ŽILINSKÁ UNIVERZITA V ŽILINE Fakulta prírodných vied Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry
DIPLOMOVÁ PRÁCA
2006 Jana Marcinková
Irony in the novel Master Georgie written by Beryl Bainbridge Diplomová práca
Jana Marcinková
Žilinská univerzita v Žiline Fakulta prírodných vied
Vedúci diplomovej práce: doc. PhDr. Stanislav Kolá ř, CSc. Konzultant: PhDr. Gabriela Boldizsárová Komisia pre obhajoby: Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry
Stupe ň odbornej kvalifikácie: magister Dátum odovzdania práce: 2006-04-15
Žilina 2006
ČESTNÉ PREHLÁSENIE
Vyhlasujem, že som túto diplomovú prácu napísala samostatne s použitím uvádzanej literatúry.
Žilina 2006
POĎAKOVANIE
Chcela by som sa po ďakova ť mojej konzultantke PhDr. Gabriele Boldizsárovej za jej ochotu, trpezlivos ť a usmernenie pri písaní tejto diplomovej práce.
ABSTRAKT
Témou tejto diplomovej práce je irónia v historickom románe „ Master Georgie “ britskej spisovate ľky Beryl Bainbridge. Formálne je rozdelená do dvoch hlavných kapitol. Prvá, teoretická čas ť, obsahuje tri podkapitoly. V prvej z nich sa zaoberáme smerom postmodernizmus a jeho vplyvom na sú časnú spolo čenskú situáciu. Sústredíme sa predovšetkým na myšlienku, že v sú časnosti už neexistuje uzavretý výklad života a celková koncepcia univerzálneho. V druhej časti je objasnený vplyv postmodernizmu na literatúru. Medzi hlavné zmeny patrí napríklad poh ľad na realitu a úloha rozpráva ča, pri čom nesmieme zabudnú ť na iróniu, ktorá predstavuje k ľúčový prvok v rámci postmoderného textu. V tretej podkapitole charakterizujeme pojem irónia a jeho rôzne formy, pri čom zis ťujeme, že v sú časnom postmodernom období je použitie irónie mnohonásobné, či už v rámci textu, alebo re či. Druhá, praktická čas ť sa zaoberá analýzou novely „ Master Georgie “ z poh ľadu irónie. V priebehu tejto analýzy si všímame nielen jeho obsahovú, ale aj formálnu stránku, pri čom vychádzame z tvrdenia, že irónia stavia do juxtapozície zdanie a realitu. To znamená, že to, čo sa stane, bude opakom toho, čo o čakávame. Cie ľom tejto diplomovej práce je dokáza ť, že komplexnos ť rozoberaného diela je vytvorená prostredníctvom prenikajúcej irónie.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 7
1 THEORETICAL PART 9 1.1 Postmodernism and social situation 9 1.2 Postmodernism and literature 17 1.3 Forms of irony, irony and postmodernism 22
2 ANALYSIS OF NOVEL MASTER GEORGIE 29 2.1 Summary of the plot 29 2.2 Irony in the novel Master Georgie 31 2.2.1 Plate 1. 1846 33 2.2.2 Plate 2. 1850 40 2.2.3 Plate 3. 1854 46 2.2.4 Plate 4. August 1854 52 2.2.5 Plate 5. October 1854 57 2.2.6 Plate 6. November 1854 62
CONCLUSION 68 RESUMÉ 70 BIBLIOGRAPHY 77
INTRODUCTION
This thesis deals with analysis of the novel Master Georgie written by Beryl Bainbridge from an interesting point of view. This special aspect is irony. The author Beryl Bainbridge is one of the British popular novelists. She was born in Liverpool on 21 November 1934 and got educated at Merchant Taylors´ School. Bainbridge spent her early years working as an actress at Liverpool Repertory Theatre, before she published her first novel. She has been short- listed for the Booker Prize four times and she has won the Whitbread Prize three times. The author is known for her psychologically bright portrayals of lower-middle class life. A number of her novels are set in her native Liverpool and the first two chapters of the novel Master Georgie are not an exception either. The author often uses her own experiences that can be the reason why her work has attracted so wide readership. Beryl Bainbridge is a wonderful observer of human folly and self-deception, she uses witty language and what is left unsaid is often as important as what is. The readers of her novels have to pay attention to her every word and it is useful if one also has a sharp ear for irony that is one of the significant features in Beryl Bainbridge´s novels.
The aim of this thesis is to analyze the novel Master Georgie from the point of view of irony, that means to find out what kind of irony occurs in every of the six chapters of this novel. Besides, the illustration of the figures of verbal irony, dramatic irony or irony of fate, etc. we try to clarify also the formal irony as a stylistic method that is therefore associated with the above mentioned technique of saying as little and meaning as much as possible. Furthermore, coming out from the analyses of her previous novels that have been done by Swedish critic Elisabeth Wenn ı, our aim is to examine whether the characteristic features of her previous novels occur in the novel Master Georgie as well. We would like to show that the complexity of this novel is produced through a permeating irony.
We particularly try to focus on the negative construction that ironically works to attach and upset realistic appeal and we also try to target the reader in order to find out if he or she is distanced by the presentation or invited to experience the process of narrated events. Moreover, we concentrate on the opposition between the ideal and the actual; it means the contrast between transcendence and separation, or entrapment. To show and highlight these viewpoints is a partial intention of this work along with the statement that the ironic interplay in the novel Master Georgie reveals a commitment to the needs of the individuals and to the cultural necessity of shared interpretative systems.
This thesis is divided into two main chapters. In addition to the analysis of the novel, which represents the practical part of this work, the theoretical part illustrates the connections between postmodernism and social situation and postmodernism and literature. We will also outline the forms of irony and the relationship between this technique and postmodernism. Each of this part is very important for the analysis of the novel Master Georgie , in order to understand the chosen theme better.
1 THEORETICAL PART
1.1 Postmodernism and social situation
In recent years, it has become quite fashionable to talk about the term postmodern and its derivatives postmodernism and postmodernity. Therefore, they require careful elaboration before being used in a history of social thought. It is certain that postmodernism is very difficult to be defined. However, it can be described as a set of ideas that has only emerged as an area of academic study since the middle 1980s. We can say that this movement is a concept, which appears in a wide variety of disciplines or areas of study, including art, architecture, communications, film, music, literature, sociology, philosophy, technology and fashion. The term itself entered the philosophical lexicon first in 1979, with the publication of work "The Postmodern Condition" written by Jean-Francois Lyotard. Postmodernism derives from postmodernity which Lyotard characterized as "a culmination of the process of modernity towards and accelerating pace of cultural change". (www.en.wikipedia.org)1 According to this, postmodernism as a cultural movement is an aspect of postmodernity and predates itself as a theoretical discipline by many years. When exactly modernism began to give way to postmodernism depends on the observer. Post-modern debate centred on whether or not we had reached the end of modernity. One of the approaches, which come from history and sociology, contrasts postmodernity with modernity. Modernity refers to a set of philosophical, ethical and political ideas, which provide the basis for the aesthetic aspect of modernism. It can be seen both as an economic change which results from the Industrial Revolution and as an ideological change resulting from the French Revolution. As we have mentioned earlier, it is very hard to decide what is modern and what is not.
1 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism>
However, we can say, that the modern era is generally associated with the European Enlightenment, which began in the 18th century. As the intellectual and cultural interest grew, such thinkers as Jean Francois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Frederic Jameson and Jacques Derrida proposed the epoch of Postmodernity with its own political, economic, and cultural ideals and practices. Contemporary theory started to be preoccupied with the emergence of a new epochal shift. While modernity refers to the certain ideas, postmodernity refers to the social condition. It means our way of life is changed. It mostly concerns the changes in organization of our ways of life, but there is a change in ways how we experience reality as well. It is certain that there is a great sense of the coming to an end in many ways today. For our nation it can be the end of Communism, there can be the end of social class, the end of ideology and so on. There is no doubt that we are living in a new era now, which can be called postmodernity, but to describe the intellectual reactions to this term we have to think about postmodernism. Specifically, it refers to the ways that people, mainly academics, visual artists and writers, response to the conditions of Postmodernity. Postmodernists view society as something that can no longer be explained as functioning truly in one way for all time and being. Based on these views, society is everywhere constantly changing, and for this reason cannot be explained by the universalizing theories advanced by modernity. There are many rapid changes in the late twentieth century, sometimes we might think of them as bewildering. However, every time something new emerges, the old one must go aside. In other words, every aspect of life reacts one upon another in the context of an emerging new social world. We can say that this change means revolution in every aspect of social life from technology to the arts, politics, economics, theology, human perception, etc. Moreover, the way we relate to one another, as well as the individual, family and community.
Technology is creating new human environments today. There are new forms of corporate power, new systems of mass communication. Especially the importance of computer technology is helping to reorganize social-economic life worldwide. According to Mark Poster, the new social condition can be described by the mode of information. He claims that we must find new ways to theorize a world in which the mode of production is less important than the mode of information. It is true, because we can see inequality between those who are information rich and those who are information poor everyday. Those who are information rich will have well- paid and interesting jobs, while those who are information poor will have low- paid jobs. Nowadays also, educated people hope for a long-term employment, which is equivalent to their field of study. This information based economy results in the globalization of the economy and leads to the global economic interdependence. These technological and economic changes suggest a theme of decentralization, which can be recognized in many areas of social life today. For example, it is no longer necessary for workers to live close to the company, or factory. They can sit comfortably at home with their computer. Similarly, students at the university can get their degree even without seeing it simply with the help of "virtual university" or "distance learning". Among the features, which characterize contemporary culture, can be the suggestion that our experiences are now rooted in the processes of consumption rather than production. Consumption deals with whole nation or individuals and asks question why do people or the individual buy some goods or use services and what is the effect on economy, environment and especially what the effect on individuals is. Mainly it affects powerful countries, but our country soon became to follow this "phenomenon". It is nothing special to visit supermarket or shopping centre during the weekends. It became quite fashionable. Instead of going somewhere out, we go out, but actually, when we think about it, we go inside, not outside. There are also more serious problems, which are related to our shapes of bodies and the desire to look younger and beautiful. It means that postmodernism emphasizes the importance of style and appearance over content, even though it has to be said that the participation in such way of life is a voluntary one. However, we have to think of what happens to those who cannot afford this kind of lifestyle and can be therefore excluded from the basis of social identity. Today we are responsible for ourselves and it can affect physical basis of day-to-day life. With all this, there comes the change of conceptions, as well. Our concept is directly connected with the developments. The electronic means of communication are certainly unique features of the twentieth century. It is said that computers kill or destroy time. There seems to be today, much more than in the past, a sense of the immediate. The availability of information is momentary. There is so much competing information, which results in the fact, that our attention span is shortened. People mix and match styles and genres. It is obvious when we think about television or magazine. The number of television programmes is increasing and watching television channels starts to be very similar to the reading of magazines. We switch from one channel to another like we turn from one page to another one. Today an individual can be seen as a result of whatever experience is available now. This means the loss of the centre. These are just a few examples of changes happening today to demonstrate that something is happening to social life. Something that is significant in the late twentieth century. Moreover, on all fronts the central theme of that change is de-centring.
There are many questions to be asked and many ways in which Postmodernism can be viewed. One of the most important questions is that about politics involved. In our contemporary society, the desire to return to the pre-postmodern era tends to get associated with conservative political, philosophical and religious groups. One of the consequences of postmodernism seems to be the rise of religious fundamentalism, which is the most obvious in Muslim religion, mainly in the Middle East where they ban postmodern books.
This association between the rejection of postmodernism and conservatism may explain why feminist theorists have found postmodernism so attractive. Another essential aspect of postmodernism is that this movement is largely a reaction to the assumed certainty of scientific or objective efforts to explain reality. It rises from recognition that reality is not simply mirrored in human understanding but rather, it is constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular and personal reality. For this reason, postmodernism is highly sceptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, races or traditions. Instead, it focuses on the relative truths of each person. Considering the scientific efforts, the status of science in the modern world is very important. However unexpected this direction might be, Jean Francois Lyotard produces a review of how knowledge has operated in the West since Renaissance. The knowledge in modern societies was equated with science and contrasted to narrative. Although, science was good knowledge and narrative was bad and primitive, knowledge on its own was good, because one gained knowledge to become an educated person. In postmodern society, knowledge becomes functional and it is distributed and arranged differently, which is particularly the result of technological development. Although, this era of postmodernism can be best described by these technical conquests, anything that is not digitizable will cease to be knowledge. We can define scientific knowledge also in opposition to ideology. There are two obvious problems. If ideology is a kind of discourse, also scientific knowledge is a kind of discourse. There is also the problem of infinite regress. J. F. Lyotard argues that this knowledge never legitimated itself because it relies on what he terms "narrative knowledge " to support it. "Narrative knowledge is customary, embedded in culture, enacted in forms of social competence as ´lived experience´ which typically is represented as narration. Unlike scientific knowledge, narrative knowledge goes ´beyond the criterion of truth´, and requires no further legitimation because it legitimates itself." (Sim, 2001, p. 19) 2
2 SIM, S. 2001. The Routledge companion to Postmodernism According to Lyotard every belief system or ideology has its grand narratives. He argues that totality, stability and order, are maintained in modern societies through the means of these grand narratives. Mainly he attacks the narrative of emancipation for which science is believed to be a necessary means and the narrative of triumph of science as speculation or pure and authentic knowledge. Lyotard thinks that these narratives "lost their credibility " since the Second World War. We might also think of grand narratives as a kind of meta-theory, or meta-ideology, that is, an ideology that explains an ideology. These metanarratives serve to give cultural practices some form of legitimation. As an example, the Marxist belief in the privileged function of the proletariat can serve. In other words, metanarrative refers to the ideas that are used to understand the world. Although postmodernists today try to resist grandnarratives, the problem is if one tries to live without them, then he uncovers a hidden grand narrative. It depends on what we believe. For example, according to Geertz "we are changing the way we think about the way we think." (www.accd.edu)3 Although, Lyotard stresses the fact that in the postmodern condition we cannot find science in truth and so distinguish it from ideology, another philosopher, Jean Baudrillard conceives postmodernism as an endless circulation of signs from which any sense of reality has fallen away, a world in which there are simulations and only simulations. He is strongly influenced by a tradition in French philosophy called semiology, which is the science of sign systems and includes language as well as visual and social codes. This leads to how we understand signs and symbols in our culture. He explains that nowadays, in postmodern order, signs have no connection to the real. Because signs indeed are more real than reality, the imaginary, and the real become confused. We can say we entered the era of hyperrealists because for postmodern societies there are only surfaces without depth, only signifiers with no signifiers. While culturally, modernity stressed the purity of each art and the
3
1.2 Postmodernism and literature
Postmodernism has influenced all spheres of life and for this reason; literature cannot be an exception either. The rise and fall of postmodernist writing is not certain, but we can say it was the dominant mode of literature between Sixties and Nineties. It arose as a series of styles and ideas in the post World War II that responded to the standards of modernist literature. We can find many of its fundamental techniques and premises also in postmodernism, which means that postmodernism is a change from modernism, not opposite of it. Both modern and postmodern literature represents a break from the 19th century realism. Postmodern literature disengages from realism in which the novel is based on realistic story and forms an illusion of system and value that no longer represents the true picture of reality. In postmodern literature, the real world is formed by the activity of individual characters. It allows using wide range of literary methods so that high/low literature can pierce into the spheres of fantasy, surrealistic allegory and magic realism. The major representatives of postmodernist fiction are from all over the world. Among them, we can find John Fowles, Angela Carter, Salman Rushdie, Umberto Eco, Günter Grass, Gabriel Garcia Márquez, Vladimir Nabokov and many others. As an example, John Fowles supposes that literature includes illusion, manipulation and new formal means and methods, but it still shows one´s real life in contemporary society. Elsewhere, the postmodern literature shifts away from the sphere of social realism to the sphere of dream, myth and fantasy. Gabriel Garcia Márquez in his novel One hundred years of Solitude (1967) makes the form of magic realism based on belief that myth, fantasy or dream are not less real that the known territory of social realism which was so traditionally used in novel. Although, majority of the postmodern literature is based on sceptical approach to reality, for instance, German writer Günter Grass sees the possibility of harmonization between postmodern art and social involvement.
