translator function. This marks the act of communication through translation as different from communication in general. This diagram however also gives recognition to the important role of the client, that is the one who commissions the translation. The client has to be satisfied with the work, otherwise he or she may not pay for it, or may decline to recommend the translator or translation firm in future. The translator is central and pivotal and cannot be dispensed with. The relationship with the client for example is likely to vary greatly Client involvement may vary from heavy to very slight.

16 The client may be dominant and demand extensive briefing, or willing to let the translator foresee and handle every possible issue. Nevertheless client has a key role, and it may well happen that it is the client’s interpretation of audience demand rather than any other interpretation.

In the model put forward here, the convention of left to right is adopted to avoid possible confusion. A recursive process of comparison and alteration is however part of the process, something that is quite different from the consecutive and simultaneous interpretation process. In addition, certain elements can have their translation deferred, whether because the precise translation has yet to be decided, because more information is needed, or because translation of the text as a whole would proceed more efficiently by being deferred.

There is an argument that ‘traditional linear theories of communication, persuasion and management cannot sufficiently describe the fluid, multichanneled and at times disorganised communication in many organisations.’8 This leads to the idea that chaos theory and complexity theory may tend to be suitable to the realities of modern day organisational communication. Instead of attempting to control and forecast communication and its outcome behavior, communicators can take advantage of the dynamic and important elements of complex organisations. Complexity theory says systems are generally not externally controllable.9 Chaos theory says that the behaviour of individual elements in systems cannot be predicted and are beyond our control, even though on the surface they may seem to be orderly and well-behaved. Chaos theory is ‘the qualitative study of unstable aperiodic behavior in deterministic nonlinear dynamical systems’ which are complex but not random. It is important to consider that small variations in initial

8 Gayeski, D.M., and Majka, J. 1996, ‘Untangling communication chaos: a communicator's conundrum for coping with change in the coming century,’ Communication World vol.13 no.7, September, pp.22-25.. 9 ibid.

17 conditions can result in huge transformations in consequent events.10 The press immediately becomes obvious as a medium for the firm's message, alongside the visual media and the graphic imagery of advertising. A two dimensional, or even one way, model can represent a view of the real world, and can be a valid view. Where the linear model could fail is in the eyes of those who may take it as an accurate and comprehensive view of the process of communication.

Fillmore notes the importance of the level of language to which the student is exposed, and holds that the realistic assessment of quality has often been swamped by devotion to particular methodologies on one hand and by unwillingness to hold up high academic standards on the other.11 It is strange that the idea of quality is so valued in production and management and so little esteemed in theoretical discussions of language. In applying for a job, for example, 'you will tend to be at an advantage the closer your habitual English use—the one in which you were brought up—is to standard English.'12 To evolve a realistic theory of quality in translation, it is important to have in mind a social background where bilingualism is readily but quite uncritically recognised. Novelty becomes more important than quality. Foreign languages, and particularly Oriental languages, can acquire a mystique perhaps best described in terms of an ‘Ooh-ah’ phenomenon where they are held to have a difficulty that marks practitioners of translation in those languages as particularly talented. Possibly sometimes out of hubris, translators can foster this image, but as a general principle supported in the course of this thesis translation had best let the mundane and ordinary in one language remain mundane and ordinary in the other, while directing attention to various core elements of meaning that are genuinely difficult to translate.

10 www.duke.edu/~mjd/chaos/chaos.html., accessed 3 October 2003. 11 Fillmore, L.W. 1991, 'Second-Language Learning in Children: A Model of Language Learning in Social Context,' E. Bialystok ed., Language Processing in Bilingual Children, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, pp.128-33. 12 Thwaites, T., Davis, L., and Mules, W. 1994, Tools for Cultural Studies: An Introduction, Macmillan Australia, Melbourne, p.186.

Both to the translator working through difficult material and to the reader who has to come to terms with new sets of concepts, the idea of an incremental process of understanding seems to characterise the learning process. To take an example from language learning, learners seem to come to know grammar through hearing things they understand but which are a little above what they knew. Swain and Lapkin have argued that comprehensible input is not alone sufficient to explain the development of grammatical knowledge, because native-like standards can be achieved by receptive skills. To perform in a language needs more complex skills than to comprehend. note that the role of input in second language learning can be enhanced as learners notice problems in producing target language utterances, and they may turn to input with more focused attention.13 So actually producing the new language is essential in order to provide practice in its use. Learners may raise their awareness of new input through producing the new language, but if they are always able to turn to a handy equivalent, there may be a drag on their development in the new language. Children’s English is unlikely to be good enough to stand alone in the first few years, and code switching is an obvious mechanism. What this implies for Indonesian~English translation is an awareness of the processes involved in comprehending and then using the second language.

The quotation ‘a translation is no translation unless it will give you the music of a poem along with the words of it’14 represents a noble aim, but in practice it may be very difficult to ensure both the words and the ‘music’ at the same time. And it just may not be possible to capture the ‘music’ of a poem at all. Yet somehow a reader may hope to find such a translation for a poem. A witty observation of a certain piece of work was that ‘the original is

13 Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. 1995, ‘Problems in Output and the Cognitive Processes They Generate: A Step Towards Second Language Learning, Applied Linguistics vol.16 no.3, p.386. 14 John Millington Synge (1871-1909), in 1907. Augarde, T. 1991, The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Quotations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.289.

19 unfaithful to the translation.’15 This remark is not without relevance to cases where a translation has become accepted as the representation of a writer’s work. The King James version of the New Testament is an example and the Quran is the opposite example, where traditionally the original Arabic text should be used. The most insidious and influential supplanting of an original by a translation may be in the semantic area, where terms may be held to contain various implications that are unlikely to have been present in the original, whether anachronistically, through English interpretations placed on koine Greek terms or through harmonisation of different versions. made the memorable remark, ‘the only tribute a French translator can pay Shakespeare is not to translate him.16

A meaning oriented approach is reflected in the flexibility of Yen Fu’s translation approach. Yan Fu (1853-1921) translated into Chinese Thomas Huxley's Evolution and Ethics Herbert Spencer's Study of Sociology, Adam Smith's An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, J.S. Mill's On Liberty and Montequieu's De l'Esprit des Lois. 17 Yan Fu concentrated on transmitting the meaning of the original texts, but since he did not know English or French had to rely on interpreters. 18 It was primarily the meaning of these texts that was transmitted to Chinese readers at a critical stage of the nation’s intellectual development, substantially dissociated from the form of the original text. If, despite the role of Yan Fu’s style in creating an impact on the readership, the translation may have diverged from the original to whatever extent, it is still reasonable to conclude that the task of translation was worth carrying out. There may be a lesson here that the impact of a translation may outweigh any minor problems with the text.

15 Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986), in E. Knowles, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, 4th edn., Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2000, p.64. 16 Max Beerbohm (1872-1956) in 1899. Augarde, op.cit., p.30. 17 Xinhua 19 Nov 2001. 18 Schwartz, B. 1964, In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

20 Another issue in relation to the impact of a translation is the method employed. The concept of unbundling~rebundling in this thesis in simple terms means breaking down elements in meaning in the source text and reassembling them in the target text, rather than concentrating on word to word equivalents. The thesis also develops the concept of layering in Indonesian and English. These concepts are explained in Chapter 3 and following chapters.

The discipline of linguistics has grown and spread rapidly in the last several decades. There are a great number of theories of language. A feature of a good theory is that it is not only accurate but neat and economical. To amplify this criterion, one could add that where terms used can be simplified so that they are clear and unambiguous, this should be done. In other words there is little point in inventing new terms for old phenomena. The emphasis in this thesis is on the practice of translation: what works and what may work better.

Words will translate differently according to their function in the sentence and in the broader utterance. Since it is written translation that is the primary concern here, that utterance may take the form of a document. It may well be that the translator will prefer to work with the lengthy report form rather than with the repetitive documents that take so much administrative time by comparison with the actual work of translation. However the fact is that document translation is an ongoing need which the qualified translator is able to meet. Having advertised translation services, the translator may find it difficult to avoid translating at least some official documents for clients.

1.4 Indonesian~English Translation

Indonesian~English translation will take place in an age of constructive description and imagery. It is an age of postmodernism or the deconstruction of a translation infrastructure, but an era of strong continuity both in the

21 English-speaking world and in Indonesia. The pattern of continuity includes a self-conscious treatment of Indonesian terms to a degree that often means that the internationalist tendencies in Indonesian are exposed in its coverage of the affairs of international organisations.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis sees a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of a person’s language with the person’s understanding and behaviour.19 Whorf argued that thought and action were ‘linguistically and socially mediated,’ and ‘the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organised by our minds — and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.’20 At the same time there is a quite different tendency with regard to English expressions and even ways of thinking flow relentlessly into Indonesia. English infiltrates Indonesian. English alters Indonesian. English corners Indonesia, limits Indonesian. English gives freely but takes little. In very broad terms, this can be compared with the influence of Romance languages on English. Within the archipelago—Nusantara—Indonesian permeate regional linguistic life.

It remains true that the Indonesian translator of English is following a course which is likely to win social acceptance across a wide variety of fields. The translator of Indonesian on the other hand has a narrow specialisation of mainly academic interest. The social function of translation in each country is different. The rewards of translation differ: there is the commercial versus artistic pride, or routine work versus academic study.

This thesis aims to depict the art of translation as it applies to the two languages Indonesian and English. It aims to draw out of that process various

19 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis. Edward Sapir (1884-1913) and Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941). 20 Whorf, B.L. 1956, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, Carroll, J.B., ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 212–214.

22 issues that give appropriate depth to Indonesian~English translation. It aims to open up bundles of meanings and symbols and suggest how the bundles might be put together in ways that imitate the actual processes of translation.

A map of Australia superimposed on a map of Indonesia would reveal that Australia has a large land area as against Indonesia’s large sea area. For both nations, it would reveal a very wide national coverage of the national language. What it does not reveal is the weight of Australia’s language internationally when it is considered alongside the other English speaking nations. Yet to take a different picture, when Indonesia is considered against Southeast Asia then its own body of Indonesian speakers carries considerable weight. Indonesian does not have the international significance that English has, but in a regional context it is of considerable significance. As this thesis will show, the Indonesian language contains not only strains of the Malay that has been a lingua franca for the archipelago, but definite components from the influential Javanese ethnic group, and a rich conceptual heritage from India. The extension of Islam into Indonesia has left a sizable stock of Arabic terms, enabling the language to be potentially a step closer to Middle East thinking than English is. These could be the elements of a map of a kind. Conventional maps are based on equating a unit of map length to a much larger unit of mapped territory. Scientists also use a nonlinear map, the logarithmic scale, which enables an effect comparable to the background mountains and foreground trees in a perspective painting—the tiny mountains in the background and the large tree in the foreground do not follow the same linear scale, but assume a reality based in perceptual experience and the rules of perspective painting. The logarithmic scale however as a single line marked at equal intervals can appear either as a straight line or a curve.21 If various nations could be represented physically on a map in terms of their importance to Jakarta or to Canberra, they would appear very differently. In terms of language, the translator operates in a world of considerable precision, but at

21 G.C. Strait, 2000, ‘Mapping Our World,’ World and I vol.15 no.9, Sept, p.156ff.

23 the same time that same world is subject to various kinds of indirect and imperceptible influences.

Indirectness in Indonesian partly relates to cultural differences within Indonesia. In any case it should be seen within an overall cultural and symbolic context where the intended meaning is still conveyed. This applies also to the presentation of different versions of situations. The generalisation that Indonesians are indirect needs to be treated with caution. This is true for other generalisations regarding both languages. And yet without some kind of generalisation regarding culture it may be difficult to go very far in portraying one set of cultural symbols to people who use another set.

One of the major problems in producing good text in the target language is consistency of word usage, or style. Venuti favours translation that shows differences between languages, and he deplores fluent translation in the sense of translation where the text becomes in effect totally just a text in the target language, with loss of meaning of course.22 Yet there are many demands for translation, many audiences, and many translators.

There are some Indonesian words, including some Javanese words, that seem to depict situations and movement that do not quite fit well into English and need special treatment. Wayang, gotong royong and other Indonesian national symbols are relevant.

This thesis explains the possibilities of analysis of translation units— transemes—in terms of modules and submodules that may be identified and then reformed in the target text. Symbols are a way in which the translator can handle complex groups of meaning. Semantic interactions from syntactic equivalents and move towards .

22 Venuti, ed., The Translator’s Invisibility pp.1-2.

24 The importance of translation can perhaps nowhere better be seen than in dealings between governments, where each side should at least understand what the other is saying and ensure that its own views are properly represented. It does not seem a satisfactory approach for say Australia to imitate indirect phrasing used by Javanese political figures. A nation ought at least to express itself in its own language and its own terms, however much it may learn to understand the nuances of utterances by another nation. Yet it appears that the diplomatic and linguistic expertise of an embassy is capable of going beyond transmitting government statements on both sides, and actually colouring them to achieve particular aims. This colouring will often involve omission of fact and change of tone, with unconscious bias in translation. Further, by selective translation of articles from the press. This comes down to language performance if there is evidence of distortion of meaning and attitudes in oral interpretation or in written translation.

This thesis employs two perspectives in examining issues in Indonesian~English translation, that is the unbundling~rebundling concept and the layering concept. With unbundling~rebundling, the process of translation can be compared to a process of unpackaging various semantic and other elements in a unit to be translated and repackaging them for the target version. Elements of the source text may be rearranged in the target version. Layering here refers to waves of foreign and regional input as part of the history of Bahasa Indonesia as well as English. There are advantages for the translator in being aware of this layering process in the two languages. There is a potential for creative utilisation of the resources of the two languages in line with resources of vocabulary. Knowledge of word origins where this may impact on appropriate translation. The two hypotheses based on the unbundling~rebundling concept and the layering concept are set out in Chapter Three.

Chapter Two Literature Review

2.1 Purpose of the Literature Review

The literature review sets out a broad foundation to explain the setting in which the thesis develops its themes. One theme is the existence of words of foreign origin in both Indonesian and English, and the way in which the history of words can affected meaning in translation. Another theme is the view of texts or terms as a root system containing various nodes of mainly semantic content that the translator can unbundled or respond to and then rebundle into the translated version, with the form of the target text possibly differing from that of the source text. Metaphor is part of the art of conveying the essence of the original. This literature view has a broad scope. This is because translation as a practice and as an art has potentially a very broad scope.

2.2 Translation Method and the Practice of Translation

Vinay & Darbelnet describe seven translation methods in increasing order of difficulty.23 borrowing ‘To overcome a lacuna, usually a metalinguistic one (e.g. a new technical process, an unknown concept), borrowing is the simplest of all translation methods.’ calque a language borrows an expression form from another, but then translates each of its elements literally. literal translation this is more convenient between members of the same language family; it is frequently enabled by similarity of

23 Vinay, J.-P., and Darbelnet, J. 2004, ‘A Methodology for Translation,’ tr. Sager, J.C., and Hamel, M.-J., in Venuti, ed. , The Translation Studies Reader, pp.128-137.

26 thought and structure. transposition transposition is the replacement of one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message. modulation modulation is a variation in the form of a message that occurs because of a change of viewpoint. It is typically used when a translation though correct is unidiomatic or awkward. Fixed modulation will occur in accordance with frequency of use, general acceptance, and confirmation from dictionaries or grammar references. Free modulation will tend to use optional means to attain a suitable translation. equivalence Vinay & Darbelnet argue that most equivalent phrases between languages will be fixed by the phraseological repertoire of a language, and in any case the translator would be advised to use traditional forms of expression rather than emulate the creative writer. adaptation a correctly translated text without adaptation may be done by a translator who has not ventured into the world of oblique translation.

These seven approaches are useful ways of viewing translation, although logically any list of approaches to translation and translation methodologies ought to be open-ended, because definitions of translation itself vary and approaches may be categorised in different ways.

McCarthy & O’Dell’s treatment of another formal aspect of vocabulary, word formation, can provide a useful basis for the translator to build a comparative perspective of the way in which English and Indonesian form words from sememes and morphemes. English is the object of study of so many students that there is naturally a tendency for there to be extensive compilations of materials that form overall a characterisation of the English tongue.24 Such treatments of concepts, feelings and actions offer an excellent base for the compilation of a resource that might be described as a bilingual thesaurus if such a resource is undertaken. Whether the translation is from Indonesian or into Indonesian, there will naturally tend to be reference back and forth between English and Indonesian bodies of knowledge and skill.

24 McCarthy, M., and O’Dell, F. 1994, English Vocabulary in Use, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

27 In an ethnographic context, Porter considers that translators like researchers are often seen as technicians who are in a short term capacity. However just like researchers they do not just mechanically arrange information: they construct research concepts. Yet the circumstances of their tenure could influence the resulting translation work.25

Artemeva in relating field experience with translation from Russian noted that Canadian managers often found format and sequence in reports to be artificial and not always logical. Templates should be used as guidelines to help writers focus on sections rather than as rigid frameworks.26 In a working context, however much cultural tolerance people may have, it can be difficult to have to reconcile very different formats with the structural requirements in one’s own office. Artemeva as ‘writing consultant and cultural interpreter’ focused on the ‘translation layer’ between the Russian and English versions of reports, communicating differences between Russian and English grammar and rhetoric to both the Russian translator and the Canadian managers and group leaders.

What is particularly useful about Artemeva’s impressions is that they derive from the practice of translation and analysis of translation. Artemeva sees the Russian and English grammatical systems as ‘fundamentally different’, a statement that in a context of the languages of the world is surely hard to justify, especially given the genetic relationship between the two languages. Yet it remains true that if grammatical systems do not match they can cause problems for the translator, whatever the degree of difference. It is particularly useful then that Artemeva goes on to speak of issues that are less able to be quantified or specified. The six issues listed in fact would often be

25 Porter, M. 1994, 'Second-hand Ethnography': Some Problems in Analysing a Feminist Project', in A. Bryman and R. Burgess (eds.), Analysing Qualitative Data. London: Routledge, cited in Temple, B. 1997, ‘Watch your tongue: issues in translation and cross-cultural research,’ Sociology vol.31 no.3, August, pp.607-618. 26 Artemeva, N. 1998, ‘The writing consultant as cultural interpreter: Bridging cultural perspectives on the genre of the periodic engineering report,’ Technical Communication Quarterly, Summer, vol.7 no.3 p.285ff.

28 relegated to the category of ‘style’, possibly because they are more readily felt or learned by experience than derived from analysis, and yet they are factors which may more readily capture reader attention that sheer grammatical correctness: the degree of shared knowledge between reader and writer; the top-down approach in North American technical texts versus the chronological approach in Russian scientific texts; ‘one paragraph, one idea’ in English technical and academic writing versus the looser paragraph construction in Russian scientific texts’; subsections; the English ‘one sentence, one concept’ versus long compound sentences in Russian; and the theme/rheme distisnction in Russian and English.27 The value of this analysis is that it comes from the actual practice of translation as opposed to theoretical work which may often be found to be of little relevance to the actual work of translation.

There is a great deal that is routine in the translator’s workTemple argues that the translator will have a far more important role than merely that of a technical worker, and also that the involvement of interpreters and translators is bound to alter the nature of research and also the theoretical perspective involved.

Translation/interpretation is inseparable from the application of a theoretical perspective. Both provide accounts which assume a position that has been constructed using a different language. If language constructs as well as describes a society, the figure of the interpreter/translator must come out from behind the shadows.28

Temple reasons that researchers who need to use translators should debate conceptual issues with the translators. Moreover the reason for anxiety should not be the translation of words but ‘an “alien” framework of thought which is based upon an “alien” set of universal principles about the world.’29

27 ibid. 28 Temple, op.cit., pp.607-618. 29 ibid.

29 It is natural to think in terms of what is known, but new concepts and practices may emerge to influence translation, with the computer and the Internet for example. Developments with regard to symbolism for example could mean significant changes in translation.

2.3 First and Second Language Translation

Whether translation should be entirely into the native language of the translator is a vexed question to which there will probably not be one clear, definitive answer. Not all translation needs to be of literary quality, and translation will often be a commercial undertaking where various other factors are important. Comprehension in a first language may be superior to that in a second language. Skill in composition does not necessarily equate with first language competence; and it cannot always be assumed, even if a translator has balanced bilingual skills, that either of the two translation languages are at a very high level. Editing of a translation will often be carried out by someone other than the translator. The question of second language competence may be summed up by asserting that a well composed, natural target text is much easier to achieve translating into the first language.

…native writers can manipulate all the devices that go to make up natural- looking texts. The same case could be argued at finer levels of linguistic analysis; first language writers are, presumably, less likely to make grammatical errors and unfortunate vocabulary choices than second language writers.30

Yet in practice economic and administrative factors mean that translation will often be required into the second language, where despite advantages of probably better comprehension of the first language source text there is the difficulty of composition into the second language.31

30 Campbell, S. 1998, Translation into the Second Language, Longman, London. p. 57. 31 ibid.

30 Structure within a language, however complex, seems to cause little difficulty for native speakers. However it may often be difficult for foreigners to replicate or master that structure. This can imply difficulty in translating from the structure of one language to another. The question of the use of di- versus me- in verb formation, with associated fine distinctions of meaning, has been set out well by Bambang Kaswanti Purwo,32 and the translator will understand the use of these forms. In translation, however, it is important not to be restricted, for example, by invariably translating di- with an English passive. It is important to convey the emphasis in an Indonesian sentence appropriately in English, and an active~passive distinction may be inadequate to convey what the Indonesian conveys.33

The requirement for good translation could be expressed as the requirement for a good translator who is aware of the linguistic subtleties involved, who knows both languages well and who can write well in his or her own language. This is a requirement for an authentic translation. It is very different from the production of a failure to be authentic, that may be called a fake version.

When an object was authentic, say, in a homogeneous society of the past, the object had an integrity in itself, between the materials, the structure, the way of making, and the shape. To compare, today, when the development of technology has provided with the means of communication, transportation, and of construction, the integrity of an object is a difficult goal to achieve. When we try to create a conventional form, there tends to be a discrepancy in the product, for we have already changed the materials and means of construction, thereby creating a fake. The piece may visually resemble the original, but is quite different from the original in how it is made.34

Translation aims to produce an authentic version rather than a fake. A translation can be a work of considerable artistic achievement. In translation it

32 Bambang Kaswanti Purwo. 1989, ‘Diatesis Di Dalam Bahasa Indonesia: Telaah Wacana,’ [tr. as ‘Voice in Indonesian: A Discourse Study’] Serpih-Serpih Telaah Pasif Bahasa Indonesia (A Fragmentary Study of the Passive in Indonesian), Kanisius, Yogyakarta, pp. 345-441. 33 The passive is discussed further in Chapters 5 and 7. 34 Handa, R. 1999, ‘Against arbitrariness: architectural signification in the age of globalisation,’ Design Studies vol.20 no.4, July, pp.363-380.

31 seems that the process is best into one’s own language, essentially because one will tend not to make mistakes in one’s own language. This is true except where it is not true. It is certainly true that a translation into the translator’s mother tongue will appeal more to an audience. It can be racy, immediately comprehensible and of course quite grammatically correct and natural. The catch is of course that audience will not be able to judge how the translation compares with the original. On the other hand a translation out of the translator’s native language will not be likely to misinterpret the original, but it may well alienate the esthetic sympathies of the audience, who may feel that the translation is clumsy, incomprehensible in places, and inappropriate in diction. The audience would rather have the translation done by their own translator. Yet somehow neither translator is entirely satisfactory. To attempt to solve this dilemma by speaking of a bilingual translator is to speak of hen’s teeth, and this especially applies where there is one Asian language and one European being considered. Cultural and linguistic amphibians to the degree of intellectual attainment required for excellent translation seem to be exceedingly rare.

2.4 Concepts and Translation

Concept charts may be best perceived by foreign speakers but require authentication by native speakers, who can affirm taxonomic relationships. Illustrated dictionaries are a useful resource. This can indicate problem areas and outline possibilities, although not necessarily enable translation without further verification. Symbolic representation systems are not generally well developed, and it remains true in general that the translator will be left to handle translation of concepts on an ad hoc basis. Graphic dictionaries can be useful in technical translation. Line drawings tend to be convenient. The Chinese work cited here contains an exhaustive coverage over about 560 pages. However pictures tend to be dated, with drawings of record players and typewriters as well as many mechanical devices, and the drawings often

32 strongly convey Chinese characteristics. There is very detailed coverage of objects. The Chinese graphic encyclopedia is presented in painstaking and orderly detail. The problem with it is that it quickly becomes tedious.35 This sort of graphic information should be presented alongside verbal definitions so that they are readily accessible. Another important principle is that they should be edited for relevance—partly to avoid overly technical detail and partly to ensure correct semantic placement.

Although it was a bible for many students of Indonesian, and it had little competition in its time, Echols and Shadily’s 1963 edition has a poor analysis of word equivalents and a simplistic taxonomical arrangement that apparently derives from listings of uncritical catalogue card entries. For example the simple and basic word baik is explained as follows:36

1. good, nice Ia orang baik, ‘He’s a good man.’ 2. well Saya tak bisa melihat baik, ‘I can’t see well.’ 3. nice Guru baik sekali kepada saya, ‘The teacher was very nice to me.’ 4. well (of health) Apa ia sudah baik lagi dari penyakitnya? ‘Has he recovered from his illness?’ 5. yes, all right Baik, tuan, saya mau pergi. ‘All right, sir, I’ll go.’ 6. better Baik kita tunggu. ‘We’d better wait.’ 7. favourable (of weather)

There is little point in differentiating ‘good,’ ‘well,’ and ‘nice,’ for example, because dealing with such minor variations in form and meaning should be readily familiar to competent language students. To examine the examples, being good to someone appears in no.1, so that no.3 may not be necessary. Nos.4 and 6 may be useful in showing the usage of the word baik. No.2 may

35 Hanyu Tujie Cidian 汉语图解词典(Chinese Dictionar in Diagrams)，Shanghai Cishu Chubanshe 上海辞书出版社, 1995, pp.442-446，see p.482. 36 Echols, J.M., and Shadily, H. 1963, An Indonesian-English Dictionary, 2nd edn., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. The author of this thesis wishes to take the opportunity to record his debt to this dictionary. However much it has needed improvement, the fact remains that it was a fundamental reference for the study and use of Indonesian for the following thirty years or so.

33 readily be guessed, as with nos.5 and 7. To summarise, baik means ‘good, well,’ and its usage can be illustrated by nos.1, 4 and 6.

There are many such examples in the dictionary, probably showing the method of compilation. To go to the 1989 third edition, baik is explained as ‘good, fine, kind’—‘healthy’—‘yes, all right.’ The examples are better chosen than in the 1963 edition.

Echols & Shadily’s 1994 Kamus Indonesia-Inggris: An Indonesian-English Dictionary is an important work. Salim’s 1993 Advanced English-Indonesian Dictionary is valuable. The Indonesian language Kamus Besar is may be said to be quite invaluable. These thrree key dictionaries may be listed as follows:

♦ Echols, J.M., and Shadily, H. 1994, Kamus Indonesia-Inggris:, 3rd edn., rev. & ed. Wolff, J.U., and Collins, J.T., in collaboration with Shadily, H., PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.

♦ Salim, P. 1993, Advanced English-Indonesian Dictionary, 4th edn., Modern English Press, Jakarta.

♦ Tim Penyusun Kamus Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. 1988, Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan: Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.

For an English thesaurus treatment, a listing can be carried out literally or in the form of the Microsoft Word thesaurus, which jumps from word to word and finds correspondences. Use of a thesaurus implies taking time to consider alternatives and may not always be possible in the context of urgently required translation. Two could have some use, Harimurti Kridalaksana’s Kamus Sinonim Bahasa Indonesia37 is an alphabetically arranged dictionary of synonyms, from Indonesian to English. The Tesaurus Bahasa Melayu,38

37 Harimurti Kridalaksana. Kamus Sinonim Bahasa Indonesia, Seri Data Dasar No.2 Lembaga Riset Kebudayaan Nasional and Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Penerbit Nusa Indah, Ende, Flores, 1974. 38 Madya Noor Ein Mohd Noor, ed. in chief, 1992, Tesaurus Bahasa Melayu, Times Books International, Singapore.

34 entirely in Malay and also arranged alphabetically, is useful. Sarwono Pusposaputro’s Kamus Peribahasa39 is valuable for reference, probably more for understanding Indonesian expressions rather than as a source for expressions to be used in translation.

The English and Indonesian vocabulary in Parnwell’s Picture Dictionary40 could give the impression that equivalent terms for objects are the normal pattern between the two languages. However even if the pictures are constant throughout a multingual series, they are sufficiently clear and represent sufficiently common objects that little bilingual challenge is presented. The picture dictionary would no doubt be useful to learners of Indonesian or English, and occasionally to translators. The 1992 Tesaurus Bahasa Melayu is alphabetically arranged, but could be useful in defining a list of Malay words, especially those of Arabic origin, which are distributed differently from Indonesia. The 1989 Kamus Dwibahasa (English-Malay) is similarly useful. 41 Simanjuntak’s Kamus Sinonim Antonim 42 follows an English to Indonesian format. It gives synonymous Indonesian equivalents for English terms, with English meanings, followed in many cases by terms that are supposed to be antonyms. The English antonyms are sometimes defined in a shaky manner, as can be seen from the antonym rejoicing given for the term complaint, and chipher [sic] as the antonym for decipher. All in all the dictionary is strongly biased towards English. This kind of dictionary may be useful to translators who are natives of either English or Indonesian, but when even the compiler of the dictionary displays some lack of language competence, and when the basis of the dictionary is words that are translated and acquire synonymous terms, the strong lodes of meaning that underlie

39 Sarwono Pusposaputro, comp. Kamus Peribahasa, PT Gradmedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 2001. 40 Parnwell, E.C. 1981, Oxford English Picture Dictionary (Kamus Bergambar Inggris—Indonesia), tr. Wahyudi, Pustaka Ilmu, Jakarta. 41 Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1989, Kamus Dwibahasa Bahasa Inggeris-Bahasa Malaysia, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 42 Herpinus Simanjuntak. Kamus Sinonim Antonim, Kesaint Blanc, Jakarta, 2002.

35 words are apt to be lost. For example, corruption is rendered into Indonesian as korupsi, and then synonyms are given as defilement, perversion, debasement; the antonym is given as purity. This is careless and confusing. It does however mirror much of the usage of English in Indonesia. For Indonesian users, it has to be pointed out that it is necessary to understand each word from within first; otherwise the synonyms can be a distraction.

Hildred Geertz remarked forty years ago that ‘the Leiden school’ sees antitheses between inland and coast, male and female, sacred and profane, life and death and so on as elements in a cosmology proposed for Indonesia that owes more to Christian metaphysical systems than Oriental. It is true that a preliminary framework will be necessary to deal with large amounts of data, but the presuppositions should be regarded as hypotheses rather than ‘doctrines to be illustrated.’43 Coming to the Indonesian language, from early encounters with Malay in the archipelago it is clear enough that there were alien elements as far as Europeans were concerned, and the Hindu-Javanese and Arabic currents in the emerging vocabulary of the Indonesian language lend weight to a definite otherness from the languages of Europe, instanced by religious differences but moderated by a characteristic Indonesian flexibility over the entry and presence of new concepts. That Indonesian tolerance and the familiarity that has existed between Indonesia and the West across a range of cultural aspects should not however obscure the fact that Indonesian does represent the language of an Other. This will mean that the translator has to be aware of the conceptual framework on each side.

It is clear that without any understanding of organisational power and politics it would be difficult to understand organisations. However it may be even more difficult to understand the nature of power than to understand organisations. After all organisations can be viewed, listened to, charted, and so on. Politics tends to defy definition. The point is that this kind of

43 Geertz, H. 1965, ‘Comment,’ The Journal of Asian Studies vol.24 no.2, February, p.294.

36 understanding is relative. The above discussion has tended to indicate that the organisation can be viewed as the locus of interactions of power and means to power. Further development of theory will no doubt shed more light on the patterns of power and politics in organisations.

Scheiderer argues that linguistic appropriateness in Javanese relates not only to forms of address or choice between two pronouns but to the vocabulary as a whole. The complicated etiquette rules of the Javanese language immediately indicate that Javanese society is rigorously stratified, for it would have to be in order to find such a system necessary and in order to maintain it. ‘Stratification and the need for choice at various points mean a linguistic output for which analysis is complex. However this thesis argues that utterances in a language where there are no such obligatory points of choice may also be highly complex in semantic terms.44

In relation to the question of whether meaning is constructed or discovered, concepts of signifier/signified, discourse and intertextuality may be relevant. The concept of signifier/signified derives from the work of de Saussure. It can describe the process by which a unit in a language system unites an invariant form with an invariant meaning.45 De Saussure stressed the arbitrary nature of the sign, with the controversial view that each language divides the world arbitrarily different ways—a view contested by some who see an underlying reality assembled differently by various languages.46

A study examining whether semantic processes were mediated by a common neural system in English and Spanish demonstrated a shared frontal lobe system for semantic analysis of the two languages. The results are consistent with cognitive research on bilingualism indicating that the two languages of a

44 http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_PPM.htm, accessed 2 April 2004. 45 Matthews, op.cit. 46 McArthur & McArthur eds., op.cit.

37 bilingual person access a common semantic system.47 A difficulty here is that English and Spanish are likely to have similar semantic systems, and thus to some extent the study has already assumed the point that it is setting out to prove. When languages with very different semantic systems, such as English and Indonesian, are compared, it seems difficult to come to the conclusion that a totally shared semantic system would be used, whether in bilinguals or in non-bilinguals.

The order that is used as a framework for English words in Roget’s Thesaurus, originally published in 1852, was an attempt to interpret the universe of language—or a language of the universe perhaps. 48 Some more recent editions have reorganised the vocabulary into alphabetically listed items with synonyms and antonyms. Microsoft Office 2000 includes a thesaurus component which can be convenient. The idea of a visual thesaurus that presents vocabulary information49 has a certain appeal, and as an example of this the University of Queensland has developed Leximancer, a software package that supports the analysis of natural language, extracting semantic and social network maps from texts, producing a kind of automatic relational content analysis.50 The concept is potentially useful, provided the equvialents produced are natural in terms of what the translator would be prepared to use. However in the practical world of translation it is important for the translator not to spend more time on the construction of such models than is justified by their specific results in relation to the translation.

47 Illes, J., Francis, W.S., Desmond, J.E., Gabrieli, J.D.E., Glover, G.H., Poldrack, R., Lee, C.J., and Wagner, A.D. 1999, ‘Convergent Cortical Representation of Semantic Processing in Bilinguals,’ Brain and Language 70, pp.347-363. 48 Roget, P.M. 1953, Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases: Classified and Arranged so as to facilitate the Expression of Ideas and to assist in Literary Composition, Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria. 49 Anonymous. 2003, ‘Grokking the infoviz,’ The Economist 19 June. 50 http://www.uq.edu.au/journ-comm/index.html?page=23763&pid=0.

38 2.5 Culture and Translation

In this case as in many other cases, the idea of 'culture' that explains every kind of complex problem in the interface between languages can always be correct if it remains broadly based enough to explain every phenomenon. But the concept can be so vague as almost to acquire the status of a mystery. To go further and use the idea of 'Indonesian culture' to cover cases of difficulty in translation can be to depart from analysis of the specific and take refuge in a kind of linguistic nationalism. The culture that characterises the difficult areas of translation between English and Indonesia may be defined by the sum of the specific cases encountered. A preconceived and generalised Indonesian culture concept that would characterise technical translation in those cultural terms only while similar cases are occurring in other languages will not in fact be able to characterise translation adequately.

Yengoyan in reviewing Becker's 1995 work involving studies of Indonesian and Javanese notes that his overall approach is to develop and enhance a theory of translation in which the analytical procedures of glossing and parsing are accomplished within a philological framework, one in which texts are historically and culturally grounded.51 No doubt some translation can be carried out with little thought, but there will be many instances in which deep, thoroughgoing thought is required. Keane discusses the idea of language ideology, concerning what people believe and assume about their language, and giving meaning to linguistic hierarchies. 52 This concept is no doubt approximately both true and false, useful and superfluous, depending on the use that is put to it. Language and ideology can go hand in hand, whether in Konfrontasi, Nekolim and so on or in deep analyses of texts to discern ideological tendencies. Yet reading the daily news editorial intelligently

51 Yengoyan, A.A. 1999, ,' Oceania vol..69, no.3 (March), p.221ff. (review of A.L.Becker. 1995, Beyond Translation: Essays Toward a Modern Philology, The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor). 52 Keane, W. 1997, ‘Religious language.,’ Annual Review of Anthropology vol.26, pp.47-71.

39 requires awareness of this interrelation between language and ideology. One might go further and isolate instances of argument ad hominem to link logical argument to politics as found in language. In the end it must be the usefulness of the theory that is significant: its tendency to enlighten; and to the translator, its ability to contribute to productive methodology.

2.6 Social Aspects

Clifford Geertz’ threefold analysis of Javanese society as comprising abangan, santri and priyayi strands is instructive: abangan refers to nominal or statistical Muslims, where belief in kebatinan is common, that is mystical practices concerned with spiritual self-control, encouraging devotions to local and ancestral spirits; santri is used to refer to orthodox Muslim believers, who are largely either traditionalists trying to protect orthodoxy from the demands of the modern state or modernists trying to adapt Indonesian Islam to the demands of the modern world in general; priyayi denotes refinement and class.53 Geertz’ anthropological/ethnographic approach has been valuable, but the translator may feel with this and other examples of cultural analysis that it is difficult to find equivalences that bind to each category—and it has been objected by many that Geertz’ categories were too absolute.54 Geertz himself gives a critique of other generalised interpretations of Indonesian culture. All of these propositions and projections are however valuable in the kind of interpretation and formation of conclusions that can help the translator of Indonesian become increasingly sensitive to Indonesian culture and knowledgeable about Indonesian life and thought. To speak of a spectrum of variations in the two cultures is a more realistic description. The santri Muslim in Javanese society as someone who is different because of religion from the abangan social and cultural environment. Moreover distinctions

53 Library of Congress Country Studies. 54 C. Geertz, 1964, The Religion of Java, Free Press, New York. It is worth noting that this was translated into Indonesian by Aswab Mahasin as Abangan, Santri, Priyayi Dalam Masyarakat Jawa, ed. Bur Rasuanto, Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta, 1989.

40 such as santri versus abangan in Java, and even modernist versus traditional streams of Islamic thought, are not likely to be clear-cut. These frameworks are not a model which can provide the elements necessary for operation. They are analytical guides. Geertz' 1964 work The Religion of Java has tended to solidify and be accepted as an accurate picture of Java, when it would ideally have served as an introduction to an emerging, complex picture of Indonesian society and state versus global Islamic civilisation. The concept of a santri or Islamic stream in Javanese society is valuable without the need to identify precisely what is santri and what is not.55

Clifford Geertz describes how an art exhibition is organised around the concept of the heirloom, pusaka: ‘a pan-Indonesian concept, neither vague and abstract like "the commingling of male and female" nor vague and esoteric like "the union of divinity and king," but concrete and accessible.’ He notes that nearly all the attention given to Indonesian art both inside and outside the country has focused either on folk art or classical ancient art.56

Different preoccupations run through Australian society, where the rectification of language is hoped to remove gender discrimination. The University of Sydney Non-Discriminatory Language Guidelines hold that

Language and the way it is used are major vehicles for the expression of prejudice and discrimination. It not only reflects and maintains any discriminatory values and practices in our society, but is often inaccurate and perpetuates false assumptions and stereotypes.

The argument proceeds to justify ‘non-sexist or gender inclusive language’ as a way of ensuring that ‘bias is not expressed in favour of one sex over another.’ The use of man and he/him/his as generic terms is argued to be a common form of sexism in English; ‘using man generically can be confusing

55 ibid.

56 Geertz, C. 1991, ‘Beyond the Java Sea: Art of Indonesia's Outer Islands,’ The New Republic vol.205 no.17, 21 October, p.30-36.

41 and discriminatory,’ and humans, woman and man, people or humanity are suggested as alternatives. Other examples include

manned staffed man-made handcrafted, artificial manpower workforce one-man run by one person tradesman tradesperson

Rejection of the generic use of man is an abrupt change in direction of the English language. One is free not to follow the suggested changes, but the translator will need to take them into account. The changes suggested in relation to pronouns may be far-reaching. The Guidelines hold that ‘instead of he/him/his, it is acceptable to use the plural they/them/their, add the female equivalent or omit the pronouns.’ The following are examples.

When a lecturer commences he must … /when lecturers commence they must… /When a lecturer commences she/he must …

Each student must bring with him… /Students must bring with them… Any student wanting his work… /any student wanting their work evaluated...

An alternative is to omit the pronoun entirely:

Each student must bring along… Any student wanting work evaluated…

This is a university standard and not necessarily a standard for all English usage. However once the idea of a disclaimer is dropped, stating that all masculine nouns and pronouns are to be taken as referring to both females and males, the use of their is difficult to avoid; yet for many in the community the use of the plural pronoun may be unacceptable when reference is to a singular

42 noun. If the pronoun is omitted altogether there may be implications for the structure of the sentence.

Each student must leave his belongings outside.

This could become

Students must leave personal belongings outside. Or Students’ personal belongings must be left outside.

The result here may be to allow the word personal a greater role in the language, or to favour the use of the passive in many cases. There may be definite changes in the use of English as a result of strictures on the masculine gender, and these changes could take a direction away from plain English. Syntactic gymnastics necessary in order to avoid using the masculine pronoun. may result in practices of indirect reference and use of abstract nouns in the English language, in order to avoid concatenations like he or she …. his or her … him or her and so on. It is difficult to say for the present whether they will be able to function in place of he or she. The pace of change is quite rapid. Within this changing society, the translator needs to be abreast of change, without however being a mindless follower of new schools of thought.

Sex role stereotyping is an area of focus for the University of Sydney, with a statement that ‘occupational terms or job titles that relate to only one sex are inaccurate and discriminatory, and should be replaced with neutral, generic terms.’ Essentially two kinds of example are given. One is chairman which it is argued should be replaced by chair or convenor (some replace it by chairperson). Certainly professors and their wives excludes female professors; a woman doctor also discriminates against female doctors. The other kind is say actress or headmaster/headmistress, where the objection is to characterising a role in a profession in terms of sex, so that waiter/waitress should become only waiter. However although restricting the use of actress

43 and waitress within an academic community may be possible, the change is not intuitive and does not appear to have much popular support. There seems little advantage to be gained by speaking of female actors and female waiters. The University of Sydney view that such gender descriptions ‘imply deviation from the norm’ is no doubt not generally held, and if speakers of the language wish to use or even create feminine forms this need not be considered to be a form of discrimination, nor to be ‘irrelevant’ or ‘gratuitous.’

Patronising expressions and stereotyped images extend into the territory of semantic and pragmatic issues rather than issues of gender per se. The University of Sydney suggests ‘reversing the order occasionally’ for expressions such as men and women and his and hers because men usually precede women in phrases. This can do violence to phrases like brothers and sisters or men and women, where reversing the order tends to imply a special reason for doing so. On the other hand there are phrases like mother and father, girls and boys, ladies and gentlemen, where the female comes first. It is often difficult to see any particular significance in the order of a set phrase, except that the order is often fixed: *mouse and cat or *raining dogs and cats would be seen as absurd. The University of New South Wales Guidelines on Non Discriminatory Presentation & Practice do not refer to the question of masculine-feminine order in phrases—a sensible omission, because to speak in terms of the University of Sydney Guidelines where inversion of normal order is difficult to justify and in any case is not made mandatory, undermining the point of the exercise.57

In noting how men and women are often described the University of Sydney Guidelines set out the following oppositions:

57 University of New South Wales. 1995, Policies and Guidelines: Non Discriminatory Presentation & Practice: Part 2 Guidelines. www.unsw.edu.au.

44 women words men words

aggressive/pushy assertive/ambitious domineering strong hysterical angry stubborn firm

This no doubt can reflect bias in describing the sexes, and the translator needs to be constantly aware that the translation should not contain bias that is not in the original.58 Yet the translator is logically free to—and arguably bound to— reflect bias when it is in the original.

One view is that the abstract concept of feminine and masculine is not a matter of biology and it is not gender, which is the social response to biological affiliation. The difference is arguably a matter of spiritual attitude which exists in a society.59 For the translator it is perhaps not so important to go into philosophy of gender so deeply. However inevitably the translator will have policies on how to treat gender, as well as how to treat the concepts of masculine and feminine. Van Vliet points out that French has a grammatical morphology that is prefixal in nature, unlike Latin and most languages, inflectional or not, and its grammatical gender could be subject to change in due course.60 It is not only French that has this problem.

An interpretive framework characterised as feminist sociolinguistic is used to examine gender in language. This sees sexism as ‘a cultural phenomenon which transcends national boundaries and the differences among languages.’ It examines ‘the sexist attitudes and practices which are systemically encoded in the structures, grammar, and connotations of a given language: particularly in the Romance languages, where gender differentiation plays a crucial role in

58 The University of Sydney. Non-Discriminatory Language Guidelines. www.usyd.edu.au. 59 Milcinski, M. 1997, ‘The notion of feminine in Asian philosophical traditions,’ Asian Philosophy vol.7 no.3, November, p.195ff. 60 Van Vliet, E.R. 1999, ‘Gender Loss in Modern French,’ Women and Language vol.22 no.2, Fall, p.59.

45 the linguistic organisation of social functions.’ 61 The systematic encoding of sexism in language would make language a tool of social practices, yet surely there is a very selective way of analysis at work here. Gender and selective language are part of the history of English but are anything but systematically encoded. It is true that for example man is grammatically masculine, yet it is also true that it was frequently meant to represent both genders. It is also worth noting that there are derivations from the Latin manus, ‘hand,’ that do not represent discriminatory language. The use of English is now undergoing very significant change to adapt to the gender consciousness of the late twentieth century and beyond. But discriminatory language will continue to exist in relation to gender and many other forms of communication. The translator needs to recognise discriminatory phrases and deal with them fairly. A balanced translator viewpoint could be to accept the existence of discrimination in various ways, and to accept that such discrimination is often reflected in language. However to argue that discrimination can then be removed by the rectification of language, although it could be useful for high school and undergraduate university students, is a punctilious burden for competent practitioners in the field of translation.

At this point it may be useful to consider whether the translator should feel or be made to feel that someone is looking over his or her shoulder to see whether each word is translated the right way in every case. The result of that attitude could be awkward translation. The translator has to give expression to the process of linguistic change from both sides. The objection to he/his as being able to represent both genders is a change from the tradition in English. That tradition is of very long standing in Latin, French and other languages also. The current taboo on this practice causes stylistic difficulties in translation where the translator is trying to convey the whole meaning of a

61 Moscovici, C. 1997, ‘He is the sun, she is the moon: a feminist sociolinguistic approach to teaching the French language,’Women and Language vol.20 no.2, Fall, pp.53-57.

46 text in detail, and where in Indonesian the text will not specify masculine or feminine. It is difficult to avoid some effect on the translation. For example the translator may well come to write, instead of feel that someone is looking over his or her shoulder a roughly synonymous phrase such as feel that there is someone watching everything. The version is a little awkward and unnatural, but it demonstrates the way in which language can reflect the moods and restrictions of the times, and the way in which syntactic adjustments are liable to occur.

In some ways English is a good target for the degendering of the language because gender is mostly confined to pronouns. Yet Indonesian has been productively making up forms ending in –wan/-wati, such as karyawan/ karyawati ‘male/female employee.’ In fact there are languages, like French and the other Romance languages, which are far more gendered than English, while Indonesian despite sets of gendered forms that have arisen in recent years seems not to be heavily gendered at all. It would probably be very unwise if, with all the existing reactions to a kind of Ugly Westerner attempted dominance in Indonesia, Westerners began to target Indonesian gendered expressions as evidencing some kind of sexism. In the case of English it is difficult to make out a convincing argument that the linguistic treatment of gender as set out above has any relation to discrimination against women. But some of the strictures on language should probably apply on occasion to the translator; in particular the style of writing where he is said to include the sense of she and they. Referring to an infant as it seems to have been disliked by fond mothers but observation suggests that the practice continues, whether as in Isn’t it cute, or It puked all over my lap.

The Indonesian language reflects a different world view from that of English. There is a more intimate style, often a written style, which has engkau/kau as subject and -mu as object or possessive: Aku tidak mau melupakanmu, kau jangan melupakanku, ‘I won’t forget you. Don’t forget me.’ But Indonesian

47 often tends to avoid the rank-laden second person pronoun, as for example Anaknya berapa? ‘How many children do you have?’ which leaves out the pronoun, with –nya functioning as the in English. The words ibu, bapak, tuan and so on are commonly used instead of the second person pronoun kamu. The Indonesian tendency to prefer the third person pronoun could be tied into the use of the honorific beliau instead of ia/dia to refer to respected persons. Thus in Indonesian there is avoidance of the second person pronoun, which it person pronoun is avoided.. Thus in a curious and roundabout fashion there is a comparable tendency to avoid direct use of a class of pronoun in both languages. Other words or phrases may be used to clarify meaning as appropriate. There is an English admonition to children to refer to a woman politely—‘She is the cat's mother.' In an English translation instead of he/she various synonymous terms may be appropriate, such as The President, This..... In any case care needs to be taken with the use of the third person pronoun in English, as it may be considered abrupt if it is not carefully placed in context. In general terms this is consistent with the requirement to use deictics—it, this, that—with some precision in English composition. If terms are to be rectified then Indonesian could be a target also, because of references to relative social status. However this has been established by social convention, it represents changes over traditional ways of expression, and any direction of change ought to be a matter for Indonesians themselves to decide. In both English and Indonesian, the translator has to reflect current realities as they affect language, and produce an acceptable, coherent style.

2.7 Conflicts in Language Use

The Hebrew and Christian scriptures become problematic if language is to be balanced in terms of gender, because the original references were not composed in that way. It is very difficult to take the formula of God the Father, God the Son and Mary the Mother of God and reconcile it with a policy of gender neutral nouns. That said, English is not an especially difficult

48 case because gender is not pervasive through the nominal structure of the language. In the Romance languages the problem may be much greater. For English, there may be a desire by some to change to a gender neutral personal pronoun system. For the translator, the change in styles of reference to gender and certain other areas of social distinction can be the occasion of some careful thought. On the one hand there is the undeniable tradition of the English language and before it the traditions of Latin and Greek, which are even more imprinted with gender distinction and where there is a practice of using the masculine to represent both genders in the plural for example. This is a very different pattern from Chinese and various other languages, which however much they may have been patriarchal did not employ grammatical gender. On the other hand there is a perception that to continue to allow a masculine focus in society reflects male dominance in society. The question then becomes how to change that situation, a situation which has obtained for a very considerable period of time. Observation does not show that public opinion in Australia for example is greatly concerned about this matter. Nevertheless there is a movement for change, and the translator needs to take careful note of it. The translator in particular will no doubt not be strongly interested in doctrinaire principles, but a translation will hopefully emerge as a seamless piece of writing in the language of the audience. A key difficulty in translation is to answer the question, If the gender loading is subtracted from a certain piece of writing, what compensating features need to be considered. For example, the sentence Dia lupa membawa bukunya, where there is no context of a masculine of feminine name to indicate gender, might be in draft form

He or she forgot to bring his or her book.

The main difficulty with this is that there would not be a person who could be masculine or feminine as it suits. Someone is a useful device:

Someone forgot to bring their book.

The difficulty here is that someone is characteristically regarded by those who teach grammar as singular, and their in literary texts should be plural, although it is commonly used in speech as singular. This version is natural spoken English. None of this helps the translator to guess how many books there were, however, and the ambiguity underlines the need for context. The awkwardness of his or her constructions means that they should be avoided where possible. To take a sentence like the following:

Dia tidak mau membawa bukunya itu dengan sendiri.

In draft this could read,

He or she did not want to bring his or her books himself or herself.

It should be noted that even though their could be used for his or her, themselves could not be used for himself or herself, and themself is regarded as an uneducated form. This kind of sentence easily produces a headache, even though it is very simple in Indonesian. If the sentence were cast in a prescriptive mood, the sentence could take the form

Everyone should bring their books themselves.

Still there persists the difficulty that everyone is singular and their, themselves are plural. When the sentence is descriptive, as in the case being discussed, the essential difficulty is the lack of ambiguity in the English form in terms of number and gender. In the past, that is say forty years ago or even less, the masculine form could reliably be used to allow for the feminine. The disallowing of this practice sometimes causes difficulty in translation which may be solved after a fashion by either seeking more information or opting for the most likely case to appear in the translation. Cases where the facts may be very significant may be dealt with in a footnote. Other cases may simply

50 have to suffer in precision because of the different semantic loading of the respective languages.

The question of reversing conventional ordering of phrases is different. This can be a course of action designed to break down conventions which are deemed to be bad purely because there is a numerical preponderance of masculine preceding feminine. Translation need not be thought of as a vehicle for change, but rather a rendering of text into the current state of the target language. The translator could adopt particular phraseology, but is not under any obligation to do so.

In Chinese there is a form for the feminine third person pronoun, singular and plural, and even sometimes the second person pronoun, in the written form only. There is another form for the neuter gender in the singluar and plural The standard form remains for masculine or indeterminate in the singular, and for masculine or masculine plus feminine in the plural.62 With Indonesian, it may be thought that the third person should be quite easy to translate. However Indonesian has features which need particular attention. For example there is a tendency in Indonesian to use feminine forms of occupational terms, such as pramugari ‘flight attendant’ (earlier ‘air hostess’) or wartawati ‘journalist.’ In the translation of these two terms it is of course necessary to keep in mind that there is a feminine semantic loading which should be observed: it should be clear that the ‘flight attendant’ is female. The Indonesian tendency may not be taking the same long term direction as the rails laid down for English, and current Western trends in this regard will need to been seen in a longer perspective. Although bodies such as university senates and the Commonwealth Public Service in Australia may have their own views on English usage, the translator needs to make sure that a translation reflects the thinking of the Indonesian author and not some equivalent that may be culturally adjusted to reflect a Western trend. For

62 Yin, B.. amd Felley, M. 1990, Chinese Romanisation: Pronunciation & Orthography, 汉语拼音和证词, Sinolingua, Beijing, p.192.

51 example, although Miss and Mrs may not be default terms in English, Nona and Nyonya are not in disfavour in Indonesia. The reader should have access to a window into Indonesia, not a projection of Western thinking.. The differing environments of Indonesia and the West demand sympathetic translation. A traditional Indonesian reluctance to criticise the President and the President’s family is an indication of a deep-seated instinct to give deference to authority. This contrasts with the attitude to royalty and authority generally in Australia, and yet in Australia there is acute awareness of the penalties for contempt of court. The difference may not be precisely definable, but there is a difference. Somehow the translator has to achieve a good balance between description and euphemism, between the graphic and the factual. The translator’s skill may be seen in the deployment of devices to make the translation natural while achieving the degree of anthropological insight required. The translator certainly ought not to ride ideological hobby horses. Whatever the material that the translator brings to the job of translator—and there is a wide range of tools that can be brought to bear—the result ought to be that the translator is a transparent medium or at least a translucent medium.

