6 X 10.5 Long Title.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00247-0 - Activists, Alliances, and Anti-U.S. Base Protests Andrew Yeo Index More information

Index

ACJ-Ecuador, 93–4 See also Philippine anti-base movement Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement Aquino, Corazon, 44, 49, 60 (ACSA), 74, 160 Arasaki, Morietsu, 82, 83 Afghanistan, xii, 3, 188, 193–4 arc of instability, 188 n.23 Africa, 189, 192 Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), 45, 155, Albright, Madeline, 161 156, 157 alliance politics, 6, 36, 119, 189 and modernization, 154–5, 163 asymmetric alliance, 61 Armitage, Richard, 36, 60, 61, 82 and overseas bases, 4, 13, 34 Asian ﬁnancial crisis, 155 and security consensus, 8, 15, 26 Aso, Taro, 167 U.S.-Italy, 117 Aviano air base, 101, 102 U.S.-Japan, 64, 77–83, 165 U.S.-South Korea, 119, 121–2, 140–1, 147 base policy, 7–8, 85, 178, 192 alternative explanations, 8–10, 87, 181 outcomes, 31 Alto-Cenepa War, 90 See also movement outcomes American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), 93 base politics, 2, 4, 6, 12, 13–14, 22–3, 179, 196 anti-Americanism, xi, 6 existing literature, 7, 10, 181 in Okinawa, 78 in Okinawa, 64 in South Korea, 129, 140, 180 Bayan, 51, 160 anti-base activists. See anti-base movements Bell, Burwell, 142 Anti-Base Coalition (Philippines), 43 Berger, Thomas, 165 anti-base movement, 2, 5–6, 7–8, 196 Berlusconi, Silvio, 109, 111, 183 co-optation of, 2, 8, 26, 85, 147, 165, 197 support for United States, 104, 108–9 effectiveness, 7, 13, 22, 26, 59, 159, 176 Bonilla, Adrian, 91 framing, 19 Bottene, Cinzia, 114 grievances, 19 Braumoeller, Bear, 14 impact of, xi, 22–3, 59–60, 94 Bush, George W., 157, 158, 189 interaction with host government, 7–8, 27 opposition to, xi, 109, 111 mobilization, 17–21 No Bases network, 94, 199 Calder, Kent, 5, 181, 192 strategies, 18, 27, 32, 196–8 Camp Ederle, 101, 102 transnational, 19, 93, 200 Camp Humphreys, 1, 121, 138 See also International No Bases Conference expansion of, 118, 131 Anti-Baseng Kilusan (ABAKADA), 43, 50 Camp Schwab, 174 Anti-Terrorism Special Measure Law, 165 Carrión, Francisco, 98 Anti-Treaty Movement, 43, 50 case studies, 7, 11, 33–4 framing of bases, 52–3 causal mechanism, 24, 37, 50, 180 inﬂuence on outcome, 59–62 Central Asia, 189, 192–3 lobbying, 53, 54–5 China, 3, 48 mobilization, 50–2 and South Korea, 124, 126 relationship with senators, 55–60, 61, 62 threat from, 31, 75, 155–6, 162 strategy, 51, 53–5, 61 Christian Democrat, 107, 110, 183