The best example represents the novel Midnight´s Children (1981) written by Salman Rushdie who as a confessor of magic realism provides the original and new view of East that was so gladly and quickly accepted by West. Nevertheless, when he used the combinations of myths with reality and philosophy with fantasy for the analysis of Islam from the misbeliever’s point of view in his novel Satanic Verses (1988), he was sentenced to death and has to hide himself up to now.
While story was told from an objective point of view in realism, both modernism and postmodernism literature go through subjectivism. It means they turn from external reality to examine the inner states of consciousness and concern about how seeing takes place, rather than on what is perceived. Postmodernism is far away from the apparent objectivity which is provided by omniscient third-person narrators and fixed narrative points of view. It experiments with role of narrator, language, time, view of reality, etc. Nothing is total or complete in postmodernism; it presents a multiple view of reality, non-traditional narrative and anti-illusive perspectives. Postmodernism supports fragmentation, discontinuity and puts an emphasis on the decentred, destructured and dehumanized subject. While in modernism, the fragmented view of human subjectivity and history is presented as something tragic, postmodernism rather celebrates that. In postmodernism, reality is fragmented and time is. In Margaret Atwood’s postmodern story, Death of a Landscape (1989), her use of time and space becomes the framework for this story. The ideas of fragmentation, discontinuity and multiplicity reveal the fragmented and incomplete thoughts of the main character, Lois. This novel cuts back and forth across space and time. There is dialogue of the past, in light of the present. The switch of time forces the reader to accept narrative disjunctions through these flashbacks. The postmodernist writer does not trust the wholeness and completion of traditional stories. Writer of this era prefers other ways of structuring narrative.
One possible alternative is the multiple ending, which resists closure by offering various outcomes for a plot. John Fowles and his novel French Lieutenant´s Woman (1969) represent the classic example of this. In this novel, he offers two possible endings. The first one ends in marriage, after Charles finds Sarah, the second one in Sarah´s independence. Author also plays with the third possibility of leaving Charles on the train, searching for Sarah in the capital. Author addresses the reader directly and he steps into the story as a character. These are the tactics of the multiple endings. Another possibility how to achieve this point of opening is breaking up the text into short fragments or sections, which are separated by space, numbers, titles or symbols. The novels and the short stories of Richard Brautigan are full of such fragments. Some writers even fragment the text with illustrations or mixed media. All this results in the fact that there is a need to find new forms of continuity, because the old linear plots are absent. That is why the representatives of postmodern literature claim that the present is significantly different from the modern period and therefore requires a new literary sensibility. Among the features of postmodern literature (or fiction), we can also find pastiche, temporal disorder, looseness of association, paranoia, the creation of vicious circles, etc. If we talk about pastiche, which is a kind of permutation, a shuffling of generic and grammatical tics then we can say it arises from the frustration that everything has been done before. This explains why so many contemporary writers use certain elements of popular genres, such as historical novel, sci-fi story, detective story, spy novel, the western, the thriller, etc. One of the most popular sources for postmodernist pastiche is science fiction which can be repesented by Kurt Vonnegut´s Slaughterhouse-Five (1969) and among the popular postmodernist detective fiction we can find the novel The name of the Rose (1986) written by Umberto Eco. Canadian writer Linda Hutcheon argues that postmodernist writing is best represented by those works of „historiographic metafiction“ which self- consciously distort history.
We can say that postmodernist fiction does not just disrupt the past, but it corrupts the present, too. This mixes historical and fictional material and implies or states a postmodernist critique of the realist norms for the relationship of fiction to history. If we take the novel The remains of the Day (1993) by Kazuo Ishiguro we find out that the topic primarily deals with the butler versus history and butler versus his own soul. The author offers us the feeling that we have unravelled the right image. We do not believe that history can come before the emotions at all, although history is nothing overall, as compared to the least string of emotion. At this point, is essential to explain what does the above-mentioned term metafiction means. One of the aspects of postmodernism is to explore the relationship between fiction and reality and between history and mythology. Metafiction is then a kind of fictional writing which "self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction ". (www.en.wikipedia.org) 4 It celebrates the power of creative imagination and uses parodic and playful style or writing. Metafiction usually involves irony and it is self-reflective. It can represent only a moment in a story, or it can be central to the work, as in Tristram Shandy (1759 – 1767) written by Laurence Sterne. In this novel author requires the reader to wait until he finishes digressions and enjoying twists such as odd turns of phrase, blank pages and puns. According to Waugh, "metafiction is a tendency or function in all novels ". (www.hku.hk)5 It means that stories always have something to tell us about stories themselves and involve metafictional dimensions. The novel does not use any metalanguage that signifies a fictional world and is used to make statements about language, but it uses the languages of memoirs, histories, diaries, journals, etc. Linda Hutcheon also says that one of the compelling reasons for her study of postmodernism was the idea of revisiting the past with a sense of irony. One of those works, which play with the notion of history as a narrative and with the retrospective ironies, is John Fowles´s The French Lieutenant´s
4
Woman (1969). The novel contains author’s ironical commentary on the events displayed in the story. We can be inside and outside the novel at the same time. It means we can feel for the characters, which is typical for the realistic novel, but we can also judge them from an ironically point of view. The fixture of the historical novel to postmodernism is not so immediately obvious. All the historical novels involve some violation of boundaries. Also traditional historical novels, which place their characters in a past time and try to image that era realistically in both fact and spirit, aim to hide the violations between fictional projections and real-world facts. They simply avoid contradictions between the versions of historical figures and their familiar facts. For example, about Napoleon as a real historical figure and his career. Among the representatives of the historical novel we can find Alexandre Dumas, Sir Walter Scott, Margaret Mitchell, etc. In addition, the list of postmodernist historical novelist includes Salman Rushdie, Günter Grass, Beryl Bainbridge, etc. The construction of a novel is not completed only by its narrative, characters or meaning, but another important emphasis is placed on voice. There is more than one voice in a literary text, even if it is a voice just talking or responding to it. Recent literary theory concerns with the importance of seeing literature as a space in which multiple voices can come together. This consistence of two or more melodic voices is what we call polyphony. Very good example provides the narrator in Salman Rushdie´s novel Midnight´s Children (1981) Saleem, who constantly hears multiple voices. The recent literary theory also suggests that we should not think only about the voice of an author, a narrator or a reader, but we should think of the difference and multiplicity within every voice. We should realize that postmodernist stories do not exist in order to change people’s belief systems. In fact, postmodernism would critique or parody stories such as these. However, it is important to remember that postmodern works of literature are determined by such literary elements as parody, destabilization of social norms and mainly irony as the key element in postmodern text.
1.3 Forms of Irony, Irony and Postmodernism
The theme of irony is quite interesting, because it considers innumerous and sometimes controversial points of view. The term itself came into English in the 16 th century. It is derived from the Latin ´ironia´, which came from the Greek eironeia, meaning simulated ignorance. Generally, irony means the usage of language to express both a surface meaning and an underlying meaning, which is different. It signifies that the appearance of things differ from their reality, whether in terms of meaning, action, or situation. Irony can appear in many various forms. Some of them are verbal, non-verbal, dramatic, structural, situational, rhetorical, irony of Fate, Socratic, philosophical, romantic, cosmic, tragic, etc. Irony is also a technique, which shows the dualistic view of man as a mixture of bodily instinct and rational intellect. It includes the ability to see things in double aspect that is as they are and as they ought to be. This is the common classification of irony, which is used to express oneself, usually to a single audience. The simplest form of this kind of irony is an ordinary conversation. Considering this, verbal irony, sometimes called rhetorical, occurs when an author says one thing, but means something else. Sometimes the surface meaning can be false, or it can be a level of meaning which differs from the underlying one. It is very essential if one can recognize when the words should not be taken as they sound, that means to recognize the dissembling. It all depends on the context in which the words occur, but it includes the speaker’s character, the situation and the relationship between the speaker and the reader, as well. We can say it is the most straightforward kind of irony. For example, throughout the novel written by Nathaniel Hawthorne The Scarlet Letter (1850) characters often say something without realizing the significance or they say the opposite of what is meant. This is especially obvious in the situation when Hester stands on the scaffold and Dimmesdale makes a defence for her to confess her partner to sin.
He uses very ironic words especially when he mentions that her silence would only enforce her partner to add hypocrisy to sin. This situation is particularly ironic because he will live the life of hypocrisy because of his and Hester´s sin.
Another category consists of those forms in which there are two audiences. One of them is the audience, which understands only the surface meaning of the expression while the second audience understands both meanings and realizes that the first one does not understand. The speaker usually asks the uninitiated audience while the trusty audience observes. This is mostly obvious in dramatic irony, which occurs in a situation in which the audience or the reader knows more about the momentaneous circumstances or a fate for a character than the character himself within the story. The best examples of this kind of irony are probably the Greek tragedies. In these stories, certain words seem to be safe and unimportant to the character, but the audience is usually aware of a meaning, which carries far greater significance. The outcome of the character’s unawareness can be tragic. Audiences familiar with Othello or Sophocles´ tragedy know what it is all about, because they can watch every step of the characters´ fault. For example, when the young Oedipus inadvertently kills his father and marries his mother, his brother-in-law Creon suggests that he killed the king of Thebes in order to become a king. Oedipus is disgraced and tells him: "A fool is he who thinks he can sin against his kinfolk and not suffer the wrath of the Gods." (www.everything2.com)6 This example can serve as the best example of dramatic irony although this kind of irony can also produce a comic effect when the unintended results of characters actions are humorous. The applications of irony are manifold in both language and civilization. In language, irony can be traced in the tone, the form and the structure. The propositions, sentences and utterances can lend themselves to irony in the linguistic, the extra-linguistic and the pragmatic domains of discourse.
6
As an example, in structural irony both the surface meaning and the deeper implications are presented more or less throughout. It uses the naive hero or narrator, whose simple comments are at variance with the reader’s interpretation. The reader’s understanding of the author’s intention is very important as well as the perceiving an authorial presence behind the naive persona. Let us think about Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726), where the narrator Gulliver is naive and idealizes some people, even they are fools. Even though he is preoccupied with conservative morality and personal pride, at the end he behaves like a horse, because he considers horses superior to men.
At the end of the eighteenth century, irony came to be seen as a relationship between human subjects and the world. It means that the subject was suspended somewhere above it. The central figure of romantic art is Shakespeare who first came up with the idea of the absent author. This gap between words and world was original for the Romantics. They argued if we try to see whole language as ironic, life would no longer be reduced to what is sayable, or frozen into the fixed forms of grammar and syntax. It became possible to see literature as the privileged mode of human understanding, because romantics established that the truth of life lied in a questioning and imaginative play of representations, such as poetry. In romantic irony writer sets up the world of his text and then expressly undermines it by reminding the reader that it is only a form of illusion. In Byron’s Don Juan (1821), the author gives us the loving Juan who goes through a series of love affairs and political activities. The poem is divided between the positive personality of Don Juan and the destructive voice of the narrator. On the one hand there is a honest creation of this hero, mainly the creation of his identity and personality which gives the sense to life. On the other hand, the narrator de-forms the sense by drawing attention to the fact that all forms of self and personality are fictions.
Although irony primarily concerns with language, it is acceptable to apply irony figuratively, as well. The kind of figurative irony is the irony of Fate, in which an event or a set of circumstances takes place of the expression of language. The obvious candidates are situations that are particularly perverse, situations that seem to mock the expectations of most of us, or that are humorous at our expense. Many practical jokes can serve as a good illustration of figuratively ironic situation. However, the irony here belongs to the humans who play the jokes. Those on whom the jokes are played are the outsiders and any spectators represent the inner circle. The irony of fate is concerned with situations that apparently just happened and for which no natural explanation is satisfactory. We are not able to explain the situation in terms of nature and therefore it results from the interference with the normal course of events. But who is than responsible for the result? In this kind of situations, we tend to say that some superior powers, such as fate have to be responsible for that. One of the examples can be the situation when the rain sets in immediately after one finishes watering one’s garden. That would be all right if one has not been putting off the watering in anticipation of rain for many days. Another situation, which can suggests an example of the irony of fate is this one. One couple enter the national lottery every week; they select the same numbers each time. After thirty years, they have still not won anything at all. As usually, on Sunday they watch television and their numbers come up. Husband is very happy and then he realizes that his wife forgot to purchase the ticket. This situation can be better explained as the act of a mischievous sense of humour rather than too unlucky one. As an expression of Fate’s black humour or and unfortunate natural occurrence can serve this situation: two animal rights activists were protesting the cruelty of sending pigs to a slaughterhouse. Suddenly the pigs, all two thousand of them, escaped through a broken fence and stampeded, trampling the two hapless protesters to death. The outcome shows how unavoidable can be someone’s destiny.