Venuti cites Graves’ ‘fluent’ translation with disapproval because it caters to the English reader at the expense of what the original is saying. Venuti aims to force reflection on the ethnocentric violence of translation and to recognise the linguistic/cultural differences of foreign texts. Translation is ‘a rewriting of an original text.’ He holds that it is important to elaborate the theoretical, critical and textual means for study of a translation ‘as a locus of difference, instead of the homogeneity that widely characterises it today,’ by which he means the typical fluently readable translation. He sees translator invisibility as ‘a mystification of troubling proportion, an amazingly successful concealment of the multiple determinants and effects of English language translation. This invisibility hides ‘an insidious domestication of foreign texts,’ in a process that consists in ‘rewriting them in the transparent

52 discourse that prevails in English and that selects precisely these foreign texts amenable to fluent translating.’ It is essential to recognise the manipulative processes of rewriting—and translation implies rewriting: ‘All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way.’63

In essence the aim of discussion in the field of translation studies will not be to restrict the work of the translator. The methodology that the translator uses ought to be characterised by a free hand and a deep knowledge of the subject. Change in language, however, is something that can be particularly difficult for a translator who is not living in the country where the foreign language is spoken. This thesis touches at various points on some of the changes that have befallen the Indonesian language in recent decades. Some of these changes are ephemeral colloquial affectations and will seldom need the translator's attention. But some of the changes have affected the way the language habitually expresses itself. Language can be seen as a symbolic system which shapes social norms and relations. There are top down principles for the handling of reference to matters of gender in Australia, yet examples from popular literature can demonstrate a gap between official and popular usage. The translator may be said to have a bridging function here; of conveying what one side wants to say to the other in such a way that there is no distraction over issues that are not of prime concern in the intended message—local expressions reflecting a sense of gender (or absence of such a sense) do not become so prominent as to obscure the message.

While a freeing from the bounds of gender has its advantages, it should not entail deconstructing gender dualisms out of existence. Arguably, what needs to be defined is continuing power and pervasiveness relating to gender dualism in English, with its varying forms and effects.64

63 Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility, pp.41-42,16-17, vii. 64 Cameron, D. 1998, ‘Gender and Language Gender, Language, and Discourse: A Review Essay,’ Signs vol.23 no.4, Summer, p.945.

Religion is one area that may be termed conservative in relation to gender. The Vatican has instructed the international commission that translates liturgical texts into English to stop circulation of its 1993 translation of the Psalms, characterised by the use of non-gender specific or inclusive language.65 It seems to be a reasonable view that gender in texts cannot always be neutralised or denied. It is a matter of history. It is also a burning question as to whether gender can be neutralised in respect to the deity in current language. In the Hebrew scriptures God is frequently anthropomorphised, virtually always as male.

2.8 Textual issues

Kamus Ungkapan66 could be useful for Indonesian translators working into English with its supply of colloquial English, though the level of expression of some equivalents needs to be treated with caution. To take just one example, for the word menghuni, ‘to live’, the example is:

Orang-orang gelandangan menghuni gedung rusak itu.

Kamus Ungkapan provides the following English equivalent:

Bums dwell in that dilapidated building.

However bums is not a value-neutral term, nor is it proper to international English. Sudah rusak implies more than just dilapidated. Further, the emphasis in the Indonesian appears to be on the specific object gedung rusak itu rather than the general orang-orang gelandangan, and so a natural English equivalent would be:

65 Allen, J.L. 2000, 'Vatican Wants Inclusive Translation Pulled,' National Catholic Reporter vol.36, no.23 (7 April), p.6. Allen 2000. 66 Hadi Podo and Sullivan, J.J. 1985, Pandai Berbahasa Inggris: Kamus Ungkapan Indonesia-Inggris, 2 vols., PT Gramedia, Jakarta.

That derelict building is occupied by homeless people.

Thus just one example requires some work to be usable. This and other examples the need for caution with dictionaries that provide equivalents for the translator in the second language. Apart from the clear advantage of using an Indonesian-Indonesian dictionary where necessary for the English- speaking translator translating Indonesian into English, with a dictionary such as Echols & Shadily as a supporting reference work, there could be some advantage in referring to Kamus Ungkapan on occasion. However for the Indonesian-speaking translator working into English, Kamus Ungkapan is likely to produce some odd phrasing.

Heron in discussing the assessment of a translated target text puts forward a formulation which he holds seems common to virtually all approaches, that it seeks to measure ‘the degree of adequacy of that text with regard to the semantic, syntactic and pragmatic givens of the source text’ and also the expressive possibilities of the target language, ‘always with a view to the function ascribed to the target text.’67 This sounds straightforward, but there are two distinct areas involved which are of great concern in the translation of Indonesian into English and English into Indonesian. First the translator must try to take the source text and render it into the target language as fully and precisely as possible. At the same time, or subsequently with editing, the target text must reflect good style in the target language, that is in so far as the source text would demand a certain style. The difficulty here is also twofold. First of all, how can a non-native in the target language translate into that language with systematically good style? Secondly, can a non-native speaker fully grasp the meaning of a text in the source language. The answer to the first question is that it is possible for a non-native translator to produce high

67 Heron, D. 1998, ‘Translation Assessment: Notes on the Interlingual Transfer of an Advertising Text,’ International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching vol.36 no.2, May, p.95ff..

55 quality target language texts, either unaided; or with reference help and especially the help of native speakers in editing the target text. However this process is likely to be inefficient if compared with the ability of typical experienced writers working in their native language to produce high quality text. As for the second question, there seems to be a far greater chance here of good understanding of the source language text. To begin with, experience in the Australian language community, for example, shows that immigrants after a certain period of time in Australia can have very high levels of comprehension of English, even though they will typically still make errors in speech and writing. Furthermore, it is possible for students of Indonesian and Indonesia to achieve good anthropological knowledge of Indonesian society, politics and language. And there are dictionaries and other instruments available to clarify meaning, apart from the possibility of asking native speakers for guidance on particular terms. It seems that accurate and efficient translation is possible from Indonesian to English by English native speakers, and this observation is supported by experience. However it is also true that this process has produced poor translations.

Heron’s work is a useful point for practical consideration.68 Heron discusses the properties of a text that should not be changed. Parameters would have to be defined and assigned priority to determine application to a source text that is to be translated. This however could be a fairly substantial undertaking. Heron notes that any textual analysis would be made complicated by the competence of the translator, cultural and specialist knowledge, hermeneutic factors—that is factors that relate to the methodology of interpretation—and the problem of relating linguistic form to textual function. Heron’s outline of analytic models appears to go beyond translation proper and migrate to a theory of translation. It must be questionable whether such theory is of practical use in the actual art of translation, although no doubt it may contribute to the knowledge of the translator. Faced with an actual task of

68 ibid.

56 translation, the translator could apply an analytical model of one kind or another, and this could relate to the efficiency of the translation project. However a translator would probably already have personal methodologies adequate for the task, or at least would have the resources to develop a new specific methodology on the spot. Heron also discusses the overriding strategy that controls the production of the translation text: the status of the original in the translation process, the question of retrospective versus prospective concepts of translation, and the controversy over the notions of equivalence, adequacy and correspondence. It should be noted that the purpose of the translation will generally be determined by the client or by the translator if there is no client. These strategies are useful as background to the decisions that will need to be made on textual and layout matters.

The phenomenon of proverbs from sources very different from those of English can relate to the thinking of Indonesians, and there could be a divergence in terms of metaphoric views of life. It may be of considerable concern to the translator that if translation is carried out more or less correctly by using English equivalent phaseology the imagery may be lost. As a guide to Indonesian expressions, Pusposaputro’s Kamus Peribahasa69 provides a general explanation of the meaning of many Indonesian sayings, under topic headings. The work is entirely in Indonesian. There are a number of web sites representing Indonesian publications and other organisations. Typing Indonesian terms into a search engine such as www.google.com can locate examples of usage. The study of sayings and proverbs in both languages reflects a fascinating kaleidoscope of language use.

2.9 Symbolic Treatment

There are linguistic concepts that can be applied to interpretation of Pablo Picasso’s 1937 painting Guernica, which was created in Paris in 1937. It is oil

69 Sarwono Pusposaputro, ed. 2001, Kamus Peribahasa, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.

57 on canvas and measures 3.5 metres by 7.8 metres and is held in the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid. Guernica speaks without words. It expressed in a form known as synthetic Cubism the horror of Picasso at the bombing of the Basque town of Guernica during the Civil War. More broadly, it expressed a horror of war in general, together with compassion for its victims, appearing in pieces on the canvas of Guernica.70 Guernica was kept in the United States during World War II and was not returned to Spain until the 1980s.71 Painted only in black and white and grey, Guernica can be seen as a narrative. Several human figures and a few animals occupy the painting. The figures are dismembered in a kind of memory of the real life victims of the Fascist war machine. There are interpretations that can be applied in terms of symbols and concepts, and intertext will be a feature of the interpretation, as the visual impact of the is offset by the one word Guernica.72 In an atmosphere of speculation over the precise meaning of Picasso’s imagery, Picasso has been quoted as saying, ‘It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.’73 comment is characteristic of Picasso’s view of his art. He said elsewhere,

‘A painting is not thought out and settled in advance. While it is being done, it changes as one's thoughts change. And when it's finished, it goes on changing, according to the state of mind of whoever is looking at it.’74

Picasso’s approach for the purposes of this thesis can certainly be seen as a kind of unbundling—without a subsequent rebundling in coherent form. The

70 Pablo Picasso, 1881-1973. www.emory.edu/PHILOSOPHY/ART/artistbios.html #picasso. accessed 15 June 2003. 71 Anonymous. 2002, ‘Picasso's War: The Destruction of Guernica and the Masterpiece that Changed the World,’ Publishers Weekly vol.249 no.34, August 26, p.57. 72 www.tamu.edu/mocl/picasso/study/ guernic2.html, accessed 17 February 2004. 73 ibid. 74 Picasso, P., in Guernica: Testimony of War. http://www.pbs.org/ treasuresof the world/ guernica/gmain.html, accessed 10 April 2004.

58 insight provided by Picasso can be related to the twentieth century Cubist school. Georges Braque (1882-1963) and Pablo Picasso are considered joint creators of Cubism Picasso once said, ‘painting is not made to decorate apartments. its an offensive and defensive weapon against the enemy.'75 Here work by Picasso has been used to demonstrate how the translator can mentally dissect phenomena, or unbundle them. The analytic power of Guernica, however much it may unbundled an incident of violence or the phenomenon on violence, does not rebundle into anything. Neither can the viewer readily unbundle Guernica. In other ways also Picasso created images—such as the mythical Minotaur figure—that have a dissipated force. The translator can learn of the unbundling technique and even the creation of images, but the translator’s task is not to remain in this early dawn of an urban wilderness, understanding and commenting on facts. In translation terms this ‘urban wilderness’ may be explained as an academic environment where the intended output is not translation per se but the study of translation for purposes of linguistics or for other reasons. That kind of research can inform the attitudes and practice of the translator; and it all contributes to a capacity to unbundle source text. As for the rebundling process, it is difficult to say much about this because it appears to be substantially intuitive and to emerge from the translator’s competence in the target language. The Picasso orientation however, perhaps a form of reframing, deserves some serious thought. This is because translated text must fit into a target context, and this could have important stylistic considerations; also a text may have meanings at different levels which the translator will need to account for--syntactic, semantic and semiotic perspectives being prominent.

Picasso’s ‘modern’ perspective of cubism at this point appears to impinge on the postmodern approach known as reframing. Modern and postmodern frameworks and templates are placed over a long period of intellectual history, with no necessary reason for there to be a choice between the two approaches,

75 http://www.compulink.co.uk/~phreak/picasso/guernica.html, accessed 10 April 2004.

59 and especially no real reason to assume that a postmodern interpretation should be favoured over any other. Instead of a simple fixed viewpoint, Cubism used many viewpoints so that the same image could depict different aspects of an object.

‘Simultaneous vision’—combining different viewpoints of a subject into a single image—is an artistic concept that is a useful description of what the translator has to do. Purely formal properties of abstract art were stressed during the 1950s and 1960s. Later it was held that the meaning which was recognised to exist in abstract art was coded or imbued with signs.76 If the translator is able to use this mode of perception to create a translated version, without explicit unbundling and rebundling, this would not necessarily discount the validity of the unbundling~rebundling insight but would no doubt indicate that the translator was competent in conceiving relationships between numbers of terms in two languages.

Analytic cubism (1909-1911) is characterised by the taking apart of objects and their being analysed into compound elements before being rearranged on the canvas in ‘a new and exclusively pictorial order.’ The emphasis on physical structure meant downplaying colour, and key analytic Cubist paintings are monochromatic. In Synthetic Cubism (1912-1914) on the other hand, the image was built up from pre-existing elements or shapes rather than through fragmentation. The question arises here whether there is a natural comparison between the phenomenon of Cubism and the art of translation, or whether it is simply an analogy taken from another intellectual sphere. The answer is that there is a remarkable analogy to be made. The example of Picasso and Cubism graphically illustrates a principle that can be extremely useful as a routine method in handling difficult texts and also an excellent way of explaining why certain translation decisions are made. The analogy with painting seems particularly apposite and lends force to a more general

76 Masterworks Fines Arts, http://www.tamu.edu/mocl/picasso/archives/ 2002/opparch02-105.html, accessed 10 April 2004.

60 conclusion that the mind is able to dissect and dissemble phenomena and so achieve analytic insights that will not be possible by an approach of simple depiction or equivalence of other comparable phenomena—that is to say, in translation this approach can produce a more meaningful result than merely searching in dictionaries and glossaries for matching phrases.

Guernica is a discourse without words, and this concept is essential in understanding much of the work of the translator. The becak or the Borobudur, the Australian billy or billabong—these are realities that can be described by language but may be very difficult to define in language, and more difficult still to translate. Yet the translator generally does not have the liberty or the discretion over what must be translated. Pak, Bu, Mas, Kakak, Dik,77 are terms that are so simple within the Indonesian sphere and yet so unattainably difficult to put into English contexts. They cannot really be translated but neither can they really be quoted. Similarly the Australian mate, cobber, love, barbie and a myriad other expressions may be understood and mimicked by speakers of other dialects of English and other languages, but sometimes with enough inaccuracy in usage to indicate that they are not fully understood.

Postmodernism is an underlying reality that can be difficult to place in categories. Postmodernism is an element in a whole literature of sociology.. ‘The unfettered observation, analysis, and interpretation that postmodernism has encouraged in the humanities may appeal to sociologists concerned with the historical specificity of and reflexive relationship with their material.’78 Dani Cavallaro’s Critical and Cultural Theory: Thematic Variations is a work that may generally be classified as postmodern. Cavallaro argues that at ideologies and world views are preserved through ‘the written word, the spoken word, the visual arts, the media, codes of behaviour and ritualised

77 Pak: Sir, abbrevisation of bapak ‘father;’ Bu: lady, abbreviation of Ibu mother. Mas: older brother (Javanese), used as a general term of address, Dik: Adik, younger brother or sister, used as a general term of address. 78 Smith, J. 1995, ‘Emancipating sociology: postmodernism and mainstream sociological practice,’ Social Forces vol.74 no.1, September, p53-80.

61 conventions.’ ‘The Other is anyone and anything deemed capable of disrupting the social fabric and the integrity of its imaginary identity.’ There is the obvious objection here that ‘anything other’ may not want to disturb the identity of the culture. Cavallero has a postmodern vision where psychology may well become more significant than logical analysis. The catch is that the method may obscure the object of the investigation. Cavallero examines some philosophical approaches to the idea of the Other, referring to Jean-Paul Sartre and Existentialism. Cavallero asserts that ‘in Western culture, dominant ideologies have time and again defined themselves in relation to a subordinated Other.’ In the end it has to be recognised that ‘the Other is in us,’ and ‘when a culture, society or community marginalises certain individuals as Other, what it attempts to exclude or repress is actually a part of itself which it finds difficult to understand, let alone accept.79

It is easy for this to appear to be very far from the realities of translation or the ordinary parameters of Indonesian. However here the overriding importance of Islam and thus of Islamic vocabulary need to be carefully considered. However much Westernism is routinely accepted in Indonesia, it remains true that Islam is far from being readily understood in the West. Even without the adversarial currents that appear to have surfaced since the September 11 incident, it seems fair to characterise views of Islam in the West as attitudes towards an Other. To ensure adequate translation of Islamic concepts as they come up is very much the duty of the translator. The way in which the translator treats such detailed theological content will no doubt vary individually, but surely it is incumbent on the translator to ensure that the English reader understand the key religious principles involved, including the tenet of faith that the Quran is to be read in the original and not in translation. That fact immediately puts linguistic explanations relating to the Arabic of the Quran in a different category from specialist theological analysis of Greek and

79 Cavallaro, D. 2001, Critical and Cultural Theory: Thematic Variations, The Athlone Press, London. pp.xiii, 122-129.

62 Hebrew texts, which after being used in medieval times by the clergy in Latin are read by the faithful in the vernacular.80

Metaphor has been emphasised by Gareth Morgan, professor at York University in Toronto.81 A metaphor is ‘a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action that it does not literally denote in order to imply a resemblance.’82 Morgan’s approach has led to new ways of looking at organisations. Morgan describes his approach as postmodern. Morgan stresses new ways of looking at things rather than deeper study of existing approaches. He invites readers to use their imaginations and to find new ways of seeing, understanding, and shaping their actions. His book is really a collection of his consulting experiences. He challenges readers to view his stories critically.

Rapid digestion of complex organisations, deconstructing and reconstructing them while in the early stages of exploring their construction, however, raises concern regarding the depth and accuracy of conclusions.83

The metaphors support Morgan’s theories and interpretations, and this reinforces their validity in the eyes of clients. Morgan mentions consultants,

80Campbell, S. 'The Arabic Element In Indonesian: What Do Students Need to Know About It?' http://intranet.usc.edu.au/wacana/4/campbell.html, accessed 19 January 2006.; Laffan, M. 'Dispersing God's shadows: Reflections on the translation of Arabic political concepts into Malay and Indonesian,', http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/ahcen/ proudfoot /mmp/laffan_apc.html, accessed 19 January 2006; Andaya, L.Y. 2001, 'The search for the 'origins' of melayu,' Journal of Southeast Asian Studies vol.32 no.3, Oct, vol.32 no.3, pp.315-330. .

81 Morgan, G. 1997, Images of Organisation, 2nd edn., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California. 82 Collins English Dictionary Updated Third Edition, 1995, HarperCollins Publishers, Sydney. 83 McCourt, W. 1997, ‘Discussion note: Using metaphors to understand and to change organisations: A critique of Gareth Morgan's approach,’ Organisation Studies vol.18 no.3, pp.511-522.

63 board members, senior executives, and managers. 84 Morgan’s Images of Organisation has indications of postmodernism in its strong element of paradox and relativism. In a way the metaphor has an element of the ‘gaze’ that is part of postmodern philosophy. The old story of the blind men and the elephant is instructive: the elephant can be seen as different things to different people. However the metaphor of the overall organisation, to be valid, needs to be a fair characterisation of the organisation and not a distortion based on partial observation. Morgan suggests that modern managers should ‘imaginise’ and use metaphor ‘to find new ways of seeing, understanding, and shaping their actions.’ Morgan’s work has been characterised as an anthology of short stories about his consulting experiences, with ‘short, strategic interventions, designed to create new momentum in stuck situations.’ A process of ‘imaginisation’ promises to mobilise insights and interpretive abilities to find creative ways of reshaping unsatisfactory situations. Morgan sees his metaphoric approach as obviating a claim to universal, authoritative explanations of society. He prefers a postmodern relativism.85

Morgan's cast of mind is protean, with a habitual preference for moving on to fresh fields and pastures new rather than consolidating existing work… [this] gives his work an impressive fecundity, vigour and density, but it may also militate against a systematic presentation of his main ideas, where due weight is given to his critics and where both limitations and strengths (to use Morgan's favourite opposition) are made explicit.86

Morgan's method avoids the question of how subjective meanings become objective facts as socially constructed. This is a basic objection because the findings will have to compete with the carefully compiled and tested findings of others. To take up the relevance of the metaphor concept to translation, it may be in the fact that a rebundled transeme is like a virtual image. Its reality is an attributed reality, or a metaphorical reality. If a metaphor is used however, it should suit the situation. It should not exaggerate and it should

84 Boje, D.M., and Summers, D.J. 1994, ‘Other reviews - Imaginisation: The Art of Creative Management,’ Administrative Science Quarterly vol.39 no.4, p.688ff. 85 ibid. 86 ibid.

64 not be used as a form of sarcasm. If Morgan’s metaphors are derived by ‘rapid digestion’ while exploring complex structures, then this is similar enough to the way the translator under pressure needs to formulate text, expression for expression. A good metaphor can provide new and unexpected insights.

The concept of metaphor embodies a concept of imagery. It is an active concept where the organisation actually becomes the imaginised image for the purpose of the exercise, or in a looser way it can apply to the device of simile. The purpose of a rebundled metaphor is to make the target expression more understandable and more immediate. Morgan’s metaphor is a valuable insight which depends on in depth insight and understanding by the translator. The requirement for the appropriate use of metaphor leads back again to the assertion that ideally translation will be into the translator’s native language.

A 1996 work by Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design focuses on ‘visual rhetoric.’ It puts forward a grammar of terms to analyse texts. Based on ideational, interpersonal, and textual aspects, the book puts forward a grammar of terms that is used to analyse texts. It is not easy to devise or use a syntax of description for images. However the images are unquestionably saying something.

Our insistence on drawing comparisons between language and visual communications stems from this objective. We seek to break down the disciplinary boundaries between the study of language and the study of images, and we seek, as much as possible, to use compatible language, and compatible terminology in speaking about both, for in actual communication the two and indeed many others come together to form integrated texts.87

There is a need for a vocabulary to express what the images say,88 and three interrelated systems may be used to analyse an image. One is its information value, where elements are given specific informational values attached to the

87 Kress, G., and van Leeuwen, T. 1996, , Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Deakin University Press, p.183. 88 http://students.washington.edu/~flores/additional2.html, accessed 3 September 2003.

65 various zones of the image. Another is salience, where the elements of an image attract the viewer’s attention to different degrees by placement, size, contrast, colour and so on. The third element is framing devices which disconnect or connect elements of the image in terms of whether they can be seen to belong together. Yet despite the need for analysis, what is most important is ‘the composition of the whole, the way in which the representational and interactive elements are made to relate to each other, the way they are integrated into a meaningful whole.’89

Kress and van Leeuwen are acutely aware of the need for a vocabulary to express what the images say. 90. It could be argued that although they may have a certain degree of success they will in the end fail because of the structure of the human brain, which is divided into two hemispheres, one dealing with visual material and one handling speech. It is true that some people merge the two capacities better than others.

The two authors however do put forward three interrelated systems to analyse an image. One is its information value, where elements are given specific informational values attached to the various zones of the image, left and right, top and bottom, centre and margin. Another is salience, where the elements of an image attract the viewer’s attention to different degrees by placement, size, contrast, colour and so on. The third element is framing devices which disconnect or connect elements of the image, with the meaning that they belong or do not belong together in some sense. However despite this analysis Kress and van Leeuwen are basically concerned with ‘the composition of the whole, the way in which the representational and interactive elements are

89 Kress & van Leeuwen, op.cit.., p.181. 90 http://students.washington.edu/~flores/additional2.html.

66 made to relate to each other, the way they are integrated into a meaningful whole.’91

From the point of view of the present thesis, there may be a process of deconstructing imagery and then reconstructing it. If one identifies a discourse of reflection and analysis over a number of decades, whether in relation to words or images, it seems reasonable to see this as a reaction against the restraints of conservatism. Postmodernism—eclectic, chaotic, relativistic, pragmatic—then produces many different approaches. The existence of parallel or even conflicting viewpoints can be found in postmodern society.

The phenomenon of visuality, of seeing in historically and culturally specific ways, cannot be separated from the production of meanings, the active role of values, categories of identity, and power relations.

We seek to break down the disciplinary boundaries between the study of language and the study of images, and we seek, as much as possible, to use compatible language, and compatible terminology in speaking about both, for in actual communication the two and indeed many others come together to form integrated texts.92

The concept of unbundling~rebundling is a very broad one, and discussion of this subject could continue for some time. However to conclude this chapter the process should be set out in terms of frames or metaphors. The concept of a frame is a psychological one. It is a way of employing a concept similar to that of an image. The frame concept comes from social psychology and is related to the capacity of a social situation can be defined in accord with basic principles that will affect or even control the way people interact with that situation. This refers not to objective reality but to the way the frame is an agreed and accepted form for people to perceive and experience an

91 Kress & van Leeuwen, op.cit., p.181. 92 ibid., p.183.

67 organisation. 93 . Hatch speaks of a symbolic perspective on organisational life.94 The idea of frames has been used as a way of viewing an organisation in different ways. Four frames are often raised in relation to idea of reframing. They are structural, human resource, political and symbolic. Reframing means that someone learns to see an organisation from a different perspective. So multiframing really refers to the same process. Then by seeing the organisation in a fresh light there is the possibly of handing organisational matters differently. The structural frame can be viewed as an factory or machine. The human resource frame can be seen as a family. The political frame may be appropriately thought of as a jungle. The symbolic frame as a temple or theatre.95 People tend to adopt fixed perceptions of problems, and therefore set solutions to problems. The number of frames is not fixed. The work of de Bono in lateral thinking provides informal background to reframing, drawing out the general concept of creativity to suggest new ways for government and business to step aside from their bureaucratic structures to feel for alternative methods of doing things.96

Disciplines rise and fall and influence perceptions and findings. Linguistic theory has developed from de Saussure, to Whorf and Sapir and through many theorists to the present. Concepts have developed and been formulated and solidified for student consumption. Poetry has suffered a loss of position in the life of English speaking people that may partly be due to factors such as the exhaustion of the capacity of the language for rhymes. Meanwhile

93 Reber, A.S. 1985, The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 2nd edn., Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria, p.298. Bolman, L.G., and Deal, T.E. 1997, Reframing Organisations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership, 2nd edn., Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, is a well known on the subject of reframing, meaning the process of seeing an organisation in different ways. 94 Hatch, M.J. 1997, Organisation Theory: Modern, Symbolic, and Postmodern Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.also provides background on reframing. 95 Bolman & Deal, loc.cit., p.15. 96 de Bono. E. 1992, Serious Creativity: Using the Power of Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas, HarperCollinsBusiness, Hammersmith, London..

68 translation studies is developing the scope of an ancient art. Translation is frequently contrasted with interpretation in terms of accuracy and precision, to the extent that with translation world lengths and even punctuation must match, original to salinan.97

But there is a question: who oversees the concepts and the processes? On Nida’s ‘dynamic’ or ‘functional’ translation, Venuti argues that Nida is ‘improving the English-language valorism of transparent discourse on every foreign culture, masking a basic disjunction between the source—and target— language texts which puts into question the possibility of eliciting a “similar” response. ‘Nida’s advocacy of domesticating translation is explicitly grounded on a transcendental concept of humanity that remains unchanged over time and space.’

Nida’s concept of dynamic equivalence in Bible translation goes hand in hand with an evangelical zeal that seeks to impose on English-language readers a specific dialect of English as well as a distinctly Christian understanding of the Bible. When Nida’s translation identifies with the target-language reader to communicate the foreign text, he simultaneously excludes other target-language cultural consistencies.98

‘The illusion of transparency in fluent translation’ leads to domestication, that conceals elements of the source text and blocks thought about cultural and social alternatives that do not favour English social elites.99 This last fear appears heavily exaggerated and much would depend on the original language and the subject matter. It is difficult to imagine that the translation of Latin, Greek or the Chinese classics have been prevented from reaching English records. And in fact this is not the case. for example philosophy, classics, literature. Any perception that some kind of force field has surrounded English needs to take account of the many foreign texts introducing foreign ideas. Further, English is spoken far more widely than just in England, and

97 Salinan is ‘copy’ or ‘translation.’ Menyalin is ‘copy’ or ‘translate.’ 98 Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility, ibid., pp.21-23. 99 ibid., p.42 .

69 the notion of English social elites would specify a particular instance of the English speaking world. It seems to be a question of whether the English language is receptive to foreign concepts; and in general it is true to say that it has been receptive without being labile. It is true however all the same that adjustments have been made to English ways of thinking.

Yet the King James version is so faithfully executed that it is hard to argue a barrier to influence. The King James ‘and the Word was God’ implies some interpretation—yet the translation overall like the Revised Standard version is a very fair one. To take the body of information that has flooded into the English language—and what is there that has not flooded its way in?—it is difficult to argue the existence of a barrier. Rather this could be an osmotic membrane.

Fluency however is an issue—and this is where the native speaker has an immense advantage. For the reader may simply not care to read marred material. Just like the term ‘transparency,’ Venuti’s use of the word ‘fluency’ seems not entirely to take into account usage in terms of material or reader preference. This could support a view in favour of natural translation into the target language, with the translator making judgements on the way in which foreign cultural elements might best be expressed. In Venuti’s chapter on fluency that there is a predominance of classical material rather than contemporary texts. He makes the point that ‘the invention of a discursive strategy’ can be foreignising, and so can the mere selection of a text to be translated. 100 If the author and the translator ‘live in the same historical moment, they are more likely to share a common sensibility’ that will increase the fidelity of the translation.101

Knowledge of the source language culture, however expert, is insufficient to produce a translation that is both readable and resistant to a reductive

100 Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility, p.186. 101 ibid. p.272.

70 domestication; translators must also possess a commanding knowledge of the diverse cultural discourses in the target language, past and present. And they must be able to write them.102

A factor often contributing to the quality of the handling of English material by Indonesians relates to this. English is commonly used and is familiar, but in terms of precision and accuracy there is a significant gap not only in using English but in understanding English. This is not only grammatical, insofar as errors in substantive content often persist. It does appear that overconfidence with English causes mistranslation both ways. The pool of expertise is important to the state of the art in translation. Dictionaries are a key part, and knowledgeable informants are very important. The internet and a wide store of magazines and newspapers also form an element in the pool of expertise. It is tempting to adopt an attitude towards Indonesian that might be termed endocultural,103 where translation into the language will be within the cultural limits and parameters of the language. For example with proverbs and sayings the English style and metaphors would be avoided. The result would be an Indonesian construct with an English form. Yet this approach would underestimate the Indonesian habit of using Western idioms. From the other side, translation of Indonesian texts into an English that does not owe anything to Indonesian cultural concepts and terms might be disappointing and colourless; it might well be felt to be an inadequate rendition. The conclusion to be drawn from these two scenarios is that the cultural nature of the source text should not be ignored. It should not be made to wear the garb of the target culture. The overall impact and taste of the translation depends on the judgement of the translator. This is a strong reason for translation being into the mother tongue of the translator. The fact is that excellent translation demands excellent knowledge of the target language and excellent grasp of

102 ibid. p.309. 103 Coining this term may be useful here. According to a search in www.google.com (accessed 8 April 2004), the term seems to exist so far only within a Spanish- speaking environment.

71 usage and composition skills in the target language.104 The effectiveness of back translation as a checking method can reveal to the client how well the work has been done. In any case, at the very least, the back translation should give an idea of trouble spots. In complicated areas this however could conceivably inject double barrelled error, for example by erroneous correction of an original translation that was itself in error.

The attachment of Indonesian to Dutch in the past meant an alienation to a certain extent from the potential of English and international terminology, although it is true that Indonesian could always access Western terminology. Structural elements are largely predetermined, and structural elements are defined for each language. Semantic elements however interplay and because of the interface of languages with reality they go beyond individual languages; there is thus a weight of presumption that semantic elements will be decisive.. Semantic and cultural elements should accord with the target language or change the target language. Translation may achieve this, as in the case of the King James Bible. However good translation should not be predicated on this. The Indonesian practice of readily accepting English terms as well as Sanskrit and Arabic and Javanese terms105 is an indication that translation may have the function of a facilitator within the field of linguistic usage. The idea that one word must always be translated by one word seems to have little basis. With the translation of religious texts, for example, a word for word translation can be important, but this can imply a definite if limited acculturation process, where the process of translation is capable of working cultural changes within an evolving area of language use.

104 This is something that is for Indonesian very far above what is required say by the NAATI Translator examination into Indonesian, let alone the examination into English. 105 Jones, R. 1984, `Loan words in contemporary Indonesian,' in J.W.M Verhaar (Ed.) Towards a description of contemporary Indonesian: Preliminary Studies, Part 2. NUSA Linguistic Studies in Indonesian and Languages in Indonesia, Vol. 19, p.1-38.

72 The psychological reality of schemata would seem to be an intuitive possession of most translators. Wilss explores schemata by defining a scheme as ‘a piece of generic knowledge or a kind of encapsulation of our knowledge in configurations with a wide range of applicability.’ But also, schemata are continually modifiable, depending on the number of slots in a schema.106 This could be as simple as assigning operators in a sentence to slots like Subject— Verb—Object. Wilss goes on to argue that little attention need be paid to structures from text that will match initially assigned categories, so that there will be more time and energy to devote to more unusual and thus more innovative items. This is intuitively and practically true in translation work, but Wilss goes further to postulate that when it fits into a scheme text is more memorable, and when material is inadequately organised then recognition and handling are more difficult. Wilss concludes that ‘texts with a high proportion of schematically organised text elements may be handled by the translator with a minimum of cognitive effort.

In general, Wilss’ exposition seems rational and useful enough, but it lacks illustrative examples and supporting evidence. This is shown when he discusses schema theory and translator performance. He argues that expanding and telescoping experience is essential to building translation skills, formulating norms for expectation becomes more chancy as style becomes freer, but there can be an analogy/typification effect coming out of familiarity with a genre.

It is possible to raise objections to Wilss because being standardised may not accord with the quality of the final result; it does not follow that the schema will be equally recognisable to a native/non-native translator; and it does not follow that this will make translation into a target framework easy, exact or accurate, let alone meaningful. Wilss steps onto swampy ground when he

106 Wilss, W. 1996, Knowledge and Skills in Translator Behaviour, Benjamins Translation Library, vol.15, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amerdam; pp.69- 70.

73 asserts in regard to typification that the criterion of validity means that epistemic knowledge can be developed and that expert knowledge means that a text has ‘a stable and respectable meaning.’ This is without any illustrative examples, and makes no reference for example to poetry or to translation of other types of text where there may be a strong emotional or other identifiable component. He then goes on to say: ‘The theoretical aim of any scientific discipline is the attainment of epistemic thought, and its practical aim is agreement that this truth has been achieved.’107 Intuition is ‘the most delicate stage in the development of translation skills.’ –it occurs within a framework of subjective traits and knowledge basis and is a long way from a system— theoretically related translation procedure.’ Wilss notes that creative translation can come about only when an individual has achieved a high level of mastery in his or her field, although intuition and performance criteria should be based on explicit and plausible criteria.108

Darwish notes the unfortunate effect on the Islamic world of the use of the word crusade by President Bush in his declaration of war against global terrorism. American Psychological Operations specialists, have had an insensitive approach to the Islamic world.

For instance, during the war against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the US Department of Defence offended America’s Afghan and other Muslim allies by designating its military campaign as Operation Infinite Justice. Muslim clerics and groups were quick off the mark to protest this codename because Islam teaches that only God provides "infinite justice". In an attempt to recover from this temporary lapse of good judgement, the name was quickly changed to operation Enduring Freedom.

In relation to the performance of many Arabic translators, Darwish notes that ‘when the level of uncertainty is high, the translator tends to adhere to the

107 ibid., p.71. 108 ibid., pp.71,28-29, 51-52, 55.

74 surface plane of text.’109 This may be safer for the translator but unhelpful to the reader.

Several websites offer facilities for finding vocabulary equivalents between Indonesian and English, but they are generally characterised by a limited selection of items that is far from the capacity of a good dictionary. The KEBI dictionary site, http://nlp.aia.bppt.go.id/kebi/, could have value but is extremely slow and thus not particularly useful.

In focusing on particular messages and particular information, it is easy to forget that a Western reader has a Western educational background that informs a treatment of material., say historical figures or figures in mythology. This is unlikely to be so when it comes to Indonesian terms that may be mentioned. Key figures in Indonesian history around the beginning of the sixteenth century are the Trenggono, Demak and Jepara. Trenggono, grandson of Raden Patah, became prince of Demak. Demak was the main power in Java at that time, and Jepara was a close naval power. Later under Surabaya, there were Gresik and Pasuruan. Banten was a Hindu power under Pajajaran until the arrival of Sunan Gunungjati. Around 1524 much of Java— including Banten, Mataram and Central Java, and Surabaya—began to accept Islam.110 Some aspects of Indonesian history are mentioned in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s work for example. The translator may need to explain some of the background to historical or geographical terms.

109 Darwish, A. 2004, ‘How Arabic Translators Frustrated America's War on Global Terrorism!’ 22 May. 110Mangunwijaya, Y.B. 1994, ‘The Indonesia Raya Dream and Its Impact on the Concept of Democracy,’ Bourchier, D., and Legge, J., eds., Democracy in Indonesia: 1950s and 1990s, Monash Papers on Southeast Asia no.31, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, pp.79-87. ‘Sejarah Indonesia: An Online Timeline of Indonesian History.’ http://www. gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah.shtml, accessed 12 August 2005.

75 2.10 Language as Art

Alongside a work of art, language may exist, with its typically more concrete and specific habits of expression. Discourse analysis can examine the textual, social, and psychological significance of language in a way that is different from the process of interpretation of art but possibly relates to the appreciation of poetry.111 Unity and coherence of text is a focus of discourse analysis. 112 Discourse analysis can be motivated by social and political causes, but for the translator it is a tool that can help to adjust and fine tune the balance between the source and target texts.

The art of rhetoric has its own literature of cases, and a literature review may refer in some detail to an Indonesian and American speech. The role of style in combination with meaning in conveying a forceful message is well known in the case of President Sukarno. The Lahirnya Pancasila (‘The Birth of Pancasila’ 113 ) speech is a classic example of Indonesian rhetorical style. Rhetoric can be of decisive importance in politics and society. Sukarno’s rhetoric demonstrated great facility in the use of the young Bahasa Indonesia, with the admixture of Dutch that it still carried.114 The speech caught the imagination of listeners. It moved, it persuaded. By whatever means, the translator ought to convey this. Sukarno argued his case step by step by reference to concrete examples from everyday Indonesian life, and that the feedback from the audience played a role in the impact of his rhetoric. It was crucial that the audience accept the premise that Indonesia should not wait to declare independence. The speech takes some time to make this point

111 Cook, G. 1992. Discourse, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. ix. 112 Matthews, op.cit. 113 Pancasila is the Five Principles of the Indonesian nation. The principles are Belief in the Divinity of the Great One, Humanitarianism, National Unity, Consultative Deliberation and Social Justice. Pancasila is discussed in Chapter Five, section 5.3. 114 Sukarno. 1945, ‘Pidato Sukarno: Lahirnya Pancasila.’ Sidang Dokuritsu Zyunbi Tyoosakai, 1 Juni 1945. www.geocities.com/didonk19/pidato_soekarno.htm. From Lahirnya Pancasila, Penerbit Guntur, Jogjakarta, Cetakan kedua, 1949. Publikasi 28/1997 Laboratorium Studi Sosial Politik Indonesia). Extracts from the speech are set out in Chapter 5 below.

76 precisely because it had not been established as a commonly held point of reference. A note from a translator filling the context would be useful, particularly for a reader who might like to go to the most significant parts of the speech rather than read the whole text. Similarly the 1961 speech by President John Kennedy is imbued with great power which should be expressed in a translation also. It demonstrates considerable speechwriting skill as well as the personal charisma of Kennedy himself. A translation of text like this demands literary skill on the part of the translator. And it is important to note that no matter how good the style, the slightest grammatical error or unnatural phrasing would spoil the effect—something that strengthens the case for native speaker translation, or at least checking, of material where style and presentation are important.

In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility—I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation… And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country… The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavour and the glow from that fire will light our country and all who serve it—and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.115

Between English and Indonesian there is a feature of the speech which should be maintained in the translation: its persuasiveness. Whether or not a leader is relying on a good speechwriter, the force of personality in the delivery of a speech, and the rhetorical persuasiveness of the speech, seem to belong very firmly within the mother lode of the language in which it is spoken. To translate from an original speech into the translator’s native language is feasible, but it would be difficult to imagine an effective speech being written by a non native speaker.

115 Kennedy, J.F. ‘The Torch Has Been Passed to a New Generation of Americans,’ Washington DC, 20 January 1961, in MacArthur, B., ed. 1999, The Penguin Book of Twentieth-Century Speeches, 2nd rev. edn., Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria, pp.297-301.

77 In relation to poetry, Nabokov takes up the question of whether a translation can faithfully render the whole text and at the same time retain the form of the original with its rhythm and rhyme. ‘Actually what happens is… shorn of its primary verbal existence, the original text will not be able to soar and to sing; but it can be very nicely dissected and mounted, and scientifically studied in its organic details.’ Nabokov also said that for the translation of poetry he wanted copious footnotes and absolutely literal translation.116

There are symbolic as well as textual considerations in translation between Indonesian and English, just as there are political, cultural and social factors. The sources referred to in this chapter form a background to the direction of this thesis. The thesis aims to depict the art of translation as it applies to the two languages, and to draw out of that process various issues that give appropriate depth to Indonesian~English translation. It aims to open up bundles of meanings and symbols and suggest how the bundles might be put together in ways that imitate the actual processes of translation. It also seeks to demonstrate how the layers of foreign influxes of vocabulary exist within each language and how awareness of these layers can influence perception of meaning. Overall it seeks to develop explanations of the symbolic nature of language and how this impacts on translation methodology. This thesis applies elements in the literature reviewed here to Indonesian~English translation. It also develops its own theory to underlie a methodology of translation between these two languages. That theory does not derive from the literature reviewed, but touches it at various points as it hopes to describe the interaction of these two languages.

116 Nabokov, V. 2004, ‘Problems of Translation: Onegin in English,’ in Venuti, ed. ,The Translation Studies Reader, p.121.

78 Michel Foucault has often been thrown into a postmodernist basket. 117 However the independent nature of Foucault’s thought shows that in order to understand organisations it is necessary to understand power. The understanding of organisations is relative, but an organisation can be viewed as a locus of interaction of power and as a means to power.

The Whorf Hypothesis states that assumptions buried in language are projected into belief systems which reflect actuality. 118 The hypothesis is often coupled with the thinking of Sapir to form the ‘Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.’ In general the hypothesis holds that speakers of different languages will interpret the world differently and their way of thinking about the world will be determined by their language. Their ‘real world’ is thus partly the product of language. ‘The status of the Whorfian hypothesis within psychology has changed from one of broad acceptance before about 1970, to one of general rejection since 1970.’119 It is a key question however whether the hypothesis can be verified or disproved by quantitative research, or any research.

Foucault is frequently closely associated with the concept of postmodernism. That concept may be clear in the minds of those who understand the depth of its significance, but it is a concept that resists definition in so many words. It really requires an understanding of intellectual and artistic movements under the name of 'modernism', and an understanding of the step further into postmodernism. In a similar way, Foucault himself resists precise definition, and whether he is speaking about architecture, surveillance, human freedom

117 Johnson, J. 1997, 'Communication, Criticism, and the Postmodern Consensus: An Unfashionable Interpretation of Michel Foucault,' Political Theory, August 1997 vol.25 no.4 (August), p.559ff. 118 Wanderer, R. 1994, ‘Warum sagen sie das Fraulein?’. ETC.: A Review of General Semantics vol.51 no.2, Summer, p.227-228. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/ Ithaca/2985/t-distinct.htm, accessed 27 March 2003. 119 Davies, I.R.L., Sowden, P.T., Jerrett, D.T., Jerrett, T. , and Corbett, G.G. 1998, ‘A cross-cultural study of English and Setswana speakers on a colour triads task: a test of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,’ British Journal of Psychology vol.89 no.1, February, pp.1-14.

79 or any of many other topics in which he was interested, it seems that his own name is the best defining feature for this thought.

The idea of precise verbal definitions is often a constructive one. However in everyday life description is enough, and definition would be a very demanding task. To come to the record of a conversation between Foucault and two others on 'The Eye of Power,' the Panopticon concept, the language will of course not have the considered and thoughtful precision of written article. Yet that need not be a negative point. The only problem that might concern someone tracing the inner sources of Foucault's exposition of his ideas on this could be the logic of his rhetorical approach. Some might allege that Foucault's logic is deductive, that he is simply explaining the ramifications of a preconceived theoretical framework.

Wilss sets out in chart form four types of translation product differing in their qualitative balance between source and target language requirements.120The Australian NAATI test requires a natural target language text: the translator sample test suggests asking a target language native speaker to comment on the student's trial translation paper. Naturalness however cannot be said to be an absolutely necessary requirement of all translation at all times. Above all the aim of translation is to convey the essence of something in one language into another language. And on occasion unnaturalness with a strong impression of faithfulness to the original text can best achieve that.

The more obvious and definite elements of a text may be classified as ‘semantic,’ and the more subtle, indirect elements as ‘pragmatic.’ Leech considers three approaches to the relation between semantics and pragmatics: semantics based; pragmatics based; and semantics and pragmatics as

120 Wilss, W. 1982, The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, Gunter Narr Verlag, Tubingen, p.82.

80 complementary in the study of meaning. 121 These are categories of interpretation rather than classifications inherent in meaning itself, and it is quite possible to argue that the placing of a dividing line between semantics and pragmatics is arbitrary, so that the denotation includes connotation. After all in the garden bed of a young discipline pragmatics is still a sprout. Green argues that ‘the broadest interpretation of pragmatics is that it is the study of understanding intentional human action.’ 122 However pragmatics also involves the study of unintentional human action, as the following examination of Chinese poetic texts will show. In the poetry itself the intentional—what the poet meant—is part of the pragmatic content. This relates strongly to ‘culture.’ In translation of poetry, the intention is largely to convey the meaning and possibly the form of the poetry into the other language. It is often the unintentional failure to do so adequately which is a focus of pragmatics.

Mastery of sociolinguistic skills in a language entails mastery of speech act conventions, norms of stylistic appropriateness, and the uses of language to establish and maintain social relations.123

The concept of signifier/signified derives from the work of de Saussure, and was used to describe the process by which a unit of a language system unites an invariant form with an invariant meaning.124 De Saussure stressed the arbitrary nature of the sign, covering two notions of arbitrariness. One was that there is mostly no connection between the two parts of the sign. In addition, sound symbolism, when a group of words in a language is characterised by a particular sound is also language-specific and conventional. The other is controversial, that each language cuts up the world in different, arbitrary ways. This viewpoint is controversial, as linguists are divided as to

121 Leech, G. 1981, Semantics: The Study of Meaning, 2nd edn., Penguin, Harmondsworth, p.341. 122 Tarone, E., and Yule, G. 1989, Focus on the Language Learner, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989, p.7. 123 ibid. 124 Matthews, op.cit.

81 whether there is an underlying reality which is assembled differently by various languages, or whether the cutting up is as arbitrary as Saussure suggested.125

Fillmore notes the importance of the level of language to which the student is exposed, and holds that the realistic assessment of quality has often been swamped by devotion to particular methodologies on one hand and by unwillingness to hold up high academic standards on the other.126 It is strange that the idea of quality is so valued in production and management and so little esteemed in theoretical discussions of language. In applying for a job, for example, 'you will tend to be at an advantage the closer your habitual English use—the one in which you were brought up—is to standard English.'127 To evolve a realistic theory of quality in translation, it is important to have in mind a social background where bilingualism is readily but quite uncritically recognised. Foreign languages, and particularly Oriental languages, can acquire a mystique perhaps best described in terms of an ‘Ooh- ah’ phenomenon where they are held to have a difficulty that marks practitioners of translation in those languages as particularly talented. Translators may deliberately or inadvertently foster this image, but as a general principle translation had best let the mundane and ordinary in one language remain mundane and ordinary in the other, while directing attention to various core elements of meaning that are genuinely difficult to translate. Adorning a text will tend to distract attention from the detail and also the charm of what has been written. ’A translation is no translation unless it will give you the music of a poem along with the words of it.’128 This is a noble aim for a translation, but it can be readily seen in practice that it is difficult to

125 McArthur & McArthur eds., op.cit. 126 Fillmore, L.W. 1991, 'Second-Language Learning in Children: A Model of Language Learning in Social Context,' E. Bialystok ed., Language Processing in Bilingual Children, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, pp.128-33. 127 Thwaites, T., Davis, L., and Mules, W. 1994, Tools for Cultural Studies: An Introduction, Macmillan Australia, Melbourne, p.186. 128 Words by a character created by John Millington Synge (1871-1909), 1907. Augarde, op.cit., p.289.

82 ensure both the words and the ‘music’ at the same time. And it just may not be possible to capture the ‘music’ of a poem at all. Yet somehow a reader may hope to find such a translation for a poem, and a translator may at least strive towards achieving a balance between plain expression, accuracy, and an often elusive beauty or charm.

A meaning oriented approach is reflected in the flexibility of Yen Fu’s translation approach. Yen Fu (1853-1921) translated Thomas H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics Herbert Spencer's Study of Sociology, Adam Smith's An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, J.S. Mill's On Liberty and Montesquieu's De l'Esprit des Lois. Yen Fu did not know English or French and used an interpreter to understand the meaning of the source texts. The translations were influential in China in their time. 129 This underlines the importance of translation as primarily conveyors of ideas.

A 1996 work by Kress and van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design focuses on ‘visual rhetoric,’ putting forward a grammar of terms to analyse texts and draw comparisons between language and visual communications.

There is a need for a vocabulary to express what the images say,131 and three interrelated systems may be used to analyse an image. One is its information value, where elements are given specific informational values attached to the

129 Xinhua 19 Nov 2001; Schwartz, B. 1964, In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West, Harvard. 130 Kress, G., and van Leeuwen, T. 1996, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Deakin University Press, p.183. 131 http://students.washington.edu/~flores/additional2.html, accessed 3 September 2003.

83 various zones of the image. Another is salience, where the elements of an image attract the viewer’s attention to different degrees by placement, size, contrast, colour and so on. The third element is framing devices which disconnect or connect elements of the image in terms of whether they can be seen to belong together. Yet despite the need for analysis, what is most important is ‘the composition of the whole, the way in which the representational and interactive elements are made to relate to each other, the way they are integrated into a meaningful whole.’132 The idea of a grammar of imagery could be better served by a syntax of imagery because is free ranging and grammar must be tightly structured. It is not easy to devise or use a syntax of description for images. However images may certainly say something. The translator may be able to deconstruct images in the source text and then reconstruct them in the target text.

132 Kress & van Leeuwen, ibid., p.181.

84 Chapter Three Hypothetical Framework

3.1 Propositions

Translation will of necessity involve a wide range of issues, from the grammatical and syntactic to the semantic and semiotic. It will involve lexicography. It will bring in issues of style and rhetoric. It can touch on political, social and economic issues. There are two matters that perhaps need justification in this thesis. One is the wide ranging approach to translation, both theory and practice. This multifaceted approach enables translation to be viewed in much the same way as the kinds of demands it places on the translator, who needs constantly to be aware of author~reader, source~target culture, syntax, semantics, semiotics, even geography and even politics. The other issue is the use of metaphor and the use of illustrations to describe the theoretical processes of translation. This is justified in the same way that imagery is justified in literature, for example: the metaphor and the illustration is immediate and efficient in conveying concepts to the reader. Neither the metaphor nor the illustrations claim to be exclusive, and both may prove provisional and hypothetical. However they are not the less useful for that.

Various propositions are examined in this thesis. Key propositions are as follows.

♦ English is powerful as a translation language because of its history and also because of its quasi universal status. Indonesian has a more regional locus and is also changing very rapidly.

85 ♦ It is important to see through the artificial distinction often made between interpretation and translation, so that translation acquires flexibility and a deeper ethical structure.

♦ A subjective aspect may operate to exaggerate various linguistic tendencies, for example, for example native tongue bias in concentrating attention on English meanings as opposed to Indonesian. This could mean being exacting with English text while not fully appreciating the meaning of Indonesian terms or phrases.

♦ If it is accepted that a translation is a work of literary composition, then it should be accepted that the translator needs to be able to compose to that level in the target language. Native language ability and bilingual ability are difficult to define, but this does not obscure the fact that they do exist as factors in the translation equation.

♦ A symbolic approach may be used by the translator., involving the perception of modules within text, identified with symbols, that can facilitate the process of translation. Indonesian~English translation may often be carried out efficiently through the use of symbols in analysing and creating text. Conceptual schemes, for example based on Hindu and Arab patterns, could be used. Chevalier and Gheerbrant’s Dictionary of Symbols133 contains extensive explanation of symbols of the world, with a tendency to concentrate on symbols that broadly belong to the Western tradition. A question is whether design or other visual effects need to be adapted to accompany translation.

133 Chevalier, J., and Gheerbrant, A. 1994, A Dictionary of Symbols, 2nd edn., tr. Buchanan-Brown, J., Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria; 2nd edn. of the French edn. pub. 1982.

86 These propositions are examined in following chapters. More importantly, there are three key hypotheses that are examined. The first is termed unbundling~rebundling, the second the layering view of Indonesian~ English translation, and the third the role of symbolic thinking in translation.

3.2 Unbundling~Rebundling

The hypothesis is that texts or terms can be viewed as a root system containing various nodes content that the translator can respond to and wrap into the translated version. The form of the target text may however differ considerably from that of the source text. For example the précis form can rid text of verbiage. Many phrases can simply be omitted with no noticeable loss of meaning. The translator should ensure that the context is clearly established, but should not add or subtract meaning because of historical considerations or for geopolitical considerations, however apparent it may be that a text misrepresents, for example, political or economic factors or actually conveys deliberate falsehood. The process of translation can be compared to a process of unpackaging various semantic and other elements in a unit to be translated—a transeme in the terminology adopted here—and repackaging them for the target version. This hypothesis is predicated on a human tendency to recognise and retain elements of meaning rather than only words or phrases. The undbundling~rebundling hypothesis is in the end a very practical matter.

3.3 Layering

Waves of foreign and regional input are part of the history of Indonesian as well as English. There are advantages for the translator in being aware of this layering process in the two languages and of the potential for creative utilisation of the resources of the two languages. With Indonesian, the influx of foreign words occurred in three identifiable stages, Sanskrit, Arabic and

87 Dutch/English. Categories certainly appear definite for Sanskrit and Arabic because of their broad scope. With English, the influx of Latin, Greek and French words has been considerable. The pre-existing organisation of Latin and Greek has meant that a lexical order has been imported with the vocabulary. In Indonesian/Sanskrit/Arabic vocabulary is a set of layers. In English Greek/Latin/French/Anglo-Saxon is a set. In relation to Indonesian~ English translation, the levels of Javanese and the co-existing presence of the Jakarta dialect may be compared to English vocabulary levels, for example Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate forms. This means an awareness of the existence of layers on the part of the translator. It does not imply a match between the layers in each language. philological layers between English and Indonesian, or strict equivalence between one set of borrowings in English and one in Indonesian. For the translator, it is useful to recognise word origins where this may impact on the appropriate translation.

Chapter Four Methodology

4.1 General Approaches

From the beginning of research into this topic, there has been a definitive decision to use qualitative methodology. This chapter explains the justification for this, and sets out in some detail the approach to the study of terms and processes in translation between Indonesian and English. The Literature Review in Chapter Two has made reference to some outline research in the field. The purpose of the Literature Review was essentially to point to areas and ways where this thesis might extend the scope of current research through specific methods. The topics of research here, particularly the notions of unbundling~ rebundling and layering , appear to be novel in some respects. The methods for interpreting textual material through analysis, commentary and summation of findings are well known in the fields of Indonesian studies and for example Sinology. The use of footnotes, unfortunately largely superseded by the Harvard system of annotation and not restored by the widespread use of sophisticated word processing software, has been used here because it enables the economical placing of reference material in a way that is convenient to the reader.

Reference has been made to theory of translation in the Literature Review and other places. This thesis has not aimed particularly to pursue translation theories. Rather, it has concentrated on giving depth to perception of the Indonesian and English languages in a translation context, and to put forward translation techniques which could enhance the translator’s capacity and the quality of the work. An appreciation of Indonesian cultural concepts, and also

89 cultural concepts relating to the English-speaking world, ought to be closely tied to any approach to translating these two languages.

With unbundling-rebundling, just as with transformation analysis, it is the perception that this is possible that is important, rather than necessarily the sheer number or frequency of examples that can be shown to demonstrate the value of the concept. Among the examples cited in Chapters Five and Six, many contain references to Indonesian cultural concepts. The unbundling~rebundling process is demonstrated by adding notes and moving various vocabulary items and particles around the text. The concept is flexible. Elements of semantic or syntactic significance can be flexibly identified and given equivalent translations involving relocation within a text. This process can include the subtraction or addition of explanatory material, or even the use of illustrations or other media, in the interest of effective communication.