217

218 Index

civil society, 3–4, 13, 21 weak security consensus, 98–100 and security policy, 7, 61, 196 Ecuador anti-base movement civilian fatalities, 194 effectiveness, 94–5, 99–100 Clark Air Base, 36, 160 origins of, 92–3 function of, 39 parallels with Philippine movement, 86 Clinton, Bill, 73 strategy, 95, 96–7 summit meeting with Ryutaro Hashimoto, transnational ties, 93–4 73–5, 78 elite allies, 18, 22, 95, 175, 178, 180 Clinton, Hillary, 191, 197 ties with activists, 8, 27, 50 coalition movement, 19 elite consensus. See security consensus in Ecuador, 92–3 Eloy Alfaro Air Base, 88. See also Manta base in Italy, 104 Enrile, Juan Ponce, 48, 162 in the Philippines, 42–3 and anti-base support, 56–7 in South Korea, 132–3 environment, 87, 199 Cohen, William, 161 environmental groups, 20, 67 Cold War, 5, 6, 44, 90, 151 framing, 171, 198 anticommunism, 119, 124, 126 and military base, 3, 19 end of, 36, 39, 72 Estrada, Joseph, 56, 162 in Italy, 107–8, 183 in the Philippines, 44–5 Ferrer, Miriam, 41 in South Korea, 125 framing, 19, 52–3, 66, 134, 198 community relations, 195 anti-war, 67 compensation politics, 49, 53, 83, 85, 141–2, environment, 171 172, 190 injustice, 19, 67, 134, 136 Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities peace, 134 (CONAIE), 92 sovereignty, 21, 52, 199 constructivism, 8, 179 women, 67 Cooley, Alexander, 10, 181–3, 191, 192 Fukuda, Yasuo, 167 and security consensus framework, 183–7 Futenma Air Station, 63, 69, 85 cooperative security location (CSL), 188, 192 conditional return, 82–3 Coordinamento Comitati, 115 hazards of, 82 Correa, Rafael, 5, 87, 94, 117, 180 noise pollution, 79 and anti-base platform, 92, 99 relocation issue, 168, 169–70, 172, 173–6 Costa, Paolo, 114 strategic value of, 80–1 Croci, Osvaldo, 108 as token concession, 80, 169 Czech Republic, 2, 5, 199 G-8 summit, 172 D’Alema, Massimo, 105, 110 Galapagos Islands, 90 Daechuri, 1, 118, 134, 137, 144–5 Germany, 3, 187 land expropriation, 131 and U.S. troop reductions, 101, 189 local residents, 137, 138, 141–2 Ginowan City, 68, 81, 82 de Castro, Renato, 45 Gonzalez, Felipe, 186 Democratic Labor Party, 122, 132 Grand National Party, 123 and support for KCPT, 138 grand strategy, 4–5, 48 Democratic Party of Japan, 165, 167–9 Green Korea United, 198 and bases in Okinawa, 175–6 Green Party (Italy), 104 and electoral victory, 63 Guam, 21, 174 Department of Defense (United States), 120, Gutierrez, Lucio, 96, 97 188, 191 Gwangju Massacre, 129 dependent variable. See movement outcomes disobbedienti, 115 Haas, Mark, 15, 151, Han, Myeong-sook, 143, 146 East Asian Strategic Review, 72 Hanchongryon, 134 Eastern Europe, 192 Hankyoreh 21, 137 economic incentives, 49. See also compensation Hashimoto, Ryutaro, 73, 83, 172 See also politics Clinton, Bill Ecuador, 30, 33 Hatoyama, Yukio, 168, 176 conﬂict with Peru, 87, 90 Henoko, 169, 170, 172, 199 relations with Colombia, 96 canoe protest, 174 relations with United States, 87, 90–1, 96 offshore heliport, 170, 171, 172