Irony is often confused with sarcasm and satire. Sarcasm is one kind of irony, the highest form of bitter irony and it is stronger than irony itself. It involves the desire to put someone down. For example in Jane Austen´s Pride and Prejudice (1813), one of the girls says to a man. "Oh, what a gift to a woman you are!" This saying is praise, which is actually an insult. Generally, it is expressed through the vocal intonations such as over-emphasizing the particular words or the statement. It also uses a cynical tone, which was used by another great writer Mark Twain when he once said that the coldest winter he ever spent was a summer in San Francisco. Another kind of irony is satire, which is the exposure of the follies of an individual, a group, an idea, society, etc. Satirists use irony very frequently. Among them we find Oscar Wilde and his play The importance of being Earnest (1895) in which the characters are motivated and controlled by social standards which are used to maintain social distinctions and social class privileges although they have very little substance. The young lovers realize their dreams of romance against this system of controls. Similarly, the novel Catch 22 (1961) written by Joseph Heller is full of satire, irony, paradoxes, criticism of American society, etc. The satiric tone is seen through the whole novel. Many important institutions are satirized. Except the medical establishment also the military bureaucracy and the officers.
We can say that irony is the triumph of postmodernism and therefore we cannot omit the nostalgic dimension of the postmodern. Canadian critic Linda Hutcheon characterises postmodernism in terms of irony, de-naturalisation and commitment to duplicity and doubleness. She claims that nowadays we should not ignore the real and uneasy tension between postmodern irony and nostalgia, because they are both seen as the key components of contemporary culture. At first, nostalgia nowadays represents something different as it did in the past. It lost its meaning when the word first entered everyday language. It was first used in 1678 by Swiss physician Jean-Jacques Harder and referred to the serious medical disorder: "the pain a sick person feels because he is not in his native land, or fears never to see it again." (www.en.wikipedia.org)7
7
In civilisation, irony seems to have become a life style and a strategy of survival to go through all aspects of modern life. Sometimes it seems to be a way of contemplating the fate of our New World. There is a massive growth in the use of irony in art and literature. Ironies of the text and voice become signs of a good taste in literature and drama. For a skilled writer or painter it can represent a tool in their hands, because irony undermines claims and unmasks
8 < http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/criticism/hutchinp.html> appearances. Irony in postmodernism erases the difference between ideal and real, high and low culture. While in modernism irony is used as a response to a world, which is seen in fragments and where the radical incoherence is not resolved or unified, in postmodernism irony represents the rise of the awareness of incoherence, which cannot be accounted for or contained in the form. Postmodernism uses irony as its primary way of expression, but it also takes the advantage of and subverts accords. We can say that postmodernism is an attitude which is ironic. It reasons in comedy and raises the spirit of parody and play. Poems based on complex rules are written in a kind of cooperation with the language with the attempt to bring out the poetry linked in the language. Considering all these aspects, we can think of postmodernism as the triumph of irony.
2 ANYLYSIS OF THE NOVEL MASTER GEORGIE
2.1 Summary of the plot
In recent years, Beryl Bainbridge´s novels have been based on real lives and historical events. Her historical novels include The Birthday Boys (1991), the story of Captain Scott´s doomed expedition to the South Pole; Every man for Himself (1996), the story about premier voyage of The Titanic, and her latest novel According to Queeney (2001) which features a young narrator commenting on historical events.
In 1998, Beryl Bainbridge published her third historical novel Master Georgie . This novel is considered to be one of her best and it was shortlisted for the 1998 Booker Prize. It specializes in fictionalising another of the great British disasters, this time it describes the exquisite chaos of the Crimean War, which was the Russian-English conflict best known for the Charge of the Light Brigade and Florence Nightingale's saga, both to which the author pays only a little attention. Although the story is enacted during the war, the frame of the book is not so much the war itself as a group of people whose lives are focused by it. The protagonist is Master Georgie – George Hardy, surgeon and amateur photographer who decides to offer his services in this war and sets off from the comfortable Victorian Liverpool to the horrific battlefields in Crimea. The story is told through the eyes of three characters who take turns in telling moments in which their lives coincide with the main character Master Georgie. There is Myrtle, a young girl, who is an orphan adopted and raised by Hardy´s family and who deeply adores George. Next is Pompey Jones, young street urchin, who is very good at con games, fire eating and he is appreciated by George as his occasional photographic assistant and his sometimes lover. The last is Dr. Potter, geologist and George’s brother-in-law, who studies the classics and the new science of Darwin.
George, Pompey and Myrtle are linked by a terrible secret, the misfortune death of George´s father in one of the Liverpool’s brothel. George ´asks´ them for a help with his father corpse in order to spare his mother and the rest of the family from the pain of knowing what happened. They want to make it appear that Mr. Hardy died in his own bed. From this moment, the lives of these three people are irretrievably changed. In addition, Dr. Potter´s fortune is linked with them because he speculates about the rare misadventure and they are all driven forward facing through a raising tide of death and disease. Their journey begins in February 27 th in the year of 1854. Besides Myrtle and Dr. Potter, among the followers of George is also his wife Annie, their children and George’s sister Beatrice, who is Dr. Potter’s wife. After three months, they sail back home, because Constantinople becomes crowded with transports and officials and there is an alarming increase in the number of flies and stinging insects. Although, things really do not go as planned, Myrtle and Dr. Potter stay with George. In August, during the concert party at Varna, George behind the fire-eater recognizes, the duck-boy, Pompey Jones. His sudden presence is astonishing for everyone and the lives of these four people are joined once again. The conditions at the camp are horrific and they all must confront the horrors of the war. Besides the military slaughter and surgical butchery, there is also epidemic cholera, death and disease. Among the victims, are also women and children. As the days pass by, the strength of the enemy forces rises and they are required to give support to the one of the divisions one foggy morning. However, George is the only soldier; Myrtle, Pompey and Dr. Potter follow him, as well. Miraculously, none of them gets hurt, but on their way back to the camp, one of the wounded Russians appears and fires. George with his back to him falls down. When Myrtle and Pompey arrive at the camp, Dr. Potter is already there. He turned back there earlier, because of the mist. Although this novel ends tragically and the death of Master Georgie at the end can be surprising, it helps to give the meaning to the whole story.
2.2 Irony in the novel Master Georgie
The historical novel Master Georgie is written in original style and the author Beryl Bainbridge interprets the events with irony, she goes through the atmosphere of the mid 1800s and explores the attitudes towards class, love, fate and war with the use of sexual undertones and overtones of the day.
Generally, we can say that irony is based on contrast. In every of the novels written by Beryl Bainbridge, there is a disperancy between the ideal and the actual, which is the quick force behind the course of events and it leads to disaster. It is also pointed to human potentials and values, it means that the novels not only reflect the tragedy and ironies of life, but also clearly speak of the nature of being human and its possibilities. Although the novel Master Georgie contains tragic, comic and romantic elements, the ironic stance works to represent and inform at once. In her novels, we can find the ironic contrast between illusion and reality, lie and truth, disbelief and belief, love and war opposition, old and new, etc. In this analysis, we will try to go through these ironic contrasts in every chapter of this novel separately, although they will sometimes overlap in order to illustrate the irony precisely.
It is essential to point out that the structure and form of this novel is based on photographs. It is divided into six chapters; each of them represents a separate photographic plate, a black and white picture, dating from 1846 in Liverpool to 1854 in the Crimea. Each of these six chapters is named after a photograph taken in the course of its action, and each of these photographs comments grimly on the action's meaning. The organization of the novel around these six photographic images is probably based on the fact that the Crimean war was first ever to be photographed.
Although George does not narrate any of these chapters and his story begins and ends in front of the camera, the author uses other people as cameras and lenses to give us the overall image of this character. Each section is told in the first person by one of the three earlier mentioned characters. These three voices record the series of strange events, bad judgements and good intentions that shape the destiny of the main character George Hardy, but also their own lives. The portrait of George that emerges is rendered in the various shades of his significance to these individuals, particularly what he means to each of them, and why. As we have mentioned earlier, the novel Master Georgie is historical and if we look at history, the archives themselves can misrepresent the past. We can say that the archives are fragmentary and they create comparisons that are artificial, even illusory. The author of this novel Beryl Bainbridge suggests that photography is very good example of this. The thing about photographs is that they capture a moment. But do they tell us the truth? Actually, the certain moment can be a sort of the truth. According to Beryl Bainbridge, "in a way photography is more of a cheat than anything else. " (www.historicalnovelsociety.org) 9 It has the function of myth making, as well. In this novel, we have to reveal the myth of perfection as an illusion and the fact of the truth as imperfection, because when the present state is compared with the past or the future, it always seems to be imperfect. There is truly something magic that surrounds the art of photography, for example, the angle of vision, different points of view or the observation of what might really be happening. Throughout the novel Master Georgie we come across six photographs. We will take a closer and ironic look at these particular photographs that represent each of the six chapters of this novel.
9
This first plate is called Girl in the presence of death and takes place in Victorian Liverpool, where George takes a photograph of his dead father Mr. Hardy with his adoptive sister Myrtle besides him. It is posthumous photograph, which shows his father peacefully lying in his own bed. If we take a brief look at the photograph like this, we would probably consider the man alive and that is the point, the photograph shows him seemingly alive. At least, it can appear like this to us, because we as the readers have to add the ironic tone and we can then consider the photograph as the ironic contrast between life and death. Of course, Mr. Hardy is dead, but he seems to be alive, so that can be the first contrast. More obvious one is that Myrtle is alive and Mr. Hardy is dead. Besides the opposition between life and death, there is also one between young and old. The reason is simple, because Myrtle is young and innocent girl and Mr. Hardy is an old man. Furthermore, Myrtle experiences this situation as a perfectly romantic one, even though it is obviously a grim one. "I fixed my gaze on the dead man and told myself God would strike me blind if my eyelids quivered. So intense was my concentration, it was only Master Georgie who breathed in the sun-dappled room. Outside, the birds continued to twitter. All my life, I thought I will stand at your side; and then I did blink, for the grandness of such a notion welled up tears in my eyes." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 38) 10 This is the ironic contrast between the effect of transcendence for her, but for the reader it has surely a different effect. Consequently, there is an ironic opposition between the lie and the truth. Although Master Georgie does not want Myrtle to lie, he asks her to hide what she knows. "Remember, Myrtle, he died in bed from cessation of the heart" and she thinks about it, "It was, after all, no more than the truth, if one didn’t dwell on which particular bed." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 33) 11 The truth is that he died in a bed of a prostitute and not peacefully in his own bed, which is the lie.
10 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 11 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie The truth here can represent life as well, life that equals the truth. Considering the fact that George wants to protect the rest of the family from how his father died, we can think of this lie as follows. The lie can equal George´s love. He is not worried on his account, but he cares about his mother as he clearly expresses. "It´s my mother I have to protect." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 36) 12
Furthermore, we can illustrate the ironic contrasts if we analyse the relationships between the characters, especially their marriages. Considering the previous, in this case the equality of love with lie can be seen also in ironic contrast, because Georgie´s marriage is a big lie. In general, marriage represents the conventional sign of union that should be achieved. This union should be equal with love, but it is not the case of the marriage between George Hardy and his wife Annie Prescott. None of them is happy in this marriage. George is a homosexual, he has the aversion for women, and that is probably the reason why he is not able to treat his wife, as he should. That is why the point of a marriage as an existential quest is signified as illusory. Similarly, the marriage between Dr. Potter and George´s sister Beatrice is only an illusion. She dreams of running away to sea, which is the metaphor of love and it is associated with belief. This belief is also very similar to religious belief. In ironic contrast, Dr. Potter is under the supremacy of new sciences and he believes that world was not created in six days, but in more like thousands of years. As an opposition, Mrs. O´Gorman is very religious and does not care about the permanency of rocks. "... her rock was the Kingdom of Heaven and she didn´t want it shifted. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 8) 13 This is the ironic contrast between disbelief and belief. We can consider the marriage of Dr. Potter and his wife Beatrice as a kind of a battle, because the sea as a metaphor of love can be seen in ironic contrast as a metaphor of life as a battle. They both have different opinions and sometimes spar.
12 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 13 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie We can notice this when one of their visitors leaves their house. "Finally the door slammed shut. There followed a silence broken by a slight scuffle." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 30) 14 Besides, they sometimes also pick on each other. "B. I assure you it’s the truth. All that is required is a little feminine cunning. Of which you have more than enough to spare, interjected a masculine voice, that of Dr Potter and remarkably bitter in tone." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 29) 15 Another case of the ironic contrast represents the marriage between old Mr. Hardy and his wife Mrs. Hardy. However, we do not have the chance to know these characters better, still it is obvious that the relationship between them is not harmonic and that is the ironic contrast, because as we have mentioned earlier, marriage is supposed to achieve union and the harmony should come within. Mr. Hardy often goes to town and meets with his friends there. He usually comes home very late and slightly drunk and he likes to visit disorderly house, which turns to be his fatal mistake. His wife Mrs. Hardy is a neglected woman, she spends her day mostly at home and slumber is her favourite activity in the afternoon. Considering the fact, that her husband drinks and he is unfaithful we can think he does not have a great regard for his wife. Their relationship was probably different at the beginning when they were first joined, but the love and harmony between them is now ironically over. Moreover, he does not share the same bedroom with his wife; instead, he uses the blue room that might represent a sorrow and therefore the domestic culture in which they live.