The other particular area of concentration in handling examples from the corpus is layering, which involves awareness of different eras of linguistic borrowing in each language. The translator may utilise this awareness in developing appropriate translations, or may not, but the languages have used borrowing at different times and their structures have been influenced by those borrowings.

No single theory of analysis of syntax or semantics is presented or followed in this thesis. This study is broadly within the field of Indonesian studies, and various approaches are used to elucidate the interactions between Indonesian and English. There has been no attempt to encompass the lexical stores of the two languages or to put forward theories that might have general, predictable application for translation. Examples given have been taken from the vast storehouse of Indonesian expressions to illustrate processes that take place in translation or that could take place in translation.

90 4.2 Methods of Research and Analysis

The approach adopted is qualitative and not quantitative. Qualitative research may be studied from the point of view of qualitative methods; of verbal descriptions portraying phenomena; of unstructured data sources which lead into exploration of the topic; of inductive logic and the need to find explanations from perceived relationships. In particular qualitative methods are useful in constructing explanations.134

The present study extensively uses Indonesian examples, but these are examples from which conclusions may be drawn. There has been no procedure to ensure that the examples are typical in terms of frequency of usage. Semantic issues predominate. This resembles an ethnographic approach, which handles qualitative research and assesses validity in those terms. This Literature Review aims to help conceptualised the problem and refine it. It aims to determine major variables in the phenomenon and to locate a frontier of research, while relating the problem to existing theory and rationales in the field. It can help avoid mistakes and provide suggestions and generally save research time through making clear what is already known. The formulation of the problem may often be modified by what is found in the Literature Review.135

With the case of Indonesian being translated into English, an English speaking observer can readily gauge difficulty, whereas gauging English- Indonesian is another matter. Thus one method here has been to take several passages from different types of English and gauge the difficulty of ascertaining the Indonesian meaning from dictionaries and then from context, as has been done with Indonesian meanings. Points of possible confusion should especially be noted.

134 Krathwohl, D.R. 1998, Methods of Educational and Social Science Research, 2nd edn., Longman, Sydney. pp.5,12. 135 ibid., pp.101,103.

Part of the general methodology in this thesis is to identify difficulties or anomalies. One example that has been found is the word firman, which is not readily found in Indonesian dictionaries. The term is discussed in Chapter Seven. The point here is the reasoning that may legitimately be used to derive conclusions from the use of this particular word in translating the first chapter of the Gospel According to St John into Indonesian. Now both the original Greek and the English translation use a simple and common term, logos and the Word respectively. The use of the word firman appears to come from an evangelistic approach to the translation of the New Testament into Indonesian, whereby it is apparently directed especially to Muslims who may already be familiar with the term firman. It is a reasonable objection that firman has its own associations that do not entirely correspond with St John’s Word. It is also an objection that the audience for the translation should not be assumed to be Muslims already acquainted with some Arabic. 136 It is part of the working method of this thesis to point out the arcane orientation of the New Testament translation in this case, to note other examples of subtle or unsubtle dystranslation, and to show how even one word can be imbued with meanings that should be expressed clearly and honestly in the target language. To take the other side of the coin, what some readers may consider difficult may not prove to be difficult for the translator. English speaking people may feel that certain words will be difficult for foreign speakers. This kind of perception could be flawed, because some Romance terms for example could be better known as translation equivalents for Indonesians than terms of Anglo-Saxon origin. The actual choices that the translator makes may be based on various criteria for which there may not be precise general rules.

136 Laffan, M. 'Dispersing God's shadows: Reflections on the translation of Arabic political concepts into Malay and Indonesian,' http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/ahcen/proudfoot/mmp/laffan_apc.ht ml, accessed 30 January 2006.

92 In approaching the study of a topic which aims to cover a field of interaction between two languages, it is natural to try to perceive problems in terms of their extent, that is the frequency with which they may occur. This may give rise to statistical studies based on occurrence of terms; or in this case it could mean the citation of large number of cases of equivalents of given terms. However averaging, or lowest common denominator effect, can have problems. This thesis asserts that the depth of meaning of a term, including its provenance and the history of its use, and the breadth of its usage, meaning the way the term is used in its respective society, is more to the point that any catalogue of ways in which a term has been translated. The approach of Echols and Shadily's 1963 edition is sufficient to warn of this. That dictionary appears to have gained great following because there was no real competitor. It appears to have accumulated entries in a filing card system which were then subsumed into the body of the dictionary. But an absence of taxonomic analysis and a repetitive treatment of dictionary entries reflects the obvious situation, that little real thought went into the compilation of the meanings of entries. What is stressed is the occurrence of words and related terms.137 The use of quantitative data in some studies may seem more objective. However the validity of findings based on frequency of use is very much open to question The thesis aims to examine the particular problems that the Indonesian language poses for translators, whether translating from Indonesian to English or English to Indonesian. Research uses contemporary materials where there is considerable contact between the two languages and where new concepts and terminology often emerge. Indonesian magazines and newspapers would be key sources. Research would focus on difficulties in translation from Indonesian to English as well as in the other direction. Analysis would utilise semantic and syntactic theory as well as observations on translation issues, not least the aspect of culture, from a variety of sources. The thesis aims to put forward a useful framework for understanding key elements in translation between Indonesian and English.

137 Echols & Shadily 1963. See Chapter Two, 2.4.

The thesis tries to distinguish what will be a useful line of enquiry rather than simply one which throws theory and data into some sort of interaction. It is worth noting that, because it is essentially a qualitative approach rather than a quantitative one, the examples chosen and used in a study may tend to align along the theoretical lode—that is to say, the theory may impact on the examples and possibly become self-demonstrating propositions. The argument here is that a real problem will tend to produce a better study than a topic which tends to demand only a descriptive treatment.

A principle of self-ordering is useful, and the examples in this chapter show how research can suggest methodologies. Examining translations for evidence of mistakes or inadequate translations, and from there building a theory of the difficulties of translation, might be one possible approach. However that involves the invidious task of systematically criticising the work of others, in a systematic way, and still the essential problems of Indonesian~English translation might not become apparent. It may well be comparatively easy to point up cultural and semiotic issues through mistakes in translation. These may however be cheap shots. It is the principles that are important—the things that cannot be derived from dictionaries—though it has also to be said that a sound knowledge of the languages involved is a sine qua non. Issues can be subtle. For example in the Indonesian short story ‘Ave Maria,’ the use of the hymn of that name may leave readers uncomfortable with the use of a Western element in a foreign setting, having in mind that the choice of symbolic music is heavy handed and cliché. The choice of ‘Ave Maria’ is unsubtle. Avoidance of a symbol which could be personalised effectively might potentially indicate either he or the audience is not confident in referring to Western artistic works unless they are most well known. This judgement may not be true, and if it is true it may be harsh, but the judgement of the body of readers could be even harsher.

94 Two conceptual systems illustrate to some degree the approach used in the present thesis of a network of sources of information that give rise to a theoretical framework and are at the same time formative expressions of that framework. Gere argues that the concept of the brain has become a metaphor that negotiates the distinction between the human and the technological. A world or global brain depends on the connectivity enabled by information– communications technologies to create forms of distributed intelligence.138 Carvalho, Scott & Jeffery Process engineers can utilise descriptive modelling analyse existing practices, whereas ‘grounded theory’ is qualitative and inductive, allows the emergence of theory and models. ‘The basis of grounded theory is that theory is developed inductively from the data, being therefore generated (or grounded) in a process of continual sampling and analysis of data. The dynamic relationship between data analysis and data collection is a significant characteristic of the grounded theory approach.’ 139

Qualitative methodology can be used to examine the information worlds of ordinary people. Social norms, world view, social types and information behaviour can be used to develop a conceptual scheme in which to examine small world life, that is the life of ordinary people Just as with quantitative methodology, it is a key principle that qualitative research should consider reliability and validity. Validity is the degree to which a researcher has a true or honest picture of the phenomenon being studied. Validity is adequacy in meeting certain conditions, and research results are considered valid if they can be justified in reasoned terms.140 To test the validity of data, one strategy is construct validity—which as notably applied in psychometrics is ‘the extent to which a test measures a specified construct or hypothetical construct, determined by interpreting the psychological meaning of test scores and

138 Gere, C. 2004, ‘Brains-in-vats, giant brains and world brains: the brain as metaphor in digital culture,’ Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences vol.35, pp.351-366. 139 Carvalho, L., Scott, L., and Jeffery, R. 2004, ‘An exploratory study into the use of qualitative research methods in descriptive process modeling,’ Information and Software Technology vol.xx, pp.1–15. 140 Colman, A.M. 2001, A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press.

95 testing implications of this interpretation.’ 141 The concept of hypothetical construct is pertinent. This is something that is not observed directly but is assumed in order to explain an observable phenomenon. The hypothetical construct possesses meaning that is not only supplied by the relationships between observable variables but goes beyond them.142

4.3 Ethnographic Methodology

Ethnography is a area of anthropological activity focusing on the description of a culture. Ethnographic research uses qualitative research methods; it describes the origins, values, roles, and material items of a targeted cultural group. 143 It aims to discover underlying patterns: for example holistic perception sees symbols not in isolation but as elements of a whole; conceptual mapping is a patterning methodology in the terms used by members of the culture themselves to obtain a cross sectional view of symbols across varied contexts.144

Indonesia is a nation whose varied cultures have been the subject of a great deal of research, and Indonesia seems particularly suited to ethnographically oriented research. Wertheim, referring to the abangan-santri distinction of Islamic religious orientation, held that this kind of dichotomy would prove ‘in the long run, too rough for a deeper understanding, and a more graded scale of possibilities will have to be elaborated to leave room for the fine shades.’145 Geertz' 1964 work The Religion of Java should ideally serve as an introduction to an emerging, complex picture of Indonesian society and state versus global Islamic civilisation. The concept of a santri or Islamic stream

141 Pendleton; V.E.M., and Chatman, E.A.. 1998, ‘Small world lives: implications for the public library,’ Library Trends vol.46 no.4, Spring, pp.732-751; Colman, loc. cit. 142 Colman, loc. cit. 143 Byrne, M. 2001, ‘Ethnography as a qualitative research method,’ AORN Journal vol.74 no.1, July, p.82. 144 http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/ garson/ pa765/ethno.htm, accessed 4 August 2004. 145 Wertheim, W.F. 1995, ‘The contribution of Weberian sociology to studies of Southeast Asia,’ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies vol.26, March, pp.17-29.

96 in Javanese society is valuable without the need to identify precisely what santri is and what it is not. The concepts can be regarded as analytical guides rather than a clear cut dichotomy. Yet there must be a limit to the number of interpretations of Indonesian culture. It has been argued that ‘in ethnomethodology and conversation analysis, analysts' interpretations are irrelevant unless they can be securely grounded in participants' orientations. This discussion can readily go to the question of whether the analyst ought to construct interpretations or even construct reality, on the grounds that that would be intrusion into the cultural sphere.146

4.4 Explanation and Prediction of Translation Processes

Patterns may be determined in the study of the phenomena of language and transfer from language to language. However this thesis asserts that the task of explaining and predicting the processes involved in the transfer of meaning and structure from language to language has not yet been carried out. Disparate and inchoate patterning could result from forcing interpretations on the transfer phenomenon. A precise final diagram may contain logical reasoning without necessarily representing efficiency in methodology. Clarity of analysis may not be readily represented in diagrammatic form at all, although diagrams may serve as indicators or hints of involved processes, to indicate structural analyses that are more intuitive and usable. Finally a diagram from a translator’s point of view might show the structure of a sample of text from a language is not haphazard but does have lacunae; filling in the lacunae might be a task to be completed in the course of the translation. This thesis advances the proposition that it is primarily the capacity to see the overall framework that will be most important in guiding the translator’s thinking on the optimal presentation of the semantic, structural and semiotic content of the text. This proposition may then apply to the methodology here.

146 Watson, G. 1996, ‘Listening to the native: the non-ironic alternative to “dialogic” ethnography (as well as to functionalism, Marxism and structuralism),’ The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology vol.33 no.1, February, p73ff.

97 t may not be necessary to advance step by step in some traditional format while the very methodology used in the art of translation itself—the object of this study—uses another framework of thought and practice. To use an analogy based on traditional board games, chess in the European style limits the moves by each piece very strictly, and strategies and tactics in the game absolutely require skill and forethought based on those limitations and requirements. When it comes to Go however, the rules are different and the patterns of thinking are perforce quite different. The rules of weiqi (Go) are quite simple and easily learnt.

The object of the game is to gain control of territory on a board ruled into a 19×19 grid. Two players take it in turn to place pieces on the grid intersections. These pieces, traditionally called ‘stones,’ are not moved; but they may be captured, singly or in groups, by surrounding them along the lines. The winner is the player holding more of the board at the end of the game (which comes when both players agree that it is over).147

On the basis of the analogy between chess and weiqi, and in consideration of the fact that the way in which translators may actually carry out their translation work will vary considerably, it must be considered highly unlikely that one particular algorithm for translation can be developed.

4.5 Characteristics of English

English has achieved an international position of considerable dominance, although to go further and link it with the fashionable trend of globalisation may not be entirely correct. Modern Standard Chinese has a greater number of speakers. The French still guard their cultural traditions in which their language was once the language of international diplomacy. Throughout the vast areas of the former Soviet Union Russian is the key language, and through most of Latin America Spanish is in common use. Arabic is the language of various Middle Eastern countries. These are the languages of the

147 http://www.cam.ac.uk/societies/cugos/tesuji/weiqi_chinese_culture.html, accessed 20 September 2004.

98 United Nations, but English is in the strongest position in the world today, and none of their languages can match the position of English in the international community. For convenience, then, English may be called a global language, because it is more global than any other language. For the speakers of other languages, the preeminence of English may bring problems. One is an increasing number of borrowed English terms and even syntactic structures coming into their language. Another is a threat to the status of other national languages, which may be felt to be less useful than English and to have a lower status than English. In relation to the methodology of this thesis, English is not taken as Australian English, unless this is specified.

There can be a tendency to use printed source materials in English, which will generally mean looking to American or British work to the exclusion of others. When researchers try to publish their articles, however, knowing that English journals are the best accepted, they may find their work rejected largely because their English is not good enough. The dominance of English speaking researchers grows. The main problem, as in probably every forum or every university where English is used, is that the playing field is not equal. To some, English is the parent tongue and they can use it skilfully without too much effort. Others may use English unskilfully with a great deal of effort.

One of the key questions is whether English is suited to the role of global language. The grammar of English is unnecessarily complex and demanding in some respects. Its spelling and its tense, number and gender systems imply that it is not suited to a global role; and its phonological structure is a source of difficulty and embarrassment to many foreign learners. For example nearly everyone finds difficulty with the distinctions between i and i: and e and æ. This could be demoralising for non-native users. These problems tend to deprive the foreign speaker of a dignity associated with the use of language. The use of English at different social levels is perhaps a reason for the preeminence of the language, but code-switching nevertheless takes place when

99 speakers of other languages communicate.148 Yet this would no doubt happen with any international language. The economic role of English is perhaps more significant. English costs money to learn, and thus it supports continuing inequality. English is the language in which the best textbooks tend to be written. The English-speaking countries tend to attract overseas students who hope later to acquire positions of social influence. It tends to be associated in many countries with official power. English has the form of a democratic language, and is not particularly marked by signs of status. Paradoxically, however, it may be true that the more English is consolidated as a global language the more it may entrench social inequality in some countries.149

Another feature of English in the role of an emerging global language is its inertia.150 Language learning and the whole process of gathering and storing information demands an enormous investment of time and resources. It has taken decades for English to reach its present position. It would not be easy for another language to take over from English. Whatever inadequacies English has will tend to persist. In any case, the vast number of English scientific terms would be unlikely to be replaced in a short time.

Even in a basically English-speaking country like Australia, multicultural education needs to educate children from various cultural backgrounds in the English language traditions of the modern world. It is the grammar and spelling and concepts of English that count in the world in which these students have to strive to be successful. Cummins has noted that bilingualism 'may have positive effects on cognitive and academic development if a certain minimum or threshold level of bilingual proficiency is attained but negative effects if the individual develops low levels of proficiency in both

148 Graddol, D. 1997, The Future of English? The British Council, London, pp.12- 13. 149 Ibid., pp.38-39. 150 Crystal, D. 1997, English as a Global Language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.22-23.

100 languages.' 151 Any procedure aiming to assess whole ranges of cognitive functioning in this connection is very ambitious. Personality factors come in as well, as do questions of which languages were selected for comparison. Observation, however, tends to support the general thrust of this idea. Knowing another language can be a very good thing, or it can be a burden. It depends on the person, the languages, and social circumstances. The study of a foreign language can be a discouraging experience. English or any internationally used language will not have been chosen especially for its suitability to that role, because languages differ so much and in so many different ways that it is difficult for one way of expressing something to mean the same to everyone else.

The fact that the playing field is not level between native and non-native speakers will tend to limit any eventual fully global role that English might adopt. The use of English tends to reflect the economic and political dominance of the United States. This is in a way like saying that the power of Rome reinforced the role of Latin, and the factor of Islam reinforced the role of Arabic, while colonial power stood behind French, Spanish and Portuguese. In the use of information, English is very convenient and the more subtle aspects of English usage need not become a problem. However when good written skills are needed, or when ready comprehension of journal articles is required, the foreign speaker is generally at a disadvantage.

'The most obvious future for English is at a powerful, standardised, international level co-existing with a localised, non-standard, indigenous level.'152 It may be that at some time another language will replace English in its present globalised role, but it is difficult to imagine that any of the five

151 Cummins, J. 1984, 'Bilingualism and Cognitive Functioning,' Shapson, S., and D'Oyley, V., eds., Bilingual and Multicultural Education: Canadian Perspectives, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, Avon, pp.55-70, p.55. 152 McCrum, R., MacNeil, R., and Cran, W. 1992, The Story of English, rev. edn., Faber and Faber Limited & BBC Books, London. McCrum, MacNeil & Cran 1992, p.394)

101 United Nations languages will do so. Except for French, those languages tend to be geographically and culturally restricted in a way that English is not. The Spanish-speaking nations do not have the prospects for political and economic power that would support a challenge to English. The five United Nations languages all have their deficiencies in terms of a potential global role. Any natural language will have native speakers and non-native speakers, so that no matter what language might become globally used, a key problem facing English would persist. A solution along the lines of Esperanto could solve many specific problems that English faces,153 as long as it was designed with the whole range of users in mind. However although it seems that the real deficiency of English as a global language lies in its reflection of the international power structure with all its inequalities, there is no evidence so far that a new global language can be created to replace it.

4.6 English as Metalanguage

It is natural for English to be used as a base for lexicography and in international fora as a semantic and syntactic model for the translation of one language into another. A study comparing Indonesian and English in translation can be valid, although it needs to be recognised that at the same time as it is a language for comparison, English has a metalinguistic role. This may influence perception of a language—here Indonesian—which the metalanguage is used to describe. Embedded metalinguistic mechanisms in language may demonstrate the operation of units of language as models of themselves and of similar units.

…metalanguage activity is also carried out in a more explicit manner: from clearly expressed "personal theories" of language study and activity, to less obvious beliefs concerning the essence and the character of language units and actions – mythologemes of language activity.’ 154

153 Phillipson, R. 1998, 'Globalising English: Are Linguistic Human Rights an Alternative to Linguistic Imperialism?' Language Sciences vol.20 no.1, pp.110-111. 154 V.B. Kachkine, ‘Aspects of Metalinguistic Activity,’ http://cogprints.ecs.soton. ac.uk/ rchive/00000221/00/EAspectsMeta.htm, accessed 30 August 2004.

102

It is natural for English to be used as a base for lexicography and in international fora as a semantic and syntactic model for the translation of one language into another, and for English terms to be used in linguistic analysis. This kind of role could be filled by another language, though at present it largely goes to English by default. English is already cosmopolitan. English has already played a considerable role in the formation of a corpus of scientific and sociopolitical vocabulary in each language. However that may figure in percentage terms, the English-generated examples in each language will not necessarily match those in the other. English is the language of one of the dramatis personae, and it is often the language of the playwright too.

A metalanguage has been defined as ‘a language that can be used to describe languages,’ or as a logical term that means ’a language in which to discuss the truth of statements in another language.’155 If it is countered that English in practice is mostly not a metalanguage but an intermediate language, then it could be worth investigating whether translating into and then out of English is a satisfactory method of conveying important information. If English were to be viewed as a metalanguage in such as case, with no additional information available, this might surely mean that a very large load of information would have to be stored in that metalanguage. For example the significance of Indonesian kinship terms as opposed to Chinese kinship terms, or the terms of address for officials, would have to be specified. Whereas a translator working directly between the two languages would be aware of appropriate renderings in the target language. Taxonomical study, for example, would no doubt evidence similarities and differences in quite different patterns from the English perspective. Translation between Indonesian and English often follows a script that will have, ceteris paribus, been rehearsed in different theatres at different times. What is particularly difficult to translate may tend to be the unique cultural features of Javanese and to a

155 http://www.hyperdictionary.com/computing/metalanguage, accessed 10 February 2004.

103 lesser extent the national denominator of Bahasa Indonesia. That is because the definition is a little sharp for the English lens.

It should be questioned whether all concepts can be effectively analysed in logical terms alone. Often for example words can refer to common human experiences which need not be finely analysed; definitions may be not intuitive; and there is no reason to suppose that every term in language can be defined. With Indonesian, for example, the use of a common term such as adik reflects not only ‘younger brother/sister’ but ‘younger extended family member’ and even ‘younger member of a (not strictly defined) community.’ The novelty of some English expressions may not be remarked on because there is a continual exposure to English usage in Indonesia. The concept of semantic primes can come into the unbundling~rebundling hypothesis, as identified components of semantic content of a term—nodes in the illustrated root system. However the present thesis does not accept that analysis into minimal semantic components which does not include identifiable cultural components is feasible. In any case, in relation to translation between Indonesian and English, carrying out in depth logical analysis of semantic components in depth would require the use of a metalanguage other than English.

4.7 Characteristics of Indonesian

The layering concept applied to English and Indonesian in this thesis applies chronologically and not in geographical terms. Thus in Indonesia the concept of Bahasa Indonesia is the operative one. This does not imply that Indonesian is focused in any particular location, whether Jakarta, Java or any other geographical area. The concept of Indonesian implies that it is Indonesia’s official language but allows that it is also spoken widely through Indonesia in variant forms. Bahasa Jakarta for example varies from standard Bahasa Indonesia, though some of its colloquial forms are used more widely:

104 nggak ,for tidak ‘not,’ lagi for sedang ‘in process,’ semau gue ‘whatever way one likes,’ and so on.

To look critically at the state of research into the translation of Indonesian, one could readily project a picture better represented by something as puzzling as a maze of conflicting directions as represented. It might not even be clear, try to reverse engineer the Indonesian language from what is said about it, what one might end up with. Indonesian is a language that can reflect class but is democratic; it is a borrower from English but a language with a striking degree of originality and flair, and one in which large volumes of English text are translated daily; it is a labile recipient of foreign words that at the same time energetically creates its own terms. Indonesian is an ancient language that has a brief modern history. It is Muslim but not necessarily Islamic. It bears a heavy Javanese influence yet is often direct and overtly forceful. An implication of this shower of conflicting characterisations of Bahasa Indonesia is that an existential approach may better than a structured, systematised analysis. After all the translator’s education and experience provide a reef on which multicoloured corals may emerge and grow according to the local situation.

The concept of layering as used here does not entail detailed reference to the history of the evolution of Malay into Indonesian. The focus here is on waves of introduced vocabulary. Nevertheless there can be considerable value in observing changes in Malay, all the more because of the closer contact with English. Although Malay may be considered to be within the bounds of the same language as Indonesian on the grounds of mutual intelligibility as well as phonetic, morphological and syntactic criteria, at the same time there are wide differences in vocabulary usage in particular, and Malay will be seen to be quite distinct from Indonesian by Indonesian speakers. Nevertheless there is a large body of linguistic information and history that remains in common between the two languages, and following on from this there is a good deal to

105 be gained from examining the kinds of choices that have been made in Malay as they relate to matters that will be of concern to the translator.

The processes of creating compounds can be seen as ‘contributing quite significantly to raising communicational efficiency and precision in the Malay language’; some words and expressions underwent ‘semantic expansion consequent on the growth of ideas and knowledge in Malay society,’ and formerly area-specific words became general. Disused archaic forms were resurrected for a role in conceptualisation and terminology. Acronyms became more prevalent.156

It is common to work from a corpus of detailed examples and form conclusions about general scope. Chee makes such a conclusion, generalising from examination of many examples:

The cumulative changes occurring in the Malay language are fundamentally induced by the growth of cognitive awareness consequent on the changes occurring in the cultural, intellectual and intellectual realms. This has led to the need to develop the language as an effective symbolic system for cognition and categorisation. 157

There is no particular reason to quarrel with this general statement, mainly because its net is spread very widely. Chee then puts forward a principle of ‘focus and attribute’ which is argued to provide a guide to understanding ‘Malay linguistic and thought structures.’158 However on analysis it could be argued first of all that a general theoretical interpretation has very limited value for the translator, whose interest is not in the extrapolation of cultural insights but in the capacity to translate particular examples of usage correctly and well. Further, considerations such as which is the head or focus in a compound and which is the attribute, although they are based on a useful

156 Tham Seong Chee. 1977, Language and Cognition—An Analysis of the Thought and Culture of the Malays, Chopmen Enterprises, Singapore, p.126. 157 ibid., p.135. 158 ibid., pp.138-139.

106 conceptual insight format, become to the translator probably about as relevant to the translator as they are to the native speaker. There is then in the observation of the Malay language in a cultural framework an area of culture and also of linguistics which is not without interest to the translator in principle, but which is not likely to provide much concrete assistance in actual translation. Writing about translation is not translation.

Indonesian is studied and used for various purposes. Discourse analysis examines how sections of language, considered in their textual, social, and psychological context, become significant for their users. Elements of the discourse tie themselves together so that the text is unified and coherent. In a critical approach to discourse analysis, a social or political situation as constructed through language use can become explicit and can be in effect deconstructed. 159 Translation from English has been affected by such concerns. If Indonesian becomes affected by concerns relating to the connection between language and society, this could mean that the translator would have to be conscious of yet another constraint on the way translation is carried out.

Indonesian versus Malay demonstrates a real difference in style. Surely a view that a different style can be what differentiates the two languages— referring to them as distinct languages here for the sake of convenience— must indicate an ambiguity in terms of standard language concerning what Indonesian actually is. It is difficult to pin down style to a standard. This relates to the matter of standard dictionaries. Usage is still fluid, particularly in Indonesian, and both languages are still growing.

159 Cook, G. 1992. Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. ix; Matthews, op.cit.

107 4.8 Semantic and Pragmatic Frames

Comparison between two analytical frames, the semantic and the pragmatic, has a certain complexity because pragmatics itself is usually considered to be a branch of semantics concerned with meanings in their particular context or under certain presupposed conditions. Pragmatics as part of linguistics dates only from the 1970s.160 The aim of pragmatics ought to be to recognise and make explicit some of the subtle underlying factors that exist alongside utterances. The aim of a semantic-pragmatic analysis is to elucidate the meaning and also the impact of texts. 161 Morgan’s metaphors tend to proliferate.162 However these reflections and theories may arise or fall in the potential translator’s sea of consciousness; they have to form a common focus for the translator. At least the options will be clear, and the chosen course of action must be clear. But images can be separated out—as with images in graphics software, layer by layer of conscious attention. However accurate an image may or may not be, it is likely to be far more intuitive and usable than a chart of syntactic analysis or a matrix of semantic elements.

The concept of depth of field is very productive in ensuring that the force of an utterance has been correctly understood. The depth of field concept, illustrated below, can apply to Indonesian verb form focus, and is particularly useful in understanding the function of the di- prefix in contradistinction to the me- prefix. In general terms, the di-nya construction characteristically places emphasis on the object of the verb. This is taken up in Chapter Seven.

160 Matthews, ibid., p.290. 161 http://datas.ncl.edu.tw/theabs/1/, accessed 2 May 2005. 162 Morgan, G. 1997, Images of Organisation, 2nd edn., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California.

108 Figure 2.1 Depth of Field

Focusing on an image implies depth of field.163 This depth of field is a form of focus that is relative and not absolute. This diagram illustrates the concept, which is fundamental to the art of photography. The F chip is slightly out of focus, the O chip is in focus, but the three chips at the back are out of focus.

There are many metaphors and similes that can be usefully applied to translation, just as in the Gospels the Kingdom of Heaven is said to be ‘like unto’ a grain of mustard seed/treasure hidden in a field, or a merchant in search of fine pearls, or a net which was thrown into the sea.164 Metaphors can have great graphic force and can used naturally without doing violence to the structure of a text. An example is the concept of overlapping plates where one plate is to the foreground, also illustrated in the insert. This is slightly different from the idea of depth of field, but related. If it provides insight in the course of translation then it will be useful.

The structure of language is often spoken of as if it were fixed, like that of a snowflake for example—a fixed crystalline structure. No doubt a translator may be able to carry out linguistic analysis that may be similar in definition and complexity to a diagram of a crystalline or snowflake structure. However it is a real question whether the translator’s mind will be on the structural analysis or the emerging translation. A snowflake structure is evidenced in a productive creation of like elements. A kind of honeycomb or

163 http://www.invisiblematrix.net/photography/tutorial.php?tutorial_file=dof.php, accessed 2 February 2005. 164 The Gospel According to Matthew, Chapter 13, The Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version, The British and Foreign Bible Society, Sydney.

109 interlocking box structure may often represent thinking about language. One apparently common conception of text to be translated is a concept of interlocking boxes. This is about as true as it is false: terms and phases do interlock, but they relate throughout a text, not only in their immediate context. This may relate to individual differences among translators, but again there is the question of whether such a representation will be efficient for the translator. One might even go so far as to wonder whether this and other rigid structures are efficient in linguistic analysis in general, in particular in cases where detailed, painstaking analysis of sentence structure is carried out.

Whether these various representations demonstrate a tendency to an emerging comprehensive structure that may efficiently interpret language and translation which will take in the phenomenon of language, and this in turn implies that language will in the end be a known phenomenon. This would mean that language could be fully understood and predicted; and furthermore that the interaction between two languages would be predictable. Whether that might happen one day is outside the scope of considerations in this thesis, but ‘structure’ can hide a multitude of sins. For example a clever hypothesis that would interpret native speaker competence in terms of statistical inerrancy in grammar could be perversely made into an obtuse proposition that native speakers never make mistakes. A definition of bilingualism that does not include native speaker or quasi native speaker competence can underlie large numbers of experiments which taken together imply conclusions about bilingual behaviour that could really be disparate observations of good speakers of a second language, or migrant children who have learnt some English, or children who have maintained some knowledge of their parents’ language, and so on.

Transformation analysis and tree structures are helpful in seeing how a structure is built up in each language. Mathematical formulae can also be used to express translation processes, and semantic or logical overlays can be used.

110 The ability of users and researchers alike to picture an ideal structure does not guarantee that the result of research and speculation actually form such a neat picture. The best metaphors relating to translation may be not mechanical but either biological, showing affinity between cells, and entailing the ability of cells to multiply, or on the other hand related to factors in the universe such as gravity, magnetism or the spectrum. These are metaphorical descriptions but they are not definitions. Other structures designed or formulated by humans may be neither intuitive nor functional. Perhaps the achievement of perfect machine translation could disprove the argument that language still transcends total comprehension. This would be a great achievement, provided it could handle the translation of poetry and other problematic literatures. However diagrams on developments in the field of translation may not always accurately describe developments, and representation could well take other forms. One question could be whether translation may include instinctive as well as learned behaviour. Another might well be whether translation ought to be regarded primarily as a form of rhetoric bearing a literary seal.

Diagrams and illustrations of various kinds can to some extent portray what is implied within various metaphorical descriptions of language, but fractal images—created out of geometrical formulae—may be another way to illustrate the forces underlying the transition from one state to another. Fractal graphs are nonlinear, nonintegral systems. They have the potential to graph complex information with visual simplicity. Fractal geometry is a description by algorithm. These images need to be understood as illustrating principles of translation rather than demonstrating the validity of particular translation approaches. A red core with cold outer colours for example might stand for the essential meaning of a word or phrase with extraneous matter surrounding; the actionable part might be translated to another diagram, with a different spectral composition. Colour has a certain potential, hard to portray because of the need to be precise in creating colours, especially on a computer screen. However for illustrative purposes, colour has impact and is a natural means to

111 express the concept of components being maintained and yet transformed into markedly different hues. The following fractal graphs suggest the idea of two counterbalanced entities.165

Figure 2.3 Fractal Images

There are other ways of using metaphor to portray aspects of translation. A process of electrolysis in many ways can represent the translation process, with ions flowing across an enabling solution. The diagrams suggested here—and mostly not illustrated in the text—are in line with a belief that visual presentation can be fundamental in understanding the process of translation. A background to this is the left-right distinction between language and image in the human brain. There are powerful implications in the depiction of processes in images as well as verbally—for the use of propaganda, to persuade through overlays of suggestive images, with the potential intention to deceive. There are also however important implications

165 Created in the program Ultra Fractal 3, Version 3.03 (Program supplied by Frederik Slijkerman), 20 April 2004..

112 for a quality of translation which seeks to use tabular and graphic material to convey effectively the message of the source text. The source text may have no such material; or it may have such material that can be used directly in the target text; or it may have material that needs to be presented more effectively in translation. Whatever decision is taken on such a question, the translator in aiming at an effective presentation based on the message of the source text may well feel that the message can be conveyed more effectively by some attention to its graphic content. Freedom to rearrange material in such ways is an ingredient of the theoretical process advocated in this thesis of unbundling~renbundling.

Various ways of representing the translation process are possible. As this is attempted, the question will arise whether this is an infringement of the integrity of the source text. In fact much more serious questions regularly arise in the line by line written text of a source text. The rendering of Arabic terms can be difficult and this is likely to be a continuing problem in view of reports and discussions on tensions and violence in the Islamic world. It is difficult to avoid having a translation which consists of various approximations to the original. To convey an Islamic text to an English- speaking audience might by-pass a great deal of verbal explanation and annotation by including graphic material, including charts and photographs. If it is objected that there is potential distortion of the meaning of the source text, then it is also relevant to point out that the perceived content of a translated text may not fully correspond to the meaning of the original in any case.

To consider the question of steps in the translation process, it is important to note that analyses of the process can only be general and approximate, as it occurs holistically within the human brain, and the result may be the result of progression and regression across a number of identified steps. Deacon in an interesting but inconclusive book on the co-evolution of language and the human brain reiterates the importance of symbols, both to human beings and

113 to animals.166 Symbol in one sense is a kind of shorthand by which complex series of data can be easily retrieved, much like the process of selecting icons on a computer desktop. For unsophisticated users of foreign languages, the difficulty may well be that pressing the usual buttons can result in very different reactions. For example, Australians and Indonesians in general have different views of life. Add to that the observation that Muslims and Christians will tend to differ substantially in world view. In terms of Indonesian history, where the war of independence was fought partly on the grounds of opposition to a proposed federal arrangement, federal can have different emotional impact from its positive associations in Australia. It may be considered also, even on a small scale, that the Indonesian tendency to use feminine forms for women in some occupations is opposed to the tendency in Australia to avoid such distinctions: karyawan/ karyawati 'worker,' sastrawa , pramugara/pramugari 'air steward/air hostess.' Sayings and proverbs are another element, and jokes are another element again. It is the job of the translator to try to bridge any communication gap between two languages.

To avoid error and in the interests of efficiency the translator should have a large vocabulary in both languages. The translator's contribution is the working of his or her mind. It is the work of thought that he or she does. This proposition leads to the next: the translation is a work of composition into the target language, and so that translator requires considerable capacity in the target language.

It is important to accept that there is a historical process in the understanding of communication and in the actual nature of communication. The Internet has gone a step further, so that ‘the rapport between organisations and their publics is becoming more interactive and multidirectional.’ The new medium has the power to affect the relationship between corporations and their

166 Deacon, T. 1997, The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Human Brain, Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria.

114 audiences. Marketing is a far reaching activity which is pursued on the basis of highly powered research and which exists within an interactive environment where the Internet is having a definite effect on the communication scene. 167 Electronic mail is a way of life for most organisations. But although technology has enabled the transfer of information rapidly and in large volumes, there is still a challenge as to how to cope with the interpretation of meaning.168 This opens the possibility that there is also a challenge in relation to translation, which so fundamentally relates to meaning and the communication of meaning and needs to speak to audiences cogently and eloquently.

This thesis in dealing with terms and processes in translation also emphasises imagery that portrays language and translation.. Images may be conveyed through verbal texts but exist in and beyond texts. Yet it is natural for words to accompany symbols and other images. The symbols of the English speaking world are also worth attention, even though they may typically be thought to be universal. Symbols of Indonesia are special and worthy of notice, with their definite impact on Indonesian audiences. The national emblem incorporates an eagle, which will be widely appreciated, but with the Indonesian interpretation as Garuda.169 Binneka Tunggal Ika verbalises the complex of symbolism tied to national consciousness. In addition, wayang figures may show various emotional characteristics, and taken together may form a complex of figures representing a range of human emotion. An Indonesian symbol might be the gunungan in its dramatic role. The gunungan is a representation of an ancient Indian tree motif. It is used to mark the beginning and the end of a wayang performance, and also to mark scene changes, strong emotions, and the elements of fire, earth, air and water. The

167 Ihator., A. 2001, ‘ Corporate Communication: Challenges and Opportunities in a Digital World,’ Public Relations Quarterly vol.46 no.4, Winter, pp.15-18. 168 Gordon, G. 1998, ‘Corporate communication: where do we stand?’ Communication World vol.15 no.4, March, pp.9-10. 169 http://www.info-indo.com/history/maja03.htm, accessed 4 August 2005.

115 gunungan may suggest the idyllic world of pre-existing kingdoms.170 Placing the gunungan at the middle of the wayang screen signifies that the performance is over.171 As a general proposition, the methodology used here consistently aims to take symbolism and imagery into account along with semantic and grammatical/syntactic features.

Gunungan (www.ilicos.unmer.ac.id/ wayang/)

The comparison between two analytical frames, the semantic and the pragmatic, has a certain complexity because pragmatics itself is usually considered to be a branch of semantics concerned with meanings in their particular context or under certain presupposed conditions. Pragmatics as part of linguistics dates from the 1970s.172 Sometimes there may not be a very clear distinction between the pragmatic and the semantic, though the observations of pragmatics as part of the field of linguistics may nevertheless be valid. The aim of pragmatic analysis should be to make explicit some of the factors that subtly exist alongside utterances. In the translation and

170 http://www.semarweb.com/ wayang.html, accessed 4 August 2005. 171 http://www.petra.ac.id/eastjava/culture/gunung.htm, accessed 4 August 2005. 172 Matthews, op.cit., p.290.

116 teaching of poetry there may be gap between the meaning on the page of the book and the meaning that will be found by the eyes and ears of the reader.

The importance of taste and insight in poetry can be more significant than with less concentrated forms of communication, that is prose communication. However real comprehension—getting the point—is a most important requirement that is sometimes more honoured in the breach than the observance. Poetry is a literary form that highlights the use of various means of signifying meaning, often indirectly. Matthews notes that the concept of signifier/signified derives from the work of de Saussure, and was used to describe the process by which a unit of a language system unites an invariant form with an invariant meaning.173 De Saussure stressed the arbitrary nature of the sign, covering two notions of arbitrariness. One was that there is mostly no connection between the two parts of the sign. In addition, sound symbolism, when a group of words in a language is characterised by a particular sound is also language-specific and conventional. The other is controversial, that each language cuts up the world in different, arbitrary ways. Linguists are divided as to whether there is an underlying reality which is assembled differently by various languages, or whether the division is as arbitrary as de Saussure suggested.174 To a speaker of a language in a defined culture, terms can be so direct in impact, have such an inseparable relation to self expression, and are so tied to a speakers past and future, that arbitrariness is scarcely an operative consideration. It becomes a matter for speculation. Descartes in his statement Cogito ergo sum, I think therefore I am, signalled a new foundation for knowledge through the process of radical doubt. This marks a new beginning in philosophy, yet at the same time it was philosophy that was developed in the shadow of the medieval theological traditions. To apply the workings of philosophy to translation, it may be worth asking whether the approach of de Saussure or that of Descartes is highly relevant. Translation ought not be delayed by speculation. It needs to be efficient. In a

173 Matthews, op.cit. 174 McArthur & McArthur , eds., op.cit.

117 translation, shoes, ships, sealing-wax, cabbages or kings may have concrete equivalents, but not necessarily any more so than pleasantness, coquettishness, fierce hatred, binary computation or Pegasus. Borscht could conceivably be more trouble to translate than antidisestablishmentarianism. On the other hand becak might be slightly inconvenient to render into English, but dong175 from the language of Jakarta is sure to be troublesome. These examples give rise to a hypothesis that the issues thrown up by translation may differ considerably from issues of current concern to linguistics in general, and conversely that the results of linguistic research will not always be usefully applicable to the field of translation.

The concept of metaphor is a concept of imagery. But it is an active concept where the organisation actually becomes the imaginised image for the purpose of the exercise. The organisation is whatever and in becoming that brain or that organism can be understood better because of that. Clearly a useful metaphor will depend on in depth insight and understanding, which Morgan no doubt has but not every manager may have. However it remains true that Morgan’s metaphor is a valuable insight in itself. It is a critical problem with the use of metaphor in translation that the referent may be differently understood in the different cultures. If translators have never lived in the target culture, then confusion due to metaphor is difficult to avoid. It can result in, for example with China, the use of outmoded social categories in interpreting situations. It can result in wrong assumptions of moral values. It can easily result in the labelling of Indonesian political movements in terms of Western perception rather than the perception of those who live with those political developments. All this is through translator inadequacy. However if

175 The dong in Bahasa Jakarta may not be so difficult to use. However it is not always easy to account for as an input to a target sentence. Echols & Shadily (1994) describe dong as a colloquial particle which asserts that the interlocutor should already know or do what is being asserted. Kamus Besar (1988) has the intuitive explanation of the particle as pemanis atau pelembut maksud, a particle which sweetens or softens the sense of a word or sentence. Both these explanations need to apply to the definition of the function of dong.

118 the translator is adequate to the task then translation through metaphor can be a very true form of translation.

The theories of translation described in this thesis essentially relate to metaphors. The metaphors are mixed: cogs, bundles of sticks, colouring and so on. The concept of a taxonomic tree advanced by linguistics scholars is like these metaphors a description of the reality of complex semantic structures. The words, phrases and sentences of text have their independent existence and if they were able to be torn apart and examined would not show evidence that they contained cogs or sticks or that they could possess different colours. To go on from this observation, good translators will generally be aware of how to bring out the meaning in one language and give expression to it in another without making the elementary mistake of selecting dictionary equivalents without regard for essential meaning. The good translator will have a good knowledge base and a dedication to building on that base over time; the good translator will be tenacious and determined to produce as good work as possible in whatever circumstances obtain; and the good translator will be able to adapt to the scholarly, commercial or literary requirements of those circumstances. It goes without saying that a good knowledge of both languages is a sine qua non. It also goes without saying that the translator will use whatever reference materials come to hand. In this way it may be argued that for a good translator there is no conflict between emphasis on translation technique and emphasis on knowledge of the languages concerned, because skill and knowledge will grow together over time.

4.9 Culture and Translation

'Culture' is often used as a defence against what appears in fact to be inadequate translation. Sources of non-native error include lack of knowledge, poor structural understanding and competence, and lack of knowledge of idiom. The thesis takes up the idea of specific culturally oriented terms in Indonesia which are notoriously difficult to translate and approach this

119 problem specifically with semantic and pragmatic analysis, with the aim of casting out cultural devils and resting on a scientific foundation of translation from one language to another. In the case of Indonesian, the influx of English terms and expressions is obvious and unstoppable, but the influence of Indonesian on English is marginal. Seen from this point of view, the problem of linguistically handling culture largely relates to Indonesian-English translation. Indonesian culture will not be likely to alter English, and the problem of effective translation will remain. Translation of English into Indonesian has typically resulted in significant alteration of Indonesian terminology (and syntactic structures if one goes back to Dutch, the pioneer of Western language in Indonesia), with large scale acceptance of Western cultural concepts. Usually the transmission of the concepts is outside the aim of translation, whereas with translation into English of Indonesian, the reason for choice of particular texts and concepts is often precisely that these novel terms need to be better understood in the West. Translation can thus become a hopeful projection of Indonesian cultural terms onto the international stage. This is a very different matter, with different techniques, from the filtering of international terminology and concepts into Indonesian.

The deglorification of culture is important. Professionalism in Indonesian ~English translation needs to be stressed. However from observation Indonesian people frequently seem and claim to be using terms with heavily loaded cultural input. Colour is important in language and its role includes language. The spectral sequence is a useful basic reference point. Yet the classification of colours does not entirely accord with the spectrum approach, because the Indonesian approach to colour very fundamentally is often to refer to the colour of something, such as coklat ‘chocolate’ or merah jambu ‘the red of the jambu fruit, pink,’ whereas ‘grey’ is expressed as kelabu or abu-abu, that is in terms of ash. This tied reference to objects that possess colour may need to retain the link to the object rather than be expressed as an equivalent colour such as ‘pink’ or ‘grey’.

120

Lies and mistaken beliefs can be a problem for the translator. To the present day many beliefs circulate in societies throughout the world, through tradition and perhaps a need for spiritual comfort. It is certainly the duty of the translator to convey beliefs inherent in documents along with the words of the document themselves. However it is here argued that underlying beliefs and premises need to be made as clear to the target audience as they are to an audience for the source document. This implies making some implicit ingredients explicit, perhaps by footnote or perhaps by other means. But not to ensure that the target audience understands the underlying presuppositions in the text could be to invite ridicule or distaste. This appears to be a prime element in Muslim~Christian relations, and the translator could have a significant role in explaining the cultural and religious background to various kinds of documents. Simply by pointing out elementary facts about the society from which the translation comes, there is the opportunity for the reader to have some measure of sympathetic understanding of what is being said. At the same time it is true that an extremist piece of writing should come into the target language also as an extremist piece of writing. But relevant religious elements can be stated as footnotes. For example to pray five times a day and to fast in the fasting month should not be understood as religiosity, because these practices are obligatory in Islam.

Much of the terminology used to describe Indonesian culture and society, as well as the Indonesian vocabulary itself, could be opaque to readers of English. The presentation of material rich in such terminology presents a problem in presentation because in effect the reader is being asked to learn a large number of new concepts in a very short space. Such material needs to be presented in a way that will facilitate reader understanding. The translator ideally will play a key role in decisions on editorial matters.

121 Much of the value of symbols and references is in their immediacy and their intuitive nature, so that the words that are used appear simple and conveniently grasped whereas in fact they contain great depth of meaning. Intertextual significance needs to be understood, as in the case of Kartini, Angkatan 45, Sukarno, Nekolim, PKI176 and many other names and concepts that may not be well understood by English readers. The translator can provide brief notes such as in the footnote here, but there will be cases where the translator could arguably feel a duty to the reader to convey something of the emotional content of terms such as these. For Indonesians, given the scope of English as a global language, there may well be the impression that concepts and phrases are transparent. However there will be unknown phrases and there will be phrases that to Indonesians have connotations other than those current in the domain of English. There are various means of ensuring that the intended meaning gets across.177 In real translation situations, there is often a similar pedantic requirement by others with varying degrees of control over translations for the text to be one to one. Yet it should also be pointed out that the Bible may have had a role in the formation of Indonesian style as well as reflected it. The potential for this kind of one to one translation may in fact relate to a tendency of Indonesian to be labile, as indeed English has been over history. This tendency may be demonstrated over time in Bahasa Indonesia, and could be indicated graphically by a curve away from Bahasa Melayu as the language increasingly reflected Dutch and

176 Raden Adjeng Kartini (1879-1904), a national figure in the development of women’s rights and education (http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartini, accessed 3 August 2005). Angkatan’45 was a movement of writers influenced by social, political and cultural events. Sukarno (1901-1970), the first President, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Sukarno, accesssed 3 August 2005). Sukarno opposed Nekolim—Neocolonialism, Colonialism, and Imperialism. The PKI, Partai Komunis Indonesia, was formed in 1920. It was banned after an abortive coup—G30S or Gerakan 30 September—occurred (http://countrystudies.us /Indonesia/20.htm, accessed 3 August 2005). 177 However the attitude of NAATI in its marking policy for translator examinations is not helpful in this regard, because NAATI demands one translation for one particular piece of text, without any elucidation in parentheses. In an examination situation this can naturally tend to literalness and to a stilted translation, because the candidate will fear being misunderstood. In any case the whole question of the audience to which the translation is being directed appears to be ignored.

122 then English and at the same time registered the input of Javanese, Sundanese and Bahasa Jakarta. This conclusion is hypothetical and as it concerns linguistic history is outside the scope of the present study, but the hypothesis would explain a great deal about the divergence of Indonesian from Bahasa Kebangsaan as well as Indonesian’s apparent capacity to absorb foreign language structures and styles and adapt to them.

In political, economic and technological terms the content of general English material is quite likely to be seen as quite important in Indonesia. However the specific importance of Indonesian text in the West will tend to be confined to specialist research into Indonesia. In this context it may well be observed that even if specialists do not know the Indonesian language they will tend to be aware of the depth and breadth of meaning of various Indonesian terms. Thus to them the specific value of translation diminishes somewhat. On the pages of Western news media, of world news media, the details of Indonesian developments must compete with those of many other countries, and the niceties of translation of specific terms cannot rate very highly. However, to use an example to illustrate the point, a term depicting the tiniest detail of operations of the New York Stock Exchange, if it became significant for the valuation of the United States dollar, would yield space to few issues in the press of the nations of the world. This may seem obvious, although a doctrine of cultural relativism if pushed to a strictly logical conclusion would deny the relevance of this observation in assessing the background to the perception of Indonesian linguistic phenomena in relation to English linguistic phenomena. Yet the fact is that English is dominant in the world in this age. English has also been quite some time in achieving its present status, and it can be shown that it has acquired a certain maturity as the conveyor of concepts in common international use. It is true that Indonesian to some extent and particularly its Javanese contributor has unique capacities to define and express certain social realities. But it seems to be a fair observation that Indonesian in many ways still relies on netting foreign terms and distributing them domestically, in an

123 process that relies on a level of popular knowledge of English and also that tends to imply error related to domestic transmission in spelling, syntactic use and meaning.

The political importance of translation may mean material falling into different categories, where say correspondence on a mundane topic may requires little care in the translation of particular terms, and the other where the words may carry extreme sensitivity.

To return to the subject of written translation, in publications there are movements that had best be followed through observation of the newstands. Various cover illustrations convey impact through associated imagery in addition to the text of the translation. Here the translator should be consulted with regard to possible impact on the meaning of the text.

The presence of trade names and slogans in translations needs to be watched particularly carefully. Some names can be offensive or humorous when transported into another language. The translator is responsible to alert the client to any problems that could arise from the inclusion of such material. A Japanese brand of insect spray distributed in West Java in 1975-1976 was labelled Piss, and the label described how it should be applied to insects when found. The product seemed to be popular enough with consumers. Yet it requires familiarity with a culture to ensure that a brand name will not be offensive, let alone that it will be successful in the market.

The inner world of the translator is subject to various pressures. The characteristic difference between native and second language recall of order of words, common sayings, titles of books and so on occurs because the second language is learnt differently. This is apart from the fact that usually the amount of time devoted to learning the first language is vastly greater than that devoted to the second language. For the translator this can be a crucial

124 issue. For example proverbs seem to be remembered by native speakers as meaning and precise wording, but from observation proverbs and sayings seem to be remembered in a second language as overall meaning plus elements of meaning which may fall out of order. Variant versions can range from the inappropriate to the hilarious. The disposition of solidified sayings in a language when translated into another language is an important element in the reasoning that translation should essentially be into the native language.

The above discussion of metaphorical and even subjective aspects of language as it is to translated is in support of the unbundling~rebundling and layering hypotheses, whose validity is an aim of this thesis. Whether these hypotheses can be proved in large part or even in small part has yet to be seen, but the hypotheses deserve to be allowed here a certain depth of explanation.

4.10 Translation and the Creation of Myth

Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s ‘Buru quartet’ is a treatment of some key elements in the history of Indonesia.178 The works may be said to be legend with fictional expression, or myth with a firm basis in history and historical development. Alternatively Pramoedya’s work could be characterised as transparent mythology. The terms used such as pujangga, dalang, wayang, Ratu Adil and so on are of interest to the translator because they are so difficult to translate adequately.

When it comes to the deliberate creation and propagation of myth, a need for translatsors. may emerge. If a nation’s own translators provide text to convey its myths, no doubt this will be obvious. If a nation wishes to convey its myths as propaganda, then it could be advantageous to have its texts translated by translators in the target language community. There as some unpleasant associations with names of defenders of the myths of other countries—

178 See Chapter Six, 6.8.

125 Quisling, Chamberlain for example. Some journalists, academic writers or diplomats may on occasion fulfil this apologetic function also by their use of information in sympathy with myths that are propagated.

Myths do exist in Western countries as well as in Asia: there is Superman with his quest for truth, justice and the American way, or even Norman Mailer’s American Dream or Graham Greene’s The Quiet American. Political myths like Ronald Reagan’s Evil Empire and George Bush’s poles of evil are explicit terms for complexes of political orientation. For the translator there is perhaps the danger of believing the propaganda of one or other side. The translator needs to make a concentrated and consistent effort to avoid political or other colouring in a translation. This seems rather more important than the common phenomenon of the hunt to eradicate millennia of gender-oriented terms that will be in any case obvious enough to readers—a hunt that cannot even be called a witch hunt because of the lack of a gender neutral term for witch—unless a *sorcerer sortie or *witch/warlock hunt is coined. The suggestion here is that the submerged rocks are the ones that are most dangerous: unrecognised bias in the mind of the translator and the audience as well as the originators of the document to be translated.

In Indonesia, the archipelagic myth is based in the existence of the Indonesian archipelago. There is also the fact that Irian Jaya was part of the Dutch empire rather than the archipelago, the independent state of Brunei and the English territories of Sabah and Sarawak which have been Malay for a very long time but were never Dutch; and East Timor, which is physically part of the archipelago but had never been Dutch. There has been a good deal of fighting in relation to this archipelago concept: first in opposition to a Dutch federal concept—the war of independence was to a certain extent a war on the issue of federalism—then the Irian Jaya campaign, then Konfrontasi, then the East Timor theatre. To handle issues relating to the public image, the translator needs to come to terms with particular political presentations of history, and

126 hence myth. The political activities of the last decades could be seen as a wayang performance where the shadow is projected as the essential reality while the real puppets are on the other side of the screen.179 The translator may not be able to purge any personal prejudices from a translation, but awareness of the effect that personal and national viewpoints can have on the impact of a translated text is a mark of a professional translator. Curiously enough, a key test of neutrality in translation could be rendition of coloured180 terms—whether from the translator’s own community or the target community—so that they remain clearly coloured in translation. To make utterances more neutral or objective than they originally were is after all a distortion of the translation process. It has been commented that cultural memory and cultural performance, as well as cultural translation, are elements in the making of connections between aboriginal cultures and dominant cultures181 This characterisation seems to imply a role in anthropology rather than sociology, and in fact translation between languages seems to be more appropriate to anthropology.

