KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL: KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE from conservation and development perspectives from conservation and development perspectives RESEARCH CENTRE FOR APPLIED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (RECAST) TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY P.O. Box 1030, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: +977-1-4330348 | Fax: +977-1-4331303 Web: www.recast.edu.np KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL from conservation and development perspectives Ram P. Chaudhary Yadav Uprety Surya P. Joshi Krishna K. Shrestha Khadga B. Basnet Govinda Basnet Krishna R. Shrestha Kuber P. Bhatta Krishna P. Acharya Nakul Chettri February 2015 KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL ii from conservation and development perspectives Copyright © Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), Government of Nepal Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). All rights reserved, Published 2015 All photographs by authors, unless otherwise stated. Photographs Front cover: Kangchenjunga mountain range; Red panda (photo by Sonam Tashi Lama); Asian elephant (photo by Narendra B. Pradhan); A sacred stone in Ilam district Front inside (clockwise from top left): Winged thorn rose, ‘Jangali gulaf’ (Rosa sericea); Indian aconite, ‘Atis’ (Aconitum heterophyllum); Himalayan marsh orchid, ‘Paanch aunle’ (Dactylorhiza hatagirea); Himalayan May apple, ‘Laghu patra’ (Sinopodophyllum hexandrum) Back cover: A waterfall along the way to Olangchung Gola, Taplejung Back inside: Kechana pillar in Jhapa district, the lowest point in KL Nepal Published By Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), Government of Nepal Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). ISBN: 978-9937-2-9275-7 (printed) 978-9937-2-9274-0 (electronic) Reproduction This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. MoFSC/RECAST/ICIMOD would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from MoFSC/RECAST/ICIMOD. Note The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author(s). They are not attributable to MoFSC/RECAST/ICIMOD and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product. Citation Chaudhary, R.P., Uprety, Y., Joshi, S.P., Shrestha, K.K., Basnet, K.B., Basnet, G., Shrestha, K.R., Bhatta, K.P., Acharya, K.P., and Chettri, N. 2015. Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal: from conservation and development perspectives. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), Government of Nepal; Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University; and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Kathmandu, Nepal. Reviewer Dr. Ganesh Raj Joshi, former Secretary, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal Editor Mr. Deependra Joshi Design and Printed at Ultimate Marketing (P.) Ltd. Ranibari, Lazimpat, Kathmandu, Nepal 4352223 | [email protected] KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL from conservation and development perspectives iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii Foreword viii-x Preface xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xii Executive Summary xiv Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Methodology and approach 2 Chapter 2: The Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal 5 2.1 Boundary delineation 5 2.2 Criteria for landscape boundary 5 2.3 Delineation of the landscape 6 Chapter 3: Physical Features 9 3.1 General introduction of the area 9 3.2 Hydro-meteorology 10 3.2.1 Temperature 10 3.2.2 Precipitation 11 3.2.3 Evaporation and sunshine duration 12 3.3 River systems 12 3.4 Snow, ice and glaciers 13 3.5 Hydro-meteorological related issues and gaps 13 3.6 Land use and land cover 14 3.7 Minerals and soil types 14 Chapter 4: Socio-economic Features 17 4.1 Demography 17 4.2 Livelihoods and economic activities 18 4.2.1 Agricultural system 18 4.2.2 Animal husbandry 20 4.2.3 Foreign employment, migration and remittance 20 4.2.4 Weaving and knitting 20 4.3 Food security 20 4.4 Human development and poverty 21 4.5 Tourism 21 4.6 Transboundary trade 22 4.6.1 Trade of plant species 24 4.6.2 Traded species/potential species and their volume 24 4.7 Drinking water and sanitation 25 4.8 Road network 25 4.9 Energy sources and utilization 25 4.9.1 Major energy sources 25 4.9.2 Technology utilization in energy generation 26 4.9.3 Mini/micro-hydro power in KL Nepal districts 26 4.9.4 Solar energy technologies 27 4.9.5 Energy deficits 27 4.10 Pollution 27 4.10.1 Air pollution 27 4.10.2 Water pollution 27 KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL iv from conservation and development perspectives 4.10.3 Solid waste 27 4.10.4 Chemicals and fertilizers 27 4.11 Public health 27 4.12 Gender and social inclusion 28 4.12.1 Literacy and education status by gender 28 4.12.2 Women’s access to productive resources 28 Chapter 5: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 29 5.1 Biodiversity 29 5.1.1 Ecoregions 30 5.1.2 Major ecosystems, vegetation and forest types 30 5.1.3 Forest coverage 30 5.1.4 Important Bird Areas 31 5.1.5 Wildlife corridor and connectivity 32 5.1.6 Important Plant Areas 32 5.1.7 Faunal diversity 32 5.1.8 Threats and gaps in wildlife conservation 34 5.1.9 Floristic diversity 34 5.1.10 Threats to floral diversity 36 5.1.11 Agrobiodiversity 36 5.2 Ecosystem services 38 5.2.1 Provisioning services 38 5.2.2 Supporting services 39 5.2.3 Regulating services 41 5.2.4 Cultural services 42 Chapter 6: Resource Management System 45 6.1 Forest management 45 6.1.1 Local institutions in biodiversity conservation and management 46 6.1.2 Forest restoration 46 6.1.3 Forest utilization and management issues 48 6.1.4 Transboundary forest conservation and management issues 48 6.1.5 Illegal transborder trade: An issue of biodiversity conservation and management 48 6.2 Rangeland management 48 6.2.1 Major rangeland management regimes: from past to present 49 6.2.2 Transborder cooperation in pasture management 50 6.2.3 Transboundary movement of people and their impact on pastureland 50 6.2.4 Overgrazing in the rangelands 51 6.3 Wildlife management 51 6.3.1 Human-wildlife conflict 51 6.3.2 Major causes of human-elephant conflict 51 6.3.3 Problem mitigation 52 6.4 Agrobiodiversity management 52 6.5 Wetland management 52 6.6 Churia management 53 6.7 Institutional arrangements and stakeholders 53 6.7.1 Government institutions 53 6.7.2 Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Project and 54 Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Management Council 6.7.3 Formal community organizations 54 6.7.4 Community-based organizations 54 KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE NEPAL from conservation and development perspectives v 6.7.5 Major non-governmental organizations 55 6.7.6 Traditional systems and institutions 55 6.7.7 Shifting cultivation 55 6.8 Community perception on environmental issues and climate change 56 6.8.1 Culture and conservation 56 6.8.2 Climate change and community resilience 56 6.8.3 Peoples’ observation on climate change 57 Chapter 7: Policy and Enabling Environment 59 7.1 Existing policies and legislations 59 7.2 Nepal’s commitment to major international conventions, treaties and agreements 62 7.3 Bilateral agreements within the region 63 7.4 Enabling policy frameworks for gender inclusive conservation and development 63 7.5 Inconsistencies in the statutory regime, contemporary plans and policies 63 Chapter 8: Key Issues, Gaps and Priorities 65 8.1 Thematic areas, issues and gaps 65 8.2 Conservation and development priorities 67 8.2.1 Socio-economy and livelihoods 67 8.2.2 Biodiversity and ecosystem services 68 8.2.3 Resource governance and access to genetic resources and benefit sharing 68 8.2.4 Long-term socio-ecological and environmental monitoring 68 8.2.5 Enabling environment, knowledge management and regional cooperation 68 Chapter 9: Approaches and Way Forward 71 References 77 Annexes 85 Index 123 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Criteria used for boundary delineation of KL Nepal 6 Table 2.2: Village Development Committees (VDCs) and municipalities of KL Nepal 6 Table 2.3: Important features of KL Nepal 7 Table 3.1: Basic description of hydrometric stations in KL Nepal districts 10 Table 3.2: Average annual precipitation and average precipitation during southwest monsoon 12 Table 3.3: Land use pattern in KL Nepal districts (ha) 14 Table 3.4: Land use and land cover in KL Nepal VDCs and municipalities 14 Table 3.5: Mineral resources of KL Nepal districts 15 Table 4.1: Population by caste/ethnicity (% of the total) in KL Nepal 18 Table 4.2: Area (ha) and production (Mt) of major crops in KL Nepal districts (2011/2012) 19 Table 4.3: Area (ha) and production (Mt) of major cash crops in KL Nepal districts 19 (2011/2012) Table 4.4: Number and types of animals raised in KL Nepal districts 20 Table 4.5: Food availability and requirement (2010/2011) 21 Table 4.6: Development and Poverty Index for different districts 21 Table 4.7: Some potential sites for tourism promotion in KL Nepal districts 22 Table 4.8: Major trade routes with different types of exported and imported items 23 KANGCHENJUNGA LANDSCAPE