Index 219

Henoko Life Protection Society, 170 security policy, 17, 70–2, 165–9 Higa, Tetsuya, 170 Self-Defense Force (SDF), 71, 74, 165, 168 historical institutionalism, 151 Social Democratic Party, 78, 175 historical legacies, 15, 17, 28, 75 U.S.-Japan Mutual Defense Treaty, 16 of Korean War, 126 Johnson, Chalmers, 199 and security consensus, 30, 150, 178 Jung, Wook-shik, 140 host government, 182 Junk VFA, 161–2 as actor in base politics, 3, 24–5 response to anti-base movements, 2, 7–8, 13, Kadena Air Base, 79, 82 34, 178–9, 199 Kan, Naoto, 176 and strong security consensus, 8, 10, 26, 69 Karzai, Harmid, 194 ties to United States, 14, 176 Kim, Dae-jung, 127 and weak security consensus, 7, 26–7 Kim, Jitae, 143, 146 See also security consensus Kitschelt, Herbert, 21 human rights, 95, 137, 190 Koizumi, Junichiro, 167, 174 Korean War, 17, 124, 146 ideas, 7, 13, 86, 117, 122, 176 Kwon, Young-gil, 138, 139 alternative, 16, 151 dominant, 8, 16 Lee, Joung-bin, 130 foreign policy, 29, 191 Legro, Jeffrey, 16 ideational variables, 14, 17, 150. See also ideas levels of analysis, 179 ideology, 28, 126, 152 in base politics, 2, 64, 188 and security consensus, 15, 17, 123, 150 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), 63, Inamine, Keiichi, 172, 174 165, 167 Inoue, Masamichi, 83, 84, 172 Lim Jong-in, 1, 138 internal security, 44–7, 49 International No Bases Conference, 87, 99, 180 Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria, 158 international relations theory, 8, 12 Maehyangri, 130, 138, 197–8 constructivism, 8, 179 Manta base, 96 liberalism, 8 mobilization against, 91–3, 99–100 realism, 9, 12, 117 and non-renewal, 87, 98 and social movement approaches, 7, 8, 13, 23, and Plan Colombia, 93, 94, 96 31, 119, 179 strategic value of, 88–9 intersubjective, 15, 16, 151 Marcos, Ferdinand, 44, 45, 185 Iraq, 5 martial law, 41 Japan Self-Defense Force, 165 U.S. support for, 41, 42 and Persian Gulf War, 29 MCAS Futenma. See Futenma air station South Korean troops, 125 McCain, John, 191 Spanish troops, 109 Mercado, Orlando, 46–7, 160, 162 and U.S. basing strategy, 194–5 Middle East, 29, 192 war in, xii military bases Italian anti-base movement. See No Dal Molin and imperialism, 199 Italy, 33, 175, 183–4 as instruments of war, 20 coalition politics, 104–5, 113 strategic function of, 4–5, 190 left parties, 104–5, 106, 109, 111, Mindanao, 45, 164 113, 197 mobilization resources, 12, 62, 134, 171 and NATO, 107–8, 109, 110 Mondale, Walter, 77 relations with local government, 112 Moreno, Hugo, 95 relations with United States, 101, Moro Islamic Liberation Front, 45, 156 107–11, 112 Moro National Liberation Front, 45 war in Afghanistan, 100, 104, 110, 112–13 Mount Pinatubo, 36 movement episode, 23, 25 Japan, 3, 11, 17, 24, 187 in comparative perspective, 2, 197 Article 9, 71, 167 hard tests, 32 Defense Facilities Administration Agency, 24, 29 as unit of analysis, 23, 32, 179 Japanese Defense Agency, 71, 167 movement outcomes, 7–8, 26 n.36, 164, 178 Japanese Socialist Party, 74 variation, 2, 13, 150 relations with United States, 70, 72–6, 79, Mun, Jung-hyeon, 131, 134, 136 165–9, 175 Murayama, Tomiichi, 73, 74, 78

220 Index

Nacpil, Lidy, 51–2 Ople, Blas, 162 Nago City, 169–72 Ota, Masahide, 68–9, 77, 80, 172 Napolitano, Georgio, 113 Ozawa, Ichiro, 175 National Council of Churches in the Philippines, 42, 55 Paengseong Residents’ Action Committee, 131 National Democratic Front (NDF), 41 Palacio, Alfredo, 97, 98 national interest, 12, 143, 149, 159, 190 Pan-National Solution Committee to Stop the of United States, 189, 191 Expansion of U.S. Bases, 131 national security, 4, 14, 29. See also security candlelight vigils, 137, 199 consensus clash with riot police, 145 nationalism, 19 co-optation of, 147 in the Philippines, 40–2, 61 elite ties, 138–9 NIMBY. See not in my backyard frames used, 134 No Dal Molin, 2, 100, 104, 199 Grand Peace March, 135 factionalism, 114–15 and labor unions, 135 and the Far Left, 105, 106 media coverage, 137, 146 mobilization, 105–6 mobilization, 132–5 Presidio, 104, 114–16, 199 residential sit-in, 147 relations with government, 114 strategy, 135–7 transnational ties, 115 support for local residents, 133, 134, 136–7 Noboa, Alvaro, 99 tractor protest, 135 noise pollution, 3, 67, 82, 196 See also South Korean anti-base movements North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Parisi, Arturo, 110, 114 16, 101, 192 Parra, Antonio, 97 in Afghanistan, 194 PeaceWind, 134 and Italy, 107, 108, 184 Pentagon. See Department of Defense and Spain, 186 People’s Action for Reform of the Unjust SOFA North Korea, 17 (PAR-SOFA), 130, 198 nuclear crisis, 72, 152 People’s Task Force for Bases Cleanup, 160 threat from, 75, 119, 124, 126 Philippine American Cooperation Talks, 39, and U.S.-ROK alliance, 122–3 43, 53 not in my backyard, 19, 92, 196, 200 Philippine anti-base movements, 33, 40, 178 South Korea, 130 coalition campaigns, 42–3 Vicenza, 103, 113 effectiveness, 55–60, 150 Nuclear Free Philippines Coalition, 42, 51, 160 origins, 40–2 nuclear weapons, 6, 66 Visiting Forces Agreement, 160–2 opposition against, 42 See also Anti-Treaty Movement Nye, Joseph, 73, 82 Philippine Left, 41–2 National Democrat, 43, 50 Obuchi, Keizo, 172 National Democratic Front, 41 Okifuren (League of Okinawan Women’s Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas, 41 Groups), 67 Philippine Modernization Act, 154. See also Okinawa Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) anti-base opposition, 67–9, 76, 169–72 Philippine senate Battle of Okinawa, 65, 170 anti-base support, 55–60, 62 dugong, 67, 171 deliberation on Visiting Forces Agreement, economic dependence on Tokyo, 162–3 83–4, 172 and 1987 constitution, 50 identity, 65 straw vote, 53, 59 island-wide protests, 63, 68, 175 Philippines, 33 Okinawa People’s Rally, 68 AFP modernization, 47, 154–5 pro-base groups, 172 civil society, 50, 52 rape incident, 26, 67, 165, 179 communist insurgency, 45 reversion movement, 66–7 independence, 40–1 tension with central government, 65, 68–9, internal security, 44–5, 153 77–8, 171 Muslim separatist groups, 45, 153, 156 United States Civilian Administration of the People Power movement, 43, 44 Ryukyu Islands (USCAR), 65 pro-base pressure, 57, 59–60 173rd Airborne Brigade, 102, 184 Ramos-Rusk Agreement, 38