4.11 Translation Style

Style is something that cannot be handled through dictionaries because it extends very much more widely than the domain of words and phrases. Style needs to be consistent across whole texts and must sometimes even be consistent with writings outside the text at hand. Style is difficult to master because it relies on extensive personal experience in acquiring language. It cannot be validated by checking individual words in a dictionary, for example. Although style includes word usage, it also covers use of functional particles and organisation of ideas within sentences and paragraphs as well as

179 Reference to the author’s translation of an Indonesian Legal Rights document on East Timor is made later in this thesis. 180 Coloured terms are also referred to as polarised or biased terms. 181 Irwin, R.L., Rogers, T., and Wan, Y.-Y. 1999, ‘Making connections through cultural memory, cultural performance, and cultural translation ,’ Studies in Art Education vol.40 no.3, Spring, p.198ff.

127 in longer discourses. It is difficult to imagine that a non-native speaker can learn expression in the target language so well that a valid and consistent style will emerge. Even if the fitting of language to thought is carried out to a high level, that is assuming that every word is used precisely correctly, the question remains of whether the work can be syntactically flawless. The Polish speaking Joseph Conrad apparently learned English only in his late teens, but acquired a style of moving and graphic beauty in his novels; yet it is not at all clear whether his grammatical, syntactic and lexical work was not checked by others. If a non-native speaker has translated material into the target language, above all it is probably the area of style as well as syntactic and lexical usage that needs serious attention. It would be unwise, generally speaking, for a translator to handle translation into a language that is not his or her native language. Furthermore it is important that the native speaker checking the translation has a good educational background that will enable adequate reconciliation of matters of style. At worst, poor style can make an intelligible translation a laughing stock.

Affectation may be defined here as the excessive display of stylistic knowledge in order to impress. In Indonesia, exhibitionism through using English terms is well enough known. In English, the use of Indonesian terms may betray a use of well known terms as opposed to words that the translator may not know very well—a desire to display knowledge of Indonesian which may often be caught out as the speaker consistently errs by using inappropriate terms which are in the end quite unnecessary anyway. At its best, affectation may be a harmless personal stamp that is left on a conversation. At its worst, affectation may be a heavy burden occasioned by overweening pride.

This perhaps bland observation has relevance to the process of change in the Indonesian language. The process may not be able to measure in a quantitative sense, but it does seem quite rapid. Yet to follow on from the

128 logic of the preceding paragraph, this hardly matters. Older and contemporary Indonesian translates into contemporary English, older and contemporary English translates into contemporary Indonesian, and both older Indonesian and older English may on occasion translate into contemporary language. Contemporary language will not tend to be translated into older language, partly because there would be little point in such an exercise, and partly because there is barely a pool of expertise to effect such translation. To try to depict this situation metaphorically, the gyroscope perhaps suits the situation best. It is the living language of the time that is the standard. It follows that those who exercise mastery over that living language are the ones equipped to write it and to decide what fits its canon and what does not.

From the propositions made in this thesis about the process of translation there are certain conclusions for the management of translation. On the one hand, the ability of the translator is strictly limited by proficiency in the non native language. It can even be limited by proficiency in the native language, though this is an undesirable state of affairs. The maintenance of databases follows from this limitation. On the other hand, there is clearly a need for flair in the handling of translation, and this is part of the work of translation that comes from individual talent. In managing a translation office, both aspects of translation are needed.

In practice translation often involves deadlines, and the problems that need to be solved are the immediate ones involved in a particular paragraph or a particular sentence. However if more time is available it is possible to apply methods of analysis that throw more light on the processes of translation that are going on. A translation performed under pressure of time is unlikely to be the same as one that emerges from a relaxed and leisurely situation—though it is also arguable that translating under pressure can imply heightened learning and more efficient methodology.

129 Translation often involves summary, and it often will involve the translator’s comment. This is something that is inadequately treated in presentations of translation ethics. The fact is that there will often be demand for user summaries, and it seems reasonable to say that the translator would be the best one to do these.

4.12 Selection of Texts

In seeking to define a methodology, the need for detailed reference and analysis is in some conflict with the demand for an overview of what happens when translation occurs. Part of this conflict relates to the fact that verbal commentary must proceed seriatim. However despite the fact that the methodology emerging from this chapter is still inchoate, it does emphasise the need for close attention to particular cases of usage as they demonstrate the intricacies of translation between Indonesian and English. It also emphasises the need for a holistic approach which is prepared to take into account semantic as well as syntactic issues. Apart from this, the methodology that emerges is tied into a theory of translation as something that occurs as images rather than only words. A methodology for translation could employ metaphorical characterisations which are intrinsic to the translation process.

There really is no problem in obtaining samples of Indonesian and English text. It is not always so easy to find respective versions set side by side. Another stage of research is the utilisation of a methodology adequate for the task of drawing useful conclusions from analysis.

The symbolic and graphic illustrations are of course not put forward in this chapter as objectively proven realities. They interact with the analysis of text to form a body of theoretical material which is given definition through the use of symbolic and modular themes and which at the same time acts to confirm the reality of these themes.

130 The concept of the text provides a natural basis for the work of this thesis in identifying meaningful cultural and linguistic elements that feature in the process of translation between Indonesian and English. A textual approach to qualitative research means that ethnography is used to observe organisational events and access related textual or documentary data for exhaustive analysis. Researcher observations and written documents are referred to as texts (Gephart 1993).

A researcher using the approach seeks to account for how a given text is made meaningful to readers by previous (and later) texts and how meaning is created for readers in and by the text. The approach also seeks to uncover the general conventions, interests, and cultural practices that make the text meaningful.182

Ambiguity, vagueness and contradiction are part of life within cultures and between cultures. Research into processes of translation are unlikely to eliminate all the fuzzy areas of language, but such research may be able to clarify areas of comparatively good match between the two languages as well as areas of mismatch.

182 Gephart, R.P. 1993, ‘The textual approach: risk and blame in disaster sensemaking,’ Academy of Management Journal vol.36 no.6, Dec, pp.1465-1514.

131

Chapter Five

Case Examples

5.1 Beyond Word Equivalents and Basic Grammar 137 5.2 Options in Indonesian News Reports 142 5.3 Translation of Material on Islamic and Political Issues 148 5.4 Defining Unlisted Terms 165 5.5 Style 168 5.6 The Social Role of Rhetoric 169 5.7 Abbreviations and Acronyms 170 5.8 Translations of Indonesian Documents 177 5.9 Translation from English 185 5.10 Opaque Indonesian Text 186 5.11 Humour 189

5.1 Beyond Word Equivalents and Basic Grammar

The basic mechanics of the Indonesian language may on occasion need some thought. The translator may find that translation of the Indonesian dong and – lah can be challenging. Dong has the sense that ‘the interlocutor should already know or do what one is asserting.’183 For example, Sama siapa? Sama dia dong, sama siapa lagi? ‘Who with? With him, of course. Who else?’

Apart from that sense, it can be argued that dong equates with –lah in mokre formal usage: Jangan lupa dong./Janganlah lupa. The translation for each is

183 Echols & Shadily 1994.

132 ‘Please don’t forget,’ but dong is found in colloquial contexts and –lah in formal contexts.

Reduplicated terms may also need some thought. The role of the words dulu ‘previously,’ sekarang ‘now’ and nanti ‘soon’ or ‘later’ as indicators of relative time may need to be carefully fitted into an English tense framework. Yet the obligatory terms in Indonesian grammar, or English grammar, will be well understood by the translator. Syntax and semantic issues can however present challenges. This chapter takes examples from Indonesian to illustrate processes of translation.

langsung Ý Þ ‘straight’ ‘straightaway’

This treatment of the word langsung may be justified because there is a definite difference in meaning between the word in the sense of direct as opposed to immediately, straightaway, even though the two meanings are similar. Langsung in Kamus Besar however is pictured differently.

langsung Ý Ý Þ Þ terus lanjut lewat dari sasaran jadi ‘direct’ ‘continued’ ‘keeping on ‘then’ going’

It is interesting that langsung can so easily be resolved into two categories as against the four categories of Kamus Besar. This treatment of the word langsung may be justified because there is a definite difference in meaning between the word in the sense of direct as opposed to ‘immediately, straightaway,’ even though the two meanings are similar. Langsung in Kamus Besar however is pictured differently, apparently because of the treatment of the base word as opposed to affixed words. In the Kamus Besar the general meanings of langsung are presented as four discrete items, with affixed words following and falling into the categories. In Echols & Shadily the initial

133 picture of langsung does not appear to take in fully the meanings subsisting in the word, but there is the temporal meaning of ‘straightaway’ which is not represented by Kamus Besar. In terms of translation, ‘straight’ may well be close enough for the meanings of terus, lanjut and possibly lewat dari tujuan. The meaning of jadi might well be catered for by the English ‘go on.’

A detail that often occurs with surat kelakuan baik ‘certificates of good conduct’ concerns the acronyms describing the position of the authorising officer. The glossary at the back of the Kamus Besar has a good number of these, but sometimes some guesswork is needed to arrive at a likely name, and in such as case if the meaning matches the context well then the English equivalent can be written out in the text of the document. Alternatively the Indonesian acronym may be retained and a note can be added explaining the meaning of the acronym. If the meaning cannot be ascertained a note should be added to this effect.

Some Indonesian terms have over time found their way into English. The work of Joseph Conrad provides examples. Conrad wrote of the so-called South Seas with empathy and skill, and introduced words that have found a permanent place in English.184 Tuan is one. In Almayer's Folly the words rajah [raja], rattan [Malay rotan], prau [perahu]—English prow, campong [kampong], and Hadji (someone who has completed the pilgrimage) are found, and Conrad’s work no doubt helped to popularise these terms in English. Other terms used by Conrad add colour to his work but have not stayed: Rajah Laut ‘King of the Sea,’ Orang Blanda ‘the Dutch’, ubat [obat], ‘medicine,’ Mem Putih ‘the white lady,’ Datu Besar ‘the Head in Charge,’ surat ‘letter, document.’185 Others have not gained a foothold in English: 'O Mara bahia!

184 Conrad depicted colonialism in the Malay Archipelago in Almayer’s Folly (1895) and An Outcast of the Islands (1896). The Literary Encyclopedia, http://www.litencyc. com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=989, accessed 10 April 2004. 185 http://www.classicbookshelf.com/library/joseph_conrad/almayer_s_folly/0/, accessed 10 April 2004.

134 [mara bahaya] (O Calamity!), has apparently not come into English at all.186 Sometimes words are carried over into English because they are difficult to translate effectively, and thus they can reflect an element that is specific to Indonesian culture. Sometimes also Indonesian words are used because they carry the atmosphere of the archipelago. They will show that the author is familiar with the language. However there are many examples of the use of Indonesian terms that show only familiarity but not knowledge of the scope of meaning of the terms, for example among the contemporary expatriate community in Jakarta, there is reference to Bahasa Indonesia as Bahasa, and various cases of grammatically and semantically incorrect Indonesian , such as makan in a nominal sense, as well as a general tendency to use the syntax of Bazaar Malay, with only base word verb forms.

Native speakers are not immune from mistakes at either the source or target end. The meaning may not be as accurately perceived as they think it is. Unaided literary composition may cause problems for the educated native speaker as well as the translator working into a second language. Joseph Conrad was responsible for English prose of great beauty—it is believable that Conrad’s style is reflected in his writings, but it would need to be shown that his prose was not extensively corrected by another hand, if only with regard to grammar and word usage. Translation may not require consummate literary excellence, but on the other hand the discipline of conveying precise sets of meaning does place definite pressures on translating.

Much of the argument for a heightened role for Indonesian in the world may now appear to be an argument by and possibly partly for those who have invested time and effort in the study of the language and the culture of Indonesia. It is a question whether that applies in the region also. And the role of English remains prominent throughout the region. It is perhaps worth reflecting that languages will establish their own primacy geographically and

186 The Lagoon. http://www.eastoftheweb.com/short-stories/UBooks/ Lago. Shtml, accessed 10 April 2004.

135 in their impression on the minds of those who encounter them in use. Malay left its impression in the works of Joseph Conrad, and terms like amok persist in English. English constantly affects the linguistic frame of awareness of many Indonesians. It could be argued that this makes translation difficult. It could equally be argued that it makes translation easier, because there will be a tendency for awareness among speakers of the concepts embodied in the other language. Perhaps either tendency or both may operate for the translator or the interpreter, but in the end the cognitive process that results in a translation takes place in the mind of the translator. The translator is the medium for translation.

The word becak is often carried into English, and this is understandable because of its colourful role in Indonesian life. However such forms of transport are by no means confined to Indonesia. But pedicab is an invention that does not seem to be used by anybody in real life in Western countries. The word becak is often carried into English, and this is understandable because of their colourful role in Indonesian life. Such forms of transport are by no means confined to Indonesia, but nevertheless retaining the word becak, with an explanatory note as necessary, is part of an authentic translation style. The word pedicab is an invention that does not seem to be very much used, and this does not seem to be a valid alternative. It may be added here that the becak, now often driven away from urban centres, long stood for a means of transport and a way of life in Indonesia. Its frequent romanticisation as a colourful aspect of Indonesian life may not have been entirely shared by the immigrants into cities from rural areas who, often without a place to sleep, supplied their excruciatingly hard labour for a pittance.187

187 'Merdeka atau Nanti' (Free or Later) Opini, Tempo 8 February 1999, pp.15-16.

136 5.2 Options in Indonesian News Reports

Karena sulit dihabisi, kini ada pemikiran Because they are hard to wipe out, now mewadahi para preman dalam there is an idea of finding a place for the organisasi.188 hoodlums within organisations.

The use of preman in the sense of ‘hoodlum’ is distinct from the meaning of 'civilian'. The use of mewadahi 'contain, find a place for' derives from wadah, ‘a pool or container.’

Di tempat para pedagang berpesta At the places where merchants are menjajakan barang-barang eceran dan having a great time peddling retail goods pembeli bersukacita dengan aneka and buyers are delighted with various diskon, gerombolan preman senantiasa discounts, the gangs of hoodlums are menghadang.189 always lying in wait.

The word diskon is used approximately as the English discount. Pedagang does not cause any real difficulty, although ‘merchant’ may not fit exactly the level of trade carried out by the pedagang. ‘Trader’ may be slightly better. Menjajakan seems to differ from the English peddling or hawking in the way that it is done in Indonesia and its degree of local colouring. It is not difficult for an English speaker, once the meaning of menghadang is clear, to translate lying in wait. The phrase simply describes a situation. It could be more difficult however for a non English native speaker to arrive at that phrase through dictionaries, or to achieve an alternative translation of menghadang.

Perjuangan arek-arek Surabaya melawan The struggle of the people of Surabaya tentara NICA diperingati sebagai Hari against the Dutch NICA army is Pahlawan setiap tahunnya.190 commemorated as Heroes Day every year.

Arek Surabaya refers to someone from Surabaya. NICA: Netherlands Indies Civil Administration. To the Indonesian reader these two terms may be clear,

188 Sinar 25 January 1997, p.59. 189 ibid. 190 Gatra no.9 Tahun III, 18 January 1997. p.5.

137 but although they figure in and Shadily’s 1994 Kamus Indonesia Inggris, they are not in the common run of expressions.

Wanita mungil itu selalu tampak energik, The diminutive woman always seemed gesit, and bersemangat dalam menjawab to be energetic, adroit, and enthusiastic pertanyaan-pertanyaan wartawan…191 in answering the journalist’s questions…

Gesit may comprise separate concepts that cannot be entirely translated into English as one word; in this case, however, adroit may be appropriate. Mungil contains two meaning elements, ‘small’ and ‘attractive.’ Kamus Besar gives the meaning as kecil elok, so that ‘cute’ could partly convey the meaning, but overall the English diminutive seems to fit well. Gesit and mungil are good examples of words that resist translation by word equivalents, and indeed reflect a subjective meaning within Indonesian itself.

Aksi brutal pelajar kian berani. Lihat saja Violent acts by students are more and ulah 72 oknum pelajar Sekolah Teknik more daring. Take the actions of 72 Menengah (STM) Cawang…192 student offenders from Cawang Secondary Technical School…

Kamus Besar gives brutal as ‘kurang ajar,’ ‘tidak sopan.’ However this and other contexts certainly convey the impression of actual violence. The dictionary definition therefore may be suspected as inadequate; the English connotation seems to be present but the Indonesian understanding of ‘brutal’ seems to be of a lesser nature than the English, though definitely more than ‘rude.’ Oknum refers to a person who is guilty of a crime or is under a cloud of suspicion, so here ‘offenders’ seems appropriate enough, although the usage does not entirely correspond with that of oknum.

Kejadian yang amat prihatinkan orangtua The event that greatly concerned the itu bermula ketika bus PPDP-11 berhenti parents began when bus PPDP-11 hendak menaikkan penumpang di halte stopped to take on passengers at the bus depan gedung…193 stop in front of the building…

191 ibid. 192 ibid. Ulah Brutal di Patas-11, p.29. 193 ibid. Ulah Brutal di Patas-11 Kami Tak Melukai p.29

138

Prihatinkan without me- can be explained as placing emphasis onto orangtua, and also in a context where kejadian is the leading word. Hendak is a classical use of Indonesian in preference to the usual untuk.

Mendadak secara berombongan tiba-tiba Suddenly the 72 STM students at the bus 72 pelajar STM yang berada di halte tadi stop all pushed to get in. /The bus that berebut masuk. Bus yang semula originally held 25 people became fully berpenumpang 25 orang itu pun menjadi loaded after taking on 72 students. The sarat setelah diisi 72 pelajar. Suasananya atmosphere became noisy and the pun menjadi gaduh dan para penumpang passengers were shocked and alarmed at ngeri melihat ulah mereka. Penumpang their behaviour. The non-student nonpelajar tadi makin takut setelah passengers became even more frightened beberapa pelajar meneriaki sopir agar after several students called out to the tidak masuk jalur tol. “Pir, lewat bawah, driver not to enter the toll lane. ‘Driver, lewat bawah!” pintanya kepada…sopir go underneath, go underneath!’ they bus. Tapi Mangaraja yang melihat asked the bus driver. But Mangaraja who gelagat buruk itu tidak mau ambil risiko could see the way things were happening terlalu jauh.194 did not want to take too much of a risk.

Ngeri may be translated as ‘afraid’, but the impact of this word is in its element of shock and dismay as well as fear. A possible translation would thus be frightened or dismayed and extremely apprehensive; here ngeri is translated as shocked and alarmed. The takut which follows could be translated by a different English word from that used to translate ngeri under the general principle of elegant variation, something which is taken up in Chapter Six.

Meneriaki means to call out to. This is a more formal form than the usual berteriak kepada, and in terms of style it goes with pintanya, ’their request,’ ‘and so they asked.’ The value of trying to convey a more formal style here could however be considered trivial as the context and subject matter are not dependent on these elements in the narrative.

Gelagat according to the Kamus Besar means ‘yang menjadi tanda atau alamat akan terjadi suatu peristiwa,’ that is a forewarning or omen. The

194 ibid.

139 sentence might be translated But Mangaraja could see what was likely to happen and did not want to take chances. The English output sentence reads naturally. On the other hand a translation closer to the original Indonesian might be But Mangaraja, who saw the bad omen, did not want to take too much of a risk. That more literal translation might conceivably have value in some circumstances, but in general the first translation is better.

Yang ditantang segera membalasnya Responding to the challenge, the other dengan melemparkan bebatuan ke arah group threw stones at the bus. The bus. Para pelajar di dalam bus tadi balik students in the bus shouted back, waving menggertak dengan mengacung- sharp objects, sickles, samurai swords acungkan benda tajam, celurit, pedang and several other dangerous weapons at samurai, dan beberapa senjata berbahaya their adversaries. lainnya kepada penantangnya.195

The approach adopted to translation here is worth explanation. Yang ditantang means ‘the one who were challenged,’ but this would be awkward in translation. An alternative would be ‘Responding to the challenge, the other group threw stones in the direction of the bus.’ Bebatuan is not to be found in the Kamus Besar, but this is of little consequence because the be-an form typically equates to the standard -²an form, here batu-batuan, ‘(various kinds of) stones’. It is worth noting here that apart from the use of the English noun to translate the verb ditantang, membalasnya dengan melemparkan is translated as ‘Responding…threw.’ Penantangnya at the end of the next sentences, ‘challengers’, is translated as ‘adversaries’ to avoid confusion as the reader will have already identified the ones challenged as the ones outside the bus, and now they become the challengers. Adversaries is not inaccurate, and this is used as an improvement in readability. An important consideration here is that a verbal description is likely to be ambiguous as to certain points in a narrative of events. A translation of that description into a second language will attempt to clarify what took place, and this may be difficult because of gender, number and tense considerations, for example, with the result that some detail may be omitted.

195 ibid.

140

Mobil patroli polisi itu segera menyalip The police patrol car quickly overtook dan menyilangnya di depan bus tersebut. and cut off the bus. The bus immediately Bus langsung berhenti.196 stopped.

Although for Indonesian speakers words menyalip and menyilang will no douht immediately suggest themselves as the way to describe particular actions or events, they are words that might not be readily arrived at in translation from English to Indonesian. . Menyalip and menyilang deserve mention because they are part of a complex of words that may be perceived from the angle of English as verbs with specific and colourful meanings. Such words help to give Indonesian a definite charm or occasionally a pall of fear.

Anak-anak cuma berteriak supaya bus itu The children only called out for the bus lewat bawah…Kami juga tak pernah to go below…And we never hit the memukul penumpang, apalagi passengers, let alone hurt anybody. melukai.197

The use of melukai without –nya, as it also appears in the title of the article, ‘Kami Tidak Melukai’, is a denial of having hurt the passengers, although because there is no object melukai in principle tends to mean to hurt people in general.

Namun hingga kini masih belum But up to now it is not clear why the terjawab mengapa Kota Santri calm Holy City [Tasikmalaya] suddenly [Tasikmalaya] yang adem ayem itu tiba- erupted. tiba bergolak.

According to Kamus Besar, adem ayem means sejuk dan tenteram, ‘cool and calm.’ Bergolak in Kamus Besar is given as mendidih ‘boiling,’ bergelora keras ‘seething.’ Belum terjawab mengapa, literally, ‘why… has not been answered’ goes more naturally into English as ‘it is not clear,’ or ‘no-one is able to say why.’

196 ibid. 197 ibid.

141

Mencari Dalang Tasikmalaya Seeking the Manipulators of Tasikmalaya.

Four police officers who triggered the Empat polisi pemicu Kerusuhan Tasikmalaya Disturbance have been Tasikmalaya dipecat. Otak perekayasa 198 dismissed. Those who are the brains kerusuhan belum tertangkap. behind the engineering of the situation

have not been apprehended.

Dalang is a term commonly used to refer to hidden manipulators of a situation. Pemicu derives from picu, trigger, and is to be understood as ‘those who triggered.’ Perekayasa refers to the engineer of a situation, and is in apposition with otak, brain.

Merebaknya judi hwa-hwe dan toto gelap The spread of hwa-hwe gambling and (togel) di Sumatera Utara, yang telah illegal gambling shops (togel) in North berlangsung setahun belakangan ini. Sumatra, which have been in existence akhirnya mengundang reaksi. Dua for the last year, in the end have rombongan anak muda—yang berjumlah provoked a reaction. Two groups of sekitar 60 orang dan mengatasnamakan young people—about 60 in number and Wadah Solidaritas Pemuda Antijudi dan going under the names of Young Anti- Forum Solidaritas Mahasiswa dan Gambling Solidarity Front and the Pemuda Antijudi—menggelar unjuk Solidarity Forum of Anti-Gambling rasa.199 University Students and Youth—have held demonstrations.

Merebaknya judi hwa-hwe…mengundang reaksi: The me-nya form is a verb which has an object (judi hwa-hwe) but also functions as a noun, being the subject of the verb mengundang. It could be argued that perebakan could replace merebaknya, but there could then be a difference in terms of the feeling and force of the action. Understanding of the term judi hwa-hwe requires research into the game itself, which maight require research into the Chinese term. This however could be quite unjustified in terms of the requirements of the translation, and a rendering as ‘the hwa-hwe form of gambling’ might be quite enough. After all it is likely that many Indonesian readers themselves will not have a clear idea of the nature of the game. Furthermore, unless the translator’s knowledge of the term is included in the

198 Gatra no.9 Tahun III, 18 January 1997, pp.32-33. 199 ibid. p.33.

142 final text of the translation, there is no need to spend time in understanding such terms deeply. Mengatasnamakan (Kamus Besar) means memakai nama or menggunakan nama, ‘to use the name.’ This is an example of the broadened, productive use of me-kan affixation. Menggelar unjuk rasa: held a demonstration. This sense of gelar is different from that meaning ‘to call’.

5.3 Translation of Material on Islamic and Political Issues

Setelah menunaikan umrah atau haji, After carrying out the pilgrimage or haj, para jamaah disunahkan berziarah ke the pilgrims are required to journey to Madinah al-Munawarah.200 Medina.

The translation does not carry the full detail of the original: para jamaah (jemaah) refers to the pilgrims as a congregation rather than as a number of individuals; berziarah refers to a pilgrimage but within Saudi Arabia and not on the scale of the haj; and al-Munawarah is omitted. Nevertheless the translation is probably complete enough for most purposes. Translation of Islamic terms may be either a simple or complex task, depending on the purpose of the translation and the audience. If the large number of Arabic terms used in relation to Islam were to be translated into English, this would mean an extensive translation task.

The Wikipedia articles on Islam in Indonesian and English feature charts of key vocabulary items which are useful for reference and may be set out in comparative form as follows. 201 This table encompasses a large body of description of Islam. The different presentations of material seem, as would be expected, to reflect the likelihood that Indonesians will be more familiar with Islam than English speakers will be. In fact many of the terms in the left

200 ‘Dari Al-Qashwa ke Taman Surga.’ Gatra no.9 Tahun III, 18 January 1997., pp.56,57-62. p.56. 201 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam. Accessed 4 August 2005; Najjar, F. 2005, 'The Arabs, Islam and globalization,' Middle East Policy vol.12 no.3, Fall, pp.91-107. Kahin, G.McT. 1959, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York.

143 hand column would be considered common terminology in Indonesia, whereas this would apply to only very few of the terms in the English speaking world. For the translator of Indonesian to English, the implications are that some explanation will be desirable, whether by expansion of phrasing in the text, by footnote, or by other means.

Rukun Islam Five Pillars Rukun Islam Five Pillars

Syahadat Solat Zakat Puasa Haji Profession of faith Prayer Alms Fasting Pilgrimage to Mecca Rukun Iman

Allah Nabi Kitab Malaikat Akhirat Takdir Allah, God Prophets Scriptures Angels the hereafter Predestination

It is a moot point whether Allah should be left as it is or translated as ‘God.’ To translate ‘God’ could be held to argue that the Christian concept is fundamentally the same as the Islamic one. The concept of the Trinity, the Son of God and even more the Mother of God is anathema to Islam. Yet common usage would tend to favour ‘God.’ This largely depends on the translator’s judgement. All the Rukun Islam and Rukun Imam need to be treated with care, however they are translated, because in each case what the term refers to is not transparent in English. Thus the profession of faith is a set formula, solat is a formalised prayer ritual, almsgiving is an obligation for Muslims, and puasa is very different from fastThe notion of nabi does not correspond entirely with ‘prophet’: nabi includes Isa ‘Jesus,’ and kitab has a different coverage from just alkitab ‘the Bible.’ Achirat ‘the hereafter’ is characterised differently from the Christian concept, and the notion of takdir has to be appreciated apart from Calvinist doctrine, for example.

Kota Suci Holy Cities Mekkah Madinah Mecca Medina

144

Peristiwa Events

Hijrah Kalender Islam Idul Fitri Hijra Islamic calendar Eid ul-Fitr These key elements in Islamic tradition are largely foreign to Western readers and if they occur need a note explaining their significance.

Bangunan Buildings

Mesjid Mosque Minaret Minaret Mihrab Mihrab Ka’bah Kaaba With rising Islamic consciousness in Indonesia—evidenced for example by the number of women and girls covering their heads—it is likely that references to buildings such as these will occur. Accurate description of such phenomena will be essential.

Peran Keagamaan Fungsional Functional Religious Roles

Modin Imam Muezzin Imam Mazhab Interpretive Texts & Practices school of thought on Muslim law Qur’an Hadith Sunnah Fiqh Fatwa Sharia Sunni Hanafi Hanbali Maliki Syaff’i

Gerakan Movements

Tasawuf, Wahhabisme Salafiyah Sufism, Wahhabism, Salafism

These faces of Islam may be readily understood by very many Indonesians, if not all, but if they occur in texts targeting Western readers it is important that they be defined accurately and given an informative context. If this is done then it can be expected that the translator is playing a valuable role in improving the level of

145 understanding between Indonesia and the English-speaking target audience.

Note that the audience factor is crucial in the Wikipedia versions. Often where the English requires a gloss, the Indonesian requires none. However some content mentioned in the English is not considered appropriate in the Indonesian. Some kind of 80-20 rule could be applied with material that is very dense with such technical material, so that the reader is not asked to wade through large quantities of virtually opaque material. The use of footnotes, endnotes or attachments is particularly clear in this regard.

Differing point of view may readily become a significant translation issue where history or religion is concerned, as the following illustrates.202

Sebenarnya pengertian 'agama' untuk In truth the understanding of ‘religion’ Islam bukan suatu hal yang tepat, Islam for Islam is not something precise; Islam adalah Din yang pengertiannya jauh is the Din, of which the interpretation is lebih kompleks dari agama yang sekedar far more complex than religion, which is berisi mengenai ajaran budi pekerti dan full of teachings about morality and ritual. Islam juga bukan nama, tapi esensi ritual. Islam is also not a name, but the dari keberserahan diri alam semesta dan essence of surrender of oneself, the isinya kepada aturan/hukum Allah. world and what is in it to the laws of Semua 'agama' yang berkembang di God. All ‘religions’ that have developed bumi berasal dari Din Islam yang sudah in the world come from the Din of Islam dijalankan sejak masa Adam hingga that was implemented from the time of Muhammad. Adam to Muhammad.

The concept of Din as opposed to agama—even though the meaning of din in Kamkus Besar is given as ‘agama’) is the main focus of this passage. A straightforward and effective way to establish the difference in English is to refer to Din as ‘the religion’ or ‘the true religion’ and to agama as ‘a religion’ or ‘religions.’ Retaining Din in the translation could be useful if the source document was to go on to concern itself extensively with Islamic teachings. At the same time it should be noted that the phrase agama Islam is widely used in Indonesia.

The existence of different approaches can point to potential difficulties in translation. Presentation can be important, and an extensively illustrated

202 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam.

146 presentation touching on religious issues could meet difficulties from clerics who were not prepared to accept graphic material, following Islamic convention. It may well be considered the duty of the translator to point out any such potential difficulties to the client.

Pakar sejarah Anhar Gonggong History expert Anhar Gonggong mengingatkan agar kesalahan masa lalu reminds us that the mistakes of the past janganlah diulangi dengan berpegang should not be repeated by holding to old pada dendam sejarah. Dalam konteks ini, scores. In this context, the ex para eks tapol/napol tetap harus tapol/napol should still have a place. memperoleh tempat. The former Political Detainees and Eks [bekas] Tahanan/Narapidana Politik Political Criminals and the List of dan Daftar Pencarian Orang (DPO) Wanted Persons

berbagai tragedi dan kasus di tanah air several tragedies and cases in the nation seperti G 30 S PKI, peledakan Candi such as the 1965 attempted coup, the Borobudur, peledakan BCA hingga bombing of the Borobudur, the BCA Komando Jihad. bombing and the Komando Jihad.

"Makanya, saya katakan, hal ini tidak ‘And so, I say, this thing will not be able akan bisa berjalan dengan dendam to go on with hatreds from the past,’ he sejarah," ujarnya sembari menekankan said, stressing that the ability to forgive bahwa kemampuan memaafkan kesalahan mistakes from the past was a key masa lalu adalah prinsip utama bagi principle in carrying out the above terlaksananya pemikiran-pemikiran di principles. atas.203

Translation of material on such topics needs particular care as the translated text has the potential to influence public opinion, in Australia for example. In fact this kind of material may warrant explanation by the translator, in the form of a footnote or a translator’s note in the text. The unbundling~ rebundling concept implies the proposition that texts or terms will contain a root system with various nodes that the translator can respond to and wrap into the translated version. The translator ought not to be a surreptitious propagandist, but should realise the need to be politic under certain circumstances and ensure that text with particular sensitivities is translated

203 http://www.kompas.com/berita-terbaru/0202/18/headline/009.htm, 5 August 2005. 18 Februari 2002, Sarapan bersama: Anhar Gonggong. Jangan Ulangi Kesalahan Masa Lalu dengan Dendam Sejarah. Jakarta, KCM (Kompas Cyber Media)

147 sensitively. This leads to the proposition that all translation should be done with care, but some translation should be done with even more care.

Menteri Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat The hard line United States Secretary of Colin Powell yang bersikap State Colin Powell…rejected the keras…menolak kritik Eropa atas European criticism of United States kebijakan Amerika Serikat terhadap Irak policy on Iraq with regard to the arms soal bisnis senjata. business.

Ia mengatakan, negara negara Eropa, He said that the nations of Europe that yang saat ini tengah berbisnis dengan are at present dealing with Saddam Saddam Hussein, hendaknya prihatin Hussein should be concerned about the dengan program senjata perusak program of weapons of mass masalnya. destruction.

Powell mengatakan, diskusi antara Powell said that discussions between the Amerika Serikat dengan sekutu Eropanya United States and its European allies akan menghasilkan kesepakatan dalam would produce a plan of action. bertindak.204

To focus more clearly on the responsibility of the translator, it is essential not only to convey the basic content of what is said but to convey any colouring that is present in the textual context. The translator should ensure that the context is clearly established, but should not add or subtract meaning because of historical considerations or for geopolitical considerations, however apparent it may be that a text misrepresents, for example, political or economic factors or actually conveys deliberate falsehood. The translator may, in line with the principle of unbundling~rebundling, establish a context for statements. But the statements should be from the horse’s mouth or recorded faithfully.

Perang di Vietnam benar-benar membuat The war in Vietnam was a heavy blow to AS menjadi frustrasi dan terpukul hebat, the US and made it frustrated to the point sehingga terpaksa angkat kaki awal where it was forced to withdraw at the tahun 1970-an.205 beginning of the 1970s.

204 http://www.kompas.com/berita%2Dterbaru/0202/18/headline/010.htm, 7 August 2005.18 Februari 2002. Powell Tolak Kritik Eropa Soal Kebijakan AS. 205 http://www.kompas.com/kcm/tajuk.htm.,7 Maret 2002. Tajuk Rencana. Proses Politik dan Ekonomi Kembali Tidak Pararel.

148

The order of frustrasi and terpukul hebat is reversed in the translation simply because this makes the syntax easier to deal with in the translation (reversal of noun phrase components is a common device in English composition, for convenience of emphasis). Frustrasi, derived from the noun form in Dutch, translates as ‘frustrated,’ and is but one example of the loss of English grammatical categories with borrowed terms. The United States actually withdrew from Vietnam in 1975, but given the scaled down presence beforehand this would not deserve a correcting footnote unless it was material to the subject at hand. The translation here will probably not be a problem, but if such a statemenet were to be a problem then this is outside the responsibility of the translator, who has handled the translation professionally. This is an example of where translation should proceed as a matter of fact documentation of what the original stated.

It is difficult to be sure whether a target audience will understand terms and concepts in precisely the same way as they are understood in the original context. Another question is whether enough time and space are available to explain the full source meaning, and whether there is a need to convey the full extent of the source expression. And yet a factor which compensates for these difficulties is that readers do not always want to know the content of the original in great detail.

Style becomes very important in achieving this readability. A term can be translated roughly, if its significance within the text permits this. It can be left as an italicised expression with an explanation in a footnote. It can be translated by an expanded explanation in the text. Along with these considerations regarding the rendering of a term into the target text, it should be kept in mind that a phrase may certainly be used to translate a word, and that in the target text elements of the source term may appear in separate places.

149

The following passage is from the Preamble of the 1945 State Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 ).206 The nation building terms Bhinneka Tunggal Ika and Pancasila need to be kept in mind during translation as potential carriers of meaning for Indonesians that will often need to be explained in English translation. The discussion here touches on some of the subtleties that are part of the presentation of some national concepts.

It is all one long sentence, and needs to be translated as closely as possible to the original since it is a key historical document. Modules within utterances are a useful approach with involved text, because the mind can think of algorithms quite easily, leaving a kind of routine facility in the mind to sort out the details while the mind goes on ahead with the argument, bringing in little portmanteaus, logical gems, quotations and so on. It is useful to think in terms of rhetoric rather than syntax. This is where the idea of symbolic thinking may acquire a definite role in the process of translation. The most obvious modules are subject or topic, verb, and other clauses.

Kemudian dari pada itu untuk membentuk Further, in order to establish a suatu Pemerintah Negara Indonesia yang government of the State of Indonesia melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia dan which shall protect the whole seluruh tumpah darah Indonesia dan untuk Indonesian people and their entire memajukan kesejahteraan umum, homeland of Indonesia, and in order to mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, dan ikut advance their general welfare, to melaksanakan ketertiban dunia yang promote the intellectual life of the berdasarkan kemerdekaan, perdamaian nation, and to contribute to abadi dan keadilan sosial, maka disusunlah implementing order in a world founded Kemerdekaan Kebangsaan Indonesia itu upon independence, eternal peace and dalam suatu Undang-Undang Dasar social justice, Indonesia's national Negara Indonesia, yang terbentuk dalam independence shall be formulated in a suatu susunan Negara Republik Indonesia Constitution of the State of Indonesia, yang berkedaulatan rakyat dengan which shall have the structural state berdasarkan kepada Ketuhanan Yang form of a Republic of Indonesia with Maha Esa, Kemanusiaan Yang Adil dan sovereignty of the people, and which Beradab, Persatuan Indonesia dan shall be based upon: belief in one God, Kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmat humanity, unity, deliberation for

206 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teks_UUD_1945, accessed 3 September 2003.

150 kebijaksanaan dalam representation and social justice for all Permusyawaratan/Perwakilan, serta Indonesians.208 dengan mewujudkan suatu Keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia.207

There is a clump of content from untuk membentuk… to …keadilan social. Within that portion of text there are three statements of purpose: untuk membentuk…, dan untuk memajukan … and dan ikut melaksanakan… From maka disusunlah… on there are a number of terms which demand special attention. Another translation might be

…the national independence of Indonesia shall be formulated into a constitution of the sovereign Republic of Indonesia which is based on the belief in the One and Only God, just and humanity, the unity of Indonesia, democracy guided by the inner wisdom of deliberations amongst representatives and the realisation of social justice for all of the people of Indonesia.209

Just and humanity could be intended to be justice and humanity. The Indonesian Constitution would be a subject for study in itself, but this extract is useful in noting the elements of Pancasila. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa as a concept was probably designed to be vague enough to allow different kinds of thinking on religious issues. It might possibly be translated more accurately as ‘the Divinity of the Great One’ or ‘Belief in the Unity of the Divine Being.’ It seems to rule out polytheism but to resist an Islamic state. The translation here could be extended considerably because the various political concepts are not simple and need to be explained so that readers will understand their significance within Indonesian national history. This is a case where the translation could benefit by being expanded.210 However translation is carried

207 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teks_UUD_1945. Part of this Preamble was translated in Chapter Five (5.3). 208 http://www.indonesiamission-ny.org/issuebaru/HumanRight/1945cons.htm. 209 The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia 1989. http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/indonesia/ ConstIndonesia.html, accessed 2 August 2005. 210 The Department of Information in the Preface to the translation notes that the translation is still a provisional revision ‘owing to the flexible Constitution which

151 out, and whatever the syntactic choices made for the final text, it is important that the key concepts underlying the Indonesian polity are clearly set out for the reader. Further discussion of the Pancasila philosophy follows.

Garuda… adalah salah satu dewa The Garuda is a god in Hinduism and dalam agama Hindu dan Buddha… Buddhism…the Garuda is portrayed as Garuda digambarkan bertubuh emas, having a golden body, a white face, and berwajah putih, bersayap merah. Paruh red wings. Its beak and wings are like dan sayapnya mirip elang, tetapi those of an eagle, but its body is like that tubuhnya seperti manusia. Ukurannya of a human. It is so big that it can block besar sehingga dapat menghalangi out the sun. matahari.211

Garuda adalah seekor burung mitologis, The Garuda is a mythological bird, half separo manusia, separo burung, wahana human, hald bird, a male vehicle for batara Wisnu… Garuda seringkali Vishnu. The Garuda is often drawn with dilukiskan memiliki kepala, sayap, ekor the head, wings, tail and mouth of an dan moncong burung elang, dan tubuh, eagle, and the body, hands and feet of a tangan dan kaki seorang manusia. human being. Its face is white, its wings Mukanya putih, sayapnya merah, dan red, and its body is golden. tubuhnya berwarna keemasan.212

The differences between the Indonesia of 1945 and the Indonesia of today become clearer as this mythical bird’s significance unfolds. It contains religious concepts that are antithetical to Islam, and despite the national role of Pancasila, Muslim movements have asserted themselves with varying degrees of forcefulness. In this situation, background provided for an audience of target texts might ensure that the Hindu-Buddhist element in the nation’s emblem does not obscure the realities of Islam in Indonesia.

Pancasila: Indonesia’s Five Principles, with the Wikipedia translation:213

Ketuhanan yang Maha Esa Belief in the one and only God: The translation God does not properly reflected the cautious approach to definition of the deity. includes a wider scope of philosophy, so that a more reliable translation is still expected.’ 211 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garuda, accessed 12 July 2005. 212 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garuda. 213 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancasila_Indonesia#History, accessed 12 July 2005.

152

Kemanusiaan yang Adil dan Beradab Just and civilised humanity: Just and Civilised Humanitarianism would be preferable.

Persatuan Indonesia The unity of Indonesia

Kerakyatan yang Dipimpin oleh Hikmat Suggested translation: ‘democracy Kebijaksanaan dalam Permusyawataran/ guided by wise policymaking in Perwakilan214 deliberation and representation’

Keadilan Sosial bagi Seluruh Rakyat Social justice for the whole of the people Indonesia215 of Indonesia.

It may be useful in translation to disassemble and reassemble the information involved so that the translation as a whole is comprehensible to readers—with the proviso that an estimate of the reader profile could be useful.

The following excerpt from Kompas is a discussion of a political topic and a demonstration of potential for awkwardness that can arise in the text of a translation.

Penahanan Rahardi Ramelan The detention of Rahardi Ramelan is dipersoalkan, karena mengapa terdakwa- raised because other accused people in terdakwa lain dalam kasus yang sama… the same case have not been imprisoned. tidak masuk tahanan? Memang, hukum The law has been exercise, but with a ditegakkan, tetapi disertai permasalahan. question mark.217

Misalnya, apa akibatnya jika Golkar For example, what would be the result if ngambek, menarik menterinya dan Golkar withdrew its ministers out of beroposisi di DPR dan diluar DPR. pique and stood in opposition role in the Kemungkinan serupa diberlakukan pula DPR and outside? A possibility like pada partai-partai lain. Jika partai pro- what has happened with other parties. If Pansus Buloggate II kalah suara, apa the pro Buloggate II Special Committee aksi-reaksinya terutama dalam politik di parties are defeated, what would be the luar parlemen. actions and reactions, especially in extra parliamentary politics?

214 The Wikipedia translation is ‘democracy guided by the inner wisdom in the unanimity arising out of deliberations amongst representatives,’ which does not make a great deal of sense. 215 http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garuda _Pancasila. 216 http://www.kompas.com/kcm/tajuk.htm 7 Maret 2002. Tajuk Rencana. Proses Politik dan Ekonomi Kembali Tidak Pararel. Gerilyawan Al Qaeda dan Taliban Masih Sulit Ditaklukkan. 217 Permasalahan means ‘the raising of a problem.’ Here it is sufficient to use ‘problem.’

153

Masuk akal jika orang heran, kenapa kita People may well be surprised to hear we khawatir akan terjadinya proses politik are afraid of a process of political chaos: liar, bukankah semua partai sepakat dan aren’t all the parties committed to commit pada proses politik demokrasi. democratic politics? This is the theory. Seharusnya demikian.

Jawaban yang logis, obyektif, dan lugas, A logical, objective and straightforward tentu saja, tidak akan ada reaksi answer will not elicit an excessive berlebihan. Dengan segala penyesalan, reaction. With all regrets, what can be apa boleh buat, memang begitulah proses done about this, because it is an yang sewajarnya sesuai dengan asas appropriate process in accord with the hukum dan demokrasi. legal and democratic foundation.

Dihadapkan pada keadaan semacam itu, Faced with this kind of situation, often acapkali kita gamang, harus mulai dari we get nervous, where to begin from, mana, harus mulai dengan siapa, dan who to begin with, and how to begin. On harus mulai bagaimana? Sebaliknya, the other hand, when because of those manakala karena hal-hal itu, kita tidak things we do not dare to begin, will it berani mulai, bukankah keadaan juga not be that the situation will be even akan semakin amburadul dan keadaan worse, and the uncertain situation will semakin tidak pasti itu juga berdampak have a negative impact on efforts to negatif terhadap usaha perbaikan improve the economy. ekonomi.216

The text appears politically sophisticated, but although the Indonesian is not difficult to put into some form of English it is difficult to avoid awkward English and still preserve the meaning of the passage.

Ngambek being translated as ‘to act out of pique’ is a matter of fixing on a good English equivalent in this context (and not choosing the inappropriate pout or mope given by Echols & Shadily 1994). Diberlakukan as put into effect means essentially ‘made to be operative,’ and differs from dilakukan ‘carried out.’ The difficulty for a translator not familiar with all the recent political developments in Indonesia could be Pansus Buloggate II. Pansus means Panitia Khusus, ‘Special Committee,’ and Buloggate II refers to a second major scandal (à la Watergate) concerning the Badan Urusan Logistik.

Religion can colour writing. The anti-terrorist campaign following the 11 September 2001 bombing of New York has generated large amounts of anti- terrorist writing, some of which appears to attack some aspects of Islamic and

154 Arab life and practice by sarcasm or other means. This is an illustration of attitudes towards Islam that has existed for long periods of time, going back to the Crusades. For the translator the task is not to smooth over and thus distort divergences of viewpoint, but to ensure that the meaning is conveyed in an understandable way.

The semantic-pragmatic distinction can help in interpreting utterances where the conventional meaning may not fully convey what the speaker says, for example with respect to ambiguity, implicitness, implicature, nonliteralness, non truth conditional content and illocutionary force. A semantic-pragmatic distinction should take into account various areas, including phenomena (ambiguities, implications, presuppositions) anomalies (paradoxes, contradictions, nonsense), and knowledge (information, intuitions, processes). The application of a pragmatic as well as semantic analysis can simplify the task of semantic theory by justifying the decision not to address certain phenomena, and it can discard the assumption that certain types of sentence must always express a proposition. Intuitions about what is and is not semantic can be respected without necessarily being accepted.218

The translator possesses power that should be used ethically and responsibly.

Power is defined as the potential ability to influence behaviour, to change the course of events...to convince people to do things that they would not do otherwise. Politics and influence are the processes, actions, and behaviours through which this potential power is utilised and realised.219

Common goals and perspective, together with a common working vocabulary, may mean that notions of command and hierarchical authority are not so important.220 Pressures of work may dictate that some aspects of translation

218 Bach, K. The Semantics-Pragmatics Distinction: What It Is and Why It Matters,’ http://online.sfsu.edu/~kbach/semprag.htm. 12 July 2004. 219 Pfeffer, J. 1992, 'Understanding Power in Organizations,' California Management Review vol.34, no.2 (Winter), pp.29ff. 220 ibid.

155 receive less care than others, and a key concern is to avoid snafus 221 in cultural or administrative matters. A translator code of ethics seems to be an elusive concept, one that is not well expressed in existing codes. Translation as an art, as a practice, cannot be limited to a group of people who pass translation examinations and receive set fees. A definition of translator ethics that may be workable could be the appropriate exercise of the power that a translator possesses in regard to translation. In defence of this definition and as a critique of other codes, this thesis asks for evidence of the authority that the makers of such codes have over translators.

The moderation of potentially offensive terms and the oblique references to difficulties are characteristic of much of Australian-Indonesian diplomacy of the last half century. There are Indonesian terms that will not be understood properly even with the use of a dictionary. The translator’s power inheres in the ability to convey meaning with varying degrees of colouring. over what the respective parties actually said. Translator empowerment to comment and to explain context could have been a better approach than the efforts of the media to play up differences and disagreeable aspects or diplomatic efforts to make the disagreeable sound palatable.

In political terms there has been considerable tension between Australia and Indonesia on various occasions over the last forty years or so. The journalistic habit of selective highlighting of words and events is outside the translator’s control. For the translator who is required to translate material in either direction, the first task is to ensure that translator prejudice and various types of extraneous colouring are not confused with the actual message of the text. The second task, which is no doubt much more difficult, is to ensure that the colouring that subsists within the original text is conveyed. This means that an

221 The term SNAFU is World War II jargon deriving from a wireless response, SITUATION NORMAL, ALL FUCKED UP—thus reminiscent of grim battlefield humour, but the sense nowadays is just a foul-up.

156 indignant statement should still appear indignant. It should not come across as clinical or neutral. If necessary a note should be added to make this clear. It should not be the role of the translator to strive for diplomatic goals. If writing causes offence, the writer will have had the chance not to write, or to write differently. But the translator, if it is decided to translate, ought to translate text with the original colouring. Preface and notes can assist in achieving this, and it is not necessary to insist on coloured word for coloured word translation: in other words the terms may be unbundled and rebundled. But the translator has the duty to ensure that the message, the intent and the tone get across.

An example of writing that gave offence was the front page article in the Sydney Morning Herald some years ago 222 which alleged nepotism in Soeharto’s government. It does not appear that the fact of nepotism was in dispute, but the article was regarded as an affront to the presidency and perhaps to Indonesia as a whole. A response by Indonesia was to turn back a planeload of Australian tourists from Bali. The episode could be viewed as a confrontation between discourse styles, of a direct reference by the forthright journalist David Jenkins as opposed to the Indonesian or more specifically Javanese style of ignoring or denying an embarrassing reality and punishing those who infringe their code. The fact that the article was prominently featured in the Sydney Morning Herald was important, but Jenkins had a personal history of forthright commentary which could have played a role in the incident. There could be a question of intertext. It may have been not only what was said about Indonesia’s first family, but who said it, what he had said before, and the perceived spirit in which it was said. Jenkins’ 1984 book Suharto and His Generals: Indonesian Military Politics 1975-1983 223 is carefully researched, using information from a wide variety of sources.

222 In his 1998 article on Clive Williams, Jenkins notes that his article on the Soeharto family had been written 12 years earlier, so in 1986. 223 Jenkins, D. 1984, Suharto and His Generals: Indonesian Military Politics 1975- 1983, Monograph Series, publication no.64, Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

157 Jenkins notes that the role of ABRI (Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia, the Armed Forces) became more and more institutionalised under Suharto, and that they came to dominate much of society; Suharto came to the presidency through seizing the initiative at the right time and establishing control. ‘This gave him an opportunity to impose his own somewhat rigid views in such areas as civil-military relations and to brush aside any officers who took a different view.’224 The Sydney Morning Herald article was seen as inflammatory. In a 2001 article, Jenkins attributes a view to Megawati, daughter of Sukarno, that could be her own but is also likely to reflect Jenkins’ own feeling about Sukarno:

Megawati, who is on the brink of becoming President herself, has never forgotten the way Soeharto and the army treated her father, locking him away, traducing his memory, abandoning his policies, reworking his political philosophy, slaughtering half a million Communist Party members on whom he had conferred his political benediction.225

No doubt Megawati has reservations about the army. But for ‘locking him away’ the reader has to understand ‘keeping him under house arrest,’ and it should be noted the army did not execute Sukarno. ‘Slaughtering half a million Communist Party members’ is probably not accurate, and Sukarno’s relationship with the Communists was much more complicated than Jenkins implies. The rest of his article shows heavy reliance on unconfirmed reports and rumours. The impression of Megawati and of the Sukarno era from Jenkins’ article shows precisely the kind of colouring that the translator needs to avoid.

Although the translator ought not to be involved in the manipulation of the truth—or of various versions of the truth—it can be useful to be aware of the background to events. There was speculation about whether there would be delay in naming a new Indonesian ambassador after Lieutenant General

224 ibid., p.264. 225 Jenkins, D. 2001, ‘In the name of the father,’ Sydney Morning Herald 21 July, News and Features p.21.

158 Mantiri’s nomination to Canberra was dropped. Mantiri in a 1992 magazine interview had defended the conduct of Indonesian troops in the shootings in Dili in East Timor in November 1991. Korporaal’s article comments:

The next few months will show how quickly things get back to normal. Meanwhile the incident itself should also remind those at the top in both countries that the relationship is not only deeper, but more complex than they may have appreciated.226

The preoccupation with the term relationship comes out in this article, and it appears to echo the style of Australian Foreign Affairs officials in discussing Indonesia. In Canberra, Jakarta, New York and elsewhere, it seemed that not only the word but the relationship itself had to be preserved at all costs. Emphasis on preserving the bilateral relationship can readily be infused into the interpreting and translation carried out in the framework of embassy work.—it can be a self-fulfilling characterisation of goals that the translator discovers in the course of political work. Such diplomatic acts as delay in appointing ambassadors or a demarche involving the handing over of a third person note are acts that involve culture, whether or not each side fully appreciates the other’s culture—whether one side is implied to be sneaky and snide and the other uncouth and unsophisticated—and they all say something from one side to the other. The background clamour of the press and public events such as flag burning and demonstration can be complications in the relationship—perhaps forms of noise—and they can be exaggerated, minimised, denied or forgotten as the political mood dictates. They can say a great deal and they can create power situations with their confrontations and avoidances of confrontation. The acts of accepting or not accepting ambassadors, for example, involve utterances and qualify as language acts. Often the text of what is said is prominent, but observers both sophisticated and unsophisticated may perceive that there is unexpressed political significance behind the event.

226 Korporaal, G. 1995, ‘A testing time for friends,’ Sydney Morning Herald 21 July, p.24.

159 Understanding political and other kinds of subtle meaning appears to resist categorisation, but it needs to be approached flexibly. For example it has been argued that for foreigners, speaking good English ‘does not necessarily mean conforming to the norms of culturally hegemonic strata.’227 There are all sorts of convenient modifications to the criterion of full bilingualism, and if one has to translate into a second language, the best that can be done may be to research the material thoroughly in the translation process. There is a plethora of reference material available in regard to the English language,228 and this may imply that it will be easier for an Indonesian to know precisely what has been said in English than for an Australian to know precisely what has been said in Indonesian—if the right works are available and if they are consulted. Usable material in endless varieties of subjects is available in English, whereas this is not particularly true for Indonesian.

5.4 Defining Unlisted Terms

The word amburadul is not to be found in either Echols & Shadily (1994) or Kamus Besar. The following examples were located by the Google search engine.

Keamanan dalam konteksnya dengan Security in its context with a sense of rasa aman, dengan ketertiban, dalam safety, with order, in contrast to an kontrasnya dengan situasi semau sendiri obvious felt situation where people do dan amburadul yang tampak dan whatever they want and are amburadul. terasa.229

Yang ingin kita sampaikan,230 tampaknya What we want to convey is that reform reformasi bisa berdampak pada cara-cara can apparently impact on our methods in

227 Thomas, J. 1983, ‘Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure,’ Applied Linguistics vol.4 no.2, Summer, pp.91-112. 228 The great contrast in accessibility between English and Indonesian may be illustrated by reference to the site http://dictionary.oed.com/ or other dictionary websites which reflect the vast resources of English as a global language. 229 Didambakan Pemerintah yang Kuat dan Efektif, Tajuk Rencana, Kompas Senin, 21 Juli 2003. http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0307/21/ opini /444026.htm 230 Note in passing the classical principle observed here that when the object (yang) precedes the verb (sampaikan) the me- form is not used and the subject (kita) is not separated from the verb.