It follows that irony is central if we think about relationships between people, especially between relatives and members of the family. One of the characteristic features of Beryl Bainbridge´s novels is the everyday reality of family and personal life. The family is presented as the embodiment of the promise of the ideal, but the reality or better-said actuality can be often considered as imperfect. It means that family, as an image of subsistence is the symbol of the imperfect condition of life as simulation.
14 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 15 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Many people think that once they would like to establish a family. At least, they would like to be a part of a family, because they have no one in the world. This is the case of Myrtle, who is an orphan adopted by Hardy´s family. Even though it happens by the accident, she is accepted by this family as one of the members. We can consider this as quite ironic. At first, because she is a poor little girl who has no one in this world and should be placed into the one of the orphanages and suddenly she becomes a part of the rich Hardy´s family. There is the ironic contrast between poor and rich people. On the other hand, in terms of the ideal and the actual, her position in Hardy´s family is very strange and overshadowed. Myrtle as a person is very stoic, naive and we can say that her place in this family is quite unsetting. At the beginning, the idea of take caring of this little girl seems to be ideal, but the picture of the ideality for her is over after one year when the family brings home a pet. "Miss Beatrice set up howling; she’d taken a fancy to me. She lost interest the following year when Mr Hardy brought home the dog..." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 4) 16 Animals often feature in the fictional world and sometimes the characters´ situations or statuses are relative with those of animals. It means that characters can often feel hunted, domesticated, instinctual or helpless. This can lead to the reduction of the human status as such and direct an attitude to the situation of the characters in parallel captured in physicality. The sentence of physicality can emphasize the weakness of the human condition. Therefore, characters can also get easily hurt by each other, which also happened to Myrtle, after the family had brought home the dog. The result of this is that her life has never been the same again and Myrtle becomes to face the reality, which is no longer ideal. Before, she was fortunate and everything was ideal, because Mrs. Hardy thought her to read and the old Mr. Hardy sometimes chucked her under the chin and asked her how she did. Later, Mrs. O’Gorman had taken her in hand. She is the only character in the novel that sometimes beats Myrtle in order to get information of some events that happen in the
16 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie household of the Hardy´s family and all that for her own good, of course. It is ironic for human being to be replaced by the dog, isn’t it? It is essential to point out that the characters in the novel Master Georgie can be victims of not only the physical world, but they are imprisoned in their pasts and conventions of culture, as well. There is the frustration of the absence of love, fulfilment, recognition and happiness that serve to uphold the idea of personal suffering in a given circumstance, especially the culturally insignificant individual that is also represented by the young girl Myrtle in this novel. She in her love to the main character Master Georgie ironically moves from the bad to the worse state. Her devotion for him is very intense, "I´d freeze stiff for Master Gerogie." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 18) 17 , but her love is unfulfilled. Although she follows him everywhere, he rarely acknowledges her, which doesn´t dampen her adoration. However, is is Myrtle´s adoring view of Georgie that refuses to recognize his sexual ambiguity. It means that the true view of her endeavour takes precedence over the ironic truth about the false fiction on which her pursuit is based, the fact being that Georgie as a man of her desires is homosexual. Myrtle’s relationship with George is the dream of the illusion for her that does not die. She follows him to the Crimea and stays with him there, although we can think that she ironically fails to see that a better place for her is at home with the children. The irony also lies in the fact that Myrtle was found in Seel Street, but during her life, she is still a naive and starry-eyed girl.
It happens quite often that we as the readers are distanced from participation in the event by the claim for ironic decoding of the narration. "Presently Master Georgie emerged and began to button himself into his outdoor coat. His fur- lined cloak, the one I tugged out later, hung abandoned in the hall closet. He´d left off wearing it because Mr Hardy, returning merry with drink from mornings at the Corn Exchange, had cried out once too often, ´ O Vanitas vanitatem .´" (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 8) 18 Ironically, this fur-lined cloak serves for putting the corpse of old Mr. Hardy on it when his son and Pompey need to carry him across the field.
17 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 18 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Before we get to know about the dead of George’s father, we might only feel that something bad or curious is going to happen. Although, we do not know what colour is George’s outdoor coat, it can suggest that something bad is going to happen. However, we would have to be very thoughtful readers. If we are not, we would be definitely confused. That is exactly the aim of the author. For instance, during the whole day, it is raining but it suddenly stops before George and Myrtle reach the brothel. "Master Georgie was about to pass by when she screamed again, shrill and menancing as a swooping gull. ... He looked about him to see who would come to her aid – but what did a scream amount to in such a wretched place?" (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 18) 19 Even if we start to think that something strange is going to happen, still the screams are quite common in this part of the town, so there is nothing to be worried about. Ironically, the street where the brothel is located and where the poor people live is called Mount Street. Consequently, there is the mixture of shadowy references, for example screams and some fragmentary visions. "At last Master Georgie looked up and the dread became palpable, for his face was drained of colour and his eyes as bewildered as my own. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 20) 20 Together with descriptive slown downs, all these serve to keep the reader´s understanding of what is actually going on until the revelation. "And now it was my turn to cry out, for it was Mr Hardy who lay there..." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 21) 21 This is very effectual and leads to the ironic quality of the presentation. It means that the point lies more in the presentation than in the event.
Besides the ironic contrasts between love as union and love as lie, truth and lie, belief and disbelief, etc., the ironic quality of presentation and the disperancy between the ideal and the actual in this chapter, the author Beryl Bainbridge also interprets some events with her significant ironic reasoning. For example, we can see this, when a Punch and Judy show is interrupted by a collision between a horse and a van.
19 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 20 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 21 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie ''A vegetable cart had spilled cabbages on the road, all of which, save one, had been recovered or run off with. The gentleman’s horse, which had see service with a cavalry regiment, mistaking it for a puff adder, had reared up and crashed down sideways, striking the van with its flank. The animal had recently returned from Africa, where puff adders were quite common. They had not any teeth but if they bit you their tongues imparted a poison that could turn your blood to treacle.'' (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 12) 22
22 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 2.2.2 Plate 2. 1850
This plate is entitled Veil lifted which refers to a photography of an ape whose cataract should be removed. After the operation, George wants to take photography of this ape, but it does not want to look at him. His friend William Rimmer has to sing a lullaby to it, so it stares at him for a while. The sudden vomiting of the ape spoils the last shot. This ape is supposed to be happy and full of life, but as Pompey truly comments. ".... but what use was a world only glimpsed from a cage?" (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 55) 23 If we take only a shot of one particular moment, we cannot really know what happened before or after. It means, there is the ironic opposition between the ideal and the actual that represents an illusion. We have mentioned earlier, that in terms of the ideal and the actual, the existence is a simulation and in this case, it can be invoked in the relative drawn with wild animals in captivity. Pompey is afraid of the wild beast, because he thinks it will be big and fearful. Ironically, "The ape took me by surprise. I had expected it to be three times larger than myself and to find it wildly prowling its cage, but it was not bigger than a small man and sat inert against the bars, .... Fear left me ." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 51) 24 The ape is deprived of its wild state by the limited freedom of movement, because it is alone and therefore separated from other animals and from open space.
Similarly, the characters in the novel Master Georgie are sometimes left behind and therefore separated from the others. There are certain oppositions within the structure. For instance, when Pompey is ordered to help the gatekeeper, "No sooner had I done so and the great iron gates had swung inwards, than the carriage bowled up the drive, leaving me to follow on foot. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 50) 25 Here the desirable goal is stopped by the ironic
23 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 24 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 25 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie implication of the narrator. "I half thought of turning back, out of spite, but curiosity got the better of me. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 50) 26 Besides Pompey, Myrtle is also often left behind usually when she follows George Hardy. "Master Georgie got irritated if I hung about too closely. " (Bainbridge, 1998. p. 14) 27 She is sometimes waiting for him outside in the rain or in winter. Furthermore, when Myrtle is asked to bring the fur-lined cloak from the house and comes back with it, we can notice that she feels the state of non- identity. "He neither thanked nor scolded, which made me sullen, for either praise or censure would have been some indication of my existence. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 31) 28 There is also the separation from the family when Myrtle is send away from home to boarding school, though she is not the real daughter of the family, as Dr. Potter points out ironically. Similarly, his wife Beatrice was sent away to boarding school. However, this well meant idea of the family has ironically fatal consequences to both of these women. As we have mentioned earlier, Beatrice wants to run away to sea. However, where does this idea come from? "Mrs O’Gorman blamed education for putting the notion into her head, because she’d never pined for anything so outlandish until she was sent away to boarding school in Lichfield. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 26) 29 It means there lies the irony of the outcome. In connection with Myrtle and her staying at the boarding school, there is a conversation between Master Georgie and Pompey. " P.´ What news of Myrtle? ´ I asked, bellowing against the sea wind. MG. ´Miss Myrtle, ´ George corrected. P. ´Miss Myrtle indeed, ´ I said. ´I never doubted it.´ MG. ´She´s on her way to becoming a lady, ´ he conceded. P. ´Does she take to it? ´ MG. ´She blooms, ´ he replied. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 49) 30
26 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 27 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 28 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 29 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 30 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Although, the conversation represents the primary tool of communication, ironically throughout the novel we have a feeling that people are having different conversation, none of the characters goes into a long thing, we can say that the dialogues between them are disjointed. Moreover, there is also the contrast between Pompey´s words, because he says ´I never doubted it´, but he does doubt it, as we can see later. "´Well, Myrtle, ´he said. ´Was it worth it? Being turned into a lady´... " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 146) 31 Pompey feels that Myrtle has been raised above him and his ambiguity is also clearly seen when he thinks, "All I ever wanted, as regards Myrtle, was the recognition that she and I were of a kind,... " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 204) 32
We can find many of the ironic contrasts also in terms of culture. At first, there is the contrast between old and new. Old culture is represented by Hardy´s household that is full of furniture. There is a parlour, fire, white fabric chair, cooler for port wine, piano, vase, Persian runner, etc. On the other hand, new culture is represented by the prostitute’s room. There is one brass bed, a grate, one small round table bearing a bottle and a glass. Concerning the conventions of culture, the whole situation about the dead of Mr. Hardy is a good example of irony, and therefore full of contrasts. At first, he as a representative of middle class dies in a brothel. With George, there are also two children Myrtle and Pompey who help him to move his body. The corpse of Mr. Hardy is sat against a sycamore tree until his son and the young boy bring the Punch and Judy van that serves as the marionette theatre for children during the day. Mr. Hardy looses his hat that is a symbol of male identity and culture and this hat ends on Pompey´s head when they move the body inside the house. In contrast, Mr. Hardy did not need pennies on his lids. If he did need them that would be the sign of non-belonging to the culture to which he certainly did belong. Among the signifiers of male identity and social identity, we can also find a stick. When George and Pompey have a conversation with an old man on the
31 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 32 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie shore, he has a stout stick and George addresses him as Sir, which signifies that he belongs to the culture. On the other hand, the stick represents maleness and the man is under the mercy of his daughters. There is the ironic opposition between the manhood and women hood. Throughout this plate, we also come across the contrast between culture and nature. For instance, the describing of the environment is aborted with technical improvements. "... the wind carrying the sickly sweet odour of damp grain, the air raucous with the screech of foraging gull. We were forced to go at no more than a walk through the crush of vehicles juddering in either direction. Near Brunswick Tavern a shipment of cattle, just then unloaded from Ireland and headed for the abattoir, came slithering and jostling across out path. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 47) 33 Even though, we would probably expect that the description of the nature would evoke some positive feelings the result is rather negative.
As we have mentioned earlier, the author Beryl Bainbridge explores also the attitudes towards fate in the novel, and therefore we would probably expected George who gives the title to the novel Master Georgie and being referred to as "Master" to be more in control of his own fate. However, the expectation has an opposite effect. Firstly, he is in control of his mother. He becomes a doctor, because he wants to help his mother who has a malfunction of the thyroid, but ironically in her case it still growing, so he cannot really help her. Secondly, he is imprisoned in his marriage and it seems that he got married only because of the social conventions. Annie goes with him to Turkey otherwise it was not planned. "´She insists on it, Potter, ´ he said. ´In the circumstances, how can I refuse? She is, after all, my wife.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p.70) 34 It means, that he as a man is under the control of his own wife and mother. We can see George’s living as a conflict, as well. Although, he is a man there are mostly women around him. George is also imprisoned in his own mind and in his world of chaos and frustration. He gives money to Pomey that should be given to the
33 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 34 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie prostitute, because he wants her to forget about the mishap in the brothel. Pompey buys a camera instead of doing as he is told and it is for simple reason, because George is so confused to see the reality. "He was a fool in the ways of the world, the woman in question being to addled with drink to remember anything longer than the immediate moment. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 45) 35 It is needless and therefore ironic to spend money like this. Furthermore, "She had few teeth and her mouth resembled a dark hole. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 18) 36 which means that she is a passive participant who distance herself bodily and mentally from the event as an act. "´ It weren´t nothing to do with me.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 20) 37 She clearly expresses, but George ironically fails to recognize it. He could not be possibly less in control over his fate, he leads himself to the war, even though as a doctor, but the war is not a hospital and instead of the real operations he mainly does amputates. We can say that from Master Georgie who is a doctor becomes a butcher. Isn’t it ironic? On the other hand, the war for George can represent and escape from society that makes him to be tortured by guilt over his homosexual impulses. He leaves the present for the better future, but ironically, there is no future for him, because he dies. In comparison with his father whom Georgie both fears and admires and who had been shaken from George’s footstall, because of how he died, it is very ironic to see that George becomes a very similar man. He drinks more, we suppose in order to forget the misfortune and he also sometimes sings the favourite father’s song ´Mother Dear, I am Fading Fast´. These might be the signifiers of the lack of control in the fictional world, as well. Therefore, what seemed to be an ideal thing to do now appears to have fatal implications. Furthermore, there is a contrast between how an old Mr. Hardy died and how does George. The old man on the shore tells George. "There are worse ways of leaving this world than from the swift kiss of lead." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 61) 38
35 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 36 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 37 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 38 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Considering the fact that Master Georgie really dies from the ´swift kiss of lead´, there is no better way of leaving the world for him, however ironic this idea might be.