Index 221

relations with United States, 37–8, 49, 153–4, SACO report, 69, 85, 174 156, 157–9 GAO study of, 81 revised constitution, 36, 38, 50 as partial concession, 82, 169 sovereignty, 45, 61 See also Special Action Committee on See also Philippine senate Okinawa (SACO) Plan Colombia, 93, 96 Salonga, Jovito, 35, 57 PLANEX 2020, 98 Pansol Reflections, 49 political opportunity structure, 27 pro-base pressure, 59–60 activists taking advantage of, 53, senate straw vote, 53 91, 177 Samuels, Richard, 70, 75 criticism of, 180 Santiago, Miriam Defensor, 164 defined, 18 security consensus, 7–8, 17, 31 international relations, 23 coding of, 28–31, 122 and security consensus, 21–3, 27, 178 conditions of strong, 8, 25–6, 33–4 political process model, 18, 179, 180 conditions of weak, 8, 27, 33, 44, 192 post-9/11 era, 108 defined, 14–15 Japan, 165 in Ecuador, 90, 91 and Philippines, 157, 164 elite holders of, 14 shift in security consensus, 152 influence on outcomes, 8, 27, 84–5, 116–17, pro-base groups 142, 147–8, 178–9 in Ecuador, 96 in Italy, 106–10 in Italy, 112 in Japan, 70–6, 165 in Japan, 172 manage, 189–91 in the Philippines, 36, 48, 59–60, 62 measuring, 27–30, 44 Prodi, Romano, 100, 104 in the Philippines, 44, 49–50, 60–2, center-left coalition, 105, 111, 113 153, 158 foreign policy, 106–7, 109 as political opportunity structure, 21–3, 178 position on U.S. bases, 112, 117 and regime type, 10, 181–7 public opinion, 23, 191 shaped by, 9, 15 activist influence on, 93, 137 in South Korea, 121–8 Philippine bases, 58, 62 stability of, 17, 150–1 support for U.S. troops in South strengthen, 189–91 Korea, 127 subfactors of, 150 U.S.-Japan alliance, 73 variation over time, 149–50, 151–2, 176 U.S.-South Korea alliance, 119 security discourse, 33 Pyeongtaek, 118 in Ecuador, 100 base expansion, 2 in Japan, 75, 165 base relocation site, 121, 131, 139 shift in, 117 city government, 136, 140 in South Korea, 119 local anti-base coalition, 131–2 Sigonella base, 101 May clash, 1–2, 144–5 Simbulan, Roland, 35, 52, 59 Sin, Jamie, Cardinal, 163 Quadrennial Defense social movements, 3, 12–13, 21, 23 Review, 120, 188 approaches to, 18, 179 and base politics, 7 realism, 12, 39 and international relations, 4, 7, 8, 179 alternative explanation, 9, 117 Solidarity for Peace and Reunification of Korea Recto, Claro, 41 (SPARK), 132 regime change, 191 South Korea and shift in security consensus, 152 anti-Americanism, 129–30, 140 regime type, 9, 184, 187 civil society, 184–5 as alternative explanation, 9–10 conservatives, 123–4, 126 and base politics, 181–3 government counterstrategies against See also Alexander Cooley activists, 140–7 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia Ministry of Defense, 131 (FARC), 93, 96 Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Roh, Moo-hyun, 122 (MOFAT), 139, 146 and U.S. alliance, 124, 140 Ministry of National Defense (MND), 139, rooted cosmopolitans, 199 140–4, 147, 180