160 kita menyelesaikan persoalan. Perasaan solving problems. Feelings that are serba mandek, amburadul, serba tidak stagnant, amburadul and altogether jelas, membuat kita buntu berpikir, unclear stymie our thinking and put us in membuat kita berada dalam suasana cul a kind of cul-de-sac. de sac 231

Bus khusus jurusan terminal Blok M- The special bus to Blok M terminal-Kota Stasiun Kota itu tampaknya diluncurkan Station was apparently launched in di tengah kondisi yang amburadul, baik amburadul conditions, with regard to infrastruktur maupun prasarana both infrastructure and supporting pendukungnya, seperti penyediaan bus preconditions such as the supply of pengumpan (feeder) dan tiketnya.232 feeder buses and ticketing.

Penempatan tenaga kerja Indonesia ke The location of an Indonesian work force Korea Selatan (Korsel) sangat (TKI) in South Korea was very amburadul. Kondisi tersebut juga amburadul. The conditions were also diperparah oleh tingginya biaya exacerbated by the high cost of location penempatan dan potongan upah TKI and the cut in PKI wages, together with serta dominannya broker dan lembaga the dominant position of the swadaya masyarakat (LSM) yang intermediaries and the social self-support mendorong TKI bekerja secara ilegal.233 institutions that pushed TKI to work illegally.

A riddle asks, Apa yang luarnya mulus What is smooth outside and amburadul dalamnya amburadul? inside? [The answer:] Nenek naek mercy. A granny in a Mercedes.234

The meaning of amburadul is not easily discerned. At this point, after working through the above samples, finally there appeared through the search engine a definition from Webster’s Online Dictionary: ‘chaotic, disorder, disorganised.’ However the definition comes out of a set of Indonesian equivalents given for the English word chaotic rather than as a definition of amburadul itself. Chaotic is explained as semrawut ‘disorganised,’ kisruh ‘anarchic, confused, disorganised,’ awut-awutan ‘haphazard, tangled,

231 ‘Tajuk Rencana. Mari Kita Berpikir tentang Kekerasan.’ Kompas 6 September 2003. http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0309/06/opini/545716.htm 232 ‘Meski Amburadul, Bus Trans-Jakarta Busway Diluncurkan ‘ Kompas 15 Januari 2004 http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0401/15/UTAMA/803468.htm 233 Penempatan TKI ke Korsel Amburadul Kompas 16 Januari 2004 http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0401/16/ekonomi/804415.htm. 234 http://ketawa.com/tampil.php/id/1514/Apa_yang_luarnya_mulus_dalamnya_ amburadul_/, accessed 3 September 2004.

161 tousled,’ amburadul ‘disorder, disorganised.’ 235 However the use of synonomous expressions in a definition by no means implies that each of the synonymous terms will always be identical to the meaning specified for that context, as a glance at various Thesaurus entries will readily show. From the above examples the equivalent that emerges is ‘terrible.’ The attempt to define amburadul shows the value of good dictionaries in efficient translation, as well as outlining a procedure that may have to be used when a dictionary definition is not available or when additional information is needed about the use of a term. acung selling (as a hawker)

pedagang acung (asongan), ‘pedlar’ The word acung is not to be found in Echols & Shadily (1994) or in Kamus Besar. A search was undertaken through the Internet. The term was located in the Kompas electronic database.

…para konsul menyampaikan keluhan …the consuls forwarded the warga negara masing-masing selama complaints of their respective berwisata di Bali. Dalam dialog, citizens while holidaying in Bali. In antara lain dikeluhkan…pedagang discussion, among other things acung (asongan). 236 there were complaints about pedlars.

…dikembalikannya wewenang Desa …the return of the authority of the Adat Kuta untuk mengatur dan Traditional Rural District of Kuta to mengelola wilayah Pantai Kuta, organise and manage the district of relokasi para pedagang kaki lima dan Kuta Beach, relocate the movable pedagang acung, serta penertiban stalls and pedlars, and restore order pedagang liar.237 to unrestrained commerce.

235 http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/english/ch/chaotic.html, accessed 11 April 2004. 236 ‘”Time Share” di Bali Disorot,’ Kompas 18 June 1996. 237 7 May 1999, Daerah Sekilas, Kompas. Pedagang liar ‘merchants’ is rendered as unrestrained commerce. This avoids the problem of translating pedagang liar ‘wild merchants’ in a way that will suit the context and not have to decide on the specific application of the term.

162

Di tengah teriknya sinar Matahari di In the fierce sun on Kuta Beach a group Pantai Kuta segerombolan pedagang of pedlars…offered their Balinese acung…menawarkan barang lukisan Bali paintings to each tourist that passed. kepada setiap wisatawan yang lewat.238

This shows how the Internet can provide examples to assist definition of meaning when a term is not to be found in dictionaries. The search for acung shows that the Internet is a ready source of information. A conclusion from this kind of exercise is that a dictionary can save immense amounts of time in clarifying word meanings, even if the dictionary does not go all the way in providing material for translation. However at the same time there is a basic requirement that the meaning of a term be clearly established for purposes of translation, and this needs to be seen against the generally inadequate provision of details on meaning and usage in bilingual dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary such as Kamus Besar tends to provide more reliable and more specific information, while a bilingual dictionary such as Echols & Shadily can provide useful equivalents, provided that the user is already familiar with the meaning and usage of the term. As shown with the search for acung and amburadul, the Internet is an excellent and readily accessible source for examples of usage, although—as the Webster definition for amburadul shows—dictionary support for Indonesian appears very inadequate. For English, there is an enormous body of information on the semantics, etymology and syntax of the language, and OED Online239 is just one source.

5.5 Style

238 11 March 2001, Daerah Sekilas, Kompas. 239 Oxford English Dictionary. OED Online. Oxford University Press 2005. http://dictionary.oed.com.wwwproxy0.nun.unsw.edu.au/entrance.dtl.

163 There is an Internet literary life, dominated by young people, and there is the term Cybersastra cerpenis ‘Internet short story writer.’ The abundance of translation of foreign sources may relate to a lack of novels and other works from Indonesian writers.240 The publication of translations on the Internet is an indication of how translations of foreign literary works compete with new works by Indonesian writers, and seem to dominate the market. Yet there is evidence of dissatisfaction with the quality of translations.241

Former officer of the Indonesian Department of Education and Culture Fuad Hassan, who has translated the work of Budapest born writer Arpad Gomez, says that a translator must understand the material involved; if not then even if he or she understands the language of the original, the resulting translation will be poor. Frans M. Parera, Chairman of the Ikatan Penyunting Indonesia (Society of Indonesian Editors), said that many translators of books do not have a cultural vision. ‘This phenomenon clearly makes Indonesian translation a matter of concern.’242

5.6 The Social Role of Rhetoric

Rhetoric can be of decisive importance in politics and society. The following example of Sukarno’s rhetoric shows great facility in the use of the young Bahasa Indonesia.

Sang Ndoro yang mempunyai rumah gedung, The Master who owns a big elektrische kookplaat, tempat tidur, uang house, with an electric stove, a bertimbun-timbun: kawin. Belum tentu mana bed, money piled up: married. It’s yang lebih gelukkig, belum tentu mana yang not clear who is luckier, it’s not lebih bahagia, sang Ndoro dengan tempat clear who is happier, the Master tidurnya yang mentul-mentul, atau Sarinem dan with his springy bed, or Sarinem Samiun yang hanya mempunyai satu tikar dan and Samiun who have only one satu periuk, saudara-saudara! mat and one saucepan, comrades!

240 Anonymous. 2002, ‘Kaleidoskop Sastra 2001: Antara Supernova, Sastra Cyber dan Sastra Komik,’ cybersastra.net, 1 January. 10 mDecember 2002. 241 Donny Anggoro. 2001, Booming Sastra Terjemahan,’ http://cybersastra.net/edisi_ mei2001/booming.htm (Donny Anggoro is Editor, Cybersastra.net). 242 ‘Penerjemah buku banyak yang tidak memiliki visi budaya. Fenomena ini jelas memprihatinkan masalah penterjemahan Indonesia komentar Frans M. Parera ketua kepada Koran Tempo edisi 29 April 2001.

164 To organise, create, confess an independent state, there are no involved, hair splitting conditions, no! The conditions are just the land, the people, a firm government! This is enough for international law. Untuk menyusun, mengadakan, mengakui satu To organise, create, recognise an negara yang merdeka, tidak diadakan syarat independent state, there are no yang neko-neko, yang menjelimet, tidak!. involved, hair splitting conditions, Syaratnya sekedar bumi, rakyat, pemerintah no! The conditions are just the land, yang teguh! Ini sudah cukup untuk the people, a firm government! internationalrecht. This is enough for international law. Throughout the speech Sukarno intersperses Javanese terms with Dutch words to form a highly individualistic style. He neko-neko means ‘macam-macam, various.’ Examples of Dutch words are elektrische kookplaat ‘electric stove,’ gelukkig ‘lucky,’ and internationalrecht ‘international law.’243

The record of Sukarno’s speech ends with the note, Tepuk tangan riuh, loud applause. Clearly the audience is familiar with Dutch and Javanese words.

5.7 Abbreviations and Acronyms

Even for Indonesians, knowledge of acronyms is not always regarded as axiomatic, and a glossary of acronyms appeared in the 7 March 2002 edition of The Jakarta Post. For the present purpose it is important to note sources of vocabulary information rather than to list that information, since the aim here is to interpret significant issues and trends in Indonesian~English translation rather than to act as a compendium of information about the Indonesian language. Kamus Besar lists common acronyms, and Tata Bahasa Baku lists terms which have been borrowed into Indonesia with their accepted spelling244 Problems of usage that would normally be handled in dictionaries tend to be often difficult to clarify in Indonesian, and inquiry of native

243 Sukarno. 1945, ‘Pidato Sukarno: Lahirnya Pancasila.’ Sidang Dokuritsu Zyunbi Tyoosakai, 1 Juni 1945. www.geocities.com/didonk19/pidato_soekarno.htm. From Lahirnya Pancasila, Penerbit Guntur, Jogjakarta, Cetakan kedua, 1949. Publikasi 28/1997 Laboratorium Studi Sosial Politik Indonesia). 244 Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. 1988, Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia, Perum Balai Pustaka, Jakarta, pp.440-463.

165 speaker informants may not always yield conclusive answers. It often happens also that informants are willing to allow various expressions as if they were merely different stylistically, whereas some of the expressions may in fact be unacceptable. This may reflect various factors: lack of sociolinguistic sophistication on the part of the informants, politeness to foreigners, or tolerance for differing points of view.

Another important aspect of translation is the use of acronyms. Kamus Besar provides an appendix with many acronyms, but it often happens that acronyms are not easily tracked down, and this is an important problem both in regard to time and also, when an acronym cannot be located, to the accuracy of translation. It is distracting to the reader to be told that meaning is uncertain at some point, and this is detrimental to the image of competence that the translation wishes to maintain. Other sources may be consulted, but there remains the need to match the glossary explanation of a term with the likely meaning in the context. In the translation of the Indonesian Human Rights Commission investigation report on East Timor, in consultation with the Foreign Editor of the Sydney Morning Herald the author left some Indonesian acronyms in place because they were felt to result in a more compact and forceful style. There is little point within the scope of this thesis of regurgitating the components of lists of abbreviations and synonyms. However there are some which are so common and so potentially prominent that they deserve mention. These citations will suffice to show the broad scope of abbreviations and acronyms which leads to their important function in Indonesian linguistic life. Partly their use may point to an in-house feeling or organisational culture on a national scale. But the desire to abbreviate lengthy descriptions, such as in the case of ekuin (Ekonomi, Keuangan dan Industri—Economy, Finance and Industry) no doubt is a key factor. In this regard, the fact that some Indonesian words are quite long may also be relevant. Affixing can greatly add to the length of a word, and some words from Javanese and other sources tend to be longer than the typical short

166 Malay word. Pangkopkamtib with four syllables is clearly more readily written and read, as well as being more easily said, than the full phrase Panglima Komando Pemulihan Keamanan dan Ketertiban ‘Commander of the Command for the Restoration of Security and Order’. PBB for Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa ‘United Nations’ again is very convenient. As an overall impressiof abbreviated terms and acronyms, it seems accurate to say that these terms generally have a high incidence of occurrence in Indonesian printed and spoken language. They are accompanied by a variety of English abbreviations such as AD, BA, BC, ca., etc., et seq… as listed in Kamus Besar. Abbreviation and production of acronyms is a habit of mind, and there are also many used in specialised circumstances. They come and go. The translation of texts using abbreviations and acronyms—this could mean virtually any text—is an exercise that demands imagination as well as the use of reference materials; and it is an exercise that justifies a call for the translator to continue to read widely in Indonesian and if possible to speak often with Indonesians. For this purpose it seems wise to consult the popular press as well as more intellectual articles. In any case familiarity with recent materials appears to be a necessary measure to ensure that one is not relying on guesswork in translating. This is a duty to the client.

From the use of a comma instead of a decimal point to a whole range of expressions, Indonesian is very different to English. English may have the advantage of being international, so that English expressions may perhaps be forgiven more readily in Indonesian than Indonesian expressions in English on a working principle that the international can prevail over the regional or the national. Nevertheless Luar Negeri is not the same as Internasional. And toEnglish speakers, the international Alfa-Bravo-Charlie call sign system is not as intuitive as A-for-Apple, D-for-Dog, E-for-Elephant and so on. The following have been used in Indonesia.

167

Ambon Jepara Solo Bandung Kendal Timur Cepuk Lombok Umar Demak Medan Victor Endeh Namlea Willis Flores Opak Xtra Garut Pati Yani Hotel Quebec Zainal245 Irian Rembang

Robison’s ‘Abbreviations and Glossary’ include the following terms which are commonly used in Indonesian text and in writing about Indonesia (Robison 1986, pp.xviii-xxv). Being exhaustive will be a concern for dictionary makers and is not an aim here.

ABRI Angkatan Bersenjata Indonesian Armed Forces Republik Indonesia AD Angkatan Darat The Army Aspri Asisten Pribadi (presidential) Personal Assistant Bakin Badan Kordinasi Intelijen Intelligence Co-ordinating Board Bappenas Badan Perencanaan National Development Pembangunan Nasional Planning Board Bimas Bimbingan Massal an agricultural extension & credit program BKPM Badan Kordinasi Capital Investment Co- Penanaman Modal ordinating Board BNI Bank Negara Indonesia State Bank of Indonesia Bulog Badan Urusan Logistik National Logistics Board Nasional DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat House of People’s Representatives Golkar Golongan Karya state political party Hankam Departemen Pertahanan Department of Defence dan Keamanan and Security Inpres Instruksi Presiden Presidential Instruction

245 The list was obtained informally in Jakarta in 1975 for use in telephone communication.

168 Ir. Ingenieur Engineer (Dutch academic title) Kodam Komando Daerah Militer Regional Military Command Kopkamtib Komando Operasi Operations Command to Pemulihan Keamanan dan Restore Order and Security Ketertiban Kostrad Komando Cadangan Army Strategic Reserve Strategis Angkatan Darat Command LBH Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Legal Aid Office Malari Malapetaka Januari January Disaster, referring to the 15 January 1974 Jakarta riots. NU Nahdatul Ulama Muslim Teachers’ Party Opsus Operasi Khusus Special Operations Repelita Rencana Pembangunan Five Year Development Lima Tahun Plan

There is little point within the scope of this thesis of regurgitating the components of lists of acronyms. However there are some which are so common and so potentially prominent that they deserve mention. abs asal bapak senang as long as you are happy a.n. atas nama for A.S. Amerika Serikat the United States ASI air susu ibi mother’s milk balita (anak) bawah lima tahun below five years of age bandara Bandar udara airport bemo becak bermotor motorised becak BPS Biro Pusat Statistik Central Bureau of Statistics d.a. dengan alamat at this address Deplu Departemen Luar Negeri Department of Foreign Affairs Dirut direktur utama special director Ditjen directorat djenderal directorate general DIY Daerah Istimewa Special District of Yogyakarta Yogyakarta dkk. dan kawan-kawan and colleagues dll. dan lain-lain and others; etc dr. dokter doctor (physician) Dr. doktor PhD Drs. doktorandus Doctorandus Dra. doktoranda Doctoranda eksim ekspor-impor export-import ekuin ekonomi, keuangan, dan economy, finance and industri industry HUT hari ulang tahun anniversary tapol tahanan politik political detainee

169

KKN is explained as ‘korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme’ (‘corruption, collusion and nepotism’) as a general term for the culture of corruption.246 G30S is Gerakan 30 September, alternatively Gestapu, referring to the abortive coup of 1965.247

Finding semantic equivalents is not the end of the matching process between the two languages. The need to use morphological or syntactic forms suitable to the target context may mean that equivalents have to be substituted that are less precise semantically—in other words a compromise translation. With idiomatic expressions of various types the value of native translator competence in the target language becomes particularly clear. Characteristic differences between native and second language recall of order of words, common sayings, titles of books and so on no doubt occur. For example proverbs seem to be remembered by native speakers as meaning and precise wording, but from observation proverbs and sayings seem to be remembered in a second language as overall meaning plus elements of meaning which may fall out of order. Variant versions can range from the inappropriate to the hilarious.

* A bird in the hand is worth two in the forest. * Take the cow by the horns

The argument now proceeds to wider cultural mismatching in translation. Cultural gap could be said to be a different matter altogether, but it could also be argued to relate to misunderstandings in culture and in time and place. Grammatical errors could be argued also to project situations that become unpalatable to a reader for reasons apart from the real content of the message.

246 Paulus Mujiran, 2004, Republik Para Maling, Pustaka Pelajar, reviewed at http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0411/27/pustaka/1401062.htm, 16 July 2005. 247 http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0411/27/pustaka/1401062.htm, accessed 16 July 2005.

170 To begin with, an impression of ignorance and incompetence can be given, even though this may not be at all true judging from the original text. Abdul Wachid’s ‘about me’ demonstrates this effect. Despite being intelligible, the English version of his autobiographical note is spoiled by grammatical errors and misspellings 248 . To ask whether this actually does relate to cultural aspects of translation means to decide on a dividing line somewhere.

There can be opaque spots or patches in a translation, where the reader may not understand the meaning or significance of some elements. Trade names can be examples of opacity in translation; Names may not be translated easily, but if no comment is made the reader can be deprived of information available to native readers. Company names can strongly reflect culture. Styles of presentation can contain meaning of a kind, even though the meaning may be difficult to specify in detail. For example batik design undeniably contains Indonesian styles. There are also examples of names with strong connotations. Calathumpian is one example. 249 Names often chosen by non English speaking people can reflect the tastes of a bygone era, and in some cases can have unfavourable connotations, for example Fanny.250 For Indonesians, the usage of names can be different, for example John Smith will often be Pak John or Mr John. The impression given by a name can be very different, for example again, John Smith would often be meant in English as an ultra typical name. Because it can be cumbersome to load the main text with information on these matters, a footnote or some similar device will be useful to ensure that meaning is conveyed as fully as possible.

248 http://www.poemscape.8m.com/main/indeks.html, accessed 21 November 2004. Abdul Wachid B.S. Landscape situs yang memuat esai (essay), puisi (poem, poetry), cerpen (short story) karya penyair Abdul Wachid B.S., di samping karya sastrawan lain. The note reads in part: he often protested his Indonesian Language teacher… It was at at time that he began to write poems and essays on litterature… When he attented Faculty of Law at Cokroanimoto University he took part in demontration against non-active head of universities. 249 Implying membership of a non-standard religious organisation. 250 Often meaning the part of the body a woman sits on.

171 The presentation of a final text can conceal a great deal of background knowledge and many important decisions. The text may be presented in various formats. It can have footnotes, or illustrations, or quotations. It can attempt to explain background material fully, or not at all. Judgement needs to be exercised in relation to cultural, geographical and historical matters.

5.8 Translations of Indonesian Documents

The translator has to be able to focus on being faithful to the detail of a document. A birth certificate from East Timor, dated 1985, provided an example of how even where the translator may know the meaning of the Portuguese explanatory text interpolated in the document, the translator’s job is to translate the Indonesian that is stipulated in the accreditation. The translation of the certificate thus reads, with the Indonesian going into English {italicised) and the Portuguese text unchanged:

GOVERNMENT OF PROVINCE REGION LEVEL I EAST TIMOR CIVIL REGISTRY CONSERVATORIA DO REGISTO CIVIL (------DILI EAST TIMOR------)

EXTRACT (COPIA) BIRTH CERTIFICATE (AUTO/DECLARACAO DE NASCIMENTO)

The client asked that the Portuguese be omitted, but this was felt to violate the principle that the document should be presented as it was. The Portuguese text was thus reproduced underneath the English, so that for example pada tanggal/no dia became on the date/no dia; telah lahir/nasceu became there

172 was born/nasceu and so on. A policy decision was made that is not the job of the Indonesian translator to translate the Portuguese text, although this could be done in concert with a qualified Portuguese translator. Details of the individual being registered were in Indonesian only, and so presented no problem.

A 1998 doucment from the Body for Financial Investigation contained the following text from The Audit Board.

Setiap mahluk berakal, baik alamiah Every intelligent creature, whether maupun buatan, adakalanya merasa natural or artificial, sometimes will feel perlu untuk menghentikan sejenak it necessary to cease for a moment his or kegiatannya sehari-hari, dan her daily activities, think again about merenungkan, memikirkan kembali di where he or she is in the journey of life, mana dia berada di dalam perjalanan and the direction in which to go, what hidupnya, dan ke mana ia harus pergi, has to be continued, and what needs to mana yang perlu diteruskan, mana yang be changed. This kind of reflection can perlu dirubah. Pemikiran kembali be carried out individually, and it can be tersebut bisa dilakukan sendiri-sendiri, carried out together with others. dan bisa juga dilakukan bersamaan.251

If it is accepted as uncommon that a text translated into a second language could stand by itself without editing, then it is clear that a text translated in such circumstances ought to be translated in a simple style that avoids likely sources of error wherever possible. However often such texts fail to impress because they attempt a style beyond their competence to achieve. Excrepts from an address by President Megawati Sukarnoputri to the DPR in 2002, with the official translation, demonstrate the loss of effect that can occur through such failure and that could have been avoided if a simpler style had been attempted.

251 Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan Republik Indonesia (The Audit Board of The Republic of Indonesia) ‘BPK dan Reformasi’ Sambutan Pada Pembukaan Seminar 18 Desember 1998. http://www.kimpraswil.go.id/pencarian/cari.asp;http://www. bpk.go.id/. Accessed 14 October 2004.

173 Hadirin yang terhormat, Distinguished Guests, Ladies and Assalamu’alaikum Warahmatullahi Gentlemen, Wabarakatuh, Assalamu ‘alaikum Warrahmatullahi Wabarakatuh. Salam sejahtera bagi kita semua, May peace and prosperity befall upon all of us. Besok pagi kita akan memperingati Ulang Tahun Kemerdekaan kita yang ke Tomorrow morning we will lima puluh tujuh. Mengawali nikmat commemorate the 57th anniversary of our yang luar biasa tersebut, rasanya sungguh independence. Before we relish this layak bilamana kita semua memanjatkan remarkable luxury, it is only proper that puji syukur ke hadirat Tuhan Yang Maha we praise and thank God the Almighty Esa

The greeting is approximately standard for official audiences. ‘Befall upon’ is the kind of unfortunate error that can slip into a formal translation through ignorance of word usage. The phrase Before we relish this remarkable luxury reads is an absurd translation. It could be On the eve of this great occasion.

Kita sangat sadar, bahwa kemerdekaan We are well aware that the independence tersebut telah kita peroleh melalui was won as a result of an arduous and perjuangan yang berat dan panjang serta lengthy struggle, as well as an immense pengorbanan yang teramat besar. sacrifice, including the loss of lives of the Perjuangan dan pengorbanan jiwa dan best people of our nation, not to mention raga putera-puteri terbaik bangsa kita, the treasures and possessions that were disamping harta benda yang bagi mereka dear to them. tak ternilai sifatnya.

Sidang Dewan yang terhormat; Honourable House, Demikianlah alur panjang dan kilas That is the long trail and the flashback of pasang surut kehidupan kebangsaan dan the ups and downs of our national life kenegaraan kita.252 and our country

Disamping harta benda… needs to be kept in its place as vastly less significant than the loss of life. Not to mention does not achieve this, since it

252 Pidato Kenegaraan Presiden Republik Indonesia dan Keterangan Pemerintah atas Rancangan Undang-Undang Tentang Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Negara Tahun Anggaran 2003 serta Nota Keuangannya di depan Sidang Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat 16 Agustus 2002. State Address of the President of the Republic of Indonesia and the Government Statement on the Draft State Budget of the Fiscal Year 2003 and Its Financial Note Before the House of Representatives on 16 August 2002. http://kongres.budpar.go.id/agenda/precongress/hasil.htm, accessed 12 February 2005.

174 places the following item at least as high as the preceding one. Apart from the treasures… would be an appropriate way of handling this situation. *Honourable House is not a permissible phrase. Honourable Members might be used here. Alur panjang dan kilas pasang surut might be better translated as a long perspective on the ebb and flow. This would avoid the mixed metaphors implicit in the use of alur ‘channel’ and kilas ‘flash’ with pasang surut ‘rise and fall of the tides,’ with its scarcely comprehensible result.

Karena itu, dalam saat-saat seperti ini, As a result, in moments such as this, it is seyogyanyalah apabila kita mengenang fitting that we pay tribute to those who kembali jasa mereka itu semua, yang have bequeathed us an independent sekarang mewariskan kepada kita sebuah nation: the Unitary State of the Republic negara yang merdeka: Negara Kesatuan of Indonesia. Republik Indonesia.

The construction using seyognya apabila is equivalent to sebaiknya. The translation pay tribute is not exact—though it is not misleading and could be recall what they have done. Kesempatan ini juga tepat untuk This is also the right opportunity to merenungkan kembali cita-cita ponder on the purposes of the kemerdekaan yang melandasi dan independence that have served as the menjadi roh perjuangan dan pengorbanan foundation and the essence of the tadi, yang secara padat dan jelas telah struggle and sacrifice, which have, diabadikan dalam Pembukaan Undang clearly and concisely, been reflected on Undang Dasar 1945: membentuk suatu the Preamble of the 1945 Constitution, pemerintah negara Indonesia yang that is to form a government of the melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia Indonesian Nation that protects the entire dan seluruh tumpah-darah Indonesia, people and motherland of Indonesia, to memajukan kesejahteraan umum, promote people’s welfare, to improve the mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, dan minds of the people, and to participate in ikut melaksanakan ketertiban dunia yang the creation of a world order based on berdasarkan kemerdekaan, perdamaian freedom, lasting peace and social justice. abadi dan keadilan sosial. .It is important to see the text here as very dense. The unitary nature of the Republic of Indonesia, the 1945 Constitution, the concept of promotion of the people’s welfare and even participation in a new world order are easily mentioned but have an extensive background in Indonesian political history. They mean a great deal to the audience and this meaning should be conveyed

175 to the reader in some way. The terms in this paragraph—tumpah darah, kesejahteraan umum, kehidupan bangsa and keadilan sosial—are steeped in the genesis and ideals of the Indonesian revolution. Footnotes, explanation in text, or an attachment are ways of ensuring that the meaning is understood.

Hanya dengan susah payah kita malah Only with great efforts were we able to baru dapat menyelesaikan akibat kemelut overcome the impacts of the monetary moneter yang terjadi empat tahun yang crisis four years ago. Other subsequent lalu. Berbagai kesulitan lain yang problems, including the threat of national kemudian mengikuti, termasuk ancaman disintegration, have only been recently disintegrasi nasional, baru akhir-akhir ini subsided, exhausting the already limited saja dapat kita redakan, dan itupun energy and resources. dengan menguras banyak energi dan sumber daya yang sesungguhnya sudah begitu terbatas.

The above English version contains a grammatical error, in the use of subside in the passive, and the use of the—the already limited energy and resources— is not ideal. The original Indonesian text however is interesting in syntactic terms, particularly in the phrasing Berbagai kesulitan lain… dapat kita redakan, which focuses attention strongly on the object. However the translation above simply uses the passive, so that the sense of the agent kita is lost. In this case a better translation would be We have only recently been able to wind down [etc] other difficulties that followed [in English it is not necessary here to use subsequently to represent kemudian as it is implicit in the sense of followed], including the threat of national disintegration, and that with the expenditure of a great deal of energy and resoruces that were in fact already very limited [in English the use of so for begitu here would have given too subjective a tone].

With regard to the case of the object construction here, it is now worth thinking about whether the object focus is adequately reflected in the English translation. To do this, one method would be to rephrase as follows: Other difficulties followed. They included the threat of national disintegration. We have only recently been able to wind down [etc] these

176 difficulties. The short sentences and the use of repetition achieve an effect comparable to the Indonesian original. This rephrasing is not paraphrase, but rather the mobilisation of the resources of the target language. This is an expression of the unbundling rebundling concept, here mainly using syntactic devices.

Indonesia Mengecam Keras Tindakan Unilateral Memerangi Irak

Jakarta, 20 Maret 2003 The Government and the people of Indonesia strongly deplores the Pemerintah dan rakyat Indonesia unilateral action taken by the mengecam keras tindakan sepihak oleh Government of the United States of Pemerintah Amerika Serikat dan America and its allies that have decided sekutunya yang memutuskan perang to go to war against Iraq. Indonesia terhadap Irak. Indonesia menyesalkan deeply regrets that the multilateral bahwa proses multilateral melalui Dewan process through the UN Security Keamanan PBB telah Council has been sidelined. Indonesia is dikesampingkan. Indonesia berpendapat of the view that the use of military force bahwa penggunaan kekuatan militer against Iraq based on the unilateral terhadap Irak atas dasar keputusan sepihak decision constitutes an act of aggression tersebut merupakan tindak agresi yang which is in contravention to bertentangan dengan hukum international law. This unilateral internasional. Tindakan militer sepihak military action has also threatened the ini juga telah mengancam tatanan dunia. world order.

Dikesampingkan is wrongly translated as sidelined. Bypassed or ignored would be appropriate.

Pemerintah Indonesia, melalui upaya The Indonesian Government, through its diplomasi baik bilateral maupun melalui diplomatic efforts both bilaterally and forum internasional seperti ASEAN, through international fora such as GNB, OKI, dan PBB, telah secara ASEAN, the Non Aligned Movement, konsisten menekankan perlunya the Organisation of Islamic Conference, penyelesaian yang damai atas krisis and the United Nations, has consistently Irak. Upaya-upaya ini telah juga stressed the need to find a peaceful diperkuat oleh misi perdamaian para solution to the Iraqi crisis. These efforts pemimpin lintas agama Indonesia ke have even been strengthened by peace beberapa negara, serta seruan-seruan missions of the Indonesian inter-faith untuk perdamaian oleh semua komponen leaders to several countries as well as by bangsa Indonesia. the repeated call for peace from all

177 segments of the Indonesian nation.

Lintas is ‘cross’ or ‘inter.’ GNB stands for Gerakan Non-Blok; OKI is Organisasi Konferensi Islam; PBB is Perserikatan Bangsa Bangsa.

Dalam hal upaya Dewan Keamanan Should the efforts by the UN Security Council menemui kebuntuan, Indonesia mendesak come to a dead-lock, Indonesia will urge the UN Majelis Umum PBB untuk mengadakan General Assembly to convene in an emergency sidang darurat di bawah kerangka session under the framework of the "uniting for resolusi “tindak bersama untuk peace" resolution. perdamaian” (“uniting for peace”). Presiden Republik Indonesia Megawati Soekarnoputri

Press Release. A Tsunami has hit the provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra. No. 047 / PEN / PR / XII / Bantuan Bencana Alam Gempa Bumi Dan 2004254 Tsunami. No. 047 / PEN / PR / XII / 2004253 On the 26th of December 2004, a tsunami has hit the provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra. The Pada tanggal 26 Desember 2004, bencana disaster claimed more than 110.587 lives. alam gempa bumi dan Tsunami menimpa Moreover, natural disasters had just recently hit provinsi Aceh dan Sumatra Utara. Bencana Alor (the province of East Nusa Tenggara) tersebut telah menelan 110.587 jiwa. claiming 34 lives and Nabire (the province of Beberapa waktu yang lalu, bencana alam Papua) claiming many lives. juga menimpa Alor (Propinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur) yang menelan korban jiwa 34 orang dan Nabire (Propinsi Papua) yang juga menelan banyak korban jiwa.

The English translation is from a press source. The use of the date with the verb in the perfect tense, has hit, is a common error: when there is a time the verb should be simple past.

Presiden Republik Indonesia, Susilo The President of the Republic of Bambang Yudhoyono, menyatakan bahwa Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, has bencana gempa bumi dan Tsunami di proclaimed the earthquake and tsunami tidal wave Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD) dan which took place in the provinces of Nanggroe Sumatera Utara sebagai bencana nasional Aceh Darussalam (NAD) and North Sumatra as a serta mengumumkan periode berkabung national disaster and announced a nation-wide nasional selama tiga hari dengan mourning period for 3 days by inter alia hoisting mengibarkan bendera setengah tiang. flags at half-mast. He requested the people to Presiden meminta masyarakat untuk provide material and moral support to the victims

253 http://www.indonesia.nl/articles.php?rank=6&art_cat_id=5 254 http://www.indonesia.nl/articles.php?rank=5&art_cat_id=5.

178 memberikan dukungan moral dan materi of the natural disaster.. kepada para korban bencana alam.

The italicised portion could be better phrased, of three days, with the flag at half mast. The flag is generic, in the singular. Inter alia is added and is not necessary. Flying the flag at half mast is noted in connection with national mourning, but it is not stated that the mourning is expressed ‘by’ the flag; rather the word dengan has the sense of ‘with.’ Pemerintah Republik Indonesia The Government of the Republic of Indonesia menyampaikan penghargaan dan rasa sincerely expresses its appreciation and gratitude terima kasihnya kepada negara-negara to all friendly countries and various international sahabat, berbagai organisasi international, organisations/entities for their readiness and dan masyarakat Indonesia di luar negeri, commitments to extend humanitarian aids in the atas kesediaan dan komitmen mereka wake of the natural disaster rapidly. dalam memberikan bantuan kemanusiaan sehubungan dengan bencana alam tersebut.

Aids should be aid. In the wake of is not a completely precise translation of sehubungan dengan, but it is a natural translation and reads well. However the insertion of rapidly tin the English translation appears to be designed to emphasise the urgency of Indonesia’s situation to potential aid donors.

Bantuan yang sangat dibutuhkan oleh para The assistance that is badly needed by the victims korban adalah: include: • food, including instant and baby food • Makanan, termasuk makanan • body bags instant dan makanan bayi • drinking water and purifying tablets • Kantung mayat • generators • Air minum dan tablet penjernih air • medicines • Generator • blankets • Obat-obatan • tents • Selimut • shrouds (large preferably white cotton • Tenda cloth to wrap the remains of the deceased) • Kain kafan • cotton (wound dressing) • Kapas • mosquito nets and insect repellents • Kelambu dan Krim anti nyamuk • water buckets • Ember • clothing • Pakaian • mattresses • Kasur • other aid deemed necessary by the donors • Dan bantuan lain yang dianggap perlu

Den Haag, 29 Desember 2004 The Hague, 29 December 2004

179 Listing body bags and shrouds in among miscellaneous material requirements gives a strange effect and one that could be felt to downgrade the significance of the death of the victims. The fact that the Indonesian list is in an odd order may give rise to the possible reordering of the items in the English translation, rather than the version shown above where the order follows the original. The phrase other aid deemed necessary by the donors appears to clarify the Indonesian request for other aid.

5.9 Translation from English

It is not difficult to find examples of words or phrases that are likely to be very difficult to translate. The following have been located in the Sydney Morning Herald. The right hand column consists of notes that might be needed by a translator working from English into Indonesian.

The marketers spotted a new subgroup Christen is not difficult to translate, and within the populace, which they Salim (1993) gives the meaning ‘give a christened ‘the adultescents.’… Unlike name to.’ Generation X is a boomers and even Gen Xers, for whom demographic term generally referring to marriage and starting a family were people born in the1960s and 1970s, and desirable goals, for this generation, they who were in their teens in the 1980s and are not desirable and may never become possibly the 1990s.256 Adultescent,s aged a desire.255 18-30, are ‘uncommitted,’ with ‘no mortgage, no children and no long-term partnership.’257 I stick to my knitting.258 I keep to the field that I know. it doesn't feel like full-blown open-the- Full-blown does not seem to go well throttle boom time at the moment259 with the metaphor of an open throttle, but the meaning is clear enough. ‘When we visited the bookshop, we were The key to this passage is correct attracted to titles containing one little identification of the meaning of the word word. Can you spot it among the bum, which here seems to mean bestselling literature? Zombie Bums from ‘buttocks’ rather than ‘tramp,’ although

255 Dale, D. 2004, ‘A Peter Pan generation,’ Sydney Morning Herald 27 December, www.smh.com.au. 256 The new youth,’ 25 May 2004, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_X. 257 http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/05/24/1085389339741.html?from =storyrhs& oneclick=true 258 Anonymous. 2004, ‘China lends hand in Year of the Bull,’ Sydney Moforucs rning Herald 31 December 2004, www.smh.com.au. 259 ibid.

180 Uranus and The Day My Bum Went inspection of the books in question could Psycho (both by Andy Griffiths); Bum be more revealing. The reviewer takes Breath, Botox and Bubbles (Karl the sense of ‘buttocks’ as correct, and so Kruszelnicki); and The Bugalugs Bum describes the other reading matter as Thief: Aussie Bites (Tim Winton). Our ‘less anal.’ The translation of the titles is less anal reading matter included The Da no easy matter. Bums from Uranus may Vinci Code (Dan Brown), Harry Potter well contain an ingenious and elegant and the Order of the Phoenix (J. K. jocular reference to ‘your anus,’ but no Rowling), and six books about the doubt one that the translator might glycemic index by Jennie Brand- choose to ignore. Miller.’260

5.10 Opaque Indonesian Text

An article by Asep Sambodja, Dua “Kiblat” dalam Sastra Indonesia’ (‘Indonesian Literature Faces Two Meccas’)261 contains a compact, padded array of information that could be quite opaque to many Western readers. The theory put forward under the name of unmbundling~rebundling includes a way of handling such situations.

Ada sebuah pertanyaan besar yang sampai sekarang belum ada jawaban yang memuaskan. Benarkah sastra Indonesia lahir pada 1920? Tidak sedikit pakar sastra Indonesia yang masih berpendapat bahwa kelahiran sastra Indonesia dimulai pada 1920 dengan These literary figures need to given some sejumlah argumentasi yang sekilas space for explanation if the text is to tampak mantap. Tanpa mengulang mean anything. However if such detailed kembali apa yang telah disampaikan A. research is to be carried out it would be Teeuw, Ajip Rosidi, Yudiono K.S., advisable to check with the client on the Maman S. Mahayana, Bakri Siregar, focus of the text. bahkan Umar Junus dan Slametmoeljana, saya mencoba melihat upaya yang dilakukan para pakar sastra lainnya dalam merekonstruksi sejarah sastra

Indonesia di era reformasi ini.

260 Dale, op.cit. 261 Asep Sambodja, ‘Dua “Kiblat” dalam Sastra Indonesia,’ edited 3 September 2004. Asep Sambodja is a poet and essayist living in Citayam—Redaktur Cybersastra.net.

181 Writer Dewi Anggraeni has produced English and Indonesian versions of short stories she has written. The following examples show a discrepancy between the two versions however. 262 mabuk kepayang dengan he fell besottedly in love with Misra [head over heels Misra could suit the context better than the literary besotted. This should be seen in the overall context of the style of this short story, which is certainly not archaic.] sisa kue-kue di piring half-eaten sweetmeats on the plates [sweetmeats is slightly archaic] komponis kehabisan a composer stops composing [The translation is not ilham wrong, but it does not specifically say that the cause is loss of inspiration.] buatkan saya kopi ya? make me a fresh cup of coffee, ya? [This kind of influence by Indonesian exists on the English of some Indonesians and even some native English speakers living in Indonesia. The ya could readily be replaced by OK for example.] ‘…Saya ingin ‘…I want to lie down for a while.’.. In bed, … [the merebahkan diri context shows that this should be ‘on the bed.’] sebentar.’ Di tempat tidur, …

These examples do not cast doubt on the achievement in Dewi Anggraeni’s bilingual version. However it does show that there is a difference between the level of expression between the original Indonesian and the English. The English amounts to a modified translation. It has probably had native English speaker comment, but the comment apparently does not fully reflect the subtleties of the original.

No matter how skilled and knowledgeable a translator is, reference materials will be indispensable. For some translations, for example literary works or texts containing humour, it is also highly likely that the translator will have to consult native speakers of the language for advice. It could be for some translations that a collegiate approach would be preferable. Humour is notoriously difficult to understand and to translate. Newspapers and other racy sources such as editorials and special columns are also examples of language

262 Dewi Anggraeni. 2001, ‘Music for Libretto,’ pp.11-28/ ‘Komposisi buat Libreto,’ pp.121-141, Neighbourhood Tales: A Bilingual Collection/Kisah Dari Sana-Sini: Cerita Dalam Dua Bahasa, Indra Publishing, Box Hill, Victoria, pp.11-12/121-122.

182 that is difficult to translate but reflective of Indonesian personality. In addition there could be a touch of analysis in terms of 'Javanese versus other.'263 An article in Kompas bemoans the fact that humour websites are not updated.

…humor, lelucon, guyonan, canda, …humour, jokes, jest, repartee, satire, slengekan, bebodoran, fun, atau apapun witticism, a funny story or whatever it is namanya, harus tetap hidup… lelucon called, must go on living… humour is dan sejenisnya adalah persoalan asasi something that colours the culture of a yang mewarnai kebudayaan suatu people. bangsa.264

It should be noted that although humor has been adopted into Indonesian, fun is still clearly a borrowed word, and the meaning fits awkwardly into this context as far as translation is concerned. Bebodoran is not found in Echols & Shadily 1994 but is given in Kamus Besar. Slengekan is not found in either dictionary. Its meaning may be sought through the Internet, a method that needs to be emphasised in a context of a considerable number of neologisms in Bahasa Indonesia.

Kak Tedi cuma pesan, biar bawel tapi Tedi only said, it’s all right to be jangan slengekan jika sedang siaran," talkative when you’re broadcasting, but ungkap Dian. Anda tahu arti slengekan, not slengekan, said Dian. You know the itu lebih kurang berarti seenaknya – meaning of slengekan, it means penyakit pembawa acara jaman sekarang something like doing whatever you yang suka bikin mual penontonnya.265 please—a fault of comperes nowadays that makes viewers sick. Pada masa dekade 50-an tak ada iklim In the 1950s there was not a climate of cengengesan, semau gue, atau menurut irresponsible mockery, or according to istilah anak muda sekarang slengekan.266 young people now, slengekan.

263 http://www.humorindonesia.net/, humorindo.webhostme.com and http://ketawa.com/ are sites for humour. 264 Darminto M Sudarmo. Melayat Budaya untuk Humor Indonesia. Seni & Budaya Kompas http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0305/11/seni/304266.htm. 11 May 2003. 265 Dian Nitami: "Nggak Mau Jadi Isteri Menteri, Jadi Menteri Saja… "http://www.tempo interaktif.com/ang/min/02/30/pokok1.htm 266 Adji Subela, ‘80 Tahun Mang Udel: Humoris Kelas Wahid yang Dilupakan. http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/hiburan/budaya/2003/1004/bud2.html.

183 Slengekan comes out meaning something like ‘ad hoc satire.’ This makes the point that not every Indonesian word will have a convenient English equivalent.

It can be argued that it is not necessary for each of the terms humor, lelucon, guyonan, canda, slengekan, bebodoran, fun to be equivalent to a corresponding term in the translation. The intention of listing types of humour in the original is to give a fairly exhaustive coverage of the Indonesian synonyms for the joke. If the meaning of each Indonesian term is translated, several terms will be translated as joke. To render the whole list fairly into English, the most suitable terms were chosen from Roget’s Thesaurus.267 Even then, jest is more an older version of joke than a term with a different meaning.

Saya berbicara demikian sama sekali In speaking like this I am absolutely not tidak bergede rasa (GR) bahwa dengan being boastful that the existence of the adanya media cetak humor, segala print media dealing with humour all the persoalan kemasyarakatan dan social and national problems will kebangsaan dengan sendirinya dapat automatically be eliminated.268 dieliminasi.

Bergede rasa (GR) means ‘boastful’ or ‘self-important.’

5.11 Humour

Sebab 3 Napi Di Penjara Why Three Criminals Are in Jail di LP Nusa kambangan tiga orang napi sedang In Nusakambangan Prison three ngobrol tentang mengapa mereka bertiga bisa criminals are talking about why the three masuk penjara. Napi pertama, of them have been put in jail. The first "Aku masuk penjara karena pada tahun 1990 aku said, ‘I was jailed becaue in 1990 I menjelek - jelekkan Pak harto (Presiden waktu defamed Pak Harto (the then President).’ itu)" Napi kedua, The second criminal said, ‘I praised Pak "Kalau aku pada tahun 2004 memuji -muji pak Harto in 2004 and so I was put in jail.’ harto hingga akhirnya aku masuk penjara ini" "Kalau engkau?" Serunya pada napi ketiga,

267 Kipfer, B.A., and Chapman, R.L., eds. 2001, Roget’s International Thesaurus, Sixth Edition, HarperResource, New York. 268 Adji Subela, ‘80 Tahun Mang Udel: Humoris Kelas Wahid yang Dilupakan. http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/hiburan/budaya/2003/1004/bud2.html.

184 ‘What about you?’ the third criminal "Akulah Suharto," kata napi ke 3.269 was asked. ‘I am Suharto,’ the third criminal said.

This joke is one of many that have fallen out of the collapse of the New Order. The context is corruption and suppression of rights under Soeharto. The present story refers to the see-sawing criminal justice system that has even caught up with the former President himself.

Pejabat Diberi Hadiah Mobil An Official is Presented with the Gift of a Car

Seorang pejabat tinggi dari Indonesia A high official from Indonesia was given an mendapat undangan untuk berkunjung ke invitation to visit a luxury car assembly plant pabrik perakitan mobil mewah di Jerman. in German. After he arrived and seen all the Setelah sampai disana dan memperhatikan assembly processes, the factory owner said, semua cara kerja perakitan mobil tersebut sang pemilik pabrik berkata: ‘We would like to present you with the gift "Mobil jenis terbaru ini kami berikan sebagai of the latest model.’ hadiah kepada Bapak". Lalu sang pejabat berkata: The official said, ‘Oh, I can’t accept it. "Oh, saya tidak bisa menerimanya. Nanti saya People will think I have received a bribe.’ dikira menerima suap". "Kalau begitu saya jual seharga Rp.500000,-". ‘In that case I will sell you one for $100.’ Lalu sang pejabat berkata: 270 "Kalau begitu saya beli lima". The official then said, ‘If that’s the case then I’ll buy five.’

Seorang warga Indonesia meninggal dan menuju An Indonesian died and went to ke neraka. Di sana ia mendapatkan bahwa ada hell. There he found that there neraka yang berbeda-beda bagi tiap negara asal. were different hells for each country. Pertama ia ke neraka orang Jerman dan berseru: "Kalian ngapain saja di sini?" First he went to the German hell and asked, ‘What do you do Mereka menjawab: "Pertama-tama, kita here?’ didudukkan di atas kursi listrik selama satu jam. Lalu ada yang membaringkan kita di atas They answered, ‘First of all, we ranjang paku selama satu jam lagi. Lalu, setan are sat in an electric chair for an

269 Dikirim oleh Bayu, 2 March 2003. http://ketawa.com/tampil.php/id/955/Sebab_3_Napi_Dipenjara/ 270 Dikirim oleh Nusantara, 7 April 2004. http://ketawa.com/tampil.php/id /2708/Pejaba_Diberi_Hadiah_Mobil/ 271 Neraka Orang Indonesia. Dikirim oleh sandra [Kategori : Antar Bangsa] [ kali]

185 Jerman muncul dan memecut kita sepanjang sisa hour. Then someone lies us down hari." on a bed of nails for another hour. Then the German devil Karena kedengarannya tidak menyenangkan, appears and whips us for the rest sang orang Indonesia menuju tempat lain. Ia of the day.’ coba melihat-lihat bagaimana keadaan di neraka AS dan neraka Rusia, dan banyak lagi. Ia With such an unfavourable mendapatkan bahwa kesemua neraka-neraka itu impression, the Indonesian went kurang-lebih mirip dengan neraka orang Jerman. elsewhere. He tried to see what it would be like in the US hell and Akhirnya ia tiba di neraka orang Indonesia, dan Russian hell, and many others. melihat antrian panjang orang yang menunggu He found tdhat all the hells were giliran untuk masuk. more or less similar to the German hell. Dengan tercengang ia bertanya: "Apa yang dilakukan disini?" Finally he arrived at the Indonesian hell, and saw a long Ia memperoleh jawaban: "Pertama-tama, ada queue of people waiting to get in. yang mendudukkan kita di atas kursi listrik Amazed, he asked ‘What happens selama satu jam. Lalu ada yang membaringkan here?’ The answer was, ‘First of kita di atas ranjang paku selama satu jam lagi. all, someone sits us in the electric Lalu setan Indonesia muncul dan memecut kita chair for an hour. Then someone selama sisa hari." lies us on a bed of nails for another hour. Then the "Tapi itu persis sama dengan neraka-neraka yang Indonesian devil comes and lain.Kenapa dong begitu banyak orang ngantri whips us for the rest of the day.’ untuk masuk sini?" ‘But that’s exactly the same as "Di sini pemeliharaan begitu buruknya, kursi the other hells. So why are so listriknya nggak nyala, ada yang mencuri seluruh many people lining up to get in paku dari ranjang paku, dan setannya adalah here?’’ mantan pegawai negeri, jadi ia cuma datang, tandatangan absen, lalu pergi ke kantin."271 ‘Here the maintenance is so bad that the electric chair doesn’t work, people have stolen all the nails from the bed of nails, and the devil is a former state employee, so he just comes, signs off, and goes to the canteen.’

Kalian ngapain is Kamu sedang mengapa? in colloquial style. Ngapain is me + apa + kan.

Pelacur is ‘prostitute’ and not the self-conscious morally egalitarian ‘sex worker’ in vogue in Australia. In context the Indonesian bar girl, massage and hostess should ideally reflect the higher status of the hostess in the massage parlour-bar-night club environment.

186 Chapter Six continues examination of Indonesian examples and their translation. Following that, Chapter Seven analyses the significance of the examples in Chapter Five and Six, drawing conclusions in line with the purpose of this thesis as set out in earlier chapters.

187 Chapter Six

The Potential Impact of Translated Items

6.1 Religious and Political Issues

... Indonesia, yang melihat komunisme seperti melihat Iblis sakti...272 …Indonesia, which regards communism as a Satan with magical powers…

The word sakti means ‘supernatural, magical or divine power.’ The word derives from sakti (shakti) in Hinduism, representing the dynamic power of the Dewi or Divine Mother.273 and so the translation can be 'a Satan/Devil with magical powers.' In finding a term for sakti, the idea of ‘supernatural’ may tend in English towards the divine and various terms are to be found in Roget’s Thesaurus under the heading Deity, or under various headings generally classified as belonging to Abnormality, while magic can be found under Sorcery.274 Some lexical items, just like some objects, may be felt by some Indonesians to possess sakti, spiritual power, and this could relate to Javanese mysticism. Iblis, ‘Satan,’ is Arabic in origin,275 so the phrase Iblis sakti is a hybrid term. The identification of the Devil and Satan in material from Arabic is not difficult and the definition of the Devil corresponds to Western concepts quite well. ‘A Satan with divine powers’ is inappropriate because the Devil in theology does not have such powers, but the use of ‘supernatural’ is not well based because the Devil is supposed to be a supernatural being. Various terms under the heading of sorcery could be used, but this seems to conflict with the sakti concept. In English it is not easy to fix on a term that will convey the sense of sakti adequately, but this is not

272 'Merdeka atau Nanti', Opini, Tempo 8 February 1999, pp.15-16; p.15. 273 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakti. 274 Kipfer & Chapman, eds., ibid. 275 Hefner, A.G. ‘Iblis.’ Iblis is the name for the devil in the Qur'an, from the Arabic, balasa, ‘he despaired.’ http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/iblis.html.

188 surprising given the depth of historical and cultural background that this Hindu word represents.

The term dakwah is often found, partly in relation to areas that are partly Muslim and partly Christian. Dakwah in some ways resembles propaganda, but religious propaganda is not a good translation because of connotations of political theory. There are ways to convey its meaning more or less exactly, but these are clumsy, for example the spreading of Islamic teachings. And the term missionary can be used, but this term always seems to carry inappropriate Christian connotations. A solution is to change teacher to preacher, which goes fairly well in terms of naturalness as well as appropriateness to the religious context. So the phrase becomes 'the teaching of the preacher,’ in an Islamic context.

Kubu ‘Timur’ yang sosialis ternyata tak bisa bertahan.276 'The 'Eastern' socialist bloc clearly cannot hold on.'

Kubu 'fortress' is used for 'bloc'. This is an example of adaptation by Indonesian to the requirements of reporting on international developments, where it would be tiresome and possibly confusing to have to translate a term from its particular context on every occasion. In international fora such as the United Nations there are the requirements of consistency and speed in rendering large amounts of technical material into various languages. This thesis argues that this requirement is a significant factor in changing the Indonesian language. The vehicle and the model for that change is largely English, but the result is correspondence with other widely used languages also.

...gerakan pembebasan Timor Timur tak mati-mati.277 …The movement to free East Timor will not lie down and die

276 ibid. 'Merdeka atau Nanti', Opini, Tempo 8 February 1999, pp.15-16; p.15. 277 ibid.

189

Tak mati-mati gives the sense of ‘refuse to die’.

6.2 Rules of Rhetoric

The rules and customs of rhetoric should be regarded as applying to translation into English. Thus to translate an example, kedakwahan seorang dai, into English, to begin with we would have 'the teaching of a Muslim religious teacher', but there are immediately principles of rhetoric which come into the picture:

♦ if the context has already made an element of the meaning clear, that element need only be repeated if it is desired to give emphasis. In this case, where the whole context refers to Muslim activities, the elements ‘Muslim’ and ‘religious’ need not be made explicit. The context limits the application of terms to the defined field.

♦ it may not be elegant style for the same word or sememe to be repeated so that each instance is in close proximity to the other. Thus in this example teaching and teacher seem to jar together. A synonym for one or the other could be found.

The first question may be resolved into a question of deixis, which concerns determination of reference of certain elements in relation to personal, locational or temporal characteristics of the surrounding context. Deixis may be defined as ‘features of language that refer to personal, locational, or temporal characteristics of the situation in which an utterance occurs and whose meaning is therefore relative to the situation, such as this/that, here/there, now/then, I/you.’ Anaphora and cataphora may be regarded as

190 deictic.278 ‘With anaphora, one element in a sentence derives meaning or reference from another. Cataphora is the use of a word to refer forward to something mentioned later . 279 For the translator, this comes down to a practice of not allowing precision to become tedious to the reader when it can be achieved economically and concisely.

Given a preceding sentence Indonesia adalah negara budaya Timur, the following contains the anaphoric element Di sini:

Di sini manusia manusia harus hidup dengan prinsip selaras, serasi, dan seimbang. Here people must live by principles of harmony, compatibility and balance.

Di sini here is in a opposing position to other words of location such as di situ and di sana. It is only a step to anaphora, which can be illustrated in the following example:

Jakarta memang merupakan kota Jakarta is really a cosmopolitan city with metropolis. Di sana berbagai suku various ethnic groups living side by side bangsa dapat ditemukan. Mereka hidup despite the different languages they bertetangga meskipun sehari-hari speak day by day. memakai bahasa yang berlain-lainan.