In terms of the ideal and the actual, there is irony in the fate of the young man Pompey Jones. He as an adult now should have the freedom of movement and action, but his freedom is limited by the performance of adults. Once the footman tells him that, he is not a photographer, but "´Though perhaps you come in useful when trundling a wheelbarrow.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 57) 39 which touches Pompey. "I had been melancholy on account of the footman putting me in my place, and angry with myself for having risen to his bait ... One day, I shouted aloud...One day.“ (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 59) 40 Pompey really one day comes to Turkey, but ironically, ´only´ as a photographer’s assistant again. Moreover, what is probably even more ironic is the fact that from photographer he becomes a soldier and has to kill people. Although Pompey is an adult now he is still not able to realize what consequences can have the joking with the tiger’s rug. These are the broken wrist of Mrs. Hardy and Annie´s awarness to have other children. There is also the contrast between the lie and the truth. Every time the joking with this tiger’s rug is mentioned in the novel, Pompey still lies, he does not know anything about it, even though it is he who did it and he suspects that Dr. Potter knows the truth anyway.
To sum up, throughout this plate, we come across the disperancy between ideal and actual that reflects the reality as an illusion. There is also an opposition in the structure in connection with separation of the characters from the others and leads to the ironic implication of the reader. Besides the irony of the outcome, we can notice many examples of ironic contrasts, namely, the opposition between culture and nature, and the opposition between old and new within the culture.
39 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 40 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 2.2.3 Plate 3. 1854
A very nice example of delusion is this photographic plate that is called Tug- of-war beside The Sweet Waters of Europe and it is taken during the sports day. Everyone who poses for this photograph tries to hide some of his physical defects, for example, Dr. Potter tries to hide his big belly, George’s wife Annie wants to appear smaller, so she slips off her shoes, etc. Behind them officers versus men, progress a tug-of-war. The irony doesn’t lie only in the fact, that the family members want to appear to look differently like they do, but this photography is also the last family one before the war really begins and some of the members will go back home and one, concrete Master Georgie, will never see them again or better said they will never see him again. There is also the contrast between the officers and men, because they play the game tug-of-war against each other, the real war is in front of them, and they will have to cooperate. Another ironic contrast lies in the fact that the navy is holding a sport day in The Sweet Waters of Europe, which is a resort popular with all the Turkish rank. "The Place was built on a wide plateau, its grounds planted with trees and flowering shrubs...The gardens beyond were extensive and artistic blend of lawns, rockeries and herbaceous borders. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 94) 41 We can think of this place as of heavenly gardens that is ironically visited by soldiers and officers who do not symbolize a peace, at all.
In connection with the posing for the photograph it is essential to point out that what is already known to the characters in the fictional world is only gradually uncovered to the readers. The author Beryl Bainbridge does not tell us many things straight away. It is mainly the reader’s ability to extrapolate crucial information from what is, or better said, what is not said. She does not waste any of the conversations and the reader must pay attention to her every word. It means that we can uncover the formal irony.
41 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Considering this, we particularly mean the fact that throughout the novel we begin to suspect that Myrtle is somehow connected to Master Georgie´s children. In addition, when posing for this photograph Dr. Potter wants to hide his belly with holding one of the George’s children in his arms, "... George ordered me to give it to its mother, who was already clutching the younger infant to her breast. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 99) 42 We probably think that the mother is Annie – the wife of George Hardy, but reading the following lines, we come to realize that our earlier suspicion was right. "´Be still, my sweet babes, ´ Myrtle murmured, as they leapt like fish in her arms. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 99) 43 After this moment, there is no hesitation anymore. Myrtle is the mother of Master Georgie´s children. In this case, the knowledge between the fictional world and the reader is finally complete. Before, the effect was ironic, because irony was alternately subjected to the world and to the reader, and therefore the knowledge was not complete.
Throughout the novel Master Georgie, we come to realize that there are also the ironic contrasts between the narrations of the three characters. These three narrators are very different and the events they describe and their thoughts often clash amusingly. For instance, Mr. Hardy whose uncomfortable death has set events in motion is remembered by Myrtle as, "...cheerful and lacking in malice..." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 23) 44 , in contrast, Dr. Potter recalls him as, "...a bully and a fraud..." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 75) 45 Considering what we have already mentioned about Mr. Hardy, we can therefore regard Dr. Potter, who is the narrator of this plate, as the most objective observer of the situations and whose thoughts can be trusted by readers. Throughout this plate and his narration, we come across several examples of verbal irony.
42 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 43 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 44 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 45 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie It starts from the beginning of his narration of this plate as he describes their journey to Constantinople as an "ill – advised excursion ". (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 69) 46 Particularly, because there are women and children among the group who would be certainly for no use in the following situation that the war surely will be. For the English people the staying is really an excursion. They behave differently in Turkey as they would surely behave at home, in England. They drink together, they go to visit the gardens and they all enter the theatre for the concert, as if they were at home and not in the land, where the war is in progress. Dr. Potter notices that there is a difference in this place from the past; particularly he can see a lot of English influence there. Considering the previous facts, "... for the town was swarming with English folk and we were never alone in our feverish activities. Casual acquaintances, of the sort who, in the sensible confines of our own country, would scarcely have rated a nod, leapt overnight into the category of bosom friend. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 83) 47 It means, there is the ironic contrast between old and new culture, because of the modern English influence and Dr. Potter describes the behaviour of people with irony, as well. For instance, when his wife Beatrice becomes a kind of friend with Mrs. Yardley, he tells her. "´She has a reputation, ´ I warned Beatrice. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 84) 48 he means it ironically, because she is the mistress of one of the colonels of the Guards. Furthermore, Dr. Potter ironically comments. "Meanwhile, we continued on our merry round. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 84) 49 They also visit the performance of dancing dervishes that he finds very ridiculous in the extreme and later expresses. "Like dervishes, we twirled from one diversion to another. At yet another picnic in the hills outside the town, the women’s chatter rising like the twitterings of starlings, a premonition of impending disaster took such a strong hold of me that I was forced to leave the group and walk to a pinnacle
46 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 47 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 48 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 49 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie some distance off. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 86) 50 Dr. Potter separates himself not only by walking some distance off, but he also reads and quotes from the books as he speaks, which symbolizes his escape from life. In contrast, George’s wife Annie is allergic to books. If we think why people behave as they do in such circumstances, we would probably come to the resolution that the war breaks down the class systems known to the characters in England and life and death become the only things that really matters. Before, there were contrasts between the words of the characters and their performance. For instance, Beatrice dreams of sea and when she is on a boat, she prefers dry land to sleep on and her husband has to find her a hotel, but later, she does not complain about the conditions anymore.
As we have mentioned earlier, the narration of Dr. Potter represents a very good example of verbal irony, and therefore we cannot omit his ´love´ for music. Although, the rhythm of music also metaphorically invokes an image of culture as a repeatable and controllable pattern, Dr. Potter is not a lover of music and he ironically points to this fact several times. "I am not a lover of music, though I once had the luck... to attend a piano recital enlivened by the soloist unexpectedly somersaulting from the platform. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 76) 51 The word ´luck´ sounds ironic in his expression, although he felt comfortable and that only because of the comic situation that suddenly happened there. Similarly, he describes the muezzin’s call to prayer very ironically as, "... the shrill humming which heralded each sunrise was not, as feared, the persistent whine of a giant mosquito ...“(Bainbridge, 1998, p. 83) 52 and when his wife Beatrice expresses "´How melodious, ´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 83) 53 he thinks the right opposite of it. If we consider that Dr. Potter does not like music, we can therefore see the contrast here. Moreover, he joins the opera that is the last outing planned by Beatrice and he has to wear his best clothes, because she wants it like that. There is the
50 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 51 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 52 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 53 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie ironic contrast between the fact that the English put on their best clothes and the theatre is such a horrible place, full of squalor and bad stenches. Although they have a box that is elevated from the dirt, Dr. Potter does not tell his wife Beatrice that, "I brushed two cockroaches from her seat before she sat down. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 100) 54 This evening in opera also bursts out into jealousy and aggression and it is a very good example of irony of the outcome, because George and Dr. Potter make up and lie to Naughton, a young gentleman, who becomes very interested in Myrtle, that she has a fiancé among the hussars. "´He´s a captain in the 11th Hussars.´ Then he did leave me, for who could compete with a peacock of the dazzling Light Brigade, however imaginary? " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 77) 55 Moreover, later George ´jokes´ again when he tells him, "...´he has treated my sister disgracefully. She will never be his.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 91) 56 This is the reason why Naughton during the opera attacks the hussar who, of course, doesn´t have a clue of what is going on. Ironically, Dr. Potter enjoys himself, because the situation is the best in comparison with what he has yet seen on stage. "For the first time I grasped the purpose of music, my emotions being considerably heightened by the continued playing of the orchestra – the unfortunate fellow landed to the accompaniment of percussion. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 103) 57 We can see that Dr. Potter even starts to enjoy the music, although again enlightened by the comic incident. What is probably even more ironic is the fact that Naughton is shipped back home and later there comes a rumour that he goes bankrupt. In contrast, Myrtle changes a lot. Her cheeks are filled out and her throat and arms became rounded. "...it was though Myrtle, previously lurking in mist, had now emerged into the light. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 105) 58 Moreover, Dr. Potter ascribes this change to the fact that the troublesome gentleman Naughton is no longer on scene. Another ironic contrast
54 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 55 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 56 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 57 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 58 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie lies in the fact, that while Myrtle looks better, Dr. Potter and George apparently loose weight and they look miserable. Considering this, we can say that the war obviously changes everyone. Besides, the change in external look, there is also an internal change. George’s brother-in-law notices the change in his heart and finds it touching. At first, George Hardy does not hesitate to visit hospitals of Scutari and later he gives up his patronage of the Duke of Wellington public house. He writes many letters to his mother Mrs. Hardy and even to Mrs. O´Gorman. Even he tries so hard to save the lives of people; there is ironically a lack of support, because the Duke is inexperienced. There is again the disperancy between the ideal and the actual. For instance, we would probably except that people will heal in the hospital, but ironically, the opposite is the truth, because people die earlier in the hospital than in the camp. There are so many dead people and still no shot have been fired. People simply die because of cholera and venereal diseases, there are no sufficient medical supplies, and for example, George helps one man to set his broken lower jaw with the covers of a book – The Wide, Wide World. Isn’t it ironic? There is also the military bureaucracy, George has to fill up many documents about the wounded and when he wants some boots for himself. At the same time, the author shows that someone’s life can affect others, either for better or for worse. For example, one night a young officer slumps over dead into his dinner and those around him sit quietly, as if not wanting to disturb him. The author then says him goodbye: "When at last he was carried out, Myrtle rose and tenderly shook the bread crumbs from his hair." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 107) 59 We can actually only glimpse the frames like this one, but the narrative is so strong, that we cannot really forget them. The contrast lies in the fact that even the situation is horrific we can still find the beauty there.
59 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie To summarize, in the course of events in this plate we come across various examples of verbal irony, which is the result of the objective narration. Besides many illustrations of ironic contrasts, for instance, the opposition between peace and war, the contrast between the words and performance of the characters, present and past or the opposition between old and new, horror and beauty, etc., there is also formal irony that causes the ironic effect before the knowledge between the readers and characters is finally complete.
2.2.4 Plate 4. August 1854
The fourth photograph is taken after the concert party in Varna, that is also the title of this plate, and it will be send to England so that English people can see that the troops are having a good time enjoying themselves. It is very ironic, because the war soon begins and Dr. Potter´s remark is very well taken, "those captured by the camera would shortly be dead." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 145) 60 It is the concert troupe that is posing for this photograph and it is particularly ironic, because among the performers are also two soldiers of a line who previously belonged to a circus troupe in Paris. It means, if we have been previously wondering about the inexperienced military officers, the soldiers are also inexperienced and therefore the whole war can represent a big circus.
As we have mentioned earlier, one of the standard feature of the novels written by Beryl Bainbridge is the characters´ lack of control over the events. Also in this plate, we come across this feature, when Myrtle with Mrs. Yardley goes for a trip into the hills above a lake. This well-meant trip ends with an accidental death of a young man. The author Beryl Bainbridge takes events frozen in time and brings them into life and death, but when she describes death, the images that stand out are more powerful that the blood and horrors. For instance, in this case we can see the cherries in the lap of a dead soldier, propped against the tree: ''The pink had quite gone from his cheeks and his skin was mottled, like meat lain too long on the slab. . . . Flies crawled along his fingers and buzzed at his mouth.'' (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 127-128) 61 Before, his cheeks were rosy and now the pink is gone, he was alive and suddenly he is dead. There is the contrast between the cherries that can symbolize life and beauty and the flies that are ugly and irritating. Another ironic opposition represents the contrast between life (cherries) and death (the dead body of the young soldier).
60 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 61 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie The dead soldier is there with his friend and it is expressed that they are staring at each other. It is ironic, because the soldier is now dead and therefore he cannot behave like this anymore. Furthermore, we as the readers can watch and listen, but we cannot really experience the same as any of the characters. "Mrs. Yardley jerked the jackets from the trees and covered that purple face from view. It made no difference ; the birds kept on singing and the men went on staring. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 128) 62 Of course, it does not make any difference, because the character’s experience is very strong and internal. In their minds still lies the picture of the man, either alive or dead. This is not the only accident that happens during this trip. The brief excursion involves also an encounter with a three-legged black dog and when Myrtle and Mrs. Yardley accept the hospitality of one of the farmers it ends with a goat giving birth. In these cases, we as the readers are the witnesses to these situations, but it does not explicitly help us to relate to the scenes of the world. Before the goat gives birth, there is the confusion on both sides; we mean by this that the characters and the readers are confused, because the scene evokes the confusion. The readers and the characters think that something bad is going to happened. "All at once a curious giggling sound came from somewhere close to the vineyard wall. The bow-legged man swaggered off, and shortly returned carrying a struggling goat which he dropped on to its feet on the table. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 123) 63 The goat is struggling and therefore we might think that its life is going to be ended. It is not only us, but also Mrs. Yardley. "´If he´s going to cut its throat in front of us,´ Mrs Yardley promised, ´I shall scream.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, 123) 64 However, the result is opposite. The goat not only survives, but it also gives life to a little one. It all leads to the fact that we are the objects of the author’s ironic manipulation.