222 Index

Solidarity for Peace and Reuniﬁcation of Korea and ideational factors, 150 (SPARK), (cont.) internal, 45 National Assembly, 124, 138–9, 140 and security consensus, 9, 15, 85, 150 national security laws, 29, 125, 126 Torrejón air base, 186 and North Korea, 17, 122–3 transnational movement, 7, 19–20, 93–4, progressives, 122–6, 127 199–200 relations with United States, 120–2, 125–8 No Bases network, 94 riot police, 1, 118, 143, 144–5, 147 See also International No Bases Conference 386 generation, 124 Truman Doctrine, 107 U.S.–South Korea Free Trade Agreement, 135 Turkey, 5, 190 use of force against activists, 144–5 South Korean anti-base movements, 119, 148 United States evolution of, 129–31 as actor in base politics, 24–5 Maehyangri, 130–1 basing strategy, 5, 188–95, 196, 200 SOFA revision movement, 130–1 and imperialism, 199 See also Pan-National Solution Committee to and security umbrella, 17, 44, 45–6, 71, 154 Stop the Expansion of U.S. Bases United States Information Agency (USIA), 191 sovereignty, 3, 5 Uri Party, 122, 123, 138 claims of, 19, 130, 198 USFJ (United States Forces, Japan) Ecuador, 97 realignment plan, 174 frames of, 21, 52 USFK (United States Forces, Korea), 1, 2, 118 Italy, 107 associated crime, 129, 130 and overseas bases, 6 Land Partnership Plan (LPP), 120 Philippines, 45, 61, 161 public support for, 127 South Korea, 124 2nd Infantry Division, 121, 131, 147 Soviet Union, 151 transformation, 121, 125, 142, 147 collapse of, 40, 48 wartime operational control, 121, 125 Spain, 109, 186–7 U.S. Southern Command (SOUTHCOM), Special Action Committee on Okinawa (SACO), 88, 89 69, 78–82, 169. See also SACO Report Uzbekistan, 192 Spogli, Ronald, 112 Spratly Islands, 153, 155 Vicenza, 100, 102–3, 199 state autonomy, 21 city council, 102–3, 112 state capacity, 21, 23, 194 local-national relations, 111–12, 114 State Department (United States), 157, 191 173rd Airborne Brigade, 2, 102 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), 31, 182 as UNESCO world heritage site, 103 demand for revision in Japan, 68, 74 Vieques, Puerto Rico, 197 Japan, 67 Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA), 153, NATO, 101 156, 159 revision movement in South Korea, 130, 198 protests against, 160–4 Uzbekistan, 192 structure-agent relationship, 22–3, 50, 119, Won Hee-ryong, 125 179–81 World Social Forum, 94 Subic Bay Naval Station, 11 closure, 12, 36, 55, 62 Yonetani, Julia, 65 environmental damage, 160 Yongsan Garrison, 121 function of, 38–9 relocation, 131, 139, 147 strategic value, 39–40, 116 Yoon, Geumi, 129 Yoon, Young-kwon, 124 Tañada, Wigerbto, 35, 56–7, 59, 160 Yoshida, Shigeru, 71 Tanji, Miyume, 169 Yoshida Doctrine, 70, 167 threat perceptions, 15, 17, 29, 49, 179 change in, 151 Zapatero, Jose Luis Rodriguez, 109