Di sana refers to Jakarta, and mereka refers to berbagai suku bangsa.280 Having regard for the context, the intention of the word metropolis here is probably ‘cosmopolitan’ rather than ‘metropolitan.’ It goes without saying that Jakarta is a metropolitan city. Even without this judgement on the word metropolis, if one considers the potential resultant of the forces in an

278 Colman, A.M. 2001, A Dictionary of Psychology, Oxford University Press, 2001. 279 Matthew, P.H. 1997, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford University Press; Colman, A.M. 2001, A Dictionary of Psychology, Oxford University Press; Blackburn, S. 1996, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press. 280 Tata Bahasa Baku p.36.

191 Indonesian text with repetition and deixis in combination with the English requirements of deixis and the operation of number, gender and the indefinite and definite articles, then there is clearly wide scope for the knowledge and judgement of the translator. To draw in another force, that of idiom, then there is a need for the translator to ensure that the essential line of thought of the author of the source text comes through clearly in the target text.

The second question is related to the first. To achieve good style there can be no rule that a word cannot be repeated, but there should also be the flexible option of changing a word to avoid repetition. Of course the writer may wish to repeat a word or phrase, but repetition will frequently imply emphasis or attention to the precise choice of the word in question, and the original text may not in fact have implied this. Thus the translator needs to consider whether repetition is advisable. Elegant variation was used disapprovingly by Fowler in 1926 to describe avoidance of repetition where there was a change from the straightforward term to some more fanciful or formal synonym. Sometimes the variation can confuse. In journalism elegant variation often involves the substitution of a general description for a specific name. 281 Fowler considered that ‘even if the words meant exactly the same, it would be better to keep the first selected on duty than to change guard.’282 However there is no need to assume that elegance in writing must imply stylistic decoration. Ideally the reader will not remark on either needless repetition or puzzling substitution of terms. The translator has considerable freedom here, and sophisticated use of deixis will often remove the need for repetition. Where elegant variation is used, however , a close synonym or a word that is close to the original word in a taxonomical structure may be most appropriate.

281 Allen, R., ed. Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage.Oxford University Press, 1999; Garner, B.A. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style, Oxford University Press, 2000. 282 Garner ibid.

192 6.3 Affixes

The process of combining sememes to produce more complex expressions is well indicated in the following list of affixes and compounds such as that given in Tata Bahasa Baku.283 The following prefixes are worth particular attention because they seem to have definite prominence in contemporary Indonesian.

pasca- post purna- post, after, super

pra- pre swa- self

These prefixes may partly represent a growth in the capacity of Indonesian to represent international concepts. They may also represent a patterning after English forms. This makes translation simpler and easier to monitor. Such a practice does not invalidate previously existing methods of expressing intended meaning in other ways, but as one way of conveying a new form translation can readily produce text that makes effective use of English phrases and even result in change to Indonesian. Prefixes derived from Sanskrit are evidence of a philological resource that has been brought into play to equip Bahasa Indonesia with a capacity to express flexibly an externally presented challenge, that is the felt need to develop effective equivalents (padanan) for foreign terms.

283 Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. 1988, Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia, Perum Balai Pustaka, Jakarta, p.431.

193 A fuller list of new combinations is as follows.:284

Unsur Pembentuk Bentukan Padanan Combining Element Compund Form Equivalent alih alih aksara transliteration alih tulis transcript alih teknologi technology transfer bawah bawah normal subnormal bawah permukaan subsurface lepas lepas landas takeoff lepas pantai offshore adi- adikarya masterpiece adikuasa superpower antar- antardepartemen interdepartemental antarbangsa international awa- awaair dewater awalengas dehumidify lir- lirintan diamondlike lirruang spacelike pasca- pascapanen postharvest pra- prasejarah prehistory prasangka prejudice pramu- pramugari stewardess pramuniaga sales person pramuwisata tour guide purna- purnawaktu full-time swa- swasembada selfreliance swalayan selfservice -wan ilmuwan scientist -wati seniwati woman artist

Translation of difficult text can be carried out after exacting analysis of the content and import of a saying, but perhaps more efficiently it could happen as a trial and error process of intuitive creation of an equivalent—some kind of intuition appears likely because phrases are less likely than individual words to be in a dictionary, or even if they are in the dictionary the equivalent given may be unacceptable to the translator. Translation of Indonesian and English proverbs mostly precludes using a proverb in one language to equate to a proverb in the other, and there is risk of serious error in attempting to do

284 ibid.

194 this by the use of reference sources. Embedded proverbs and quotations may be unconsciously used and an original saying may be virtually lost.

There is great potential value in approaching a subject from different points of view. A study that accepts the existing body of research as a basis or standard can result in the continuation of wrong traditions or can suppress possibly useful new theories. For example at a certain point there had to emerge a sceptical attitude about whether the earth was flat or round or whether the sun revolved around the earth. Within Christianity it was inevitable that the traditions of Rome would be challenged, and again in Western society it was inevitable that Christianity itself would be distorted. The point for philosophy is that being restricted within Christian literature will tend to limit research options. Linguistics has made great advances over the last fifty years and more, but its broad scope need not imply that all research into language questions must fit in with existing schools of linguistic thought. Nor should it however imply that language research should needlessly depart from such accepted lines of thought. The real point is that research should keep open its creative options.

In translation theory the assumption appears to hold that perfection should be sought. However translation practice relates strongly to available time. This then relates inevitably to the effectiveness of the working systems that enable rapid access to information. The time used for translation analysis—given the necessary data—is not so flexible. The process takes time. But the operation may be able to be streamlined.

In addition there is the question of colouring, that is where the actual equivalent can be found but attached to it are elements that qualify the meaning but may be difficult to define, even for native speakers. Parents explaining concepts to their children can be found to explain terms in a way

195 that not even a Thesaurus would attempt: You know…, well it’s like that except a little bit…’

There is after all no particular reason that a term in one language should have a constant, precise equivalent in another language: genit, geli are examples where it is difficult to equate a term to one constant English equivalent. The connotations of word pairs like halus versus kasar, mancung versus pesek (of noses), and many others need to be kept in mind, because when one word of the pair is used, the translator needs to have in mind that there is the other word in the pair latently able to influence the choice of one sense over another.

The concept of layers or levels of meaning may be seen in pairs such as the following: anak laki- putera son dia beliau he/she laki anak puteri daughter si sang personalised perempuan particle laki-laki pria male mas mbak, term of mbakyu address to young male/female perempuan wanita female pak bapak term of address to older male jantan betina male/female bu ibu term of address to older female kamu anda 2nd person aku saya 1st person pronoun pronoun

There are also words fulfilling the polite function which may be considered euphemisms. Examples selected more or less at random are:

plain word polite term meaning susu payudara ‘breast’ pelacur wanita tuna susila ‘prostitute’ babu pembantu ‘servant’

196

Alteration in usage may often be unconscious, or it may ostensibly be thought of as different for other reasons, but this does not mean that there is no layering effect. This effect can be commonly observed in English in the following kinds of oppositions: outside—external, main—principal and so on.

Sudah susah2 diurus para pengunjungnya It has been painstakingly adjusted by the cuman ngomel aja kata bahasanya kurang visitors and the only complaint was that bagus dsb. dsb. grrr. Kalau gak suka the language is not so nice etc etc. grrr. khan bisa rubah sendiri.285 If people don’t like it then they can change it themselves.

Grrr here seems to signify annoyance or perhaps mock anger.

ada 3 kelas dlm bhs jawa. kromo inggil there are three classes in Javanese, dipake antara bawahan dan atasan. kromo inggil, used between the linferior biasanya dalam suasana keraton. kromo and the superior, usually in the kraton manengah itu dipake antara org yg lebih environment. kromo manengah is used rendah kedudukannya kepada org yg between people of lower status to those lebih tinggi. eg, anak ama ortu. kromo of higher rank. kromo ngoko is used ngoko dipake antara org2 yg derajatnya among people of the same rank. this is a sama. terjemahan bebas nih.:):):)286 free translation.

The concept of equivalents is challenged by some terms which are not readily translatable. Senyum simpul is an example.

Tuteh: paak!! Sorong!! Cepat sorong ke Tuteh: Driver! Quick, move to the side! pinggir!! Si bapak kaget aujubille liyat tampang The driver got a shock to see the panic in Teh yang panik gitu. Mana lagi tangan Tuteh’s face, and then Tuteh’s hands Teh ikut menyuruhnya menepi. Hilda motioning him to pull over. Hilda could hanya bisa senyum simpul di tempat. only sit there with an embarrassed smile. Setelah diklakson, baru si tukang becak After being blasted with the horn, the 'ngeh' dengan maksut kata 'sorong' tadi. becak288 driver said ‘OK,’ meaning that

285 [[Pengguna:Meursault2004|Meursault2004]] 17:57, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC) http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bicara_Pengguna:Kandar&action=edit&se ction=4. 286 L1vinGd3aD. 28-06-2004, 10:16 AM. http://www.kaskus.com/archive/index.php/t-82782.html

197 Hilda ga tahan senyum trus ngakak.287 he would move over. Hilda could not help smiling and then burst out laughing.

‘With an embarrassed smile’ often catches the meaning of senyum simpul. The fact remains though that some expressions are not even easy to define within the source language. When translation is required the context can become very important.

Apabila aku melarikan pandangan ke When I turned my gaze towards Nurul arah Nurul yang duduk di sebelah, dia who sitting alongside, she was smiling sedang tersenyum simpul dengan contentedly, as if satisfied with the bahagianya, seolah-olah puas hati dengan assessment she had done before the class. assessment yang dibuatnya sebelum ke kelas tadi.289

Kebetulan pula kumpulan kami As it happened our group was the last adalah kumpulan terakhir yang one to do a presentation that day, so it membuat presentation pada hari itu, wasn’t necessary for me to maintain a jadi tidaklah perlu aku melayan smile for Nurul too long. senyum simpul Nurul terlalu lama. 290

Senyum Simpul di Ujung Jalan A Halting Smile at the End of the Road senyum simpul di ujung jalan a halting smile at the end of the road begitu manisnya so sweet buih dalam ombaknya the foam in the wave menggetarkan hatiku moved my heart untuk ikut padanya to follow senyum simpul di ujung jalan adalah kencana lapis setan the halting smile at the end of the road aku belum menyadarinya was gold plated trouble ketika aku terbuai dalam gemuruh alunan rocking in the thunder of the waves I wasn’t aware of it senyum simpul di ujung jalan ternyata bajingan the halting smile at the end of the road

287 aujubille is audubiullahi or audzubillahi, ‘I take refuge in God,’ uttered when one is shocked by immoral or irreligious behaviour (Echols & Shadily 1994). http://tuteh.blogspot.com/2004_10_01_tuteh_archive.html. 288 A becak is a three wheeled passenger vehicle driven by the muscle power of the driver, who sits behnd. 289 http://nurtaqwa.blogdrive.com/ 290 http://nurtaqwa.blogdrive.com/ 291 ‘Senyum Simpul di Ujung Jalan.’ Mojokerto, May 2001. http://www.suarakarya- online.com/news.html?id=29901.

198 pada segala teman is a trickster to anyone close

mojokerto, May 2001 mojokerto, mei 2001291

Here the senyum simpul is intended to have a definite charm, albeit the smile of a trickster. 'Halting smile' stresses charm. The two lines rocking in the thunder of the waves/ I wasn’t aware of it have been reversed to simplify the translation by omitting the words when I was. Pada segala teman has been translated to anyone close because there is no clear indication of whether the person smiling is male or female. Kencana lapis setan is something like ‘devilish plated gold,’ but gold plated evil may be too strong here, and so gold plated trouble may be adequate. The references to waves are unclear.

Pesta pertunangan Titi dan Bucek digelar Titi and Bucek’s engagement party was dengan sangat meriah pada akhir tahun celebrated with great style at the end of 1994. Sebuah pesta nyentrik 1994. A crazy party, held behind Bucek’s dilangsungkan di areal belakang rumah house with its swimming pool. The gates Bucek yang berkolam renang. Pintu of the house were decorated with gerbang rumah ditandai dengan ornamental metromini. The couple were metromini yang dihias. Dandanan dressed in funky style and invited the keduanya funky dan mengundang embarrassed smiles of many guests, most senyum simpul banyak undangan yang of whom were celebrities. ‘It felt sebagian besar adalah selebriti. "Rasanya splendid,’ recalls Titi. indah sekali saat itu," kenang Titi.292

This illustrates a case of senyum simpul, though a definition is still elusive. The characaterise the Metromini in the interests of understanding the atmosphere in the text above, thse Metromini is a means of public transport in Jakarta; a minibus with 25 passanger seats and an indefinite number of places for standing passengers. Metromini may be driven dangerously and may be overloaded.293

292 http://www.femina-online.com/serial/titidj/srltiti3.html.Face Of Jakarta: Metromini : Low Cost Adrenaline Pumper. http://firman.modblog.org/ 293 ‘Face Of Jakarta: Metromini : Low Cost Adrenaline Pumper.’ http://firman.modblog.org/.

199

‘Kamu semakin cantik.’ Senyum simpul ‘You’re all the more pretty.’ A mengiringi ucapan itu, Nyoman melepas disarming smile accompanied the kacamatanya.294 remark. Nyoman took off his glasses.

kalo cewe-nya natap beneran yah .. if the girl looks at you for real… usually biasanya kyoko kasih tundukan kyoko gives a slight bow.. then gives a kecil..terus kasi senyum simpul.295 knowing smile.

The existence of definable semantic categories in each language adds potential insight to the translator’s work in establishing meaning in the source language, but the process of translation into the target language can readily demonstrate a discrepancy between categories. Despite the existence of philological layers in Indonesian and English, Indonesian/ Sanskrit/ Arabic categories do not necessarily correspond to Greek/ Latin/ French/ Anglo- Saxon categories.

For the word genit, Echols & Shadily (1994) givethe definition ‘flirtatious, vain,’ adding that kegenitan is ’coquettishness.’ Kamus Besar gives the definition suka bergaya-gaya(tingkah lakunya); banyak tingkahnya; keletah, which might be translated ‘given to put on airs (manner), capricious, affected.’

Now ‘flirtatious’ and ‘coquettish’ might be functionally similar, but’vain’— an allied meaning, but in English some distance from coquettishness—is in rather in a different category. It is important that genit is not tied to the idea of flirtatious, coquettish,’ although it may include this. The Kamus Besar definition is much better. In any case it is desirable to have examples of usage.

294 http://sulutlink.com/ranomawuri2004/cerpen1.htm 295 Billy C.W Kalalo, Bukan Salah Bali atau Manado, kyoko now, 24-02-2003. http://www.kaskus.com/archive/index.php/t-2697.html.

200 It is worth noting that the Echols & Shadily definition cannot cope with the following example.

Bagian lalu kolom ini memaparkan, genit The last part of this column explained Inggris-Inggrisan dalam berbahasa that English affectation in Indonesian is Indonesia sudah amat parah. already very serious. Kelas algojo dasamuka adalah kosakata Clearly the ten-faced executioner is Inggris yang digelundungkan begitu saja English vocabulary that is just rolled into ke dalam kalimat bahasa Indonesia… Indonesian sentences… This kind of Genit macam inilah sejatinya yang thing is really what makes Indonesian membuat bahasa Indonesia kian lama more difficult, more killed, more kian amburadul, kian terbunuh, kian chopped up! terbantai-bantai!296

Lucu is a common word, but it can be a little difficult to sort out what appear to to be two distinct meanings. Echols & Shadily (1994) define lucu as 1 funny, amusing 2 cute. However the Kamus Besar definition concentrates on the feeling of the observer: jenaka; menggelikan hati; menimbulkan tertawa, which might go into English as ‘funny, humorous; to tickle the fancy; to cause laughter.’ Kamus Besar examples are cerita ini lucu sekali ‘this story is very amusing;’ tukang lawaknya tidak lucu ‘the clown wasn’t funny.’

The definition of genit and lucu points to the peril of using an Indonesian- English dictionary without being aware of the depth of Indonesian terms. This relates to understanding of the source language and also input to preparation for the translation into the target language. Reference works may of course be used for the translation process, but the argument here is that translation without depth of understanding of the source text, however well written the target text may be, is likely to be misleading.

296 L. Murbandono HS, Genit Inggris-Inggrisan (4), 15 Juli 2005, Radio Nederland http://www2.rnw.nl/rnw/id/tema/pengetahuan/kolom_mung050714?view=Standard.

201 6.4 Translation of Formal Phrases

Translation of standard formal phrases can be a significant step in the formation of new phraseology. Reference to privacy policy is often required for software usage A standard condition relating to privacy policy in a website on Central Equity Limited regarding property investment in Australia read as follows: Semua informasi yang anda berikan All information you give is guaranteed dijamin kerahasiaannya dan tidak akan private and will not be sold or given to dijual atau diberikan ke pihak lain. another party. Completing this form Dengan mengisi formulir ini berarti anda means that you agree with our privacy setuju dengan kebijaksanaan menjaga policy. kerahasiaan yang kami miliki.297

But the phrase kebijaksanaan menjaga kerahasiaan is not neat like the English privacy policy, and. is not intuitive for a phrase that is likely to recur. Moreover kerahasiaan tends to mean ‘secrecy’ rather than ‘privacy.’ The phrasing here is for Indonesians to solve. It can be argued that a proliferation of ke-an noun forms is not characteristic of Bahasa Indonesia historically, and the slight clumsiness of the form may be one reason for the use of abbreviations in Indonesian. If Indonesian does continue a trend towards nominal compounds, translation from English may well have been a significant factor.

Rules for correctness generally do not have official status. Such rules may be logical or they may be highly questionable; they may reflect the weight of usage or they may simply reflect the opinions of the author. The rule of not splitting the infinitive is a case of a grammatical oddity which is still entrenched in thoughtful writing. But in general it seems that there is a body of educated usage which prevails in a society.

297 Privacy Policy http://www.centralequity.com/indo/sura/index.asp?id=41a.

202 However these rules are generally known by educated speakers of a language, and a translator should have an excellent command of the rules for writing into the native language.

Profiles of English and Indonesian may not permit a chart of corresponding periods of vocabulary change, but can allow some understanding of colouring due to chronology. English has been heavily influenced over the last two thousand years by Latin and French. This leads to a characterisation of English as comprising the language of the belly, which is Anglo-Saxon; the language of the heart, which is French; and the languages of the brain, which are Latin and Greek. Key strands in Indonesian philology are the Malay lingua franca, the infusion of Sanskrit, the infusion of Arabic, Javanese, the advent of Dutch, and finally the impact of English. Bahasa Indonesia has been a field of considerable change in both the number of acquired vocabulary items and the impact of the donor languages in key areas of thinking and of social life. The impact of Arabic as a vehicle for the religion of Islam for example has been strong, just as the impact on Javanese society of Sanskrit has been very thoroughgoing. Indonesian is unlike Javanese in that it does not have formal differentiated levels of discourse, but it does employ social differentiation.

203 A sentence like ‘The institution was a vehicle for change,’ for example, requires a translation of the English word vehicle. Webster’s Online Dictionary gives the following equivalents for vehicle:

wahana (mode), tunggangan (carriage, mount, riding animal), kendaraan298

Tunggangan and kendaraan appear unsuitable, so the word wahana needs to be assessed. Kamus Besar, apart from kendaraan and alat pengangkut, gives the meaning alat untuk mencapai suatu tujuan, with the example koperasi diharapkan menjadi wahana untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat. Vehicle—wahana is thus readily established as equivalent in practical terms.

TFor katanya one might write in English

he/she/they said says he/she/they he/she/they say he/she reckons said he/she/they quoth he/she.

The use of reckon is colloquial; the use of quoth would demand very high awareness of style coupled with the reasonable expectation that the audience would grasp the historical cum jocular use of the word. Otherwise the result would be simply ridiculous. Even with the translation says he, there may be the impression that the one spoken of is being lampooned in some way.

6.5 Poetry

The following poem by Sutardji shows the simplicity and charm that can characterise Indonesian poetry. It is noteworthy that the only word with an affix—that is, not counting –mu and –ku as affixes—is bawakan.

298 http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/vehicle

204 TAPITAPI But But 1976 1976

aku bawakan bunga padamu I brought flowers to you tapi kau bilang masih but you said still aku bawakan resahku padamu I brought my sighs to you tapi kau bilang hanya but you said only aku bawakan darahku padamu I brought my blood to you tapi kau bilang cuma but you said just aku bawakan mimpiku padamu I brought my dream to you tapi kau bilang meski but you said although aku bawakan dukaku padamu I brought my sorrow to you tapi kau bilang tapi but you said but aku bawakan mayatku padamu I brought my corpse to you tapi kau bilang hampir but you said nearly aku bawakan arwahku padamu I brought my departed soul to you tapi kau bilang kalau but you said if tanpa apa aku datang padamu with nothing I come to you wah! wah!

Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, O Amuk Kapak, 1981299

In this poem a precise translation of each of the girl’s responses may not be entirely achievable, but in the above translation the overall effect is probably near enough. The simplicity of the poem goes alongside a definite force because of repetition with a variation in the key response word—still, only, just and so on. The final wah! is retained because it contains a good deal of ambiguity that might not be represented by an English word, and the word Oh! would sound rather weak in this context—at the end it is not clear to this author whether the wah! signifies final acceptance, and in any case the writer’s resources seem to be depleted to extinction by that stage. To go much further could be to interpret the poem rather than translate it.

The reader may however note that it would be very difficult to think of ways that would more closely represent the meaning than to translate literally. The principles of accuracy and simplicity are readily followed. Most of the force of the poem depends on the key words masih ‘still,’ hanya/cuma,’ only, just,’ meski ‘though,’ tapi ‘but,’ hampir ‘nearly,’ and kalau ‘if,’ , and out of these it

299 http://www.geocities.com/Paris/7229/tardji.htm.

205 is the closeness of meaning between hanya and cuma that causes the most difficulty, with ‘just’ being possible inadequate but in any case fitting into the general framework of the poem. Wah! can stay as it is, or it can become Oh! – the intention of the poem is not clear enough for the translator to be adventurous with the final word. Arwah is ‘departed soul’ rather than just ‘soul.’ Sutarji also wrote the following poem:

WALAUWALAU THOUGH ALTHOUGH

walau penyair besar even a great poet takkan sampai sebatas allah will not reach to the limits of god

dulu pernah kuminta tuhan I once asked of god dalam diri in myself sekarang tak not now

kalau mati if I die mungkin matiku bagai batu my death will no doubt be like stone tamat finishing bagai pasir tamat like sand finishing jiwa membumbung dalam baris the soul soaring in the lines of a poem sajak

tujuh puncak membilang bilang seven peaks counting over and over nyeri hari mengucap ucap sore the day pronouncing again and again di butir pasir kutulis rindu rindu on the grains of sand I write longing longing

walau huruf habislah sudah although the letters have run out alifbataku belum sebatas allah my alphabet is not within the limits of god

Allah…Tuhan seems to parallel English usage: God… the Lord. The simple Indonesian phonological structure and the capacity of Indonesian to operate with minimal morphological forms mean that it is not easy to convey the same quietly insistent rhythm of this poem.. Mungkin is more probably than maybe, though the distinction is not always clear; no doubt . The poem contains particular examples of simplification, that is reduction of words to the shortest possible forms: sekarang tak is one, in a position where tak would normally be represented by tidak.

206 The word membumbung means ‘billow (of smoke)’ or ‘soar upwards.’ At this point it is useful to elucidate the meaning of the word membumbung, which is cross referenced to membubung in Echols & Shadily (1994). The process of clarifying the meaning of membumbung through the Internet is also an instructive example of the way that medium has become part of the working method of the translator. An eruption of Mount Dempo was recorded in 1881: tampak tiang asap membumbung dari kawah ‘a column of smoke was visible coming from the crater.’ 300 Aktivitas [di Tangkuban Perahu, Bandung] dimulai dengan keluarnya asap putih yang membumbung tinggi dengan ketebalan sekitar 3 meter. ‘Activity [at Tangkuban Perahu, Bandung] began with the issue of white smoke billowing up high with a thickness of around 3 metres.’301 …balon yang diisi gas helium bisa membumbung tinggi karena gas helium merupakan gas yang ringan ‘… a balloon filled with helium can soar high because helium is a light gas.’302 The application to spiritual matters may be seen in the phrase ruhani manusia membumbung naik ‘the spirit of human beings soars on high.’ 303 The extensive range of examples for membumbung, and the difference in usage from membubung, indicates that it is not a satisfactory method to handle such a word simply to refer to a similar word. This reinforces the use of the Internet to clarify meaning.

This author’s translation of WalauWalau may not be a failure, but it may not entirely be a success either. It does not due justice to the style, economy and direct impact of the original. Yet even in translation it is striking. Perhaps it is worth considering that when a translator has the opportunity to choose what to translate, then that text had best be one that demands the best of the translator’s art. Whatever value Though Although has as a translation, it is because of the art in the Indonesian composition.

300 http://www.vsi.esdm.go. id/gunungapiIndonesia/dempo/sejarah.html. 301 http://www.endonesia.com/mod.php? mod=publisher &op= viewarticleartid=711. 302 http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/2005/0205/24/cakrawala/ utama02.htm. 303 http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/maknadoa.htm.

207 The situation is different with the following poem by Rendra, translated by the author of this thesis. Although assessment of the literary value of the original falls outside the scope of the thesis, it can be said that the English version is prosaic, cliché and very unremarkable as a poem.

SAJAK SEORANG TUA UNTUK POEM BY AN OLD MAN FOR HIS ISTERINYA304 WIFE

Aku tulis sajak ini I write this poem untuk menghibur hatimu to comfort you Sementara kau kenangkan encokmu While you think about your rheumatism kenangkanlah pula masa remaja kita think back too to our brilliant youth yang gemilang Dan juga masa depan kita And also to our future yang hampir rampung which is almost wound up dan dengan lega akan kita lunaskan. and which we will complete with relief

Kita tidaklah sendiri We are not ourselves, dan terasing dengan nasib kita isolated from our fate Kerna soalnya adalah hukum sejarah Because the problem is the historical law kehidupan. of life. Suka duka kita bukanlah istimewa Our joys and sorrows are not special kerna setiap orang mengalaminya. because everyone experiences them.

Hidup tidaklah untuk mengeluh dan Living is not to to sigh and groan mengaduh Living is to handle life Hidup adalah untuk mengolah hidup to work and turn over the soil bekerja membalik tanah to enter the secrets of the sky and ocean, memasuki rahasia langit dan samodra, and create and carve the world. serta mencipta dan mengukir dunia. We shoulder the task, Kita menyandang tugas, because a task is a task. kerna tugas adalah tugas. It is not for heaven or hell Bukannya demi sorga atau neraka. But for the honour of a human being. Tetapi demi kehormatan seorang manusia.

Kerna sesungguhnyalah kita bukan debu Because truly we are not dust meski kita telah reyot, tua renta dan although we are already decrepit, feeble kelabu. and grey. Kita adalah kepribadian We are personalities dan harga kita adalah kehormatan kita. and our price is our honour. Look behind again Tolehlah lagi ke belakang to the past which no one has the power to ke masa silam yang tak seorangpun erase. kuasa menghapusnya.

304 http://www.geocities.com/Paris/7229/rendra.htm

208

Lihatlah betapa tahun-tahun kita penuh See how our years are full of colour. warna. Sembilan puluh tahun yang dibelai napas Ninety years stroked by our breath. kita. Sembilan puluh tahun yang selalu Ninety years that always arise bangkit passing the old scattered years. melewatkan tahun-tahun lama yang porak poranda. And remember too Dan kenangkanlah pula how we used always to smile bagaimana kita dahulu tersenyum facing the sky and earth, and also our senantiasa fate. menghadapi langit dan bumi, dan juga nasib kita.

Kita tersenyum bukanlah kerna We smiled not because we were acting. bersandiwara. Bukan kerna senyuman adalah suatu Not because the smile was a mask. kedok. But because the smile was an attitude. Tetapi kerna senyuman adalah suatu Our attitude towards God, fellow sikap. humanity, fate, and life. Sikap kita untuk Tuhan, manusia sesama, nasib, dan kehidupan.

Lihatlah! Sembilan puluh tahun penuh See! Ninety years full of colour warna Kenangkanlah bahwa kita telah selalu Remember that we have always resisted menolak menjadi koma. going into coma. Kita menjadi goyah dan bongkok We have become shaky and stooped kerna usia nampaknya lebih kuat dari because age seems stronger than we are kita but not because we have been defeated. tetapi bukan kerna kita telah terkalahkan.

Aku tulis sajak ini I am writing this poem untuk menghibur hatimu to comfort you Sementara kaukenangkan encokmu While you think of your rheumatism kenangkanlah pula recall also bahwa kita ditantang seratus dewa. that we have been challenged by a thousand gods

WS. Rendra, Sajak-sajak sepatu W.S. Rendra, Poems of an old shoe, tua,1972 1972.

...BAHWA KITA DITANTANG …THAT WE HAVE BEEN SERATUS DEWA. CHALLENGED BY A THOUSAND GODS

This could easily be thought of as prose. In terms of content, the text does have some strongly poetic features, for example

209

And also to our future/which is almost wound up/and which we will complete with relief, and

we have been challenged by a thousand gods.

However there are many prosaic lines, such as

Our joys and sorrows are not special/ because everyone experiences them, or

We shoulder the task,/because a task is a task.

There could be a temptation for the translator to make these very ordindary lines more palatable poetically. For example one could write,

Our joys are common currency, and our sorrows and

We shoulder the burden of the shoulder.

But that would no longer be mere translation. Translation is not obliged to overcome a basic lack of poetry in the original text; furthermore to dress translation for a more appealing style in the target language relates not only to effective presentation but essentiality rewriting material to make up for inadequate composition to begin with. Depending on the circumstances of the source material and the target audience, the issue of whether to rewrite translated poetry in this way could well raise ethical questions.

210

Sutarji wrote in 1973,305

Menulis puisi bagi saya adalah To write poetry for me is to give words membebaskan kata-kata, yang berarti their freedom, meaning to return words mengembalikan kata pada awal mulanya. to where they came from. In the Pada mulanya adalah Kata. beginning was the Word. Dan kata pertama adalah mantera. Maka And the first word was the mantra. So menulis puisi bagi saya adalah writing poetry for me is to return words mengembalikan kata kepada mantera. to the mantra.

The aim with following selections from the Titiknol site306 is to show the extent to which the lack of an excellent capacity in English interferes with the expression of a poetic impulse and skill. First of all it is worth showing the poetic standard that applies with this website. Rayu Sajak Nos. 2-4 and Perkabungan are not translated into English in the website: the translation in the right hand column is to illustrate the poetic quality of the texts.

RAYU SAJAK NO. 2307 POETRY OF FEELING NO.2 cinta, love, malamku basah oleh embun rindu my night is wet with the dew of longing ingin kugulung waktu I want to roll up time agar pupus jarak to eliminate the distance menujumu to you

RAYU SAJAK NO. 3 POETRY OF FEELING NO.3 hadirmu melingkup segenap ruang your presence fills all of my space and waktuku time arusmu mengalir di riam darahku your current flows through the rush of padanya kularung jantungku my blood menuju muara: in it I set my heart afloat toward the isthmus: mu!308 you!

305 Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, Bandung 30 March 1973. Kredo Puisi. http://www.geocities.com/Paris/7229/sutardji.htm 306 Titiknol (.0) is at http://www.titiknol.com/. 307 http://www.titiknol.com/puisi.php?catid=3&blogid=2.

211

RAYU SAJAK NO. 4 POETRY OF FEELING NO.4 mawar putih masihkah jadi semiotika kita can a white rose still be our semiotic saat musim begini mudah berubah cuaca sign when the season is like this weather sebuah pelukan menjadi mimpi changes easily merana tak kunjung menjadi an embrace becomes a dream a roaming that is never fulfilled

PERKABUNGAN MOURNING kepada Ninus to Ninus selamat datang di negeri malam welcome to the country of night negeri tempat semayam hati the country where the heart dwells dari silau ilusi from the glare of illusion di negeri malam in the country of night tak ada bayang there is no shadow hanya jalan only a way ke dalam to within diri the self negeri malam negeri yang hilang the country of night is a lost country tempat semua yang pergi berpulang where all that go pass away kekasih, sahabat, segala tersayang beloveds, friends, all loved ones tempat semua a place where everything yang tak terdengar didendang that is not heard is sung *with a very huge HUG *with a very huge HUG

With a poem that disp-lays this level of artistry, it is unfortunate to see the appended note, *with a very huge HUG. Apart from the unsuitability of the phrase with a very big hug in this context, the writer apparently does not realise that a word such as huge will not be further qualified by very. This is a case where the translator will hope that material is not presented in English

308 Mu means ‘your,’ so that the sense is muaramu ‘your isthmus,’ but a possessive form for you is inappropriate in English, so in the English translation the isthmus actually becomes ‘you.’

212 designed essentially to impress others. The theme of mourning is brought out well by the assonance and half-rhyme in the poem. The language is simple and direct, with minimal affixing. The poem is logical enough in English translation, but the form of the Indonesian text conveys a much stronger poetic message than the English.

The above poems are impressive in their depth of feeling and their confident style. They use metaphor well, without mixing metaphors, and their use of simple Malay forms has a definite appeal.

When it comes to the English language contributions to the titiknol site, there seems to be some literary value. The following however does show how potentially good writing can be marred by glaring examples of inadequate knowledge of English. The material is not necessarily translation, it is true, but if it is English material written by Indonesians who have either an Indonesian text or a virtual Indonesian text on which they are basing their English composition, then it is reasonable to assume that translation problems are involved.

In the following examples the notes at the right indicate areas of difficulty with Englihs. It may be objected that mistakes such as those identified here are mistakes by amateurs rather than translators or especially professional translators. However making mistakes with English is a widespread problem generally as well as with amateur poets.

DYING DOG a dog crawling desperately In mud of doubts should be changed, sinking in mud of doubts perhaps to the mud of doubt. Piercing a venom-dipped arrow could better be pierced. Awaiting for piercing its bleeding chest saviour should be changed, to awaiting its saviour or a saviour. a wounded dog The last two lines appear to refer to the awaiting for saviour dog being shot, but the grammar and with a sharp bullet meaning are not readily correctible.

213 belongs to its head

QUIETUDE NO. 2 Passed out is incorrectly used: this could sun passed out be overshadowed, or perhaps poetically by the desperate cloud shadowed. The … cloud would refer to rainman awaits one cloud, and thus the had best be the self to unveil deleted. The meaning of lines 3 and 4 is simply not clear. This piece would have to be rated as a failure in terms of English expression.

NO POETRY INSIDE MY CHEST Searching poetry should be searching for searching poetry along childhood's creek poetry; consideration could be given to chest was scratched by pastlife pride the more international English term shore painted the ocean on its walls stream rather than creek. Chest should be poet was amazed by his own glow my chest, but the meaning of line 2 is not quite clear. Shore should be the shore. i remained smiling, poet blushed Poet in line 4 has to be the poet. my chest, cropped by misfortune I should be in upper case. The meaning poet stole the wallpainting of lines 5 and 6 is obscure. Vomitted then captured it inside his poem should be vomited. In the second last line hence is used incorrectly; it could be in my mind poet wandered then. Mother’s hold should presumably strolling along rivers and valleys be mother’s arms. The last line cannot i was cast ashore stand as it is: it could perhaps be poet vomitted, drunk of nira rephrased as leaving the poet in angry dismay for example. hence i went home to mother's hold It is hard not to feel that this poem does poet angered in doubt have potential because of its use of imagery. But that potential would best 2003 be realised by a translator working from an Indonesian version, where at least the meaning will be clear, into good English.

QUIETUDE NO. 3 flowers asleep This is a charming snippet of poetry with coffee aclouds one grammatical fault, the word illusions adrift *aclouds. No matter how creative a in a heartless river writer may be, this is not an allowable English form. Even *aclouded might perhaps be considered, but the prefix a- cannot be used indiscriminately. Coffee clouded would be a good substitution, but if the writer insists on the a- participle construction, there is no particular need to retain the reference to coffee; another image could be used, although the writer could be thinking of thick Indonesian coffee with its grounds.

214

SMALL CREEK IN THE ARID SEASON This so called poem is probably not this small creek flows the dry leaves worth saving. The English is essentially away intelligible, but there is no poetic spirit in season is so dry this time, the arid land evidence. Waterful is an obvious mistake. is dying from thirst The concept of a spring of tears watering the parched land is sad cliché. whilst the small creek remains waterful perhaps from the spring of tears

--what spring else survives this drought weather? dry leaves shattered themselves in the tear-salted water of the small creek flowing amidst the arid land on which love isn't likely to grow and live

RIVERMAN'S MEMO l The imagery here is appealing. However ove adrifts along the current of illusions Memo is inappropriate; it could be and dreams. hugs fall into open arms but Reverie or Mind perhaps Adrifts should mine. kisses bloom onto trembled lips be drifts. Hugs should be embraces in a but mine. when the current splits, where more literary stile. Then the wording shall your heart lead? could be an embrace of open arms is not mine, kisses bloom on trembling lips but not mine. When the current diverges, where will your heart lead? The word heart is used so often in sentimental contexts that it had best be used sparingly in serious texts. However in this context heart does not seem to pose a problem. This short piece has demanded a fair number of corrections, and this demonstrates one of the difficulties in translating into the foreign language: a good deal of editing may be required.

215 6.6 Translation of English Fiction

The popular J.K. Rowling book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone,309 has been translated by Listiana Srisanti an published by PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. This thesis has not intended to carry out a thorough assessment of the translation, but an initial finding is that the meaning of the original seems consistently well conveyed in the Indonesian. In style, the text of Harry Potter dan Batu Bertuah reads well, with few exceptions. The quoting of Bonfire Night310 is an exception—this could at least have been explained in Indonesian, and there is the possible impression that the translator was unable to locate an explanation of the term.

The accuracy of the translation implies excellent knowledge of English or collaboration with an English native speaker. The skill implicit in this translation of this work no doubt reflects its commercial significance—and the amount of money spent on the translation. The work is not highly complex and yet not entirely simple. It is thus fair to say to say that it indicates the dynamism and capacity of the Indonesian language to convey English effectively, something that would have been difficult to do in 1945 for example.

…they also had a secret, and their …mereka juga punya rahasia, dan greatest fear was that somebody would ketakutan terbesar mereka adalah, kalau discover it.311 ada orang yang mengetahui rahasia ini.312

The Indonesian is wordy because it unnecessarily follows the English structure. In English their greatest fear was (which could be also written as what they were most afraid of was) is difficult to reduce further to, say, They

309 Rowling, J.K. 2000, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, Bloomsbury, London; first published in 1997. The translation by Listiana Srisanti was published by PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 2000, as Harry Potter dan Batu Bertuah (referring to an original title of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone). 310 Original p.11, translation p.13. 311ibid. p.7. 312 ibid.

216 most feared, probably just because of common usage. This does not apply in Indonesian, where it would be more natural to speak of paling takut rather than ketakutan terbesar mereka adalah, which is awkward. Further, the construction kalau ada orang yang mengetahui rahasia ini in trying to imitate the English syntax appears to violate the natural object focus of Indonesian. The following alternative is suggested here:

…mereka juga punya rahasia yang mereka paling takut kalau diketahui orang.

Having a tantrum 313 is rendered as mengadat. 314 This is an example of appropriate translation. It is worth noting that translation may be more precise when a particular phenomenon is identified—here a common fact of child behaviour—rather than an abstract term for which an equivalent may be found but there can be doubt as to whether that equivalent is entirely appropriate.

He supposed this was some stupid new Dia kira jubah bloon ini sedang mode.316 fashion.315

Here the English this [robe] was some stupid new fashion becomes sedang mode ‘was in fashion.’ The Indonesian does not retain new, and this seems optional because mode implies ‘new.’ The stupid migrates from fashion to the robe itself, making little difference to what is being said. The translation of stupid as bloon, a non-standard colloquial term, no doubt has a calculated appeal to the reading audience. This is an example of how translation by a native speaker is able to act confidently and creatively within the target cultural sphere. Against this however it does need to be said that stupid is not particularly a colloquial slang term, and the Indonesian bodoh or tolol could have done about as well.

313 ibid. p.8 314 ibid. 315 ibid. p.9. 316 ibid.

217 Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone and its translation Harry Potter dan Batu Bertuah point up the distinction in styles of colloquial speech is an indication of sophistication in translation:

Colloquial speech (Jakarta style):

‘Their son—he’d be about Dudley’s age ‘Anak mereka—seumuran Dudley, now, wouldn’t he?” kan?’ ‘I suppose so,’ said Mrs Dursley stiffly. ‘Kayaknya sih,’ katanya Mrs Dursley ‘What’s his name again? Howard, isn’t kaku. it?’317 ‘Siapa ya, namanya? Howard, kan?’318

Speech as usually represented in Indonesian literature:

‘You!’ gasped Harry… ‘Anda!’ Harry kaget. ‘Me,’ he said calmly. ‘I wondered ‘Ya, aku,’ katanya tenang. ‘Aku sudah whether I’d be meeting you here, bertanya-tanya apakah aku akan bertemu Potter…’ kau di sini, Potter…’ ‘Your friend Miss Granger accidentally ‘Temanmu, Miss Granger, tanpa sengaja knocked me over as she rushed to set fire menabrakku sampai jatuh ketika dia to Snipe at that Quidditch match.’319 buru-buru mau membakar jubah Snape dalam pertandingan Quidditch itu.’320

Why the translator chooses to retain Miss instead of using Nona is not quite clear, but seems comparable to the use of Tuan, Nyonya and Nona in English languge stories of Indonesia, Bwana in stories of East Africa and Sahib/Memsahib in stories of India—that is for local colour. However this detail becomes incidental in the context of a translation of this quality. There could be a question in the translation dalam pertandingan of whether the intention of being at the match, which is correct, is conveyed rather than in the match, but in the confused situation during the tournament this is hardly a key point.

317 ibid. p.11.d 318 ibid. p.14. 319ibid. p.356. 320ibid. p.14.

218 6.7 Indonesian Writing in English

The following English text occurs in the website of LIPI (Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences). 321 The language of the text is not marked by gross errors, but it nevertheless has deficiencies which may indicate that cursory checking by a native English speaker may be inadequate to produce quality text. Good editing is important.

Organisation Structure of LIPI this should be ‘organisational structure’

The Chairman of LIPI is responsible to this specifies a male head of LIPI the President and his main tasks are :

To chair LIPI in accordance with its to chair… repeats the idea of Chairman; main tasks which has been laid down by LIPI could be elegantly varied, say to the government and give guidance to ‘the organisation’; the reference to main LIPI's apparatus in order to achieve its tasks and then main task is confusing; a main task efficiently and effectively. plural subject should be followed by have, not has; apparatus is used unnaturally and LIPI is again repeated.

To formulate technical policy on the This is no worse than much English implementation of program development bureaucratic writing, but is still wordy of science and technology. and not well expressed. It seems to mean ‘to formulate policy on science and technology programs.’

To develop and implement science and Regulation should be regulations. The technology cooperation in accordance meaning could probably be expressed with the existing laws and regulation. better by dropping the words and implement since that is covered by the word develop.

321 Scientific activities in Indonesia were conducted from the sixteenth century by Dutch authorities. In he nineteenth century the Botanical Garden, the Batavia Society for Arts and Sciences and the Dutch Indies Council for Natural Sciences were established. ln 1956 the Majelis Imu Pengetahuan Indonesia (Council for Sciences of Indonesia) was founded. This was dissolved in 1967 and LIPI was founded. The text of elements under consideration here was downloaded from the LIPI website, http://www.lipi.go.id, in 2003 but the site has been revamped and the material is now not to be found at that address.

219 Significantly, the website of the Research Centre for Calibration, Instrumentation and Metrology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Puslit KIM- LIPI) is produced in clear and correct English and does not suffer from these problems.322 It is generally considered a good translation performance if the work does not contain grammatical errors. However it is important also to consider whether the use of words is correct. Further, there is the element of naturalness, which may be of great concern to an audience.

This thesis has not attempted to assess the quality of Indonesian writing by non Indonesians. If this were to be carried out, comparison would be likely to show that Indonesian performance with the global language, English, is superior to English speaking performance with the national and regional language, Indonesian.

INDONESIA - CHINA SEMINAR ON DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINES. 19 November 2003.

The long-established systems of traditional medicine have evolved by systematically recorded human experience over many centuries. Although not strictly based on concepts of modern sciences, they are founded on a corpus of organised knowledge manifested in written documents where the “scientific method” of hypothesis, experimentation and confirmation is discernibly revealed. Such organised systems should be differentiated from the relatively empirical folk medicines to have indisputably useful experience to give to the world.

Among the recognised systems of traditional medicine, the Chinese system applied throughout China and in neighboring regions seems to be the most dominant and well known in the world. While the development of [the] Indonesian traditional medicine system seems

322 http://www.lipi.go.id/, accessed 26 July 2005. The site provides a choice of either Indonesian or English.

220 to be based more on empirical and non-written knowledge passed from one generation to the next. Good knowledge on the state of the art of Chinese and Indonesian systems of traditional medicine and how such systems developed will be of beneficial both for the industry and policy makers.

For a number of reasons, the [number of] users of traditional medicines keep growing. However, most users especially in Indonesia have not obtained sufficient information on how to distinguish genuine traditional medicines and the fake ones. A system to protect the Indonesian people from using fake traditional medicines and enhance their capability to recognise the originality of traditional medicines marketed in Indonesia should be made.

Traditional medicine system will advance when there is a strong support from the government. Lessons from Chinese experience will be useful for Indonesia to consider, so that optimal contribution of traditional medicines for human health and human being welfare can be achieved.

OBJECTIVES

·Give [a] general picture of state of the arts of Indonesian and Chinese traditional medicine systems to herbal medicine manufacturers, users, researchers, academicians, government officials, and community.

·Provide Indonesia and China networking and business opportunities, and strengthen relationships amongst the elements of the traditional medicine system (users, manufacturers, distributors, hospital’s officers, educators in the higher education, scientists, and policy makers).

221 ·Formulate recommendations on how to accelerate the development of [a] system of traditional medicine for human health care for the policy makers and industry.323

In the author’s estimation this is quite well done. However the text does need correction as follows. The extent of the correction needed demonstrates the extent to which a translator’s lack of native control can produce imperfect text.

by have evolved through systematically recorded human experience: incorrect preoposition is discernibly revealed can be discerned: not normal usage the relatively empirical folk medicines the folk medicines with their relatively ad hoc approach: empirical implies connection with organised science rather than disorganised experimental methods. While This should not begin a new sentence. [the] The is obligatory here. non-written knowledge passed from unwritten tradition one generation to the next. on Either of or concerning, but not on. of beneficial Of benefit [to] both Either both for the industry and for policy makers, or for both the industry and policy makers. and from [a] a is obligatory relationships the plural is obligatory here hospital’s officers hospital officers [a] system of traditional medicine obligatory

323 Indonesia-China Seminar on Development of Traditional Medicines, 19 November 2003. www.lipi.go.id. Accessed 10 December 2003.

222

It may be significant that among all the functions of LIPI there is no function of creating standardised scientific terms, and in fact this accords with the varied and eclectic development of Indonesian scientific vocabulary—and its vocabulary in general. The size of LIPI and the existence of other scientific bodies in Indonesia attests to the usage of scientific terms that no doubt exists. For example the National Biodiversity Information Network (NBIN) under LIPI, and the Research and Development Centre for Biology reflect the attention being paid to science in Indonesia and doubtless to the widespread use of scientific terms. The fact that scientific terminology has not been centrally standardised implies that the terminology is being allowed to develop naturally in society in much the same way as terms in other areas.

6.8 Pramoedya Ananta Toer

Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s writings are marked by an individualistic use of terms in terms of both word origin, word combinations, and allocation of meanings.

Telah aku sediakan diri jadi organisator. I had prepared myself as an organiser. Jadi dalang dengan cerita pembangunan To be a dalang with the story of the landasan organisasi bangsa ganda untuk construction of a multiethnic jadi bangsa-tunggal. Jadi brahmana dan organisational base into a monoethnic sudra sekaligus. one. To be brahmana and sudra at the same time.

Anak-anak wayang itu bukan terbuat dari The wayang figures were not made from kulit mati yang dicat dan dipersolek inanimate leather which were painted semau kita sendiri. Mercka unsurunsur and adorned as we wished. They were hidup dan prakehidupan yang bereaksi elements of the living and of life that sendirisendiri. Telah aku padukan kerja reacted individually. I had united the brahmana dengan kerja sudra, guru dan work of a brahmana with the work of a murid sekaligus, pendengar dan sudra, teacher and pupil at the same pembicara, peseru dan propagandis, time, listener and speaker, crier and penjaja impian haridepan, jadi dokter dan propagandist, peddler of dreams of the pasien, jadi psikolog dan psikiater future, doctor and patient, psychologist sekaligus tanpa pendidikan, jadi pengatur and psychiatrist at once without

223 dan plonoo ygng belajar menempatkan education, arranger and freshman who diri di antara yang diatur./Dan semua learned to place himself among what is dilakukan di negeri sendiri, di antara arranged./And everything was done in orang-orang yang makan dan minum dari my own country, among people who ate bumi yang sama.324 and drank from the same earth.

It makes sense in a study of Indonesian translation to examine some of the translations of important Indonesian documents, and also of Indonesian translations of significant English documents. Some of the important social, economic and political concepts of the time may in translation throw up matters that deserve analysis. In examining some cultural terms that may yield productive analysis, the work of Pramoedya Ananta Toer seems to have special value. In addition, translations of Indonesian literature may throw into focus some of the difficult words and phrases that may occur when the source material is authentically Indonesian. The wayang’ shadow play’ and dalang ‘puppeteer’ need explanation, as do brahmana/sudra ‘high/low caste.’

Pramoedya Ananta Toer conceived modern Indonesian history as a story. This story could be seen as a wayang play. It contained true history and it contained imagined fiction. In translating Indonesian it is often appropriate to regard the text as part of a story, often an ongoing story. When parts are missing it may be necessary to reconstruct them. However what is very necessary is to perceive, to feel, the point of the story. Unless the subject matter is very technical, it is hard to imagine that the reader will be able to grasp the point of the story if the translator does not. The importance of the thread, the underlying significance, is great. This underlines the importance of introductions and glosses that the translator may add. Such comment may make the unintelligible intelligible. In terms of layout, footnotes then appear to be more helpful to the reader than endnotes.

324Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Jejak Langkah, Hasta Mitra, Jakarta, 1985, p.351.

224 However it is important that the reader feel that the translator is not taking sides in relation to the content of the translation. 325 Pramoedya Ananta Toer's novel Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) is the third in a quartet, the first two novels being Bumi Manusia (translated as 'This Earth of Mankind') and Anak Semua Bangsa (translated as 'Child of All Nations'), and the fourth Rumah Kaca (Glasshouse). Pramoedya followed these with his book Sang Pemula (The Initiator).326

'Dan kita akan namai perkumpulan ini And we will call this organisation Syarikat Priyayi, karena priyayilah Syarikat Priyayi, because it is the priyayi golongan Pribumi paling maju, yang who are the most advanced of the paling berpengetahuan. Semua priyayi Pribumi groups, the most bisa bacatulis...' knowledgeable. All the priyayi can read and write... 327

Syarikat is ‘league.’ The word priyayi is not easily translated into English.328 Even pribumi may be awkward, and this immediately brings the translation into the sphere of ethnic relations. With both words the question arises of whether to introduce them into the English text or to use them with initial glosses. To retain the Indonesian terms tends to work towards greater precision in understanding. There is then the further question of whether if terms are translated they need to be translated with the same English equivalent each time. This is a pribumi hero. The translator has immediately to face the terms Sang [an honorific], bangsa ‘people, race, nation,’ and pribumi ‘original inhabitant,’ simple and straightforward in Indonesian but not easy to render into English naturally. This is so simple to the reader who knows Indonesian. That reader will know precisely what the dalang does, and the connotations of bangsa. That reader, knowing the Hindu inputs into

325 The following comments draw upon an essay written for a course in Indonesian literature at the Australian National University. Johnson, R.K. 1988, ‘The Achievements of Pramoedya’s Pribumi Hero in Jejak Langkah,’ unpublished essay. 326 For this translation see Rumah Kaca p.99: 'inisiator atau Sang Pemula.' The author’s use of an adapted English word to describe the role of the hero makes it advisable to use that translation. 327 Jejak Langkah. 328 Geertz 1964, op.cit., shows the underlying complexity of this and other terms that are part of the Javanese world.

225 Indonesian history, will not need to pause over the concepts in these three sentences. The matter of translation however is a different problem altogether. It assumes that the reader has no such knowledge of Indonesian traditions. And for that reader to make sense of these three sentences the translator needs to make the connection between caste and ethnic group—and the distinction between them. The connection is not very clear; but it seems now looking back over the 1988 translation that the point was passed over too readily. The observation being made by Pramoedya’s fictional voice does not have to be sociologically true or exact. But the translation must make the point.

Sudra is low caste, as brahmana is high caste. The oppositions in the text all follow from the phrase wayang figures. They are all roles. The essential point is to show all those roles as if they were leather puppets flickering on the wayang screen, but not inanimate mati. It goes without saying that it would be a fatal translation error to render mati as ‘dead’: the meaning is something incapable of life. Although the cultural parallel is there to be made, it is not so obvious whether the translator would be warranted in drawing on concepts in Shakespeare’s description of players strutting upon the world stage, all with their exits and their entrances.329

Pramoedya writes in modern Indonesian style, including the dialogue, though the language tends to be formal and reminiscent of there are period touches such as the use of sahaya instead of aku in formal situations, and of sudara rather than saudara. Minke tells a peasant not to call him ndoro,’ master’, but sudara. This use of language reflects the democratic ideals that Minke is trying to implant. it is also an indication of the difficulties that would have been faced had Javanese been used as the vehicle of the expression of the nation. In a tour of Java an argument is put forward for the use of Javanese: but all the Javanese have, Minke believes, is the burden of history, whereas Malay represents the modern age. Support for and writing in Malay represents

329 As You Like It act 2 scene 7 line 139; Knowles 2001, p.269.

226 an evolution of Minke's personal views on language: he has earlier written in Dutch and resisted learning to write in Malay. This is a matter of history but does nevertheless embody the currents that persist up to now in Indonesian. Pramoedya seems to stand back from the Indonesian world and perceive contrasting identities and currents. Bahasa Indonesia as it emerges to represent the nation as a whole is separate from domination by particular groups. Yet Bahasa Indonesia does embrace the speakers of various languages. In this way the narrative of Pramoedya accords with the concept of layering as developed elsewhere in this thesis. And Pramoedya’s work is replete with symbols of the ethnic origins of Indonesia, as the protagonists identifies his roots in traditional language and culture.

The use of intertext is important in Jejak Langkah. The value of having read the first two books in the quartet becomes clear very early in the book. Further, throughout the works there is a sense of anticipation of what follows. The quartet’s depth in time is matched by its broad ethnic scope, taking in not only the suku bangsa of Indonesia, but Minke’s Dutch and Chinese wives, tragically. The term suku bangsa may be translated ‘ethnic group.’ This concept is particularly significant in Indonesia with its large number of cultural and ethnic identities. Throughout the book Minke struggles against the linguistic domination of Java and also the examples he finds of Javanese cultural arrogance. Thus he makes a practice of trying to combat the superior/inferior consciousness reflected in the Javanese language, , and tries to use Malay where possible.

It is disappointing, Minke finds, that the Javanese wait for a Ratu Adil, a righteous ruler, to rise up and solve their problems. The classics Ramayana and Mahabharata unfortunately 'tak meninggalkan pegangan bagaimana memasuki dunia modern' [did not leave a guide as to how to enter the modern world. The references to Ratu Adil, Ramayana and Mahabharata need to be explained either briefly in the text or in footnotes. This would be a relatively

227 straightforward task, unless perhaps if there was only tacit reference to the concepts. A combination of a traditional Javanese figure with one of the key themes of the quartet - the earth on which all ultimately depends - is found in a conversation between Minke and his mother. Bisma was a satria, a warrior, who was killed on the battlefield. But he came to life again every time his body touched the earth.