62 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 63 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 64 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie In connection with the dogs that are generally considered to be the best friends of man there is a contrast in this novel, because dogs here are vague, they bark and they kill the other dogs. We can say that the negativity in the development of events in Beryl Bainbridge´s fictional world is for the most part compounded with the frustration of expectancy and desire. In this plate, we particularly mean the fact that promises are never fulfilled. During the concert, George promises to Myrtle that he will come to her later, but he does not although she is waiting for him. "Georgie is coming, I whispered. I fancied I could smell onions, though it may have been the memory of the fire-eater’s act that haunted my nose. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 141) 65 The irony does not lie only in the fact, that he doesn’t come to her, but also in the situation when she finally finds George sleeping in the tent beside the fire-eater, who is no on else like the duck-boy, Pompey Jones.
We have already mentioned that sometimes we as the readers can feel confused, because we understand less than the characters. We can feel frustrated at knowing as little as the characters. Therefore, there has to be mentioned further aspect of knowledge. The reader can also feel superior, because he/ she are placed in a position of knowing and understanding more than the characters. In connection to this third point of view, we as the readers are superior to Myrtle in her relationship with George. She does not know that he is a homosexual; she comes to realize it only in the above-mentioned situation. What we know about George is only partially revealed to Myrtle who is not able to see it, because she is in love with him and consequently the effect is ironic. We notice his ambiguity particularly through the eyes of the other narrators Dr. Potter and Pompey Jones. This young boy is the one who really experiences George’s weakness for men. Throughout the novel, George tells Pompey several times. "You’re a good boy." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 62) 66 Because of George´s sly smile that symbolize constraint he runs away, but
65 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 66 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie ironically he does not after the concert party in Varna. After that night, Dr. Potter brightly declares. "... messing about with Pompey Jones would do him more good than a week of rest. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 146) 67
Consequently, we can say that the effects of the narrative arrangement of knowledge rely on the reader’s remembrance of detail, even if we think that the particular lines or words of the text are indifferent. Both Pompey and Myrtle have the sexual relationship with Georgie, but there is a contrast that lies in Master Georgie´s bearing on each of them. While George searches for the company of the young boy Pompey, Myrtle has to make a pursuit to spend some time with him. "... , the time I´d come back from being made into a lady and gone to Georgie´s room in moonlight. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 144) 68 Considering this, we can say that Pompey is Myrtle’s rival in her love for George Hardy, and therefore this emulation can symbolize war. Moreover, they all meet again during the war that is ironic. Mainly, they are all united by their shared predicament of being in the futile pursuit of an ideal. We have mentioned earlier that they share the secret about the George´s father death, which they make to appear to look ideal. Ironically, it seems like something very similar is going to happen. The characters are together again and the photographer’s van that Pompey brings with him to Crimea is according to Myrtle, "... a curious vehicle, painted all over in white, its sides slotted with glass windows. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 145) 69 Ironically, this curious vehicle later appears to be the Punch and Judy van that served as the puppet show some years ago. "Two of the Windows have gone and the paintwork is much scored, revealing streaks of purple and a curious golden letter, either U or N. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 176) 70 It seems to be very ironic, if we consider that they all escape what appears to be insufficient for them only in order to face something that looks even worse.
67 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 68 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 69 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 70 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Now we are going to illustrate some of the facts and situations that can be seen throughout this plate and in which we can notice the contrasts. Firstly, there is the opposition that can be seen in the situation, which Myrtle and Mrs. Yardley witness during their trip into the hills. "We skirted the river and passed a number of women washing clothes... Close by, the Bulgarian provision men who supply the camp with meat were hacking at slaughtered sheep and flinging the bloody guts into the water. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 118) 71 It is very ironic if we consider that women want to wash the clothes in a bloody river. Secondly, from a different point of view, there is the contrast between culture and nature. During the trip Mrs. Yardley notices a huge bird above their heads and later says that Harry, "...´is very fond of birds,´ Mrs Yardley said, speaking of her colonel. ´He shoots them in Norfolk.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 124) 72 The birds represent nature while the shooting symbolizes culture. Furthermore, we would hardy expect that someone who is ´very fond of birds´ shoots them.
To sum up, in this plate we can notice the negativity in the development of events that is represented by the characters´ lack of control in the fictional world and results in accidental death that leads to the ironic contrast between life and death. Besides, there are the ironic contrasts between love and war and between culture and nature. In connection with the frustration of expectancy and desire, there is the ironic contrast between the promise and performance of the characters that results in the fact, that the desires of the others are never fulfilled. In terms of knowledge, there is the ironic manipulation in connection with reader and characters and particularly we mean the fact that we know as little as the characters. On the other hand, we as the readers decode some knowledge faster than characters, which leads to the ironic effect.
71 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 72 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 2.2.5 Plate 5. October 1854
Funeral procession shadowed by Beatrice is the title that belongs to the fifth photography, which is taken during the funeral of the dead soldiers. Many of the corpses are barefooted and wrapped only in old tents or pieces of oil – cloth, the caskets are only for the officers. During the funeral, Dr. Potter conceives of his wife Beatrice in her weekend night-gown and thinks about the camera and its sheepishness to capture whatever is going on in one’s mind. "A man can be standing there, face expressive of grief, and inside be full of either mirth or lust." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 180) 73 There is the ironic contrast between the facts, that the alive men are standing there motionless like dead while the poor dead bodies, "stirred as the winding cloths flapped in the wind. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 180) 74 The alive men are also bareheaded which is associated with their lack of identity, if not with no identity. This lack of identity also constitutes one end of a hierarchical scale of identities. It is true, because these men do not have any of their belongings anymore and Dr. Potter thinks about it earlier. "I admit I didn´t know who I was any more – my bearings had gone astray along with my trousers. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 110) 75 It might sound ironic, but considering the fact, that the burial ground was once an orchard, which signifies a harmonious integration of culture and nature, we conclude that only death can bring about the real transcension. In connection with dreaming, we have to mention that this activity of mind is probably the only thing that keeps people on trying to survive, although it symbolizes non – life or non – nature. There is a nice example of an opposition between the nature of life and non- nature or non-life when Dr. Potter dreams about love-making, which symbolizes the nature of life, with his wife on Sunday. He dreams and we have mentioned above that dreaming represents the non – life or non – nature.
73 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 74 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 75 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie Throughout the novel, we come across several dreamings of Dr. Potter. "I have taken to dreaming, and not only at night. In the past – what years have turned to dust in the space of eight weeks – it was the approach of darkness that brought on fantasies. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 155) 76 He mainly dreams about his wife Beatrice. Before the separation from her, he dwells nostalgically on his long- gone bachelor days, because he is a victim of the myth that life is the pursuit of manly activities and manly virtues and therefore at the beginning he tries to handle his visions. "To cope with this visitation, for I am not yet mad, I reminded myself that a thirst assuaged by water pissed in by dying men and a stomach subjected to hunger were guaranteed to spore hallucinations. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 155) 77 Dr. Potter ironically fails to see that his true values are domestic achievement and intimacy. However, Beatrice is now back home and he begins to fancy the visions of his wife, because he is separated from her and from home. "´I am a man accustomed to pass the hours in the reading of books,´... ´I am a man accustomed to sleeping against the curve of his wife´s back.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 174) 78
We have presented earlier in the theoretical part that irony and nostalgia go together in postmodern. It is essential to point out that nostalgia does not repeat memory, but it deals with two different times, and insufficient present and idealized past. That is why the characters refer to past time, they dream of their homes in order to escape the awful present. People do not know who they are anymore, they loose their minds. For instance, Dr. Potter passes by one soldier who is holding his rifle the wrong way round and later he shots himself in his leg. He goes back to him and they talk together. "´Did you see what happened, sir? ´ ´No,´I replaied. ´I was some way ahead.´ ´My hand must have slipped, sir.´
76 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 77 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 78 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie ´No doubt from tiredness,´I said. ´One loses concentration.´ ´That´s it, sir,´he said eagerly. ´Me mind was on other things.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 178) 79 And this soldier does later speak of his home and that was a pie-seller. According to this Dr. Potter later ponders, "Would it, ..., have been less an act of cowardice if he had shot himself in the temple rather than the foot? " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 179) 80 People really try to help the others by talking to them of home and mother and loved ones, but later it ironically fails to work. The reason for this probably lies in the fact, that also some people who still have at least some presence of mind become to move around like dead men and they trudge by the corpses and dying people without a glance.
Besides returning to loved persons and home, the characters often return to their childhood. It is particularly the cultural context that has the capacity of referring to the childhood, which according to Thomas Ziehe´s understanding of the symbol as a sign, belongs to "the first horizon of the irrevocable ". (Wenn ı, 1993, p. 163) 81 In Dr. Potter´s case, the horizon of the irrevocable is remythologized as the factual guide to the present situation. When he was a small boy his father brought him from his tours a toy four-wheeled cart, but as he remembers, "Before I was put to bed I had dismantled the cart into its various pieces. It was an act propelled by curiosity, rather than a destructive urge ." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 167) 82 We can say that this dismantling of the car is the direct guide for Dr. Potter for his love of geology, because the earth also consists of some ´parts´ that keep it together. Once he takes Beatrice to see the generic character of the porphyries, granites, etc., but ironically, there is only a huge amount of a crustacean. Similarly, in Turkey he thinks that the ascending slopes are formed of nummulite limestone but it later appears to be the Jura rock. He follows George in order to be an observer of the land, but he
79 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 80 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 81 Wenn ı, E. 1993. Ironic Formula in the Novels of Beryl Bainbridge 82 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie is so weak that he can only think about past. "´ I was sold a melon in Balaclava.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 163) 83 In contrast, George has had to tell him something different, because later he expresses. "... its melon days are over. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 165) 84
In this plate, we likewise notice the presence of contrasts. For instance, when George is attached to the Royal North British Fusiliers he gets except some old clothes, a tin of leeches, etc. also leather apron that is almost new, but later as Dr. Potter notices, "... his duties being heavy and his leather apron much stained. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 166) 85 The apron can symbolize the importance of protection, though it ironically does not protect George because he finally dies. There is also an opposition between female and male look. For example, the women are turned away from boarding besides Myrtle who, ".... by virtue of her peasant dress and brown complexion, and leading her pony laden with baggage, was let by without hindrance. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 156) 86 Later she cuts her hair in order to get rid of the lice and can be therefore taken for a boy. On the other hand, she is a woman among men who generally do not like to see them in the war. It means that she wants to look like a boy, because she wants to fit together with others. Furthermore, she knows now that George is a homosexual and prefers boys. Considering this, she probably wants to attract him in this way. Similarly, Pompey is dressed in a tunic of scale during his fire-eating performance, and therefore could be taken for a woman. "With his wig of black ringlets and the rouge on his cheeks, he could have passed for a girl, and a handsome one at that. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 138) 87 Some people even shout out when they see his legs that are admirable. Although someone would
83 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 84 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 85 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 86 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 87 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie consider him a woman, he is certainly not. However, it can evoke to us that he has grown his moustache in order to not be mistaken for a female. In connection with men and women, a dinner takes place in the quarters of Captain Jerome. Dr. Potter and George go there, but they do not invite Myrtle, because she accompanies another woman. However, Dr. Potter thinks. "It was thought impolite to ask one woman without the other – also it would have meant less to eat all round. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 171) 88 The result is particularly ironic, because two other gentlemen join them, so there is no so much food anyway.
To summarize, throughout this plate we mainly come across the ironic contrasts that are based on various sights of the content. In connection with culture, there is the loss of the characters´ identities that leads to the ironic contrast between life and death and vice-versa, there is also an opposition between non-life, represented by dreaming, and life. We can also notice the ironic contrast between male and female look and state. Furthermore, there is the disperancy between the ideal and the actual. Characters want to experience something what seems to be ideal for them, but the actuality is different and leads to separation and dreaming.
88 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 2.2.6 Plate 6. November 1854
In the novel Master Georgie , nothing is save and easy. The life of the main character George Hardy begins and ends in front of the camera. The end is bitter, because after the battle of Inkerman, one of the photographers wants to pose a group of survivors and the reason is, "to show the folks back home." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 212) 89 The balance is not right so he asks to fetch one more soldier. Pompey Jones brings the dead body of George whose presence does not keep the photographer from ordering the group, "Smile boys, smile." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 212) 90 This saying also gives the title to this sixth and last plate. The irony lies in the fact that the photographer clearly does not experience the same horrors as the soldiers and the only thing he cares about is the right balance. Although the soldiers survive, they are all torn and therefore it is very ironic to ask them to smile. We conclude that the men are torn because of the horrific moments they experience during the war and what can help us is the focus on their bodily movements and postures, as well. In this case, it is obviously described in the situation when Pompey can see the photographer with the soldiers. "I walked back to the van and found the photographer nearby with his camera set up and five men slouched before him. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 211) 91 The focus on this visible bodily movement draws attention to the men’s emotional and spiritual state of frustration. Considering this, how can they possibly smile? Furthermore, this sense of textual control as narrative is opposed to the lack of control over reality that the narrative evokes and consequently signalizes the ironic tension between them. The ironic contrast also lies in the facticity that the photographer wants a group of survivors and therefore the presence of George’s dead body is particularly ironic and only stresses the idea of photography being nothing more than a pure cheating.