Minke’s personal destiny is tied to the developing history of the Indonesian nation. We may look back to where early in the story Minke's mother uses Javanese concepts in discussing her son's future: he has already become a pujangga, a man of letters, and now he wants to be a dalang (he had been 'crazy' about an stories as a child.) His mother however warns:

Jangan jadi dalang tiada cerita. Tanpa anakwayang pun dalang masih bisa, tapi tanpa cerita... anakwayang pun dia sendiri tidak. Don't be a dalang without a story. Even without wayang figures the dalang can still manage, but without a story... he is not even a wayang figure.330

Clearly enough, this is fertile ground for exploration of culturally defined concepts: satria, pujangga, dalang. However the difficulty with translation of all these terms is that they will lose their respective specific spheres of cultural significance. If they are translated then in use the translated terms must acquire spheres of meaning that will not be aligned completely with the Indonesian terms. For example pujangga as ‘man of letters’ runs up against current ideology on sex-oriented expressions. To say literatus might be reasonably close, but literatus is masculine also, even one of the literati is not natural English. Someone in the literary tradition is close enough in meaning but too long and awkward. The dalang as puppeteer is accurate enough in terms of theatrical function but does not adequately convey the Indonesian sense of someone who masterminds the actions of others. And the puppets in Pramoedya’s presentation are not just objects but each has each its characteristic role. Clearly not every term in the original can be carried over

330 Bumi Manusia, Hasta Mitra, Jakarta, p.481.

228 into English, but some Indonesian terms already have acquired English equivalents. There is an editorial decision to be made as to which terms should be carried over and which not, and with those that should not there needs to be a policy also on consistency of rendering of terms.

6.9 Unbundling and Rebundling

The Indonesian translation of John Grisham’s The Pelican Brief provides material to illustrate the analytical process of unbundling. 331 Although it seems that in some cases the translator has chosen to translate terms literally, and it is not quite clear whether he himself has fully understood the terms in question, let alone whether the reader is likely to understand them, it is not very fair to the translator to pick errors or difficulties out of what is after all a readable translation. Some of the following comment relates to style and colour. The main thrust of the comment is that the translator could have analysed the meaning of the original text more closely in some cases and then sought to convey the meaning into Indonesian rather than being bound to the precise wording of the English—which in places could be quite confusing.

[Jensen’s] Senate The translation is, Peneguhannya di Senat diwarnai dengan confirmation had perdebatan sengit, ‘characterised by fierce debate.’ This does been a slugfest.332 not convey the sense of the American term slugfest, which refers to an unrestrained confrontation .rather than dignified debate, however fierce.

331 Grisham, J. 1993, The Pelican Brief, Arrow Books, London (pp.9-10). Translation by Hidayat Saleh, 1999, Pelican Brief, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta (pp.19-21). 332 Samuel, T. 2004, ‘A TV Slugfest, No Holds Barred,’ 12 April. Issue of USNews.com. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/issue/ 040412/usnews /12campaign.htm (accessed 9 April 2004). This describes the leadup to the US election in terms of battering media exchanges. Gartner, J. 2004, ‘Baseball Joins Media Slugfest,’ 25 March. http://www.wired.com/news/ business/0,1367,62795,00.html? tw=wn_tophead_1 (accessed 9 April 2004). This describes baseball media issues in terms of a ‘hotly contested (and increasingly litigated) digital media fray.’ In these two examples slugfest, combining slug ‘hit’ and fest ‘occasion’ to form this colloquial term which refers to a no holds barred confrontation as opposed to more dignified debate.

229 On sensitive issues he straddled the fence and got kicked dan menerima tendangan dari dua belah pihak. There is no from both sides. problem with the translation here, and if the translator feels that the sense is adequately conveyed there is no need for further analysis.

The President The translation Presiden bersusah payah memaksakan twisted arms until kehendaknya says that the President found some personal they broke difficulty in forcing his will in the Senate, whereas in fact what is said is that the President used maximum influence to enforce his will, to the point where he had to apply a very great deal of pressure on some individuals. The point is that the President had great power and was forced to use it here, not that his own resources of power caused him difficulty. Analysis of this utterance would show that to twist someone’s arm means to persuade using pressure. Then the idea of arms breaking has to be understood is that the metaphorical arm twister was able to apply great pressure, and in fact did so.

Jensen would bolt The translation is Jensen melompat kembali ke kanan and back to the right bergabung dengan Hakim Sloan dalam dissent—makalah and join Justice penolakan suara mayoritas—antifeminis. Dissent in the Sloan in one of his original may not refer to a written submission (makalah). The obnoxious point is that Justice Sloan is making an objection to a majority antiwomen view. The word obnoxious is not translated. Antiwomen, which dissents. implies misogynous sentiment, is different from anitfeminis, and the translator does not have latitude to interpret the sense of the word in this way.

He was neutral on Sikapnya netral pada agama is something else entirely. Prayer prayer relates to an American debate on prayer in schools. It is not implied that he was neutral on religion as a general issue.

Apart from Nida and others with a motivated zeal for translation, there may be translators who simply do not care enough about cultural details to translate religious material effectively—or who do not possess cultural sensitivity. In the Bible there are many examples of substitution of Latin terms for Greek. But this translation followed centuries of church ritual. The meaning of grace (Latin gratia, Greek charis) and so on—this naturally will not be guaranteed when translating into Indonesian. Arabic equivalents may often be used, but perhaps it could be argued that Arabic terms might be in line with Hebrew terms of the Old Testament, this is likely to be less

230 appropriate with the Greek language Pentateuch and unlikely with the New Testament. Less important than listing vocabulary items is noting the evangelical trend. Indonesia has been a kind of battleground for crusaders on each side. In John 1,the word was God, the translation is sama dengan Allah, whereas it might have been simply ialah Allah. And yet it remains true that the word Allah was introduced through Islam rather than Christianity. All of this reasoning with translation can become a more general discussion of the use of symbols, which are possibly more basic than simple words.

Wycliffe translated from Jerome’s Latin Vulgate. ‘The whole vernacular vocabulary of theology had yet to form,’ while the English language in the fourteenth century as in transition, merging three dialects: Anglo-Saxon (that is Old English, which was Germanic), Old Norse, which was Scandinavian, and Anglo-Norman, which was French. The point of merger was central England, and it happened that Wycliffe’s midland dialect, like Chaucer’s, was ‘at the right linguistic crossroads when English began to assume of standard form.’333

Meanings of a transeme in tree (that is tree root) form. Other diagrams would do as well, especially if they can become three dimensional.

‘Translation Studies’ (TS) was coined by J.S. Holmes in 1972, subsuming translation theory, methodology and practice as a whole, as opposed to the then concept of translation as a collection of methods and techniques.334 It may be advisable to go back to de Saussure’s langue and parole for simple categories of thought relating to translation rather than multiplying conceptual orders.

333 Bobrick, B. 2001, The Making of the English Bible, Phoenix, London. 334 Wilss, W. 1966, Knowledge and Skills in Translation Behaviour, vol.15, Benjamins Translation Library, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, p.ix.

231

A comparison may be made with the difficulties that many Indonesian writers find with English. The words may be understood, at least in general terms. But the correct usage of terms is often not. For example in the website Abdul Wachid B.S. Landscape 335 the following navigation headings in the left column should be as shown on the right:

poem poems essay essays short story short stories poem books collections of poetry essay books collections of essays

The intention here is not to belittle the attempts of Indonesian writers to communicate in English, particularly since their grasp of English probably compares well with the level of Indonesian usage in Australia. However in terms of good translation there is a gap in terms of grammar—inadequate grasp of number in English—and naturalness of usage (*poem books, *essay books). This is not only highly distracting to the English speaking reader but the reader will not be sure whether there is only one poem, essay or short story (as would be meant in English) or more (as is in fact the case).

Layering

The semantic content of the following Library of Congress note on Islamic kingdoms is unlikely to pose serious problems for translation into Indonesian, partly because the concepts and structure of the article concern Indonesia.

335 http://www.poemscape.8m.com/main/indeks.html. Abdul Wachid B.S. Landscape situs yang memuat esai (essay), puisi (poem, poetry), cerpen (short story) karya penyair Abdul Wachid B.S., di samping karya sastrawan lain, Rendra, Emha Ainun Nadjib, KH.A. Mustofa Bisri, D. Zawawi Imron, Ahmadun Yosi Herfanda, Isbedy Stiawan ZS, Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, Jamal D Rahman, Agus R Sarjono, dan lainnya.

232 However the approach to syncretism and the process of Islamisation may not accord with the views of some Indonesians.336

The Indian Ocean continued to serve as Indian Ocean is often rendered as Lautan both a commercial and a cultural link Indonesia. between Indonesia and the countries to In Indonesia, Islam will not be directly the west. Thus Islam, which was compared with ‘pagan’ religions that are established on the Arabian Peninsula by not monotheistic; even the word agama the Prophet Muhammad in the seventh is sometimes not felt to be appropriate to century A.D., followed the Hindu and Islam. Buddhist religions into the archipelago. Similarly a direct comparison between By the late twentieth century, the processes of introduction of Indian approximately 85 percent of Indonesia's civilisation and Islamisation could be inhabitants considered themselves to be seen to imply that Indian civilisation is in Muslim. Among some Indonesians, Islam some sense equivalent to Islam. is only an element in a syncretic belief In terms of history, the assertion tha t system that also includes animist and there is a lack of evidence for both Hindu-Buddhist concepts. Others are processes (underlined text) is not well intensely committed to the faith. Like the based because the introduction of Islam introduction of Indian civilisation, the was much later and was in fact better process of Islamisation is obscure attested to by various records. because of the lack of adequate historical The section in bold type is not well records and archeological evidence. The constructed in English: The archipelago archipelago was not invaded by was not forcibly converted, yet outsiders and forcibly converted. Yet Islamicised states often fought Hindu- states that had converted to Islam Buddhist states, however Javanese often waged war against those that statecraft and war were not clearly adhered to the older, Hindu-Buddhist divided on religious lines. However…yet traditions. Religious lines, however, do would usually be considered preferable. not appear to have been clearly drawn In Indonesian the logical structure could in Javanese statecraft and war.337 be represented by Nusantara tidak diserang orang luar sehingga dipaksa masuk Islam. Akan tetapi negara yang sudah masuk Islam kadang-kadang berperang dengan negara yang masih memegang tradisi Hindu-Budha yang kuno. Walau bagaimanapun dalam tata negara dan perang, soal agama nampaknya tidak diutamakan dengan jelas sebagai alasan memihak.

The freedom evident between the two versions indicates that an unbundling process has taken place, and some elements have been discarded while others

336 http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/idtoc.html. 337 lib congress on file

233 have been added. There may be an added element of subjective approval or disapproval.

The purpose of examination of such material is to demonstrate the potential of the unbundling~rebundling approach, where material may be reorganised and adapted in content for particular reasons. It will be useful to examine cases of frequent and significant misunderstanding of respective social institutions and structures. This is tied into the unbundling process.

The following excerpts from a Report on East Timor was produced in English and Indonesian in 2002 by the Judicial System Monitoring Programme (JSMP), a Dili-based independent non-governmental organisation monitoring the East Timor judicial system. Some comparisons between the two versions are instructive. JUDICIAL SYSTEM MONITORING PROGRAM PEMANTAUAN SISTEM PROGRAMME YUDISIAL The Right to Appeal in East Timor Hak Mengajukan Banding di Timor JSMP Thematic Report 2 Leste339 Dili, East Timor October 2002338

Through court monitoring, the JSMP bertujuan untuk memberikan provision of legal analysis and kontribusi terhadap kelangsungan thematic reports on the development of pembangunan dan evaluasi sistem the judicial system, JSMP aims to peradilan di Timor Leste melalui contribute to the ongoing evaluation pemantauan pengadilan, penyediaan and building of the justicesystem in analisis hukum dan laporan-laporan East Timor. tematis terhadap perkembangan system yudisial.

The italicised phrase translated into Indonesian becomes ‘the continuation of development and evaluation of the justice system.’ The device of transforming ongoing, which could be something like yang akan berlangsung, into kelangsungan seems to be unexceptionable. However to change evaluation and building into pembangunan dan evaluasi could imply a

338 http://www.jsmp.minihub.org/Reports/Right%20to%20Appeal.pdf 339 http://www.jsmp.minihub.org/Reports/jsmpreports/JSMP%20Thematic%20report %202/The%20Right%20to%20Appeal%20in%20ET(b).pdf

234 different understanding of the process that is involved. The English version implies that building will follow evaluation, whereas pembangunan can readily be understood as a process of improvement rather than necessarily reconstruction or construction de novo. Evaluation following such a development process could then mean evaluation of progress in that regard rather than, as the English version implies, an evaluation of the existing justice system as part of the building process. The translator might have been better to leave the ordering of the phrase as it is.

The Judicial System Monitoring Program Pemantauan Sistem Yudisial Programme (JSMP) is an independent (JSMP) adalah suatu LSM independen non-governmental organisation based in yang bermarkas di Dili, Timor Leste Dili, East Timor dedicated to monitoring yang bertujuan untuk memantau sistem the judicial system of East Timor. yudisial Timor Leste.

LSM stands for Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat, an equivalent of the English NGO, non-governmental organisation.

JSMP is composed of both East JSMP terdiri dari warga negara Timor Timorese and international staff from Leste dan staf internasional baik dari both common law and civil law yurisdiksi common law dan civil law.340 jurisdictions.

It is suggested that a preferable translation would be hukum biasa (common law) and hukum sipil (civil law). After all this is to be a translation into Indonesian. Depending on the audience, a note could explain that the Indonesian legal system is a Civil Law system, derived from French and German models, while the Common Law system is found chiefly in Australia, England, America and other former British colonies.

This report is produced in response to Laporan ini dibuat untuk menjawab the urgent need to confront the problems kebutuhan mendesak dalam menghadapi that prevent the exercise of the right to permasalahan-permasalahan yang appeal in East Timor. menghambat diberlakukannya hak pengajuan banding di Timor Leste.

340 Lindsey, T. ‘Indonesian Trial Process and Legal System Background Notes,’ http://www.law.unimelb.edu.au/alc/assets/indo_trial_process.pdf.

235

Menghambat tends to mean ‘obstruct’ rather than absolutely ‘prevent.’ Here consideration could be given to menghalangi instead.

Diberlakukannya is in the di-nya form, containing the ber- form of the verb. Its use in a nominal position which preserves the verbal sense is very convenient for composition in Indonesian and for translation.

Examination of thematic approaches in a meeting on cultural issues in 2003 in Bali can identify items of interest in terms of cultural and linguistic lines of thought that can be identified in translation work. This was Prakongres Kebudayaan V (Preliminary Congress on Culture V) with the theme ‘Konsep, Kebijakan, dan Strategi Kebudayaan’ (‘Cultural Concepts, Policies and Strategies’). Pengalaman dalam proses mengindonesia Experiences in the process of Indonesian diwarnai dinamika integrasi dan nation building are coloured by a disintegrasi bangsa. Dominasi pada dynamic of national integration and strategi politik dan ekonomi disintegration. Domination of political menghasilkan pemerintahan yang otoriter and economic strategies produce dan sentralistik telah menimbulkan authoritarian and centralist government konflik yang disintegratif. which gives rise to disintegrative conflict.

This style goes easily into English and the text may well be traceable back to an English version.

Identitas dan Krisis Budaya: Transisi In a context of identity transition and Identitas. Kearifan lokal hendaknya cultural crisis, local policies should be menjadi perhatian pemerintah pusat dan the concern of the central and regional Pemerintah daerah, serta menjadi governments, and be a moral basis for landasan moral berbangsa. Untuk the nation. To rebuild the national membangun kembali karakter bangsa, character, joint action is needed, wide perlu dilakukan tindakan bersama, ranging and continuous. (With cases of menyeluruh dan berkesinambungan. discriminatory acts against the Dayak, (Kasus-kasus perlakuan diskriminatif Papua and Aceh minority nationalities terhadap suku Dayak, Papua dan Aceh for example) with regard to rights over misalnya, dalam penguasaan forest cultivation and management of penggarapan hutan, dan pengelolaan resources, attention should be paid to the

236 sumber daya hendaknya memperhatikan fundamental rights of local societies.) hak-hak dasar masyarakat tempatan).

In the last sentence, Kasus-kasus perlakua diskriminatif…hendaknya memperhatikan hak-hak dasar, the above translation treats Kasus-kasus perlakuan diskriminatif as a topic sentence and then treats memperhatikan as a verb without subject.341 Agama dan nilai gotong royong, pada Religion and the values of gotong- pengalaman bermasyarakat, tidak terbukti royong, in the experience of being in digunakan sebagai dasar pembentukan society, have not been proved to be used masyarakat budaya plural. Perpecahan as a basis for the formation of a society dalam agama sering terjadi dan gotong with a plural culture. Fragmentation royong hanya efektif dalam budaya within religion often happens and gotong agraris, namun tidak tahan berhadapan royong only effective within an agrarian dengan kebutuhan ekonomi culture, and is not strong enough to face up to economic needs.

Gotong-royong is an Indonesian cultural concept that the translator may choose to treat either with a brief encapsulated equivalent or with some form of explanatory note. Usually the Indonesian term would be retained along with any explanatory note. Suku-suku bangsa tertentu memiliki Certain ethnic groups have very strong keterikatan yang sangat kuat kepada ties to the land and the forest, religion tanah dan hutan, religi dan adat serta and adat 342 and to solidarity, but are kebersamaan, namun tersingkir dan marginalised and isolated. terpinggirkan. The potential for cultural conflict can be Potensi konflik budaya dapat dicairkan dissolved through interactive and lewat pendekatan interaktif dan transformative approaches. transformatif.

Adat is a concept of very wide application in relation to Indonesia, including in the law.

Mengkaji dan mempertahankan To study and defend legal instruments perangkat hukum yang terkait dengan tied to the public interest in the field of kepentingan umum dalam bidang cultural and indigenous knowledge. The kebudayaan dan pengetahuan lokal regulations tied to Intellectual Property

341 Alternatively kasus-kasus could be regarded as the subject of memperhatikan; this is simpler but there is the logical difficulty that it is not the cases that pay attention. 342 Adat: customary law.

237 (indigenous knowledge). Undang-undang Rights, land, customary law and the yang terkait dengan HaKI343, tanah, adat environment should accommodate dan lingkungan hendaknya development and collective interests. mengakomodasi perkembangan dan kepentingan kolektif.

Prof. Dr. M. Amien Rais: ‘King Maker’ Prof. Dr. M. Amien Rais: ‘King Maker’ Pentas Politik Nasional344 of the National Political Stage

Pencalonan dirinya menjadi presiden itu, Putting himself forward as a presidential bukanlah semata-mata didorong hasrat candidate was not only motivated by a untuk berkuasa, melainkan lebih desire for power, but was motivated didorong keprihatinannya atas more by his concern for the suffering of penderitaan rakyat akibat kesalahan the people as the result of an kepemimpinan nasional yang otoriter dan authoritarian and corrupt national korup. Ia melihat, keterpurukan bangsa leadership. He sees that the national ini harus diperbaiki mulai dari tampuk decline must be improved, beginning kekuasaan. from the centre of power.

Keterpurukan, translated as decline, merits a little comment. Echols & Shadily (1994) give terpuruk as ‘hidden, buried,’ but that does not match the context very well. Kamus Besar has (1) ‘terbenam (planted), tenggelam (sunk),’ with the example Matahari baru terpuruk di balik pegunungan, (2) terpelosok, as in Kakinya terpuruk ke dalam lubang. Sinar Harapan in 2004 spoke of keterpurukan in these terms:

Harapan akan bangkit dari The of emerging from keterpurukan that keterpurukan yang masih still tugs at our nation since 1997 began to menggandeng bangsa kita sejak tahun yawn wide… 1997 mulai terkuak… English has a word for keterpurukan/ Bahasa Inggris memiliki kata untuk decline/ fall / bankruptcy/ failure, and that keterpurukan/ kemerosotan/ kejatuhan/ is slump. kebangkrutan/ kekalahan yaitu slump.345

343 Hak Atas Kekayaan Intelektual (HaKI), Intellectual Property Rights. 344 TokohIndonesia DotCom (Ensiklopedi Tokoh Indonesia). 345 http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/ekonomi/mandiri/2004/0810/man01.html, 10 August 2004.

238 Slump is not adequate to describe Indonesia’s collapse in 1997, when of all countries in the Asian region to be affected by the economic crisis, Indonesia was the most severely affected.346 A serious and sustained ‘slump’ might describe the economy in recent years. The above passage suggests decline, fall, bankruptcy, failure as representing the sense of keterpurukan—each of these sounding more serious than slump, which can simply be part of the business cycle.

Mantan Ketua MPR RI Amien Rais Amien Rais, Former Chairman of menilai, rencana "merger" atau Indonesia’s People's Consultative penyatuan kembali TNI dan Polri sebagai Council, believes that the ‘merger’ plan lonceng awal keterpurukan demokrasi. or reunification of the Army and Police 347 Force will sound the beginning of the fall of democracy.

Keterpurukan may be understood here as ‘fall.’

...menyelamatkan maskapai penerbangan …to save Indonesia’s foremost aviation terkemuka Indonesia itu dari ancaman company from the threat of failure. keterpurukan.348

Here the meaning is ‘failure.’ The differences in meaning as translated are not of great consequence. It is worth noting that this particular form of the base word puruk appears to have gained popularity in recent years.

Chapters Five and Six have discussed examples from a wide variety of Indonesian texts, and analysis of texts relates to methodology of approach to Indonesian~English translation. Even though much of the material may be thought to be quite ordinary and unexceptionable, contrasts in expression may highlight divergence or problems. The material has been selected as representative of some problem areas in translation between Indonesian and

346 USAID Background Report: Recovery of Economic and Financial Systems, 3 March 1999, http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/econ/usaid-recovery.html. 347 http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/2005/0205/17/01.htm. 17 February 2005. 348 Padang.Express.com. 8 August 2005.

239 English. Chapter Seven draws together some of the lessons that may be concluded from this corpus of material.

240 Chapter Seven Analysis

Chapters 5 and 6 have provided a corpus of examples of Indonesian usage and of translation tactics that may now be analysed to form conclusions about processes of translation. The corpus was assembled over the period from 1999 to 2005. Generally speaking, it is not claimed that the examples prove assertions or hypotheses in this thesis to be correct; they hopefully however exemplify and elucidate thesis findings.

7.1 Dimensions of Vocabulary

The process of translation cannot be separated from the literary skills of the translator. This thesis argues that the concept of translation should be expanded to include skills that traditionally belong to the interpreter: the ability to summarise information, the attractive presentation of material, and a parallel exegetic function as required. Incidentally the translator’s standing with clients will probably be enhanced through maintaining competence in speaking Indonesian, though spoken skills are not tested as part of translator competence, for example under the procedures of the Australian National Association for the Assessment of Translators and Interpreters (NAATI).

The two languages accord reasonably well in terms of basic syntactic order, as this examples illustrates. This example is from a translation with English and Indonesian versions, so there may have been two-way influence.

241 This example349 shows how a translation into English naturally accords with the Indonesian.

‘Kamu semakin cantik.’ Senyum simpul ‘You’re all the more pretty.’ A mengiringi ucapan itu, Nyoman melepas disarming smile accompanied the kacamatanya.350 remark. Nyoman took off his glasses.

Highly culture specific phrases such as Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa, Perikemanusiaan and such do not pose a great problem in translation per se because equivalents can be found. They can however require some thought to explain more fully. Words of Javanese origin, and words of Sanskrit and Arabic origin, sometimes are less well documented in dictionaries than words of Malay origin. It can be important in understanding both Indonesian and English to perceive the origin of some vocabulary items. Meaning may be affected by choice of particular words. This thesis describes the historical background of terms in successive periods of borrowing from other languages as layering. The hypothesis considered here is that layering is a mode of insight that could assist translation; and that usage may reflect particular layers; and that identification of a particular layer may help in composing an appropriate translation so that the reader derives a broadly equivalent effect in the target language—for example archaic phrasing in one language may be able to be given an equivalent in the other. In considering non literal translation and the use of various kinds of words, possibly from different layers, a broad knowledge of the source language is important, but an excellent knowledge of the target language is essential. Different translators may use different styles of language with different selections of vocabulary, but the underlying condition is that there will be a consistency in the target text. It may be that restrictions have operated on the use of some English

349 Chapter 6, p.238. 350 http://sulutlink.com/ranomawuri2004/cerpen1.htm

242 words for cultural or ideological reasons, although the language of the Communist Manifesto was available in the 1950s in Indonesian.351

The Islamic tradition is predated by the Hebrew, Greek and Roman traditions, the Christian tradition so to speak. The Hebrew scriptures were translated as the Pentateuch and then Koine Greek was a keys vehicle for the expression of Christian theology, to be followed by Latin and finally English. English was then often the source for transmission of the Christian world view to other nations. This is an involved sequence of events, but it require some understanding by a translator dealing with religious matters in Indonesian~English translation.

In translation it is axiomatic that grammar should be adequate; and yet at the same time it can be difficult to be certain of the extent to which a translator’s thinking hinges on grammatical questions. The translator’s command of the target language if it is at native level will tend to mean that sentences can even be completed from various starting points, while if it is a second language will probably mean that syntactic questions may be in the forefront of the translator’s consciousness. The layer concept implies a potential for considerable subtlety in translation where the translator’s awareness and skill is adequate.

There are large numbers of expressions that could be adduced to demonstrate colouring of terms. The use of euphemisms such as payudara (susu, ‘breast’) and wanita tuna susila (pelacur, ‘prostitute’) may be compared with the tendency of English to particular levels of vocabulary, say Latin or French versus Anglo-Saxon. Words may have varied implications for different

351 Marx, K., and Engels, F. 1959, Manifesto Partai Komunis, Yayasan ‘Pembaruan, 3rd printing of translation by Komisi Penerjemah, Depagitprop C.C. PKI , 1952. Reference made to the English language Manifesto of the Communist Party, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow 1959. q1

243 audiences. For example, a word like hamburger can be confusing.352 In fact there is no implication that a hamburger contains pork. The term beefburger may take over from hamburger at some stage. That is a matter of English linguistic change, whether or not it occurs from religious sensitivity. From a translation point of view however it is simply necessary to ensure that the target audience realises that hamburger does not imply ham, and that it is made from beef.

7.2 Undbundling-Rebundling

There are indications in variouis cases in chapters 5 and 6 that undbundling~rebundling is a useful and flexible process in the creation of imaginative and meaningful translation. To take an example of the application of this process, and to extend the phrase to an initial bundling of elements, there may be a process of bundling~ unbundling~ rebundling which when applied to texts will decide between two conflicting requirements, one to avoid repetitiousness and the other to employ redundancy usefully. Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO) was a principle that first emerged with computer science in the 1950s. The idea is that output will be affected by the input. Input problems may be of type, or of quality. Clearly the content of the source text needs to be reflected in the target text, and if the content input is garbage then the output is likely to be of the same quality. However it is important to ensure that quality input becomes qualitiy output. Unbundling~rebundling can alter the impression of content. The main elements of meaning in the source language will be chosen in reference to the known elements in the target language. Thus the construction of a viable root system for a transeme will tend to be a simplified taxonomy that uses functionality. The

352 Some Indonesians told the author in Canberra in 1993 that they could not eat hamburgers because they contained pork. However the meat in a hamburger (in the United Kingdom it is called a beefburger) is almost always beef (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger). The name comes from the German city of Hamburg and its citizens (http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/ encyclopedia/ h/ha/ hamburger.htm).

244 unbundling~rebundling concept can be explained in terms of a target template which would be the same as the source template but would add native speaker comment, added meaning, and subtracted meaning as appropriate. A prolix statement could thus be contracted into a terse written phrase, or a verbal phrase into an abstract noun and so on, with the aim to retain the essence of the original but to present it in a meaningful way. As an example of direct translation that causes problems, retaining source grammatical and semantic structures can result in distortions to the target language. It is worth noting that good interpretation may be less likely to suffer from disadvantages of direct translation.

Thoroughgoing analysis of the meaning and potential meanings of a term or phrase can be very time consuming and might not be very informative in the end. However that kind of analysis may not be necessary. The image of a root system in the translator’s mind can by itself contribute to perceptions that may be valuable in the process of translation. However the system postulated for the translation process—that is from the source side—may have insights and yield more specific results. The translator needs natural equivalents or explanations rather than extensive taxonomies. In particular a system of binary alternatives and assignment of subcategories is unlikely to be efficient. Signal-to-noise ratio should be high, meaning that there should be as little distraction as possible. In a graph, for example, extraneous elements reduce the ratio. In translation, it is quite common to find extraneous elements in expression. The editing out of noise in the source text however will not necessarily mean that the target text will have a comparable amount of noise.353

The choice of words will also indicate personal cultivation and attitude. It is clear enough that the use of a blunt or uncultivated word may indicate particular views or that it may indicate lack of sophistication on the part of the

353 Lidwell et al., ibid., p.182.

245 speaker or writer. The use of words from a dialect area will have its particular input to the impression given by the utterance, although this thesis has not aimed to investigate the synchronous effect of dialect borrowing.

A matrix structure may have its specific accuracies, but in terms of cognition this representation of multi dimensional realities may be less effective than other means of presentation and usage. Root taxonomies take time to prepare and dictionaries may be of marginal use. Generally explicit definitions and taxonomies are time consuming and will tend not to be compiled—and certainly the translator will in general not be willing to justify his or her work to a client by using such material, because this would imply a need to prove personal competence. The use of the Internet to locate and compare incidences of vocabulary items, sometimes with translation, has been demonstrated. Informants will be needed less for vocabulary work than previously because of the Internet. However the need for informant assistance with checking translation into the second language has also been noted. Symmetry comprises reflection, rotation and translation symmetry. Translation symmetry is the location of equivalent elements in different areas of space—in any direction and over any distance, provided basic orientation is maintained. Symmetrical forms are simpler than asymmetric ones, which aids recognition and recall.354 The principle of Ockham’s Razor states that given a choice between functionally equivalent designs, the simplest design should be selected. Einstein however added that ‘everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.’ 355 The principle of simplicity, like other principles of design as shown in Liddell et al. (2003) can be of great value to the translator. There may be no need to espouse any particular theory or to use all available design principles, but for the translator to have a multifaceted capacity to perceive meaning, form and intent and to transmute that perception into a well expressed target version, using various principles, is the mark of the well educated professional.

354 ibid., p.190. 355 Lidwell et al. p.142.

246

The way that translation can take different paths is part of discussion of the theoretical concept of unbundling~rebundling. This can be expressed as a humble bundle of sticks, the virtue of the image being in its simplicity and its flexibility.356

Figure 7.1 Bundled Sticks

The key theory of unbundling~rebundling can be demonstrated in examples like the following.

♦ Placing a theme word at the beginning of an Indonesian translation when it was at the end of the English text, for example with a poem. ♦ Adding or removing repeated words—this should be related to rhetorical style. Notes can support this. ♦ Adding or removing explanatory material or a particular term—for example a wayang character. ♦ Reformatting text, for example by adding footnotes, paraphrasing a note in the text

356 Image from MasterClips.

247 ♦ Summarising text ♦ Changing parts of speech ♦ Changing examples if necessary ♦ Arranging sentences so that some parts become discontinuous. ♦ Deleting redundant terms, or adding redundant terms to aid comprehension.

The unbundling~rebundling idea has application where there is flexibility to reorganise material and above all where there is lack of clarity or lack of efficient organisation in material for translation. Examples noted so far are various Indonesian phrases such as Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa, Arabic loanwords, some Javanese and Indonesian words with connotations not readily transferable into English, and long passages which could be made more readable if reorganised. These cases need a little imagination to express effectively, and they all require trust in the honesty of the translator. The translation is difficult to check in such cases.

In rebundling a translation, the translator ought not to have the aim of adjusting the message so that it will appeal in a way that the original would not. The translator may by some means make it clear that there is a difference in meaning between the source and target term. In this it is important to consider that in some cases a text is to be regarded as authoritative, and in such cases every effort would be made to use precise equivalents of terms, with explanatory footnotes as necessary. Yet to use the Bible as an example of good translation could be to ignore the strong restraints on the work of the translator.

If paraphrase is carried out to improve the target translation, it no doubt will embody rebundling. Paraphrase may then form an advanced form of translation, one which will have dealt with linguistic forms that are unnatural in the target layer. The unbundling~rebundling hypothesis underlies a style

248 on the part of the translator to move clusters of terms around the page. The translator has knowledge, and can obtain information, but the key to efficient translation is perception—the translator’s perception and the perception that is given to the reader. The translator’s perception of necessity will tend to be immediate and it will tend to be modular., with modules established according to efficiency and logic. Some elements of modules can be discontinuous and some can be hidden. Adopting graphic symbolic imagery has important implications for the way transfer is conceived and operates. For some translators this is consciously or unconsciously part of their practice. However much discussion of translation is still confined to the verbal text.

Despite the flexibility and spontaneity that the concept of unbundling~ rebundling offers, however, it has not been demonstrated conclusively in the corpus of examples considered in this thesis that the procedure is necessary, or even in some cases desirable. It has been shown in certain cases that translation may be extended to ensure reader comprehension of certain concepts. However in most cases the most natural treatment of text has been to follow the original. Chapter Eight (8.5) below forms a conclusion about the hypothesis of unbundling~rebundling.

7.3 Symbols, Concepts and Intuitive Factors

Here the scenario is projected that there are symbols and concepts with which the translator works. Furthermore, translator’s intuition may be a factor. The picture may look like what is conveyed in Figure 7.2.

249 Figure 7.2 Symbols, Concepts and Intutive Factors

VERBAL TEXT

symbolic representations disparate ideas and

terms

understood or explained symbolic characters in target language

The examples adduced in this thesis may be viewed as describing activity by the translator engaging with text and producing text in the other language. Further, it has been observed that the process of translation may be likened to the handling of images, and imagery is one node of the suggested root system of a transeme. The translator will also have personal translation habits and possibly a repertoire of styles. There are tactics to deal with difficulties, and there are techniques not only in analysis text and composing text but in ensuring that word processing proceeds well with minimal danger of losing text.

250 In many ways it is very clear that there is an Arabic inclination in the translation of the Bible into Indonesian. The term Allah (pronounced differently however from the Islamic Allah) is marked by its Arabic origin, in contrast to the term theos in the original Koine Greek New Testament and God in the English language translation. The English Lord, Tuhan in Indonesian, follows the tradition of the Pentateuch and New Testament kyrios. The word logos in John 1:1 is a simple word and it is translated simply into English as ‘word.’ Its meaning is not very specific. It contrasts with the use of Firman in Indonesian, which is a word with definite sense but which is rare. Firman is related to the Persian ferman ‘mandate, patent,’ (cognate with Sanskrit pramdna ‘measure, authority.’357 In each case there is an effect from using the translated term. However the Indonesian translation seems more to proselytise through the use of a linguistic profile in the target language. It is worth noting that the phrase milik kepunyaan358 ‘his own possession’ does not necessarily translate his own in the phrase he came unto his own, because the phrase refers to identification with the people rather than possession of them. There could conceivably be many reasons to imitate Balinese thinking in translating Christian literature. But they do not compete evangelically, and evangelism has been a primary motivating force rather than pure accuracy.

7.4 The Transeme

As perception operates in the translation process, the root system that characterises a transeme may tend to compose itself in a very simple structure.

357 http://28.1911encyclopedia.org/F/FI/FIRMAN.htm. 358 John 1:11.

251 Figure 7.3 Transeme Root System

a term

say five semantically chosen words

252 Figure 7.4 Identification of Relevant Meaning

Only one of the words may be primary, so that the picture may be as follows

basket of approximate relevant meaning meanings

On closer inspection the picture may be:

basket of words whose connotations different senses can affect the translation, depending on the context

253

Figure 7.5 Nodes of Elements in a Root System

The nodes may change in shape and size. The diagram explains the process but does not direct the process. The process of translation could be represented as follows:

Figure 7.6 Root Systems

A tree root diagram of a transeme taxonomy could be pictured as a potato plant (above left), although wherever this can be simplified, it should be simplified. The ginseng root (above right) is regarded as a highly

254 sophisticated root structure, and highly symbolic, dominating the image of the plant as a whole.359 This is a figurative example, but the lesson could be drawn from it that the target expression is not the same as the source expression. The following plants are also different in their foliage and even more in their root systems.360 Using this analogy, it can be argued that to the translator the perception of the hidden elements making up a transeme are more important than the surface representation of the term. However the reader will tend to focus either on the target foliage as in the cases below, or on the harvested potatoes or ginseng.

Figure 7.7 Differing Root Systems and Foliage

359 http://telematics.ex.ac.uk/butterfly/plant/images/potato.jpg; www.yuyu.co.kr/English/ginseng/index.asp. 360 Hanyu Tujie Cidian (Chinese Dictionary in Diagrams), Shanghai Cishu Chubanshe, 1995, pp.442-446.

255

Source expressions may not seem to resemble target expressions; where there is a specific referent then that ought to be clear in the target text, the nodes in a source transeme should be used to establish the translatable essence of the transeme, and the nodes in the target transeme should be used to establish a corresponding expression. Both the potato and the ginseng plant are cases where the roots are the main purpose of cultivation. In terms of a root diagram—that is in terms of the theory used here a diagram of a transeme, or alternatively a bundle—the shape of each node in can be altered to represent a different function with regard to the requirements of the translation. Each node can also be enlarged to give a detailed view of its content. It is important to note that this analysis is related specifically to a unit of translation, so that various kinds of functions, syntactic, semantic and so on—may be involved. A typical set of nodes may be as follows:

equivalent options; grammatical considerations; syntactic restrictions; section of taxonomic structure; graphic representation; effect— symbolic; semiotic; usage (taboos; ambiguities); vocabulary information.

The translator’s knowledge of the semantic/syntactic/semiotic system means that further investigation means that further investigation would only be academic and time consuming, keeping in mind that translation will often be carried out in what amounts to real time. However it may be possible to differentiate a specific style of Indonesian, for example, and achieve an English translation which would differ in tone from an international organisation English product.

The hierarchy of needs principle states that for a design to be successful, it must meet basic needs before it can attempt to satisfy higher-level needs.361

361 Lidwell et al., ibid. pp.106-107. The principles of accessibility (pp.14-15), design for usability without modification, by as many people as possible; and affordance,

256 Many diagrams seem to be of little use. Generally if a concept can be made very clear without a diagram, a diagram is superfluous. Images can help in the translation process, and the concept of nodes within a transeme unit is intended to be a flexible means of illustrating some of the significant elements associated with a word or phrase. A key motivation is the need for practical efficiency, so that key elements are identified but little time need be taken to analyse their part in the significance of the transeme. This is not particularly an academic process but rather a constant handy guide.

Reading information in texts has been seen in the Nida approach. It may be almost inevitable but the translator needs to be on guard against the phenomenon, in particular when clients may like to read things into text. In the Bible, capitalisation is common in translation but is not found in the original text. Whereas English will commonly be a metalanguage for translation, in the picture of English-Indonesian translation another language may be used. For example in translating Shakespeare from the original, it is fair to assume that many translators will first interpret the original into contemporary English. However this could introduce unconscious distortion into the text, because of the considerable difference in the versions of English over four hundred years. The Shakespearean text cannot be held to be equivalent to a contemporary English version. In this situation a metalanguage could be useful for reference, and the Chinese translation of Shakespeare’s works could help to discern the semantic content of what Shakespeare wrote without interference from contemporary English.

Style and depth of meaning will automatically be matters for appreciation in the native language. But in understanding a text in a second language, the style of the original text may be difficult to appreciate fully. The style of the where the physical characteristics influence function (pp.20-21); and forgiveness (pp.88-89) where designs help people avoid errors and minimise the negative consequences of any errors; legibility—the visual clarity of text (pp.124-125); and readability—the degree to which prose can be understood, based on the complexity of words and sentences. These principles may have application here.

257 target text may then be a matter for concern. The literary weight of Shakespeare’s work will imply that an Indonesian translation should possess a corresponding style if possible. Clearly the translation will have to be written in modern Indonesian, but the work as a whole would not be characterised by informal contemporary jargon. For the non native reader of a source language, the essential meaning of a text will emerge from the context will provide. Yet it would be hard to deny that the context will on occasion be insufficient, and advice may be needed from a native speaker.

Symbols and some general principles for understanding images combine to form powerful repositories of non verbal information. This could emerge as interpretation of Indonesian text or it could even become an accompaniment to a translation—as a header or footer for example. Yet an analytical framework for visual images may elucidate the meaning of these images. It is however important to note that these are constructs out of the text that may be subject to varying interpretations that may or may not be correct. Analytic methods used in deriving results from the examination of visual images may not be valid.

Despite moves to alter the use of English, the use of man, for example, appears to continue virtually unchanged. With gender in general, the question of use in the Romance languages seems unresolved. With the Bible for example, the question of going back over existing text and resolving translation difficulties poses serious questions. For a translator, the primary concern should be translation into the target language and not any desire to alter structures of that language. At the same time the use of gender is only one way that language speakers see the world, consciously and unconsciously. In Indonesian there seems to be a tendency to use Sanskrit/Javanese forms to express concepts rather than words of Malay origin. There seems to be a tendency to use Arabic terms to reflect an awareness of Islam in society. And

258 various means are used to cope with the threat of an influx of English neologisms. These currents run deep.

The Gospel according to St John is a theological minefield and it is the sort of text that could pose problems for the careful translator. To begin with, there is the use of the word Allah in the New Testament translation into Indonesian. Even more to the point there is the use of the word firman. 362 There is probably an attempt to appeal to Muslims and is probably evangelical rather than scientific. Considering that Theos means dewa/dewi as well as Allah, this could have been reflected in the text or in a footnote. When it comes to the sentence kai theos en ho logos, the first century concept of logos is clearly relevant, but it seems to differ from firman as in the translation. The great shortcoming in prescribing a sole unsupported translation is clear if one considers that a language may contain an ambiguity which is not coterminous with the ambiguity in a particular equivalent. With the Gospel term Word, this is not a natural expression in this sense in English to begin with. The identification with Logos is not so easy.

One way to overcome the shortcomings that a translator will typically have in regard to the second language may be a collegiate approach, even if in practice this is a group of two, or a translator in telephone or electronic communication with other translators. This could to provide a learning environment that is best guaranteed to result in excellent translation. The economic benefit to be gained from translation work may already be slim, however, and so the economics of such a collegiate approach would bear careful consideration.

The argument being developed here as the translator pursues excellence in translation may be explained in terms of the concept of unbundling and rebundling, where the translator mentally separates out aspects of the meaning

362 See Chapter Four, 4.2.

259 of a term of phrase and presents it to the target reader in a different way. Several examples will show this. Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Bali and Bandung are all historically and politically of considerable significance in Indonesia. A reader may like to know that Jakarta is the cosmopolitan capital of Indonesia and the centre of government and the economy; the Special District of Yogyakarta is a city and province on the island of Java, still governed as a Sultanate; Bali is an island at the eastern end of the island of Java, famous for its Hindu-Balinese culture, and a well known tourist destination; Bandung, capital of West Java, was an important revolutionary centre during Indonesia’s war of independence. In practical terms this brief background information may be regarded as part of the translated text, and it is important that the information is factual and without subjective colouring. In terms of handling issues of time, it has already been noted that time sequences without tense can be confusing to English speaking readers. Readers may be able to fill out gaps, though this may not be possible if they are unaware of historical elements in Indonesian texts. The involved English structures of tense on the other hand may be difficult for Indonesian readers. Further, words in one language will cover a different scope of meaning. The following table could be said to display the essential meanings of the word orang.

orang

person someone anyone people

orangnya ada orang seseorang orang tidak anyone; one datang by one perorangan individual, private orangtua parent

260 This is simpler than Echols & Shadily’s 1994 explanation, which itself was better organised than the earlier version. The four categories of person, someone, anyone and people appear to be quite serviceable, but on examination someone~anyone can be seen to be distinctions within the English language, as can person and people, rather than Indonesian distinctions. Thus the categories of meaning could be reduced to person and someone. This distinction could in turn be disregarded if English were to be used as a metalanguage instead of a language used to define semantic characteristics through its own peculiarities. The conclusion from the analysis here is then that no chart is necessary, just a prose definition of the word orang.

Translation will be facilitated by vocabulary studies as well as the translator’s own knowledge and experience of terms. A treatment of the Indonesian language in terms of an extended theasaurus could include comparison of words with symbolic content in English also. This would be of considerable value in appreciating the meaning and connotations of words. For example, the English concept of an axis exists also in Indonesian, as poros, garis lurus sebagai petunjuk atau pengukuran, ‘a straight line as a pointer or measurement.’ Kamus Besar defines poros bumi as ‘garis yang bersifat khayal yang memhubungkan Kutub Udara dan Kutub Selatan tempat bumi berputar pada posisi yang tetap,’ an imaginary line that joins the North Pole and South Pole where the earth turns at a fixed point. The idea of an axis can involve linking the Tribhuvana or Three Worlds, Heaven, Earth and the Underworld. In temples like Angkor the cosmic pillar of the Veda is represented by a deep well beneath the central shrine, the lingam or statue of the god within it, or by a tall pole.363 ’Echols & Shadily (1994) give poros as ‘axis, pivot, shaft,’ seporos, ‘ally,’ menyeporoskan ‘create an alliance’ (esp. ideological). Salim 364 notes the meaning, ‘negara-negara yang mempunyai hubungan

363 Chevalier & Gheerbrant, pp.61-63. 364 Salim, P. 1993, Advanced English-Indonesian Dictionary, 4th edn., Modern English Press, Jakarta.

261 politik (sebelum tahun 1959), countries with political contacts [before 1959]. This refers to the Jakarta –Pnompenh-Peking-Pyongyang Axis that existed to 1959.365 Kamus Besar has poros Jakarta-Peking as ‘hubungan kerja sama yang erat antara Republik Indonesia dan RRC [Republik Rakyat Cina] yang terjadi pada tahun 1965 dengan dalih untuk melawan semua kekuatan imperialis (sebagai akibatnya, RI menyatakan keluar dari keanggotaan PBB dan mendirikan NEFO, dan diakhiri dengan pemberontakan G30S yang didukung oleh RRT [Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]),’ ‘a close cooperative arrangement between the Republik of Indonesia and the People’s Republic of China that was formed in 1965 with the excuse of opposing all imperialist forces (as a result, the RI declared that it was cancelling membership of the UN and establishing NEFO [the New Emerging Forces], and finished with the G30S uprising which was supported by China.’ Kamus Besar notes the World War II sense of the Axis Powers that is the primary political sense of ‘axis’ in English. The political implications of the word in Indonesian need to be reckoned with, but whatever explanatory material might be provided by the translator need not take a particular point of view, whether on the pact with China, the issue of imperialism, or the course of events relating to the 1965 abortive coup.

The Chinese thesaurus noted here provides an underlying structure for a thesaurus suited to the demands of the Chinese language and is not simply a transposition of Roget.366 There is a large amount of such analytic treatments of the English vocabulary. This thesis has touched on some aspects of the Indonesian language that may in due course form part of a thesaurus type study.

365 Lubis, M.S. 3 August 2005, PKI Dan Manifesto Politik, http://www.waspada.co.id/opini/ artikel/artikel.php?article_id=64317. 366 Shanghai Waiguoyu Xueyuan 上海外國語學.院. 1984, Tongyici Cilin 统一此辞林 ‘Dictionary of Synonyms,’ Shangwu Yinshuguan 商务印书馆, Hong Kong.

262 The basic Malay substratum and the strong input of Arabic vocabulary into Indonesian are bound to result in distinctive approaches to many terms in contrast to English concepts. A large number of symbolic terms could be examined in this way, but there may not always be a standard way of translating particular items. There is a creative role for the translator. If a thesaurus arrangement is planned, however, it is important that there should be some overall schema and not just an alphabetically arranged dictionary of synonyms as is found in Tesaurus Melayu. It is not so much a matter of schematic layout, but of rational groupings of terms. A term may be cross referenced to several others, but there should be some underlying structure and not just a lengthy list of entries. Whatever structure is imposed on Indonesian, however, does not matter so much as acceptance of the principle that alphabetic ordering tends to conceal similarities and differences in an unnatural way. The translator will have his or her own feel for synonyms and antonyms, but a thesaurus has the value of assisting quick recall and suggesting unthought of terms.

7.5 Philological Layering and Linguistic Interfaces

Problems relating to translation into a second language could be solved by a committee method, preferably a committee of two. As text is produced by a translator, the partner could correct it and discuss points of concern where appropriate. The result could utilise the full extent of knowledge of each.

263 Cultural misunderstandings would tend to be neutralised, and consistent rendering into the target language could be assured. There is a certain humility required for this however, and a certain judgement as to the extent to which changes should be made to a colleague’s text. This problem could be difficult to resolve given the importance that attaches to scholarly reputation. Thus what is best may not come to pass. Further, in commercial translation there is a need to talk in terms of dollar values to clients who will typically think predominantly in terms of price and who may have only a dim perception of quality of translation. A freelance translator may specialise in Indonesian translation, but typically a translation company dealing in various languages will farm out translations to freelance operators. NAATI 3 is enough to validate quality, and often translation into Indonesian is accepted even without NAATI in the relevant direction. Under such circumstances to consider the idea of two translators working together on a text may not be feasible in financial terms, when typically the translation fee is barely enough to compensate one translator for the time spent.

A potentially serious problem in translation may be unconscious misunderstanding and error. A translator translates a text into excellent Indonesian or English, as the first language, but simply may not realise that there are areas where the translation is misleading because the text has not been fully understood. A translator translates a text into a second language, English or Indonesian, but does not realise that the translation contains syntactic errors as well as inappropriate semantic analysis, so that the translation may tend to approximate or to mislead. Others may edit the translations but the results of such editing are not predictable and error may be introduced if an editor does not know the source language or does not have the source text.

The development of Bahasa Indonesia is related to the history and geography of Nusantara, and the social structures of indigenous development and foreign

264 influence. Max Weber saw Islam as determined substantially by the interests of a warrior class, a view that was essentially in line with a popular Christian impression following the Crusades. 367 Whether this was true or not, the warrior concept has been a reality in Indonesian life. The Dutch scholar van Leur saw that Hindu influence was not felt mostly along the coasts of Java but in the courtly centres of the interior of Java. Instead he saw a pattern as in southern India where Brahmans assisted the prince in bureaucratic rule and a process of legitimation of the ruling dynasty which involved the generation of myth and tradition. This contrasted with Islam, which spread in Southeast Asia through the influence of traders.

The Indocentric point of view is held for the preceding centuries, when Hindu civilisation came from India and that of Islam from the world of the caliphates. But with the arrival of ships from Western Europe, the point of view is turned a hundred eighty degrees and from then on the Indies are observed from the deck of the ship, the ramparts of the fortress, the high gallery of the trading-house.368

Another Dutch scholar, Schrieke, however drew a parallel for Islam with the spread of Hinduism. He argued that at the time of the arrival of the Christian Portuguese into the archipelago in the sixteenth century Muslim ulama (scholars) appeared at the courts of Indonesian coastal rulers. The syahbandar were channels for Islam to reach into the royal courts. In Schrieke’s analysis Indonesia became Islamic partly through competition in the form of Christianity and partly through the existing Hindu kingdoms in the Javanese interior which were seen essentially as allies. From the point of view of accepting foreign vocabulary, however, the course of Hinduisation and Islamisation need only be considered as, with the Javanese language itself, a fertile source of terminology in the history of the Indonesian language. The waves of influence that took place are still detectable in modern Indonesian.

367 Wertheim, W.F. 1995, ‘The contribution of Weberian sociology to studies of Southeast Asia,’ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies vol.26 no.1, March, pp.17-29. 368 Van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society, p. 261., quoted in Wertheim, W.F. 1995, ‘The contribution of Weberian sociology to studies of Southeast Asia,’ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies vol.26 no.1, March, pp.17-29.

265

Visual and performance artists have given voice to community anxiety about social conflict in Indonesia. Makassar sculptor Dicky Tjandra, focused on sorrow arising from violence, rather than confrontation. He chose postmodernist expression to show concern about national disintegration. His art work ‘both accepts and contests postmodernism, incorporating traditional values and conservatism with unconventionality, working within government ideology yet also transcending it, and unifying discrete cultural elements without homogenising them.’ This may represent artists’ moves towards ethnic and religious reconciliation against a background of question of the ideology of Unity in Diversity.369 The various strands of linguistic history are tied into contemporary Indonesian, but they retain their colour.

* A bird in the hand is worth two in the forest. * Take the cow by the horns.

369 Morrell, E. 2000, ‘Ethnicity, Art, and Politics Away from the Indonesian Centre,’ Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia vol.15 no.2, October, p.255ff.

266 7.6 The Background of English

English has borrowings from adjacent cultures, but more from French as well as Latin and to some extent Greek. The characterisation of Anglo-Saxon as the language of the belly, French as the language of the heart, and Latin as the language of the mind is useful. Examples of usage such as good and proper, fair and square and kith and kin, along with various idioms, give the English language a kind of characteristic personality.

Many of the translator’s skills need to be seen as routine, although there is a continuing requirement to maintain a high standard of expression. There are noun–adjective pairs in English where the adjective cannot be related to the noun by any process of morphological change. The history of English has left its mark, and to transform a noun into an adjective a Latin or Greek form may be required, as can be seen in the following chart: spring vernal cat feline dog canine horse equine wolf lupine heart cardiac father paternal mother maternal day diurnal church ecclesiastical

The term collateral may be used to describe such adjectives, which are phonologically and etymologically quite distinct but are usual or even obligatory. With extensive borrowing in English from Norman French and Medieval Latin there are many English nouns which have adjectives closely connected with them in meaning but not in form, such as horse and equine, dog and canine, day and diurnal.370 These pairs may not be entirely noun— adjective in nature. The collateral concept can be expanded to include other

370 Funk and Wagnalls, 1964 Standard Desk Dictionary, 1st edn., quoted in Koshiishi 2002.

267 classes of words also.371 The use of a collateral word may be obligatory in some cases, but in other cases there exists a range of choice. For paternal there is also the adjective fatherly, the possessive form father's, a combining form patr- (patri-, patro-), or the noun itself used attributively, as in father image. Of these, vernal, lupine and diurnal are becoming less used, and cardiac is not used for the heart in, say, a matter of the heart. The philological history of each language needs to be kept in mind in translation. Native speakers may express themselves with little awareness of these layers from the past, but for the translator understanding of the structure of each language provides power over text, making it more accurate transparent because and more compelling. Koshiishi raises the case of nonce-word formations.

Nonce words such as poorness, fruitfulity, etc. are otherwise they result in communication failure because hearers cannot retrieve their morphological and semantic composition.372

This is a demonstration of the difficulty of creation of text in a non-native target language: poorness is a good example of a nonce word, which is capable of maintaining the general sense of poor and avoiding restriction to poverty with its differing senses. However fruitfulity appears unnecessary because of the existing word fruitfulness which does not appear likely to cause problems when beginning from the word fruitful. Moreover fruitfulity is awkward and is not a natural formation from a –ful word. Koshiishi’s point is well made, but the example is inappropriate. The argument in this thesis for translation into the native language of the translator, or at least approval of a translation by a native translator, can find specific application here as advice for a translator to obtain up to date advice on the appropriateness of adjectival and other forms, and to avoid nonce terms and any other forms where creativity is not well supported by documentary sources.

371 Koshiishi, T. 2002, Collateral adjectives, Latinate vocabulary, and English morphology (1),’ Studia Anglica Posnaniensia: international review of English Studies, Annual pp.49-88. 372 Ibid.

268 Comprehension—and thus translation from a source text—may not be entirely free of such considerations, but, on the premise that the source text language is correct and that it does not contain significant elements such as sarcasm, such considerations are not likely to be significant. What becomes more important are the meaning and significance of elements in a conceptual world which might (in the tradition of tagmemics) be called etic grids, which may possibly evolve into emic grids.373 It is relatively easy to see this in terms of number and gender features, but much more difficult to follow the play of semantic information, and to expect overlay patterns following the pattern of progression from phonetics to phonology seems unjustified—as if patterns identified from the simpler elements of language should apply with elements that vary very widely. Koshiishi observes that loanwords are predominantly nouns, which are the most efficient part of speech in terms of information theory, and academic keywords are most often nouns. When novel things or ideas are introduced into another language, it is highly probable that their referentiability or naming function is very much highlighted.374

After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, French became the language of law and government. At the end of the 13th century and in the first half of the 14th century, there was a large proportion of Romance words in the written language. In the spoken vocabulary there was a strong effect. However it would be difficult to determine the precise process through which individual French words came into use, whether this was through the courts or through general usage. Besides these new words of classical origin, there were many Romance forms which were being tentatively used, and which ultimately went to enrich the English vocabulary. In general, it may be said that they are less abstract in character than those contributed by the classics. Many Romance forms were specific and concrete rather than having a classical literary origin.

373 ibid. 374 ibid.

269 Italian words figured in the borrowings. There were a number of Dutch borrowings also.375

There are all sorts of possible characterisations of a supposed personality for English. Ackroyd characterises of the English as ‘a phlegmatic, pragmatic, practical people’ who are also ‘a swoony folk, often melancholy and lost in dreams.‘376

They fear inwardness and physicality but they love surface display, ornament, irony and melodrama. This is certainly an Englishness I recognise in myself and in the English things I admire.377

Saunders however adds a disclaimer that this is a matter of place and not of race. 378 But, just as for Indonesian, such identifications between cultural concepts and language are unlikely to be entirely correct. Meanwhile the concern of the translator is to recognise the potential of a language for translation and to identify ways to optimise the translation.

7.7 Differences Between Indonesian and English

Orthographic differences between Indonesian and English include the comma instead of decimal point—for example the Indonesian 0,9 is the English (and international) 0.9. This may seem of little importance if incorrectly rendered. However in terms of readability and of confidence in a translation and in the underlying original, it is significant and care needs to be taken with the presentation of figures. The names of countries, cities and towns are often different in the two languages. Lautan Indonesia for Indian Ocean is a translation that is fraught with potential consequences. A wall map of

375 The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). http://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/. Accessed 4 June 2004. 376 Saunders, A. 2003, ‘Not So Happy, But Still Glorious,’ The Sydney Morning Herald, 4-5 January, Spectrum p.13. Review of Ackroyd, P., Albion: The Origins of the English Imagination, Random House. 377 ibid. 378 ibid.

270 Indonesia dated 1974/75379 has Lautan Indonesia with Hindia following in parentheses. As far as spealling is concerned, however much the pronunciation of Indonesian names by English speakers may vary from the original, the spelling is almost always carried over into English just as it is in Indonesian. There are exceptions, largely for historical reasons: the Straits of Malacca, Sumatra instead of Sumatera, Borneo instead of Kalimantan, the Moluccas instead of Maluku, Macassar on occasion for Makasar which is now formally Ujung Pandang. Other points to note in conversion of names is that pulau may sometimes be retained instead of island, mainly for stylistic reasons, but that in general there seems little reason to retain Indonesian geographical terms as they do not give added meaning to the English equivalent. To carry them over into English text no doubt can lend a certain exotic flavour to the English text, but in terms of a consistent translation approach this is difficult to justify.

A translator needs to be aware of the continuing impact of English on Indonesian, including influence of syntactic patterns and word meanings, and invisible semantic structures. This needs to be set against the bedrock of incompatible structures, for example the Indonesian structure of noun + adjective as in kota besar versus the English adjective + noun, as in big city.

7.8 Influences on the Translation Process

For Indonesians writing in English is a valuable skill both in Indonesia and internationally for various reasons, including commercial reasons, and this applies to a large number of Asian countries, but for English speakers to write in Indonesian is a very specialised skill which may be confined largely to researchers and other experts resident in Indonesia for long periods of time. Cooperative translation in which the English speaker contributes drafting and

379 The map was published by PT Pembina.

271 editing skills is no doubt quite common. However the ability to produce Indonesian text without assistance is another question.

It is important to be able to translate Bahasa Jakarta, hat is to say, in the main, colloquial Indonesian. This style may intrude upon regular text. An example may illustrate what is involved. Kayaknya saya lagi dapat sesuatu yang besar in a cartoon380 means, 'It looks like I am getting something big.' Kayaknya is nampaknya, lagi is equivalent to sedang, and dapat to mendapat. In standard Indonesian, lagi meaning 'again' would tend to occur at the end of a clause rather than in the middle as here, and 'can' would be bisa.

The adoption of the Latin alphabet for the Indonesian language continues to have significance for Indonesian. It has affected the evolution of the form of the language itself, so that for example the Malay forms –eh and –ih which would be allowed as alternative readings from Arabic are fixed in Indonesian as –ih. In general it is probably true to say that the Latin alphabet is more readily and naturally able to represent the structure of Indonesian, although at the same time the phonological structure of the language could be adequately represented by the Arabic script. The Latin alphabet has tended to break down barriers between language groups in Indonesia, specifically between Indonesian and Javanese. But most of all the Latin alphabet is fairly neutral in terms of religious and ethnic divisions. In relations with most other countries, the Latin alphabet clearly is a factor that is greatly to Indonesia’s advantage.

Interpretation must be accepted as having a much longer history than written translation. Interpreting is immediate in conveying meaning within a given situation. It is carried out in real time and needs to be rapid as well as accurate. Interpreting tends to convey a real situation rather than being bound to use precise word equivalents; and in any case it will have been likely and quite common for there to have been no words in the target language for certain

380 Gatra no.11 tahun III, 1 February 1997

272 words in the source language. In fact—the translation of the Bible is an excellent example—the act of written translation may create new terms that stick in the target language.

7.9 Symbols and Culture

The historical and cultural background of nations can be ignored or minimised in law or in international fora for certain purposes. However in philology and in the world of linguistic and social interchange the symbols of a nation are always present. Indonesia is a very young nation in terms of national independence in 1945—or perhaps in effective terms several years after that—but its history dates back on steles and monuments; and its cultural origins are very old, with the Indian and Arab cultues figuring prominently. Australia with a federated history of a hundred years and a clutch of former colonies independent for some decades before that, has however deep roots in the culture of England and its cultural contributors of Athens and Rome, and English in Australia shares in the heritage of international English.

The book of Moses and a man of strength are examples of English biblical prose, as are the holy of holies and the song of songs (the holiest place, the best song).

This imparted to English a certain rhythmic sonority it has not formerly possessed. Indeed, there was something in the pattern that completely captivated the English ear, and directed the language to a form of eloquence that became its paradigm.381

There was controversy over the translation of the Bible. Sir Thomas More attacked Tyndale’s New Testament: Tyndale had translated priest as senior (later elder), church as congregation, penance as repentance, confess as acknowledge, graces as favour and charity as love. Tyndale in effect

381 p.116 Bobrick 2001

273 challenged the role of the Latin Vulgate, which had shaped English expectations of what the scriptures said. For example, tradition applied ekklesia to a body of clergy and a place of worship even though this did not represent New Testament use, being dated almost 300 years after the practices of the early church. 382 Tyndale went to the original Greek and Hebrew rather than the Latin version of the scriptures. The Authorised (King James) Version owes much to his rendition.

…the rhythmical beauty of his prose, skilful use of synonyms for freshness, variety, and point, and ‘magical simplicity of phrase’ imposed itself on all later versions, down to the present day.383

Many examples show the importance of time and place in conveying Christian concepts in translation, and attempts have been made for the sake of particular interests to promote and even enforce the use of particular versions of the Bible, from the Vulgate down to contemporary popular versions. This contrasts with the practice of Islam to have the faithful recite the original text of the Quran rather than a translated version. It has been commented that the Quran has been regarded as inaccessible to Westerners, and many Muslims believe that the Qur'an cannot be translated. Generally in Islam there has been a tendency to concentrate on teaching speakers of other languages the language of the Quran.384 Clearly this has given impetus to the use of Arabic words in Indonesia. For the translator, it underlines the importance of being aware of the Islamic dimension to Arabic words in Indonesian society.

Just as there is a large number of symbols that can carry meaning, so there is a very large number of quotations in English that bear memories and associations, sometimes humorous, sometimes unfortunate. Mae West’s

382 pp.100-111. 383 Bobrick 2001, p.101. 384 Huston Smith, quoted in Nelson, M.Z.. 2000, ‘Islam's Holy Book, in English,’ Publisher’s Weekly vol.247 no.46, 13 November, p.36.

274 ‘Come up and see me sometime’385 is a well-known example of a saying that can strike familiar chords. To go back in the history of English, perhaps Shakespeare is a good starting point, alongside the King James Bible and perhaps Pilgrim’s Progress. The language of these books has worked their way into English. Quotations from Shakespeare have been common in the language, but when they are felt to be archaic will tend to be used less. This underlines the importance of the translator having an appreciation of natural English, and by implication the dangers of being creative with quoted material. Although the body of Indonesian literature does not have as long a history as that of English, like English it represents a confluence of great tributary languages. There will be instances where wording will bring a smile or a frown to Indonesians, or where a translation is politely accepted but privately declined. A translation in ‘perfect Indonesian’ by a non-native speaker may be praised more out of etiquette than formal correctness.

There is often a process of formation of cliché.The difference between cliché and other forms of writing may be difficult to decide, especially if over time the language has become a cemetery for dead metaphors. For the translator, it not necessarily essential to trade cliché for cliché, or even metaphor for metaphor, but it is surely the translator’s job to carry the sense of cliché if that is obvious from the original, and to avoid cliché if it does not represent the intention of the original. The following nonce examples might be taken from some after dinner speech, and it could be said to be said by a native speaker.

It isn’t good for the translator to have a finger in too many pies The interpreter should stay cool as a cucumber. No-one could hold a candle to his translation. When all’s said and done, this translator will take some beating.386

385 Mae West, originally ‘Why don’t you come up sometime, and see me?’ in She Done Him Wrong (1933 film), in Augarde, T., ed. 1991, The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Quotations, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 386Reference may be made to the Penguin Book of Clichés for example.

275 To a native speaker, clichés and idioms may be said more readily than more precise speech, but when a non-native speaker uses these forms of speech in imitation of a native speaker, inappropriate use may have the unfortunate effect of making the terms strange, ridiculous or simply wrong. Cliché generally needs to be avoided. A cliché may be described as a metaphor that has lost its metaphorical impact through overuse, and has acquired predictability in certain types of text. A cliché finder at www.westegg. com/cliche can throw up a variety of claimed cliché forms in response to keywords. Yet the problem of definition remains. Cresswell’s Dictionary of Clichés387 may serve as a reference work, but frequently the educated native speaker will be able to decide independently. In translation, what is important is to avoid using cliché expressions unless they fairly represent a similar level of language in the original. English has all sorts of idioms, which may be seen as occupying a higher literary level.388 An idiom must be used correctly in the target language in both sense and form, and that it is used appropriately.

Kress and van Leeuwen389 focus on visual rhetoric, developing the idea of grammar of terms to analyse visual texts. The translator also may need to explain am illustration to ensure that it is meaningful to the reader and not simply captioned in the target language.

Darwish argues translation tests are prone to underestimate the issues of intertextuality, contexts of situation, utility, audience and purpose, and to be based on a system of penalty for errors which tends to concentrate on the microstructure of text. In contrast to this, there is clearly a internal cognitive world of the translator which rusns alongside the external translation process. Translation skills should not be tested only in terms of grammatical

387 Cresswell, J. 2000, The Penguin Dictionary of Clichés, Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria. 388 See Gulland, D.M., and Hinds-Howell, D.G. 1986, The Penguin Dictionary of English Idioms, Penguin Books, Ringwood, Victoria. 389 Kress, G., and van Leeuwen, T. 1996, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Deakin University Press, p.183.

276 correctness but in terms of information integrity, translation dexterity (‘translation skills and adroitness in terms of strategies, comprehension, production, matchability, and approximation’) and esthetic effect (use of appropriate rhetorical techniques and an overall artistic impression).

Within this overall division, the errors should also be judged in terms of interference and intervention, that is whether the candidate has unjustifiably interfered with the text or legitimately intervened, for linguistic, cultural, or information needs considerations and so on, to render the text intelligible to the target language reader.390

The skills and qualities that Darwish suggests should undoubtedly be part of the translator’s repertory, and any narrowly based test could be unfair. However it needs to be remembered also that a test following principles such as those argued by Darwish would inevitably be subjective. There would be cases where a translator may have chosen one strategy over another, but the reason for the translation would need to be explained. It is also important to note that testing is an entrance door to translation, and that the real practice of translation will be pursued freely by the translator in due course. Therefore these skills could best be seen as criteria to judge translations, either in an academic environment or to assess the quality of translations in a professional situation.

390 Darwish, A. 1995, ‘A Model for Designing Decisionbased Translation Te sts,’ @turjuman Online, http://www.surf.net.au/writescope/translation/index.html.

277 Apabila kita sempatkan untuk menelusuri keunikan riwayat perjalanan orang jawa When we can trace the unique story of a hingga sampai terbentuknya suatu profil journey by a Javanese to the shaping of manusia jawa hingga sekarang a Javanese profile, to the present, melalui pemahaman berbagai through the understanding of literature, literatur,naskah,maupun piwulang manuscripts and piwulang (teaching) of (ajaran) para leluhur di tanah jawa the ancestors in Java, it seems there is a ini ,nampaklah suatu kekhasan dari ciri special character of the Javanese who manusia jawa yang sebenarnya mewarisi have inherited various noble teachings, berbagai ajaran luhur, yaitu antara lain : among others gotong-royong, andap- gotong-royong, andap-asor, tepa-slira asor, tepa-slira (mutual respect), (saling menghargai), berbudi berbudi bawaleksana (keeping one’s bawaleksana 391 (mengedepankan budi word)and so on. And there are teachings pekerti) dll.Disanapun nampak there about a view of life that is deep terungkap ajaran tentang pandangan and returns to the earth, harmonious hidupnya yang mendalam,serba conduct, versed in etiquette, humble, membumi, laku menyelaras,bertata noble of character, relating to nature, krama, rendah hati , berbudi rich in philosophy-teaching and sabar luhur , menyambung dengan alam, kaya narima ing pandum. akan falsafah -piwulang serta sabar narima ing pandum 392

The following terms cited in the above passage are worth attention since they characterise a Javanese way of thinking. Even if the Javanese terms do not occur in a text to be translated, it is likely that the attitudes characterised here will appear at some stage, and it will be good to be aware of their cultural significance in the interests of a good translation. gotong-royong communal working together andap-asor low profile tepa-slira393 sympathetic understanding berbudi bawaleksana placing character to the forefront pandangan hidupnya yang mendalam a deep and very realistic view of life serba membumi

391 Prawiroatmojo, S., 1989, Bausastra Jawa-Indonesia, CV Haji Masagung, Jakarta, for bawa laksana, gives ‘menepati apa katanya (ucapannya),’ ‘to keep one’s word.’ 392 Wicaksono, GPH. Soeryo. ‘Kebudayaan Dalam Perspektif Negara Kesatuan RI,’ http://www.jawapalace.org/kami.html. 393 op.cit. gives the meaning of tepa-slira as ‘dapat merasakan (menjaga) perasaan (beban pikiran) orang lain (sehingga tidak menyinggung perasaan atau dapat meringankan beban orang lain); toleransi,’ ‘able to feel for others and avoid offending them, or to be able to lighten their burden.’

278 laku menyelaras harmonious conduct bertata karma versed in etiquette rendah hati humble berbudi luhur noble of character menyambung dengan alam relating to nature kaya akan falsafah -piwulang rich in philosophy and teaching sabar narima ing pandum394 patient and accepting

Andap-asor is not to be found in Kamus Besar or Echols & Shadily (1994). The Internet yielded the following:

Tim tersebut sebaiknya jangan The team should not be emotional, but emosional, bersikap arif dan andap asor should adopt a wise, low profile attitude. (merendah).395

Ketua DPD396 Partai Golkar Jateng HM The Chairman of the Golkar Regional Hasbi meminta agar kader di Kabupaten Leadership Committee for Central Java Tegal low profile dan andap asor. Ketua asked cadres in Tegal Regency to keep a DPD Partai Golkar Klaten Drs Anang low profile and a humble attitude. The Widayaka berpendapat lain. Calon Ketua Chairman of the Klaten Golkar DPD Partai Golkar Jateng yang akan Committee, Drs Anang Widayaka, had a dipilihnya nanti, adalah sosok yang lekat different view. The candidate for dengan budaya Jawa dan selalu Chairman of Golkar, Central Java, who mengedepankan sikap andap asor is to be selected soon, is a figure that is (merendah).397 attached to Javanese culture and always stresses the attitude of andap asor (humility).

None of the cultural aspects of translation should obscure the importance of the plain elements of grammar and syntax. The function of verbs in di- and is something that needs to be understood naturally in Indonesian so that a

394 ibid. narima ing pandum is explained as menerima nasib, bertawakal, ‘accepting fate, resigned.’ 395 Titis Widyatmoko – detikInet, ‘Tindakan Menantang Hacker Sebaiknya Tidak Dilakukan,’ http://jkt1.detikinet.com/index.php/detik.read/tahun/2004/ bulan /05 /tgl/11/time/11059/idnews/156319/idkanal/110. 11/05/2004. 396 Dewan Pimpinan Daerah, Regional Leadership Committee (of a political party). 397 http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0110/24/dar6.htm, accessed 11 August 2005.

279 translation into English will read naturally. The following examples are useful as background to the di- function.

Dia mengatur acara itu.

Acara itu dia atur. He arranged the program. Acara itu diaturnya. Diaturnya acara itu. Acara itu diatur. The program was arranged. Diaturnya. He arranged it. Diatur. It was arranged.

There is a balance between the subject, verb and object, that is to say the stress is apportioned among these three elements. With the me- form the subject and verb are felt to be stronger. With the object plus di- forms the object tends to be stronger in emphasis, and in any case the object and verb are stronger than the subject. With diaturnya and diatur the object is not mentioned, but the object though implicit is firmly in mind. Diaturnya acara itu and Diaturnya however appear to allow more stress on the subject (di~nya). This kind of stress seems to be able to vary, but what is important to note is the ability of the di-nya form to avoid stress on the subject and active verb and to shift stress towards the object. However the translation given in each case does not necessarily reflect the emphasis given—nor need it reflect that emphasis unless the context demands this.

For the translator, it is not difficult to feel when different translations are called for, but the di-nya form has dimensions that are very different from the English passive, and it is particularly important not to feel that di- needs to be translated as the English passive, and even more so that di-nya need not be so translated. It can be seen in the chart above for example that in only two cases out of seven was the passive used in English. Operational entities in the Indonesian language—grammar, syntax—bear no necessary relationship to

280 such entities in the English language. Where similarity in function exists there is no need to assume that there is systemic identity, and certainly no need to assume that a translation adopted for one occurrence is best for other occurrences. So here for example the translation in one context for Diaturnya as ‘He arranged it’ could well in another context be ‘It was arranged by him.’

281 Figure 7.8 Nodes of Various Kinds

In a picture of a transeme there could be pictured various attached nodes, which could be phonological, semantic and syntactic. The process of translation could then be seen as taking place beneath the text or draft text that might be read. The transeme may go easily into the target language, or it may not. Some terms may be translated painlessly and some are a headache. But it will naturally follow that to insist on translating a noun by a noun or a verb by a verb and so on, or on using a particular dictionary equivalent, may have little justification in this approach. The Indonesian language, to those who know and love it, has various kinds of impact on the listener and various requirements of the speaker. Somehow the tone and even the full range of meaning of an utterance can feel very different to the English version. The unbundling~rebundling concept has grown out of this gap in meaning.

The approach that emphasises the personal analysis of the translator is generally known as the black box approach. However this approach is not inscrutable, and it could well be described in terms of a clear box of works between message and message. To press this analogy further, it may be argued that in many ways the translator is simply transparent, because his or her work is judged by the result and not by evidence of flair in the process of translation.

282 It would also be possible to envisage a rotation of each nodular system, and the ordering of the nodes, to show alignment of meanings within the sentence. The analogy is with plants (as also shown in Figure 18), with the various operations necessary to align the two organisms located underground. On the surface there will be an equivalent structure—word or phrase—to the original, and possibly an impression that translation consists in supplying equivalents, an impression that is only partly true.

The above diagram shows transemes in terms of node structures. The node structure is developed from the stick bundle characterisation because it permits a taxonomy. There is also an internal information structure for each term that adds up to more than just the sticks of information. Also, in this concept, the nodes turn so that they can more nearly match contiguous node structures.

A common and elementary mode of translation can occur where the translator feels that one dictionary equivalent does not match the context and so another should be tried. For example the word can in I can do it will not fit the context of Open another can. This is a simple method of trial and error which can be carried out by using a dictionary. However the method of fitting alternative equivalents is not always able to guarantee sophisticated results, and translation is often inadequate because of cultural factors. Methods include approximate equivalents or using the Indonesian terms with or without explanatory notes. However this colouring factor needs to be conveyed to users of Indonesian that translation.

The use of the unbundling~rebundling concept does not of course imply that it is the only valid approach, or necessarily the best approach in particular circumstances. For example in a document such as the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights the translation into Indonesian closely follows the English, and this would hold true for other documents which could form

283 the basis of legal argumentation. Although an unbundling~rebundling approach would no doubt make more readable the translation on East Timor referred to in this thesis, it could be counter-productive if the accuracy of the dtranslation became an issue in a discussion of legal issues. A birth certificate, marriage certificate or other legal document falls into a similar category, and will usually be required to follow the original closely. However it is worth noting that the practice of the Australian Department of Immigration in asking the author to translate certification in Canberra in the early 1990s was simply to require completion of a form setting out essential details. With Indonesian the surname—name categories sometimes required a decision. Because this was a form filling exercise rather than full translation, translation from a photocopy could conceivably lead to relevant detail not being noted.

284

Chapter Eight

Conclusion

8.1 The Layering Hypothesis

Although the Indonesian language is increasingly able accurately to convey material from international fora, there are terms that tend to be accepted from English rather than become Indonesian terms. Further, where Indonesian terms are used in formal translations, English loanwords may still prevail in many contexts. Translators working from an English standpoint can consider whether it could be most useful to distance themselves from any purist opposition to the use of English and to see the extensive use of English terms as a historical phase akin to the inflow of French, Latin and Greek words into English. In the translation of material from Indonesian, there are particular problems for the translator in the availability of reference works and in the rapidly changing vocabulary of Indonesian, with its extensive import of terms from other languages and dialects.

There are semantic effects of English on Indonesian. Some of these can be observed historically and others are evident in, for example, newspapers and magazines. This more subtle influence of English on the definition and use of terms needs to be understood in the context of Indonesian philology, and dictionaries need to provide some historical depth in the definitions and examples that they provide. And the interchange of terms between the two languages should not disguise the fact that the form of words may be borrowed but with a different understanding in the target community from that in the source community. Similarly there have been and still continue to

285 be English influences on the structure of Indonesian, from word formations and even syntactic structures that have begun as translated responses to English material. This has naturally followed on from the very considerable influence of Dutch on the Malay substrate of the Indonesian language. It is more subtle and perhaps thus more pervasive than the simple reversal of adjective-noun order.

Despite the existence of philological layers in Indonesian and English, Indonesian/ Sanskrit/ Arabic categories do not necessarily correspond to Greek/ Latin/ French/ Anglo-Saxon categories.

Indonesian is greatly influenced in relation to English and other languages because of its orthography, vocabulary and also syntax—from a Dutch background. It is influenced by a whole host of semantic and semiotic features. These can combine to give an impression of simplicity and ease in translation. This thesis argues that the impression is a false one. It is common for phenomena to be translated word by word when the import of the phrasing should be conveyed by different means.

286 Italian words figured in the borrowings. There were a number of Dutch borrowings also.398

Indonesian is greatly influenced in relation to English and other languages because of its orthography, vocabulary and also syntax—from a Dutch background. It is influenced by a whole host of semantic and semiotic features. These can combine to give an impression of simplicity and ease in translation. This thesis argues that the impression is a false one. It is common for Indonesian to be translated word by word when the import of the phrasing should be conveyed by different means.

Layering as discussed here relates mainly to perception of formative sources in each language. It ought not to be pushed too far in translation between two languages but it can offer possibilities for ingenious translation that go to the real point of what an author is trying to say. Even in a scientific context, certain Arabic words could imply a certain colouring to a text. In some social contexts, the effect could be an Islamic element or simply relate to Middle East culture, but it could possibly be discerned. It would then remain for an appropriate equivalent in an English translation to be worked out. To the translator the point is that the impact of philology can be felt from choice of one word over another. If there is no choice then there is no effect. The Thesaurus can form a guide to the process. Probably the translator’s unaided judgement is best, especially in terms of speed and of style.

The hypothesis put forward in Chapter Three regarding layering was that there are advantages for the translator in being aware of waves of foreign and regional input that are part of the history of Indonesian as well as English, and that there is potential for creative utilisation of the resources of the two languages because of awareness of the existence of layers on the part of the translator. Although a match between the layers in each language or strict

398 The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). http://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/. Accessed 4 June 2004.

287 equivalence between one set of borrowings in English and one in Indonesianis not implied, it is useful to recognise word origins where this may impact on the appropriate translation. Examination of the corpus presented in this thesis has shown that the history of Indonesian words can readily affect their meaning, while the history of English words may affect the choice of terms, nevertheless it has proved difficult to demonstrate any particular effect of the history or layer of meaning on the choice of terminology in translation. It seems that once the Indonesian term has been understood, the translation that will emerge will not particularly be bound by reference to the history of English terminology. The hypothesis then may be reduced to an observation that the derivation of Indonesian terms, like that of English terms, is important in fully understanding the scope of meaning of the terms.

8.2 The Level of Indonesian~English Translation

There are large and significant deficiencies in Indonesian-English and English-Indonesian dictionaries, so that accurate translation often involves an inordinate amount of research, including informal enquiries. The Internet is a ready source of undifferentiated textual examples, but will often fail to provide contexts sufficiently clear to ensure correct understanding of usage of Indonesian terms. This leads to the consideration that input from Indonesian speakers would be an excellent way to guarantee accuracy and style of translation in both directions.

Inadequate knowledge of the source language often results in poor quality translation from and to Indonesian. English comprehension in Indonesia can suffer greatly from lack of familiarity with the English language. Newspaper reports and editorials can provide examples of quite unintelligible composition in English through to text that is largely correct but clearly suffers from lack of checking by a native English speaker. This kind of pride in knowing the other language to a boasted high degree of sophistication also

288 occurs with Indonesian translation in Australia. It no doubt has the function of elevating the translator's status for a time in regard to speakers of the source language. However speakers of the target language are unlikely to be impressed by text which contains any obvious errors whatsoever. Thus it may be said that where the target language is not the translator's mother tongue, translations are frequently extremely poor in quality; this may reflect a false belief that input from a native speaker is not necessary.

Translation into and out of the Indonesian language requires language specific attitudes and procedures. Whether this statement applies to particular other languages is not examined, but an approach in training translators of Indonesian that does not contain a substantial element of language specific translation expertise may well be justified in practice by the personal updating of language specific skills rather than by its general principles. In other words, aside from the understanding of general principles of translation, a course in translation is not likely to help prospective Indonesian translators as much as detailed insight into the specific problem areas in conveying the meaning of Indonesian into English or English into Indonesian.

Resources for Indonesian translation of course include dictionaries. Glossaries comprising a set of volumes on different areas can be very valuable but need to be used with some caution as equivalents may not be universally correct. In any case the taxonomic structures that lie below equivalent terms tend to be missing from glossaries, so that it is easy for terms to fit badly in translation. Recently searches for collocations of terms have been made feasible, through the availability of the Internet. A term may simply be typed into a search engine and various examples of use appear. The value of this facility is first of all in its great speed, and secondly in its ability to locate terms from a very wide sample of texts. Thirdly the context given with the examples can greatly assist in determining meaning. This is particularly useful when the term is not to be found in the available dictionaries.

289

In general it may be said that in terms of glossaries the Indonesian language is now fairly accessible. In terms of good lexicography, however, the language remains without good and convenient tools for precise and thoughtful explanation in the way that some other languages are equipped. In terms of dictionaries which would enable very precise understanding of Indonesian terms, and further than that the projection of phrasing in Indonesian that is likely to be correct on the basis of information provided by the dictionary, Indonesian is still not well served. The lack of a comprehensive dictionary of synonyms, or some kind of thesaurus, is a handicap, not least for the English- speaking translator. That a translator will possess personal reserves of knowledge is of course true, but in terms of the available resources that should be able to be laid out on a desk, the translator is not well equipped. Coming to English on the other hand the Indonesian translator can find excellent linguistic resources.

8.3 Literal Translation and Interpretive Translation

It does happen that many translators attempt to be faithful to the source text as far as possible, with the understanding that this means a word for word translation as far as possible. This can be characterised as an approach requiring sentence for sentence, clause by clause, phrase by phrase, word by word, full stop for full stop, comma for comma, italics for italics, underline for underline, capital letter for capital letter. This is convenient for typesetters in translation companies, but it seems very difficult to justify in terms of conveying what the source text has intended.

The convention of translating one word names and short phrases by one equivalent should be examined very critically. Although this may be textually convenient, and may be convenient in standardised for a such as the United Nations, with languages that are to start with very largely unknown to each

290 other, there is little reason to expect that this swill be so. A very large amount of linguistic research especially in the 50s, 60s and 70s was directed towards showing the immense differences between languages and logically would have led to the discarding of the principle of word equivalence. But the linguistic universals theory apparently has tended towards a kind of blanketing standardisation—along with the spread of modern communications—that has often returned people to a pre-Whorf view. There is simply no reason that one word should go to one translated word, or phrase, or clause, or sentence, or even text. Nor should not holding this view be penalised by companies that ask for translation work.

Such translating (actually typesetting) devices as equivalent punctuation and typesetting equivalents are evident on the surface. The translator is aware of the need for a standardised format, but some devices may well affect the result. They should not be mandatory. Some phrases occur as default phrases and need not be translated exactly. The occurrence may be predictable. In English there is a wide range of such phrases: in terms of, with regard to, the fact that, the idea that, taking into consideration the fact that…

The view that translators should not add comment to translations needs to be considered carefully. In some areas where translation is critical to decision making, such as in an embassy, the view of the translator as the one who has studied the text in detail can be very influential, especially when it is likely that the embassy will not usually have the resources to duplicate effort in analysing material. It can also important to consider how translations may be interpreted in commercial circles. Again the company will be interested in the significance of the translation rather than all the details of the text. This would particularly be so if any enigmatic Indonesian terms were either left untranslated or were translated with inadequate footnoting. In fact it may be hard to be sure what reaction a company’s officers might have to a translation of a lengthy Indonesian document containing innuendo and various

291 Indonesian cultural references. The need for interpretation is clear, and it is also clear that a translator would often be well qualified to put some construction on the document. Just as with oral interpretation, the meaning of what has been translated will be of prime importance to users.

8.4 Drafting the Translation

The basic communication diagram discussed in Chapter One seems flawed as applied to translation because it has an encryption stage which is not necessarily valid for translation; the ‘message’ travels essentially from the source text to the mind of the translator, emerging as the target text. In an efficient process of translation there will normally not be a large number of drafts, and there will be one style, that is the translator’s style. As the target text is produced, the following principles may be discerned:

♦ mention things once only—eliminate repetition ♦ at the same time consider the advantage of judicious redundancy. Redundancy is ‘the use of more elements than necessary to maintain the performance of a system in the event of failure of one or more of the elements.’399 ♦ use headers/footers, graphics, headlines, sub-headings ♦ annotate to annotate significance from the target language point of view ♦ regroup lists. For example a selection committee will want to assess job criteria out of 10, and although the criteria may be rationalised there will still need to be reference to the 10 criteria.

The submission of a draft to a client contains the danger that it will be taken in every respect as a final, and this may mean that readers unused to handling documentation may fasten on minor unfinished detail, while even

399 Lidwell et al., op. cit., p.166.

292 sophisticated readers can form inaccurate views of a work. Yet the draft can be a very useful version of a developing project. It is a prototype. Prototyping is the creation of simple, incomplete models of a design. ‘It provides designers with key insights into real-world design requirements.’ Evolutionary prototyping: design requirements do not define a final product but just the iteration of the design. 400 In other words the whole unbundling~rebundling concept and its templates can be regarded in operation as progressively close approximations of ideal processing of translation. If a draft proves necessary because of time limitations or because of a need to incorporate client input, it is important to identify the document throughout as a draft that is in process of modification. Nevertheless it is probably inevitable to face adverse comment wherever the translation differs in form from the original, and the likelihood of such comment no doubt means that the translator will try to bring a draft to as finished a form as possible before releasing it.

Meaning is lost in part and inappropriately gained in part in the process of translation in general. So we have a scale of translation with respect to rhetorical style that could be set out as follows:

♦ translation with the embedding of controversial or otherwise difficult Indonesian terms ♦ translation which follows the principle of one translated term for one source language term, filled out with footnoting and other devices to amplify the meaning of the term ♦ translation which aims to amplify the meaning of the original Indonesian in the text itself, resulting in longer translation text ♦ translation which uses the rhetorical principles of English to establish semantic contexts early on in the text and avoids using repetition of terms in a way which would be inappropriate in English.

400 ibid., p.158.

293

Of course this is a continuum along which other points could be identified. And translation styles could also be assessed on different criteria.

The process of reasoning through to a good translation of a word or phrase appears to be one of examining and discarding various possibilities and measuring solutions against the meaning that can be seen from the original Indonesian word or phrase. This process could conceivably be carried out by a translator who is heavily dependent on a dictionary, but the difficulties are:

♦ the translator can take a long time to arrive at a satisfactory translation ♦ the translator will probably need to take notes and write drafts ♦ a phrase may not be in the dictionary and may not be readily understandable from finding the meaning of its component parts ♦ it may not be possible to decide how to match the various possibilities for each term.

This is where recourse to a native speaker for advice is probably necessary. The NAATI Translator (Level 3) qualification does not in itself embody assurance of accurate and responsible translation of Indonesian. One point is that there is no requirement for the translator to use an Indonesian-Indonesian dictionary. That essentially leaves one with the Echols & Shadily Indonesian- English dictionary or an equivalent. The 1994 edition 401 is a great improvement on the 1963 edition and is a very useful work, but it is still feeble in conveying the depth of meaning of Indonesian words by comparison with Kamus Besar, which is routinely able to explain an Indonesian word in Indonesian terms.

401 Echols & Shadily 1994.

294 8.5 Unbundling~Rebundling

The discussion in 8.4 concerns questions of form, questions of rhetoric, that can emerge in translation. Modifications to the source text that might be quite usual in an oral interpreting context have traditionally been thought unjustified in written translation. The unbundling~rebundling concept discussed extensively in this thesis aims to enlarge the discretion of the translator to carry over content with judicious changes in form.

Picasso’s work has been discussed above in terms of unbundling graphic information. There is another aspect to his work, that of a dichotomy between the objective and the subjective, which is also relevant to the work of the translator. In translation, and especially in certain types of translation, decisions need to be made about the degree to which the translator’s own knowledge needs to be injected into the translation. Translating propaganda material is an example of an area where subtle distinctions can be critical. Perhaps the most dangerous situation for the translator is where he or she is or unaware of distinctions that are made in either source or target language, or unaware of personal prejudices that relate to the subject. And yet the limitation of lack of awareness can hardly be ruled out.

Picasso’s Girl Before a Mirror shows the way subjectivity can lead to a great difference in perception. There could be a warning to the translator that difficulty might not lie only in being uncritical: it is the real girl on the left who is critical of the self that she sees in the mirror on the right. For a translator overseeing the draft translations of others, to be overcritical could be problematic: there is more than one way to render a text into the other language. Synonymous terms and phrases might be acceptable within the overall context of the work. And the question arises, whether a translation could eventually become more authentic than the original, or at least used be used in preference to the original.

295

It is natural for an artist to have a dichotomy of a person in mind as the person is painted. Picasso in Girl Before a Mirror, 1932 illustrates this. The phenomenon has a definite applicability to translation, which similarly envisages two versions of essentially the same image. The mirroring or shadowing reality of two co-existing languages can be compared to the two paintings. It is not logically necessary for there to be translation between the languages, and if everyone knew both of them translation might prove quite pointless. Nevertheless there is a duality of language that could be pictured in terms of the bust of a woman including an alter ego, and in the case of the girl before the mirror being a virtual image.

The notion of unbundling~rebundling may be very appropriately applied to the cultural side of understanding Indonesia, with cultural standing for the whole range of people to people contact. In this view, political references in translation text should neither be omitted, nor reproduced exactly, nor questioned. Rather they should be examined as expressions of a cultural entity that should be analysed, broken down, and reassembled in a way that will then have meaning to the recipient. Time and place should figure in analysis. For example if a current text makes an unflattering reference to the New Order government it would be only fair to balance the reference by explaining that within the New Order framework various practices were quite acceptable, or even that similar practices were occurring under subsequent governments. Again, a reference to orang Indonesia could need to be explained as either a general reference to all Indonesian people or a reference to pribumi. In this connection a reference to a person as ‘Cina’—with the absence of the measure word orang—does need to be explained as possibly derogatory.

Much of the argument for a heightened role for the Indonesian language in the world may now appear to be an argument by—and possibly partly for---many from the West who have invested time and effort in the study of the language

296 and the culture of Indonesia. It may be that their affection for the Indonesian language does not contribute to the kinds of argument that may sway others to support the adopting of Indonesian. Within the region the situation is different, because Indonesia already enjoys a position of power that can be felt to be threatening. And the role of English remains prominent throughout the region. The style and nuances of Indonesian could confer considerable power on Indonesian speakers if the Indonesian language were to acquire more scope in the region.

The major hypothesis that is thought through in this thesis has been that a process of unbundling and rebundling information is desirable in translation and in particular in translation between Indonesian and English. This concept is explained as the thinking behind this thesis is developed, but in essence it means that one to one correspondences between words and phrases and between grammatical categories are neither a valid nor a readable framework in which to conduct translation. The unbundling~rebundling concept does mean that rather more knowledge and skill is required of the translator than has often been envisaged in work on Indonesian, which is often referred to as an ‘easy’ language—up to now this author has never been able to uncover more than very superficial reasons to allege that Indonesian is ‘an easy language.’ Translation carried out skillfully under this principle may sometimes be identical to literal translation; and sometimes it may be what is usually thought of as paraphrase.

Unbundling~rebundling is a methodology that may be used in translation. It remains to show how valuable the technique is. This is in essence a matter of illustration. In the course of illustration of this technique and discussion of its application between Indonesian and English, certain themes emerge. One is the concept of linguistic ancestry which characterises both English and Indonesian, with their histories of very significant input from other languages.

297 It is perhaps worth reflecting that languages will establish their own primacy geographically and in their impression on the minds of those who encounter them in use. Malay left its impression in the works of Joseph Conrad, and terms like amok persist in English. Similarly English constantly affects the linguistic frame of awareness of many Indonesians. It could be argued that this makes translation difficult; it could equally be argued that it makes translation easier, because there will be a tendency for awareness among speakers of the concepts embodied in the other language. Perhaps either tendency or both may operate for the translator or the interpreter, but in the end the cognitive process that results in a translation takes place in the mind of the translator. The translator is the medium for translation.

Bundling of information is a concept of information science. Translation does not always require unbundling of packaged information, because many terms will be equivalent in meaning and even in structure. The audience is important: scientists communicate with each other in heavily bundled terminology because of common understanding that exists within scientific fields. Terms concentrate and reconcentrate information until whole trees of information inhere within terms. The unbundling of information will mean there may be a subsequent rebundling of information. Clearly there is here a considerable latitude for the intervention of the translator, and the unbundling~rebundling process is likely to produce quite different target texts. It is probably true that a competent translator will often perceive the full meaning of a passage of text without consciously unbundling and rebundling the text. However the translator will be able to unbundle text if this is required.

Translation may be fragmentary so that draft proceeds at first with unclear defined terms, then all becomes clear. This could be described in terms of nibbling: the mouse can only nibble at the biscuit, but eventually consumes all of it. This concept of a nibbling process relates to bundlability, with the unbundling~rebundling process being broadened to include the whole

298 document. In information technology there is the concept of disaggregation and reaggregation of scientific journals in print and digital form, with disaggregation referring to ‘the ability to access and manipulate individual components of a document, such as its figures, conclusions or references.’ Important issues are ‘the nature of metadata, the role of context in constraining component use, the complex assemblage of information system use and implications for digital library system design and user education.’402 Disaggregation and reaggregation however are different from the content of translation which is unbundled and rebundled. With disaggregation and reaggregation, there is a question of format, where document genres represent conventional structures imposed upon information. For example the scientific journal article is a genre that has remained relatively stable over hundreds of years, with a conventional form, implying standard components in a predictable order. It is embedded in social and intellectual activity. The use of journal article components, then, can be viewed as a behaviour that is embedded in work practice and social norms, and by extension in thinking and writing. Ideas and information from a source document eventually integrates into a document produced by the researcher; a journal article then is ‘permeable and reusable.’403

Pieces are extracted and fuel the stream of transitional and private texts ¯¯ document surrogates that appear as scribbled citations, annotated pages, outlines and notes ¯¯ that mark the path from source documents to new ones. The definition of document surrogates has broadened in the digital order to encompass a wide variety of forms which, like journal articles themselves, seem to be increasingly mutable and mobile.404

Library systems may be said to handle excerpts, copies, descriptions, abstracts and references, and the act of retrieval of data from within documents is a challenge. The process of unbundling~rebundling in translation is very different. It seeks to distinguish significant elements within the source and

402 Bishop, A.P. 1999, ‘Document structure and digital libraries: how researchers mobilise information in journal articles,’ Information Processing & Management vol.35 no.3 (May), pp.255-279.. 403 Bishop, ibid. 404 ibid.

299 target texts and as far as possible match the impact of the target text to the source text.

Bundling of messages relates strongly to the audience for which translation is intended. A scientific audience is able to understand directly, but for others messages may need unbundling. The weight or density of information carried is relevant to the style selected to convey a message. Information can be bundled and conveyed and then unbundled at the other end, with the proviso that the bundling process must follow clearly defined rules and procedures. Unbundling~rebundling can be utilised in ways that take account of the differing source~target morphological and syntactic structures. Examples are the treatment of the word sudah by the use of English tense, or sometimes by losing it altogether in a process that might be called debundling. The process can be subject to social convention, so that barang dia sendiri would initially go into English as his or her own things, but (realising that it is only one person of unspecified gender) this then might become personal property in certain cases, and if personal becomes separated from personal property, property is adequate; and a word like stuff may be suitable. It would not be particularly constructive to say that such a process is paraphrase rather than translation.

Translations are often felt to be unbearably tedious. Noun for noun, verb for verb, adjective for adjective, repetition for repetition. The concept of unbundling~ rebundling can be used to make the product of the translation process more natural to the target audience. It implies that semantic content sticks can be redistributed within a sentence or indeed a whole discourse to combat a commonly felt impression that translation is wordy and repetitious. The implementation of this approach is supported in translation into English by the English practice of setting a scene and then omitting specific references to the scene in the following text, except where such reference is necessary. Unbundling~rebundling can imply the deletion of redundant elements. In

300 some translated text there can thus be deletion of source text words, but there will be no deletion of meaning. Some of the sticks of a bundle may be drawn into a heading bundle. This process can be used to make the style of the translation less unnatural.

Against the unbundling~rebundling approach, it can also be argued that this method would place much more reliance on the integrity and skill of the translator than line for line translations. It would in fact make it much more difficult to compare translations into various languages with an original. The approach is very far removed from what may be termed the approach centred on typesetting adopted by some translation companies where punctuation and even the use of bold or italic type face is expected to correspond with the original, and there is an expectation that translation will tend to be word for word. There is evidence of a belief by some who have acquired surface familiarity with Indonesian that the language is simple, especially because of its verbal structure. The semantic and syntactic intricacies of the language will of course have been quite elusive.

Unbundling~rebundling is an artistic process because of the intuitive process, involving perception and a process requiring efficiency, which can be involved and which demands a capacity to make rapid decisions based on overall assessments rather than detailed research. At least even when research does need to be carried out, the translation needs to be framed so that research carried out is not wasted by exceeding what is required by the context and the task at hand. The Australian saying that ‘there’s more than one way to skin a cat’ is one way of putting the idea of flexibility. But however it is put, there is the question of perception. A painstaking process of analysis may be required to reach that moment of insight, or it might occur at the beginning.

The antithesis of this approach might be the plodding search for equivalents— perhaps not understood on one side or both sides—that takes place and may

301 be no advance on machine translation. It is worthwhile here to refer to the experience of the writer in trying to argue the case for a higher level of accreditation in Indonesian translation That level would need to imply an ability to make judgements at a higher level than simply the transposition of sets of vocabulary from one language to the other. That level would require appreciation of the artistic content of the source and hopefully some artistic skill in rendering it into the target language.

Translator of Chinese poetry John Turner wrote that his approach to translating Chinese poetry was not to ‘comply with the modern fashion of putting Chinese verse into line by line prose, or into unmeasured spring rhythm, which is the same thing.’ He believed that ‘poetry cannot really be translated into prose…Chinese poetry tends strongly to be epigrammatic…Now if an en effective epigram is transformed into prose, it becomes inconsequential.’ 405 Turner however notes in a considerable understatement that ‘rhyme presents its own special problems too.’ Although he argues for the recognition of various elements of diction and expression in Chinese during the translation process, the result is often a considerable distance from the original in meaning. He argues that ‘the superiority of poetry translations over prose ones is borne out by English literary history’ and translations by Chaucer, Johnson, Dryden, Pope, Shelley and other poets.406 The judgement on such translations however needs to be made with reference to the original. It is possible to create an English literary work from a foreign language original if cultural elements can be adequately aligned and if the standard is applied to the finished product rather than to the accuracy of the translation. The wholesale rendering of idioms into the idioms of another language so that the original detail is lost, in the name of rhythm and rhyme, is however an approach that will not be followed by many translators. Turner

405 Deeney, J.J., ed. 1976, A Golden Treasury of Chinese Poetry: 121 Classical Poems, tr. Turner, J.A., The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, pp.10- 11. 406 ibid., pp.10-12.

302 does attempt unbundling-rebundling, but for most purposes it is difficult to accept the substantial loss of meaning involved. It is after all the meaning which is the primary purpose of the translation. The unbundling~rebundling concept supports the argument that a translation may take a different form line by line or word by word from the original. However phrases in a poem may take a form equivalent to a heading. English meanings may not precisely match the Indonesian words in a precise way. Sadly, translation of poetry may be a very demanding exercise, but rebundling may not always achieve very much.

The unbundling~rebundling hypothesis in this thesis argues that texts or terms are a kind of root system containing various node content that will be variously incorporated into a translated version, with the target text differing considerably from the source text. The process unpackages various semantic and other elements in a transeme and repackages them for the target version. This process has been described in various places in this thesis, and in some places, as with the elements of Pancasila, it has been argued that a different arrangement of content would probably suit readers better. At various points in the corpus it has been shown that the use of footnotes can enhance the presentation of Indonesian material where elements are unlikely to be clear to the general English reader. These cases are really amplification of text with possible modification of format. They do not amount to unbundling or unpackaging text and rebundling or repackaging it. Thus it is fair to summarise examination of the corpus by concluding that evidence of the need for unbundling~rebundling has not been convincingly presented in this thesis. It is also fair to say that in general the English translation has followed the order of the Indonesian original quite closely, and this means that a process of unbundling~rebundling is often unlikely to be necessary. Nevertheless the validity of the unbundling~rebundling approach remains, and if a text requires this kind of analysis there is ample justification for its use.

303 8.6 Issues for Indonesian~English Translation

In this research a distinction has been made between what is a useful line of enquiry rather than simply one which throws theory and data into some sort of interaction. It is worth noting that, because it is essentially a qualitative approach rather than a quantitative one, the examples chosen and used in a study may tend to align along the theoretical lode. That is to say that the theory may impact on the examples and possibly become self-demonstrating propositions. Thus in effect the examples illustrate rather than prove the argument. Lest this should be seen to be a weakness, it is important to state that a thesis involving a linguistic and cultural package of observation and analysis will tend to be difficult to prove in any case. There are too many variables, and as in this case if the topic, hypotheses and examples are chosen by the originator of the argument then scientific objectivity is really out of the question. Following on from this emphasis on the argument, the consideration is put forward that a real problem will tend to produce a better study than a topic which tends to demand only a descriptive treatment. This thesis argues that a study of a real problem will tend to be more coherent than one concentrating on description and citation of examples. That real problem is how to produce excellent Indonesian-English and English-Indonesian translation. This thesis attempts to elucidate that problem. Whether it is worth writing and worth reading should be seen from whether it makes pertinent and useful assertions about that problem.

The Kamus Besar suits translation practice based on the unbundling~rebundling hypothesis much more neatly than an Indonesian- English dictionary. The reason is that Kamus Besar will naturally tend to follow the intricacies of the Indonesian language itself, while English equivalents are largely arbitrary. In translation, the source sentence is first unbundled in the translator’s mind The process of translation into English then begins, but not by word to word equivalents as might be encouraged by

304 the user of an Indonesian English dictionary. It takes place through the translator’s awareness of the key ways in which English requires that unit of content to be expressed. It can of course happen that some words are translated across in a similar form, for example a noun may translate as a noun, a verb as a verb, but this is not absolutely necessary. Rather the elements of the Indonesian utterance are laid out on a new matrix, an English pattern.

Authenticity is a principle that can guide the creation of rebundled phrases that are apt as well as correctly translated. Jane Austen is known for her practice of not depicting situations which she as a woman in the Victorian era could never have directly experienced. This and other aspects of her work are marked by their authenticity.407 It is useful to note that this is a matter of absence of data, but even more it is a matter of integrity of methodology. The need for authenticity in the translation and interpretation field is undoubted, and sometimes it seems that the practice of translation is hedged about with so many restrictions that the inexperienced translator must feel diffident about expressing many concepts. It seems also to be true that the ethics of the ranslating profession are imposed from above. Some of the implications of ethical impositions have been discussed here. The division between translation and interpretation is one of the clearest examples of this. Essentially translation is held to be most essentially a matter of minds while interpretation is essentially a matter of meanings. But this thesis maintains that it is authenticity that marks good translation, rather than any list of ethical principles.

407 Jane Austen limited her subject matter of her six novels in various ways: apart from not describing what she was not personally familiar with, she avoided clichéd plot devices. For example she confined herself to the general territory in southern England that she herself was familiar with. Despite her practice of not including conversations where a woman was not present, Mansfield Park does contain a dialogue between two men (Volume II, Chapter II, Chapter 20). http://www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/janeart.html, accessed 10 February 2004. Austen’s work is indeed authentic, although some readers will find a definite tedium in the style and themes of her work.

305

Figure 8.1 Analogies of Translation Processes

The concept of interacting wheels is The analogy of clockwork allows flexible in allowing representation of identification of linguistic agents that linguistic processes. may sometimes be preferable to an analogy with some kind of electrical or electronic activity.408

Nida coined the term dynamic equivalence translation to describe a ‘meaning- based’ approach which is oriented to functional equivalence rather than formal resemblance in translation.409 Nida in an interview said that it is the phrase that carries most meaning in all communication rather than individual words, and in semiotics and information theory the context ‘has the most possibilities for indicating the meaning of the core element.’ Nida advocates adding context and actually building meaning into a translation. In response to the objection that meaning-based translation required exegesis from the translator, Nida affirms the need for the translator to ‘know what he's talking about.’ 410 Nida may be in the tradition of St Paul as a promoter of the

408 Microsoft Online collection. 409 The American Bible Society's 1995 Contemporary English Version and 1976 Good News Bible as well as the New Living Translation exemplify the approach. 410 Neff, D. 2002, ‘Meaning-full translations: the world's most influential Bible translator, Eugene Nida, is weary of `word worship,’ Christianity Today vol.46 no.11, 7 Oct, p.46-49.

306 Christian message, but he is not in the tradition of the great translators Wycliffe and Tyndale who aimed to render the scriptures into English. There is a serious issue of how accurate is the process of interpretation; the interpretation may tend to follow accepted theology and also not contradict other scriptural sources. There may also be the assumption that the interpreters know the meaning of the original and also that there is in fact no internal contradiction in the scriptures. This contrasts with the translation of other texts where sacred doctrine is not involved and inconsistencies may be accepted.

The Bible not only originated in Hebrew and Koine Greek but was mediated by English and other European languages. Yet it needed to be sensitive to the subtleties of the original. John 1:1 is a well known text that reflects some of the mystical thinking of the early second century CE. The text also implies, in the coming down of the divine Messiah to earth from God, a definite approachability that became characteristic of the Christian faith. John 1:1 reads:

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.411

Theos is translated as God in English and Allah in Indonesian (with Christians pronouncing Allah differently from Muslims). In seems unavoidable that an Indonesian translation of the Bible should be made with awareness of Islam and the Quran, and also that the word Allah is used for God. It may not be out of the question that the translation into Indonesian was imbued with a certain subtle missionary purpose. However the Christian Bible as a text does stand apart from Islam, and is not a response to Islam. The Greek Logos is rendered by the English ‘Word’ and the Indonesian Firman, but Firman is not a

411 The Holy Bible. Revised Standard Version. The British and Foreign Bible Society, Sydney, 1952. Revised Standard Version 1952, John 1:1.

307 common word and thus the impact will be different. In Greek and in English, logos and word are extremely common and simple words and concepts. The Indonesian firman inevitably has a note of distance which is not present in the original. To assess the implications of this it could be useful to assess the degree of familiarity across Indonesian society with the word firman; but it could not be as familiar as Logos or Word.

Translation raises very broad issues. Translation covers everything that can be expressed in words and also some issues that can hardly be expressed in words. Translation demands accuracy but it also demands that the general overview be clear. As far as complexity is concerned, this chapter is arguing that complexity can exist below the surface of text. It is as if a plant is visible above the surface as a simple lexical item or phrase. Below the surface a complex root system of meanings and forms is analysed by the translator in a process of unbundling. The elements are then rebundled to form another root system, the target of the translation, which is visible as one or more stems in a sentence. The aim in terms of syntax, semantics and rhetoric is simplicity, and there is no need for the reader to be aware of the underlying structures and choices that are involved. And to merge the propositions of this chapter on semantic analysis with the observations made regarding graphic analysis as in Cubist work, and the significance of perception of historical layers of vocabulary in each language, the argument is that this is probably a way of analysis that is intuitive to the translator. The translator will usually work quickly and under pressure. Methods that take time are not likely to be favoured. Insights and habits of analysis need to stress perception and the finding of rapid solutions. Unbundling~rebundling is likely to be able to satisfy those criteria. Indonesian and English each have their own natures and the translator should aim to let the personality of each as a source language emerge in translation while following the natural course of the target language. A large number of symbolic terms could be examined in this way.

308 To address the question of areas that could usefully be studied in pursuit of excellence in Indonesian translation, there are several issues that could draw attention. The issue of cliché expressions needs attention. If cliché or unimaginatively repeated phrases are used in translation, it seems fair to say that this is allowable if the original text has a similar style. A policy for translating Indonesian terms into English seems a long way off, and even if there should evolve such a policy then translators may well choose to differ from it on occasion.

As various aspects of Indonesian and English are compared, the assumption needs to be questioned that all languages are equal in complexity, semantic profusion, suitability for a wide range of uses, or any particular aspect of individual, sectoral or national life. Languages evolve to meet needs. Part of this takes in the influx of words from other languages. Even when languages are generally comparable, their periods of growth, dominance and decline may occur at different times. Indonesian has drawn on English over the last fifty years in particular in a thoroughgoing way. Indonesian also draws on Javanese. The result is that Indonesian is now more able to function as a vehicle for communication in international affairs than it was say fifty years ago.

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