89 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 90 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 91 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie "I walked back to George... humped him over my shoulder and carried him to the camera. The men were now standing and I propped him between them. He slumped forward and the soldier to his right supported him round the waist. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 212)92
As we have mentioned earlier in the first plate, sometimes the effects can lead to the ironic quality of the presentation. Similarly, in this plate, the weather is awful, it rains all the time and there is even a mist. The scene is very dramatic and we almost want to holler at the characters that they should get out of there. "Our progress was slow and lurching ... In places the oak bushes grew thickly, impeding the wooden wheels of the cart. At intervals the mist cleared and the grey columns of marching men could be seen slipping and sliding through the grey daylight. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 202) 93 Moreover, there are the ironic contrasts between the sounds of the bombs, shots from muskets, groaning of the dying men and the silence. "It was over in less than a minute and we were through it, unharmed, and it grew quiet again, as though a door had slammed shut. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 203) 94 We as the readers can think that something bad is going to happen, but every time we expect it, it simply does not turn like that. Both Pompey and Myrtle miraculously survive and later also Dr. Potter. "I opened my mouth to shout a warning, and just as it leapt to tear him apart he swerved aside as though pushed ; it hurtled on and took off the head of a man in front. I reckoned an angel kept watch over Potter. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 209) 95 If we thought at the beginning that only fate matters, throughout this plate we come to realize that the survival is purely a mater of chance. The ironic quality of presentation lies furthermore in the fact that after the bombing, everyone survives, including George and when the fog is gone, we come to think about satisfying end in the form of a happy closure. What happens is the right
92 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 93 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 94 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 95 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie opposite, because in the most unexpected situation George is killed by one of the Russians. Of course, the silence can also symbolize that something wrong is going to happen and sometimes it can be considered worse than a noise as Pompey expresses, "It was the silence that was unnerving. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 210) 96 However, we would have to be very thoughtful readers to be sure that something is going to happen to George Hardy, even though his chance to survive has not been mentioned.
In terms of ideal and actual, Myrtle’s life represents the ever-frustrated quest for the ideal as the attempt to escape the actual. Her ideal embodies in the desire to be close to George every time. In this plate, she does not hesitate to find him, although Pompey tells her. "´I doubt you´ll ever find him.´... ´He´s probably dead by now.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 205) 97 But she can feel that he is not dead, even he is not with her. Ironically, when they walk together to reach the hospital table she doesn’t feel that Georgie is in danger and what is even more ironic is the fact that it is Myrtle who calls out his name and according to this he stops and turns around and then gets killed. We have mentioned earlier, that the novels written by Beryl Bainbridge move from loss to total loss, according to the principle of the frustrations of expectations and this is particularly obvious in the case of this character. At first, Myrtle looses the contact with George’s children to whom she gave birth and at the end, she has to face the total loss for her, because Master Georgie dies. "Behind, on the brow of the hill I saw Myrtle, arms stretched wide, circling round and round, like a bird above a robbed nest." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 212) 98
According to the frustrations of expectations, we come across an accidental death of a young drummer boy throughout this plate. The first ironic contrast lies in the fact that he doesn’t offers his services as drummer boy anymore, but helps in the trenches, because there is so many wounded people and not enough ´doctors´. Furthermore, we probably remember that the favourite song
96 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 97 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 98 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie of old Mr. Hardy called ´Mother dear, I am fading fast´ is about the drummer boy who dies during the war. How ironic can be the situation when the lines from the song can reflect reality. Considering the fact that nothing could be done for him, they use chloroform to help him to depart from this world. In contrast, the chloroform smells fruity, "... a touch like strawberries, which is pleasant since we all stink, Potter more than most. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 189) 99 In addition, if we consider that the face of the boy smoothes out, it can only underline the idea that only death can bring about the real transcension. Moreover, there is an accidental death of one soldier that is an excellent example of irony of fate. Some year ago, he lost his memory because he had been defending the honour of his mother and got fisticuff from another young boy. He could not remember his name until the iron fragment had sliced off his ear during the war. "´I am Harry St Claire,´ he had called out, and now repeated the information, adding, ´I am the happiest man alive.´ " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 193) 100 After this, he shakes the hands of other people and repeats his name over and over with the blood from his ear flying in all directions. Ironically, when he hears the clapping of guns, he drops dead. According to George, "... it was due to exhaustion, that and blood loss. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 193) 101 Although, it is very ironic that the man is alive and suddenly dies, we can also think that he was at least happy even if only for a little while.
As we have already mentioned, this novel is based on historical events and therefore some of the irony of the novel Master Georgie can only work relative to the reader’s knowledge of Crimean War and subsequent historical events.
Although the allied forces do win this war, there is a huge amount of dead soldiers behind their military operations. The generals on both sides are unexperienced and this incompetence of the military leaders reflects the helplessness of people, because they create so much unnecessary suffering
99 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 100 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 101 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie during the war. What happens to people is so frighteningly random and meaningless that chance seems all that matters. When Pompey Jones is in the heat of the Battle of Inkerman he thinks very concisely: "I didn´t know what cause I was promoting, or why it was imperative to kill..." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 208) 102 Similarly, when he defends the regimental colours, he deduces. "In my head I questioned the necessity of coming to the aid of a tattered square of silk, but did as I was bid. I’d turned into a circus animal and would have jumped through hoops if called upon." (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 209) 103
On the one hand, the officers want to report about the war to England and on the other hand, they fail to realize that this can do them harm, because people will now everything what happened.
Particularly, we mean the fact that they do not care about the soldiers, their clothes, supplies, medical care, logistics etc. "We toiled in an easterly direction towards a spur of rock encircled by a wall some ten foot high, erected from stones and fortified by burst sandbags. It had been fashioned in the hopes of trundling up heavy artillery, but was in fact empty. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 207) 104 Ironically, the hopes break down very fast. Moreover, Pompey ironically adds to it. "Quite why it was deemed necessary to defend such a nothing place was never explained. " (Bainbridge, 1998, p. 207) 105 In contrast, the pure Russians are even worse off. If the soldiers want to use the rifle, the military officers consider it to be misbehaviour so they have to use a dagger.
To sum up, in the course of events throughout this plate we mainly find out the irony from the point of view how it is written. Firstly, there is the ironic tension between the textual control and characters´ lack of control over the reality in the fictional world. Secondly, we can notice the ironic quality of
102 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 103 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 104 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie 105 Bainbridge, B. 1998. Master Georgie presentation that deals with the quality of the scene. Particularly, we mean the contrast between silence and sounds. Besides other ironic contrasts within the content, there is also an example of irony of fate. Considering the facts we have mentioned so far, we can really say that the disperancy between the ideal and the actual is the propelling force behind the course of events in the novel Master Georgie and leads to disaster. Particularly, we can notice that George wants to offer his medical services in this war and becomes a kind of butcher, later fusilier and at the end; he pays the highest price when he dies. Myrtle wants to be with George and she looses him. Pompey wants to be a photographer and he becomes a killer and ends as a photographer’s assistant again. Dr. Potter in his ideal journey to be an observer of the country only dreams of his wife and at the end even tears the pages from his lovely books that means he looses his illusions about education after he experiences the war.
Overall, every of the characters have its own desire, which seems to be ideal, but the actuality is ironically different. However, in the novel Master Georgie there is less of the historical than in the previous novels written by Beryl Bainbridge, we can say it is all right, because the author still imparts a sense of time and place smartly.
CONCLUSION
Although, the author Beryl Bainbridge has written seventeen novels, two travel books and five plays for stage and television, so far, there are only a few books that have been written about her style of writing. Even though it is like that, this thesis confirms that she really falls among the best contemporary postmodernist authors.
In this work, irony in the novel Master Georgie has been analysed. The analysis confirms the suggestions assumed in the introduction and shows that Beryl Bainbridge uses the irony that concerns about the disperancy between the ideal and the real, and therefore it is really the propelling force behind the course of events in this novel, which are represented through the use of irony. Furthermore, we have also concentrated on different ironic contrasts, for instance, the opposition between culture and nature, life and death, love and war, present and past, old and new etc. In terms of narrative arrangement of knowledge, there is also the disperancy between the cognitive dimension of the fictional world and that of the reader and therefore it leads to the ironic effect. We have also pointed out that even if the world seems to be chaotic, the text seems controlled, which is the striking signal of the ironic tension. Further, we have found out, that the examination of the text as communication exposes an ironic quality of presentation that is highly manipulative. As we have mentioned earlier, the disperancy between the ideal and the actual is also pointed to human potentials and values. Considering this, we have come to realize that the novel Master Georgie does not only reflect the tragedy and ironies of life, but it also clearly speaks of the nature of being human and its possibilities. Moreover, we have noticed that the shortcomings of human beings and cultures also work in more complicated ways which make the reader to realize the complexity of perceptions of reality.
Through the use of narrators as cameras and through the use of photographs which both become realities in their own right and they also tend to represent the history, no matter what truth they seem to reveal, we have come to resolution, that this novel exposes the illusion of tragedy in the focus on the unreasoning foundation of life. Furthermore, it also exposes the illusion of the possibility of individual fulfilment of romance by doublestriking the need for joint values. Therefore, the world is presented as a myth of perfection as illusion and we can say that the novel Master Georgie ironically moves from the area of realism towards this illusory world. Like the writers in countries all over the world, the writer Beryl Bainbridge uses the novel to give insight into the people’s action, ideas and aspirations and therefore she has the power to represent the human experience both on the individual and social level. We have to point out that Beryl Bainbridge is able to add irony that one being the crucial element in postmodern texts, because it undermines, claims and unmasks appearances only due to postmodernism. Considering the fact, that the novel Master Georgie is a historical one, we have had a chance to revisit the past with a sense of irony through postmodernism.
RESUMÉ
Témou tejto diplomovej práce je irónia v diele „ Master Georgie “ britskej spisovate ľky Beryl Bainbridge. Jej hlavnou čas ťou je analýza tohto románu z hľadiska irónie. Tento historický román bol vybraný vzh ľadom na to, že irónia je jedným z kľúčových prvkov postmoderného textu. Vychádzajúc z analýz predchádzajúcich diel tejto autorky, ktoré rozobrala švédska kriti čka Elizabeth Wenn ı, poukazujeme na to, že „ironická formula“ a charakteristické črty jej predošlých diel plnia rovnakú funkciu aj v tomto historickom románe. Britská autorka Beryl Bainbridge v každom zo svojich diel využíva charakteristickú vlastnos ť irónie, ktorá stavia do juxtapozície ideálne a aktuálne. Aj v tomto diele uvedená vlastnos ť predstavuje „okamihový vplyv“ na pozadí diania, dôsledkom ktorého je neš ťastie hlavných postáv. Sú časne poukazuje aj na ľudské možnosti a hodnoty, čo znamená, že dielo nielen zobrazuje tragédiu a iróniu života, ale takisto jednozna čne hovorí o povahe ľudského bytia a jeho možnostiach.
Beryl Bainbridge patrí k populárnym predstavite ľkám sú časnej Anglickej literatúry. Hoci jej diela čitatelia často nevyh ľadávajú, v kruhu priaznivcov experimentálnej, ako aj tradi čnej prózy má svojich obdivovate ľov. Narodila sa 21. novembra 1934 v Liverpoole. Od svojich šestnástich rokov pôsobila ako here čka v rôznych divadlách, jedným z nich bolo Repertory Theatre v Liverpoole. Autorkiným debutom sa stal v roku 1967 román Weekend with Claud , hoci jej prvým dielom bola novela Harriet Said , ktorá bola publikovaná až v roku 1972. Spisovate ľka sa nevenuje len beletrii, ale je aj autorkou dvoch cestopisov a piatich divadelných hier. Štyrikrát bola nominovaná na cenu Booker Prize a trikrát jej bola udelená literárna cena Whitebread Prize. V poslednej dobe sa Beryl Bainbridge venuje písaniu historických románov. Opísala napríklad potopenie Titaniku v diele Every man for Himself (1996), expedíciu kapitána Scotta na južný pól v novele The Birthday Boys (1991).
Jej posledným románom je dielo According to Queeney (2001), v ktorom mladá rozpráva čka komentuje historické udalosti. Jej tvorba sa zara ďuje do postmoderny, autorka je známa tvorbou experimentálnych románov, v ktorých často konfrontuje fikciu so skuto čnos ťou a mytológiu s históriou. Vo svojej tvorbe autorka psychologicky a ve ľmi bystro zobrazuje život nižšej strednej vrstvy. Nieko ľko jej románov sa odohráva v rodnom Liverpoole a prvé dve kapitoly románu „ Master Georgie “ tiež nie sú výnimkou. Beryl Bainbridge píše na základe svojich vlastných skúseností a je ve ľmi dobrou pozorovate ľkou ľudskej pochabosti a sebaklamu. Pri písaní svojich románov používa zábavnú interpretáciu. Čitatelia jej noviel musia by ť ve ľmi pozorní, pretože to, čo sa im môže zda ť na poh ľad nedôležité, alebo nevypovedané, je často rovnako dôležité ako to, čo je zrejmé. Ve ľmi dôležitá je aj schopnos ť čitate ľa vníma ť iróniu, ktorá je významným prvkom v románoch tejto autorky.
Prvá podkapitola teoretickej časti sa zaoberá vplyvom postmodernizmu na spolo čenskú situáciu. Tento smer sa objavuje v mnohých vedných disciplínach a oblastiach štúdia, vrátane umenia, architektúry, filmu, hudby, literatúry, sociológie, filozofie, technológie a životného štýlu. Vznikol ako reakcia na filozofické princípy, o ktoré sa opiera moderná kultúra. Od roku 1979 má termín postmodernizmus svoje miesto vo filozofickom slovníku, kde bol zaradený na základe vydania diela "The Postmodern Condition" napísaného filozofom Jean- Francoisom Lyotardom. Postmodernizmus ako kultúrny smer je aspektom postmoderny. Zatia ľ čo moderna sa opiera o stanovené myšlienky, postmoderna odkazuje na podmienky v spolo čnosti. To znamená, že v tomto období ideológie, globálne koncepcie a myšlienkové sústavy stratili svoju legitimitu a pre ľudstvo už neexistuje univerzálny cie ľ, ktorý bol prezentovaný napríklad osvietenstvom. Spôsob, akým ľudia žijú sa mení, týka sa to hlavne zmien v organizácii životného štýlu, ale aj zmien v zmysle chápania reality, a pod. a to nielen smerom k rodine, spolo čenstvu, ale aj k sebe samému.
Pod vplyvom technologického a ekonomického vývoja spolo čnosti, dochádza k decentralizácii. Ľudia trávia čas odlú čení od spolo čnosti, vedú konzumný život, miešajú štýly, túžia vyzera ť mladšie a krajšie, a pod. V súvislosti s technologickým vývojom, významnú úlohu zohrávajú po číta če a internet, ktoré umož ňujú okamžitý príjem informácií z celého sveta. Tieto sú však ve ľmi konkuren čné a preto je ťažké ľudí zauja ť a tak je vnímavos ť ľudí znížená. Medzi znaky tohto kultúrneho fenoménu patrí aj stieranie rozdielov medzi originálom a kópiou, čiže medzi nie čím hodnotným a napodobeninou, autentickým a fikciou, ďalej vzniká tvorba artefaktu „simulakra“- ktorý vznikol vplyvom reality na umenie. Pod ľa Baudrillarda, „simulakra“ vytvára obraz, ktorý realitu maskuje, deformuje jej zmysel a na základe toho signalizuje absenciu reality a robí ju nadbyto čnou. V živote tento artefakt vnímame najmä prostredníctvom elektronickej simulácie, virtuálnej reality, cyberspaceom a cyberkultúrou. Postmoderný životný štýl sa vyzna čuje hyperaktivitou, netrpezlivos ťou, fragmentarizovanos ťou, a pod. S ťažené sú aj možnosti ľudí dospie ť k istotám, hoci na druhej strane, ľudia pestujú alternatívne životné štýly. Postmodernú situáciu môžeme vníma ť a chápa ť rôzne. Pre niektorých môže reprezentova ť slobodu vzh ľadom k minulosti, iní si môžu myslie ť, že tento sociálny fenomén vedie len k chaosu. Závisí však od človeka, akým smerom sa vydá a aký cie ľ si zvolí. Treba však podotknú ť, že postmodernizmus najmä popiera existenciu akýchko ľvek kone čných princípov.
V druhej podkapitole teoretickej časti sme sa zaoberali vplyvom postmodernizmu na literatúru. Postmodernizmus ako literárny a umelecký smer vznikol na základe štýlov a myšlienok, ktoré sa objavili po čas Druhej svetovej vojny a reagovali na štandardy modernej literatúry. Moderná aj postmoderná literatúra reprezentuje zlom od realizmu devätnásteho storo čia, čo znamená, že postmoderná literatúra nie je protikladom modernej, ale reprezentuje ur čitú zmenu. V porovnaní s realizmom, kde je základom románu skuto čný príbeh, postmoderná literatúra vytvára ilúziu formy a obsahu, ktoré už nereprezentujú skuto čný obraz reality.
V postmodernej literatúre je realita vytváraná aktivitou individuálnych postáv. Ďalej umož ňuje preskupenie a prelínanie rozli čných žánrov. „Vyššia“ literatúra tak môže preniknú ť do sfér fantázie, surrealistickej alegórie a magického realizmu. Medzi významných predstavite ľov postmodernej literatúry patria ; John Fowles, Angela Carter, Salman Rushdie, Umberto Eco, Günter Grass, Gabriel Garcia Márquez, Vladimir Nabokov a mnoho ďalších. John Fowles si napríklad myslí, že aj ke ď postmoderná literatúra obsahuje ilúziu, manipuláciu a nové formálne prostriedky a metódy, stále môže zobrazova ť reálny život jednotlivca v sú časnej spolo čnosti. Postmoderná literatúra ako aj tá moderná je preniknutá subjektivizmom. To znamená, že sa odvracia od vonkajšej reality s cie ľom skúma ť vnútorný stav vedomia. Pre postmoderný text je prízna čná prítomnos ť viacerých h ľadísk, poh ľadov, zorných uhlov a perspektív. Experimentuje s úlohou rozpráva ča, jazykom, časom a poh ľadom na realitu. Postmodernizmus podporuje fragmentáciu a nesúvislos ť, fragmentovaná je realita aj čas. Postmoderný spisovatelia preferujú rôzne spôsoby štrukturalizácie rozprávania. Medzi nimi nájdeme mnohonásobný koniec, čo môžeme vidie ť napríklad v diele Johna Fowlesa Milenka francúzskeho poru číka (1969), kde autor ponúka viacero záverov príbehu. Ďalším spôsobom ako dosiahnu ť tento efekt je rozdelenie textu do krátkych fragmentov, alebo častí, ktoré sú oddelené medzerami, číslami alebo symbolmi. Mnoho sú časných spisovate ľov využíva vo svojej tvorbe aj prvky populárnych žánrov, ako sú thriller, historický, romantický či detektívny román, a pod. V súvislosti s historickým románom, postmoderná beletria nielen narúša minulos ť, ale aj prítomnos ť. To znamená, že nastáva kombinácia historického a neskuto čného materiálu. Medzi hlavné znaky postmoderného románu patrí aj konfrontácia fikcie so skuto čnos ťou a mytológie s históriou. Jedným z takýchto druhov písania je “metafikcia”, ktorá podporuje fantáziu a využíva paródiu, iróniu, humorný štýl písania a je seba odzrkad ľujúca. Čitatelia môžu ma ť súcit s postavami, čo je typické pre realistický román, ale ich môžu posudzova ť aj z ironického h ľadiska.
Na záver je dôležité pripomenú ť, že postmoderné literárne diela sú ur čené takými literárnymi prvkami, ako je paródia, destabilizácia spolo čenských noriem a najmä irónia, ktorá je k ľúčovým prvkom postmoderného textu.
V angli čtine sa termín irónia objavil v šestnástom storo čí. Vo všeobecnosti sa používa, ke ď chceme slovne vyjadri ť vonkajší aj podstatný význam, ktorý je odlišný. Irónia nazna čuje, že zdanie vecí sa líši od reality, či už sa to týka významu, činnosti, alebo situácie a objavuje sa v rôznych formách. Medzi formami irónie nájdeme napríklad verbálnu, neverbálnu, dramatickú, štrukturálnu, situa čnú, rétorickú, Sokratickú, filozofickú, romantickú, kozmickú, tragickú a iróniu osudu. Irónia predstavuje aj spôsob, akým sa môžeme dualisticky pozera ť na človeka ako na zmes telesného inštinktu a rozumového intelektu. Obsahuje tiež možnos ť vidie ť veci z rôznych poh ľadov, čiže také, aké sú a aké by mali by ť. Použitie irónie je mnohonásobné, či už v re či alebo kultúre. Ako prvý prišiel s myšlienkou absentujúceho autora v osemnástom storo čí Shakespeare. Pre predstavite ľov romantizmu bola priepas ť medzi slovami a svetom ve ľmi originálna. Títo argumentovali, že keby sme sa snažili vidie ť celú re č ironicky, život by už nebol znížený na to, čo je “hovorite ľné”. Hoci sa irónia prevažne zaujíma o re č, môžeme ju použi ť aj obrazne. Takýmto druhom irónie je irónia osudu. Týka sa situácií, ktoré sa ne čakane stali a nedajú sa dostato čne vysvetli ť prirodzenou cestou. Iróniu si môžeme často poplies ť so sarkazmom a satirou. Sarkazmus predstavuje najvyššiu formu trpkej irónie a je silnejší ako samotná irónia. Používa cynický tón a predstavuje túžbu niekomu ublíži ť. Ďalším významom irónie je satira, ktorá spo číva v odhalení hlúposti jednotlivca, skupiny, myšlienky, a pod. Satiristi využívajú iróniu ve ľmi často. Pokia ľ hovoríme o irónii ako triumfe postmodernizmu, potom nemôžeme vynecha ť nostalgický rozmer postmoderného. Kanadská kriti čka Linda Hutcheon tvrdí, že by sme nemali ignorova ť skuto čnú tenziu medzi postmodernou iróniou a nostalgiou, pretože sú základnými prvkami sú časnej kultúry.
Nostalgia sa viac zaujíma o prítomnos ť ako o minulos ť, pri čom zobrazovanú minulos ť približuje. Zárove ň predstavuje to, čo cítime, ke ď sa minulos ť stretne s prítomnos ťou, čo je často sprevádzané zna čnými emóciami. Používanie irónie v umení a literatúre neustále narastá. Irónia sa stáva znakom dobrého vkusu nielen v literatúre a dráme, ale aj v bežnom živote. V postmodernizme irónia stiera rozdiel medzi ideálnym a skuto čným, medzi “vyššou” a “nízkou” kultúrou. Postmodernizmus môžeme chápa ť ako stanovisko, ktoré je do zna čnej miery ironické.
V praktickej časti tejto práce je rozoberaný román „ Master Georgie “ z hľadiska irónie. Hoci sa príbeh odohráva po čas Krymskej vojny, obrazom tejto knihy nie je samotná vojna, ale skupina ľudí, ktorých životy sú jej ohniskom. Hlavnou postavou je George Hardy, ktorý ponúkne svoje služby ako lekár v Krymskej vojne. Medzi jeho nasledovníkmi je jeho nevlastná sestra Myrtle, ktorá je do neho ve ľmi za ľúbená. Ďalším je mladý hlta č oh ňov Pompey Jones, Georgov asistent pri fotografovaní a jeho ob časný milenec a tretím je intelektuál a geológ, Dr. Potter, ktorý je Georgovým švagrom. George, Myrtle a Pompey sú prepojení desivým tajomstvom, a to neš ťastnou smr ťou Georgovho otca v jednom z Liverpoolských verejných domov. Dr. Potterovi to neskôr povie sám George, hoci jeho švagor už aj tak predtým nie čo tušil. Pohá ňaní túžbou po nie čom ideálnom sa všetci ocitnú vo vojne, kde však musia čeli ť smrti a chorobám. Tento „výlet“ sa však kon čí tragicky, pretože Georga zastrelí jeden z ruských vojakov. Dielo je formálne rozdelené do šiestich kapitol. Každá z týchto kapitol reprezentuje samostatnú fotografickú dosku, čierno – biely obraz, ktorý je pomenovaný na základe fotografie, ktorá bola vyhotovená v priebehu udalostí jednotlivej kapitoly. Organizácia diela okolo týchto šiestich fotografických obrazov je pravdepodobne založená na skuto čnosti, že Krymská vojna bola prvá, po čas ktorej sa fotografovalo. Fotografie vo všeobecnosti zachytávajú okamih. Otázka znie, či nám hovoria pravdu. V skuto čnosti, ur čitý okamih môže by ť viac menej pravdou. Pod ľa Beryl Bainbridge však fotografia predstavuje taký podvod, ako ni č iné. Fotografia má vlastnos ť vytvorenia mýtu a v tomto diele je odhalenie mýtu dokonalosti, ktorý je prezentovaný ako ilúzia nutné, takisto ako odhalenie skuto čnej pravdy, ktorá je prezentovaná ako nedokonalos ť. Dielo „ Master Georgie “ sa ironicky presúva z oblasti realizmu smerom k tomuto iluzórnemu svetu. Okrem mnohých ironických kontrastov, medzi ktorými napríklad kontrast medzi láskou ako jednotou a láskou ako klamstvom, prirodzenos ťou a kultúrou, starým a novým, prítomnos ťou a minulos ťou, hororom a krásou, mierom a vojnou, láskou a vojnou, životom a smr ťou, ženským a mužským výzorom a postavením, a pod, je v diele obsiahnutý aj ironický efekt, ako výsledok „disperancie“ medzi poznávacím rozmerom sveta fikcie a sveta rozpráva ča. Ironické napätie je prezentované rozdielom medzi textom, ktorý sa zdá by ť kontrolovaný a svetom fikcie, ktorý sa zdá by ť chaotický. Skúmanie textu ako komunikácie odha ľuje ironickú kvalitu prezentácie, ktorá je vysoko manipulujúca. Vzh ľadom na predchádzajúce, „disperancia“ medzi ideálnym a aktuálnym naozaj vedie k neš ťastiu hlavných postáv. Je to zrejmé, ak zvážime túžby, teda to, čo predstavuje pre postavy v tomto románe ideálno, a výsledky, ktoré sú obrazom aktuálneho. Hlavná postava George ponúka svoje lekárske služby v Krymskej vojne a stáva sa z neho mäsiar, pretože jediné operácie, ktorá robí sú amputácie. Neskôr už nie je lekár, ale strelec a nakoniec zaplatí najvyššiu da ň svojím vlastným životom. Jedinú vec, ktorú kedy Myrtle chcela, je by ť s Georgom alebo mu by ť aspo ň nablízku, ale jeho smr ťou ho stráca. Mladý muž Pompey sa túžil sta ť fotografom, ale po čas vojny sa stáva zabijakom a kon čí znovu ako asistent fotografa. Georgov švagor Dr. Potter, ktorý šiel do vojny s úmyslom pozorova ť krajinu, najprv túži po svojich d ňoch starého mládenca a potom sníva iba o svojej žene. Nakoniec, ako ve ľký milovník kníh a vzdelania, trhaním strán z nich stráca všetky svoje ilúzie o vzdelaní. Dochádzame tak k záveru, že román „ Master Georgie “ sa ironicky posúva z oblasti realizmu smerom k iluzórnemu svetu, pretože tento svet je zobrazovaný ako mýtus dokonalosti.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BAINBRIDGE, Beryl.: Master Georgie. Abacus, 1998. ISBN 0 349 11169 3. BARKET, Chris.: Cultural Studies Theory and Practice. London: Sage Publications, 2000. ISBN 0 7619 5775 8. BENNET, Andrew a ROYLE, Nicholas.: Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 1999. ISBN 0 13 010914 2. BRADBURY, Malcolm.: The Modern British Novel 1878 – 2001. London: Penguin Books, 2001. BUTLER, Christopher.: Postmodernism. New York: Oxford university Press Inc., 2002. ISBN 0 19 280239 9. CULLER, Jonathan.: Krátký úvod do literární teorie. Brno: Host – vydavatelství, 2002. ISBN 80 7294 070 8. CUDDON, J. A.: A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. HUTCHEON, Linda.: A Poetics of Postmodernism. History, Theory, Fiction. London: Routledge, 1988. ISBN 0 415 00705 4. HUTCHEON, Linda.: The Politics of Postmodernism. London: Routledge, 1989. ISBN 0 415 503992 4. McHALE, Brian.: Postmodernist Fiction. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0 415 04513 4. SIM, Stuart.: The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism. London: Routledge, 2001. WENN İ, E.: Ironic Formula in the Novels of Beryl Bainbridge. Karlstad: Hıgskoletryckeriet, 1993. ISBN 91 7346 261 6.
Aylesworth, G.: Standard Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. World wide web. Available:
Hudgins, C. and Richards, M. G.: An interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of contemporary life. 2000. World wide web. Available: