7Th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Statement of review All papers reproduced in these proceedings have been independently peer reviewed, by at least two qualified reviewers, with consideration for reporting requirements. Disclaimer The opinions, advices and information contained in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Trakya University, Prizren University or International Women and Business Group.

Whilst all due care was taken in the compilation of these proceedings, Trakya University, Prizren and University International Women and Business Group does not warrant that the information is free from errors or omission, or accept any liability in relation to the quality, accuracy and currency of the information.

Front Márcia Dias (2016)

ISBN

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

CONTENT

Page

Welcome Message by Conference Series President 8

About International Women And Business Group (IWBG) 11

Published Books In Formal Book Series In Routledge 12

Scienctific Committee 15

Organising Committe 16

Sponsor 17

Keynote Speakers 18

Best Paper Award 21

Scientific Conference Programme 22

Accepted and Presented Papers 31

GOVERNANCE – POLITICS

THE POLITICAL EMANCIPATION OF ALBANIAN WOMAN IN THE

REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA FROM 1991 TO DATE Senada Laçka, Msc.Guximtar Rushani 33

THE PROTECTION OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN THE FIELD OF

PUBLICH HEALTH IN ALBANIA Rudina Degjoni 43

THE IMPACT OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS COMPOSITION ON

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF LLC’s IN KOSOVO

Bekim Berisha 52

WOMEN IN SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING: CASE FROM TURKEY

Kiymet Caliyurt, Ilke Oruç 53

MANAGEMENT

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF

WOMEN ACADEMICIANS

Pınar Avcı, Semahat Aysu 75

THE VIEWS OF WOMEN ACADEMICIANS ABOUT USING

WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGIES IN THEIR CLASSROOMS Semahat Aysu, Pınar Avcı 89

FACTORS AFFECTING CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN

MANAGERS’ IN ORGANIZATIONS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Liridon Veliu, Mimoza Manxhari, Besnik Kaleci, Arsim Veliu 103

HEALTH CARE FINANCING AND REFORM IN ALBANIA

A SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

Rudina Degjoni 115

WOMEN IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDY OF KOSOVO Artë Kastrati, MSc. Samire Sahiti 107

LEADERSHIP AND TEAM-BASED TRUST IN WOMEN ACADEMICIANS

OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES Yasemin Çiftçi Şener, Duygu Doğan 124

ASSESSMENT OF THE LEADERSHIP SKILLS IN FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES Duygu Doğan, Yasemin Çiftçi Şener 125

WOMEN IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDY OF KOSOVO

Kastrati, Artë, Sahiti, Samire 133

PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE CONDUCT OF COMPANIES

Drita Krasniqi 152

WOMEN on CORPORATE BOARDS: THE CASE of CHAMBERS of

CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS in TURKEY

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Serol Karalar, Prof. Kıymet Çalıyurt 153

WOMEN ON CORPORATE BOARDS OF DIRECTORS: EXAMINING OF

TOP 100 COMPANIES OF 2016 FORTUNE 500 RANKING IN TURKEY

Işıl Usta, Kıymet Tunca Çalıyurt 160

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

TRANSCENDENTAL WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND

POSITIVE REVOLUTION IN

Amantina Pervizaj Kelmendi, Festim Tafolli 171

CHALLENGES FACED BY FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS

Dafine Abazi 190

CHALLENGES OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR IN

NON-PUBLIC EDUCATION

Eranda Bilali, Edit LEZHA, Fatmir VADOHEJ, Mehdi KRONI 202

WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN TURKISH

ACCOUNTING PROFESSION

Betul Açıkgöz 203

CHALLENGES FACED BY FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS

Dafina Abdullahu 205

WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR IN KOSOVO, THEIR CHALLENGES AND

OPPORTUNITIES Vetan Xhemaj, Blerta Zekolli 214

FINANCIAL IMPACT OF WOMEN AS ENTREPRENEURS IN PROVIDING

REVENUES AND FOSTER FAMILIES

Bekim Syla, Veli Lecaj 227

ACADEMIC LIFE 5

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

WOMEN IN ACADEMIC LIFE - CHALLENGES AND OBSTACLES THEY

FACE IN ACADEMIC CAREER Luan VARDARI, Nazli TYFEKÇI 229

DEVELOPMENT

KOSOVAR WOMEN'S ROLE IN DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL BUSINESS

Hamdi Hoti, Bekim Berisha 231

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR MARKET AND DECISION MAKING

IN KOSOVO

Halil KUKAJ, Luan VARDARI 232

PROPERTY INHERITANCE BY WOMEN IN KOSOVO Simeana Beshi 233

PROMINENT WOMEN ECONOMISTS OF THE WORLD AND TURKEY Fatma Cesur 247

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EXAMINATION OF THE WOMEN WORKING IN

SEAFOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN THE BLACK SEA

Emre Çağlak, Barış Karslı , Muhammed Ali Altun 258

THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN KOSOVO AS A FACTOR IN

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY Halim Bajraktari 259

ROLE AND CHALLANGES OF WOMEN IN TOURISM SECTOR

Afërina Skeja, Lecturer Gülay Keskin 260

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE LEVEL IN WOMEN EMPLOYEES OF

BANKING SECTOR

Agon Skeja, Ema Skeja 267

FEMALE CONTRIBUTION TO DWELLING IMPROVEMENT WITHIN LATIN

AMERICAN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS: THE CASE-STUDY OF CARACAS,

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

VENEZUELA Jean Caldieron 268

EDUCATION

TURKISH WOMEN'S EDUCATION IN KOSOVO: THE ROLE IN SOCIETY

Elsev BRİNA LOPAR 270

THE ROLE AND THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN THE BUSINESSES

MANAGED BY WOMEN Brilanda Bushati, Eranda Bilali, Blerta Dragusha, Elidiana Bashi 278

GENDER INCLUSION IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT

TRENDS OVER DECADES IN KOSOVO

Luljeta Aliu, But Dedaj, Mjellma Carabregu 279

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF CAUSES OF VIOLENCE IN SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN THE TOWN OF PRİZREN

Shpresa Zaplluzha 294

EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN PRIZREN

Sanela Lutvić, Džulizarka Mislimi 295

THE WOMEN`S POSITION IN ENTERPRISE AND THE LEADERSHIP

ON ENVIRONMENT OF ALBANIA

Eriona Deda 296

CALL FOR PAPERS FOR 8th INTERNATIONAL WOMEN AND BUSINESS

CONFERENCE - CANADA 301

CALL FOR CHAPTERS FOR BOOK SERIES IN ROUTLEDGE

UPCOMING BOOKS 302

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

WELCOME MESSAGE BY CONFERENCE SERIES PRESIDENT

PROF.DR.KIYMET ÇALIYURT

Dear Colleaques,

International Women and Business Group (IWBG) was founded by Prof.Kıymet Tunca Çalıyurt in 2009. The aim of the group is to discuss and publish on issues related to women and business. The mission of the group is to create a better, qualified and safer business environment for women in daily business life. Please find the list of conference series' organising details and name of the presidents year by year:

 1st International Balkan Countries Women and Business Conference - Ohri, Macedonia St.Kliment Ohridski University - President Prof.Dr.Jovanka Biljan (30 September 2011)  2nd International Balkan Countries Women and Business Conference - Edirne, Turkey Trakya University - President Prof.Dr.Kiymet Caliyurt( 22 December 2011)  3rd International Balkan Countries Women and Business Conference, Banja Luka, Bosna and Herzegovina Pan European University Apeiron, Prof.Dr.Sanel Yakupovic(10 October 2012)  4h International Balkan Countries Women and Business Conference, Bourgas, Bulgaria Bourgas Free University, Prof.Dr. Milen Baltov(20 June 2013)

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

 5th International Balkan Countries Women and Business Conference, Belgrade, Serbia Alfa University and Kreativno Pero, Prof.Dr.Olivera Nedeljkovic (8-10 October 2014)  6th International Women and Business Conference, Sau Paulo, Brasil Mackenzie University, Prof.Dr.Liliane Segura (21-23 September 2015) UNIVERSIDADE PRESBITERIANA MACKENZIE TRAKYA UNIVERSITY CCSA - Centro de Ciências Sociais e Aplicadas 6 ISBN 978-85-67981-13-0

http://6thwomencongress.wixsite.com/6thwomencongress

 7th International Women and Business Conference, Prizren, Prizren Ukshin Hoti University, (9-11 November 2016), KOSOVA

http://7thwomenconferenceprizren.trakya.edu.tr/

IWBG had a big step in 2014 and started to publish book series titled "WOMEN AND SUSTAINABILITY IN BUSINESS" in Routledge Taylor Francis. First two book of the series has been submitted to Gower which are titled as follows:

 Women and Sustainability in Business: A Global Perspective Editor: Prof.Dr.Kiymet Caliyurt, Trakya University, Turkey  Women in Agriculture Worldwide: Key Issues and Practical Approaches Editors: Amber J. Fletcher, University of Regina, Regina, Canada and Wendee Kubik, Brock University, Ontario, Canada  UPCOMING BOOK;

Improving Women Entrepreneurship Globally: Obstacles, Challenges and Cooperation

Business Group is a body of scholars who are concerned with:

 laws and regulations on women & business,  national and international applications on women & business,  sectoral developments and applications on women & business,  national and international non-governmental organisations activities on women & business,  ethical issues and cases on women & business  corporate social responsibility on women & business,  corporate governance regulations and application on women & business,  sustainability on women & business.

International Women and Business Group (IWBG):  publishes e-journal,  publishes newsletter,  join projects on women and business,  organises workshops and trainings.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

All of us has a word to say something about the problems women in business so we have a slogan as group "WE NEED WOMEN FOR SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS".

With this opportunity I would like to thank to Rector Prof.Dr. Prof. Dr. Rame VATAJ for inviting us to beautiful Prizren.

Hope to see you in 8th Conference in Mount Allison University in Sackville Canada in July 24-28, 2017.

Prof.Dr.Kiymet Caliyurt, CFE, CPE Founder - International Women and Business Group Book Series Editor - Women and Sustainable Business

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

ABOUT INTERNATIONAL WOMEN AND BUSINESS GROUP (IWBG)

International Women and Business Group (IWBG) was founded by Prof.Dr.Kiymet Caliyurt in 2009 in Edirne, Turkey. The aim of the group is to discuss and publish on issues related to women and business.The mission of the group is to create a better, qualified and safer business environment for women in business. IWBG is a body of scholars who are concerned with;

* laws and regulation on women & business,

* national and international applications on women & business,

* sectoral developments and applications on women & business,

* national and international non-governmental organisations activities on women & business,

* business education systems and problems on education for women in business,

* ethical issues on women & business,

* corporate social responsibility on women & business,

* corporate governance on women & business,

* sustainability on women & business,

* accountability on women & business

International Women and Business Group;

* organises meetings, conferences,

* publishes book series,

* publishes e-journal,

* publishes newsletter,

* join projects on women and business,

* organises workshop and trainings.

If you would like to join International Women and Business group, please send mail to Prof.Kıymet Caliyurt Email: [email protected]

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

PUBLISHED BOOKS IN FORMAL BOOK SERIES IN ROUTLEDGE

https://www.routledge.com/Women-and-Sustainable-Business/book- series/WOMENANDSUST

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

 Prof.Stella Vettori, University of South Africa, South Africa  Prof. Justifina Pula, University of Prishtina  Assoc.Prof.Roshima Said, Mara Teknologie University, Malaysia  Prof. Ass. Drita Krasniqi, University of Prizden  Assoc.Prof.Milen Baltov, Bourgas Free University, Bugaria  Prof. Myrvete Badivuku, Vice Rector - University of Prishtina  Assist.Prof.Larissa Batrancea, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania, Romania  Prof. Asc. Nuran Malta, University of Prishtina  Assist.Prof.Seyhan Bilir Guler, Trakya University, Turkey  Prof. Ass. Isuf Lushi, Dean of Faculty Of Economics - University of Prizden  Prof. Asc. Bexhet Brajshori, University of Prizden  Prof. Ass. Halil Kukaj, University of Prizden  Prof. Henrique Formigoni – Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brasil  Prof. Flavio Roberto Mantovani– Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brasil  Assist.Prof.İlke Oruc, Trakya University, Turkey  Profa. Ana Maria Roux Valentini Coelho Cesar - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie – Brazil  Profa. Rute Maria Gomes de Abreu – Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Portugal  Profa. Maria de Fátima David– Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Portugal  Prof. Alberto de Medeiros Junior– Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brasil  Prof. Mary Rosane Ceroni – Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brasil  Prof.Emanuel Ferreira Leite - Universidade de Pernambuco, Brasil  Assoc. Prof. Mila Jančetović, University Business Academy in Novi Sad, Serbia  Assoc. Prof. Bozidar Veljkovic - University of Maribor, Fakulty of Tourism,Slovenian  Assoc.Prof.Emel Gönenc Guler – Trakya University, Turkey  Assoc. Prof. Dr. Radica Jovanovic - Belgrade Business School, Serbia  Assoc.Prof. Ipek Altınbasak FARINA, Bahcesehir University, Turkey  Assoc.Prof. Supriti Mishra, International Management Institute (IMI), India  Prof. Djurdjica Juric - RRIF School Zagreb, Croatia  Prof.Jovanka Biljan, St Kliment Ohridski University, Macedonia  Assoc.Prof.Sanel Jakupović, Vice dean of Faculty for Business Economics, Pan- European University Apeiron, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina  Prof.Chris Gale, Consultant and Visiting Professor at GSM London, UK  Prof. Jovanka Tuteska, PhD, St. Kliment Ohridski University - Bitola, Macedonia Vice-rector for Science  Assoc.Prof.Sanel Jakupovic, Pan-European University Apeiron, Bosnia and Herzegovina

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

ORGANISING COMMITTE

7th CONFERENCE PRESIDENT: PROF. ASS. BEKIM BERISHA CONFERENCE SERIES PRESIDENT: PROF.DR.KIYMET CALIYURT

CONFERENCE COORDINATOR FOR ORGANISATION & SOCIAL PROGRAMME : LUAN VARDARİ

CONFERENCE COORDINATOR FOR SCIENTIFIC EVENTS & PHD COLLEAQUEM:

AFERINA SKEJA

OTHER:

SERDAN KERVAN

NAZLI TYFEKQIU

ANERA ALISHANI

FESTIM TAFOLLI

RIFAT HOXHA

LEONORA SOPAJ

FATMIR MEHMETI

MARIGONA GECI

NURI BRINA

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

SPONSOR

HERME CONSULTING & TRAINING

TRAKYA TECHNOPARK

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Keynote Speakers

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

BEST PAPER AWARD

Congratulations !!!

TRANSCENDENTAL WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND POSITIVE REVOLUTION IN

Prof.Amantina Pervizaj Kelmendi

Festim Tafolli

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE PROGRAMME 7th INTERNATIONAL WOMEN AND BUSINESS CONFERENCE

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Accepted and Presented Papers

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

SECTION GOVERNANCE POLITICS CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

THE POLITICAL EMANCIPATION OF ALBANIAN WOMAN IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA FROM 1991 TO TODAY

Msc.Senada Laçka, International University of Struga

Msc.Guximtar Rushani, International University of Struga

Abstract

What is the role of Albanian women in our society today? What obstacles has she got in her everyday life? Can we talk about equality in terms of professionalism? As a less psychologically distorted part, simultaneously the most vital and most elite part, women have an invaluable merit to be the only catalyst in a society where social situations are in transition and in condition. Emancipation does not mean just to have the same rights and freedoms with masculinity, but to participate in mental, political and social development of a society and to decide with personal responsibility. Through culture, awareness, gender inequality of a population we can understand that the emancipation of women is necessary for her own good and for the good of the entire society. If her emancipation fails to scale properly, it can be estimated that you could not build that population correctly in the appropriate scheme of a developed population.Macedonia has not yet a measure of real value and unfortunately, the few Albanian women involved in politics in their speeches they dedicate their careers to their party leaders. Women in state duties are in relation of dependency. Albanian woman has remained a hostage to the same conjectures where the Albanian society exists for 25 years of transition.

Keywords: Emancipation, gender inequality, transition.

INTRODUCTION

All social organizations, starting from the basics and the smallest one up to the state as a social and culminated organization, have a family as a model. And, given that in the family the mainstay it’s the female (mother), then we can conclude that even in other organizations, such as the state, the female is the main pillar. In a society in which women are not equal to men is, in all segments of life; where women do not enjoy the right to education or it is not allowed to her; in a society where women are imposed ways of living, ways of dressing, exit, attitude and free opinion; a society where women are not represented equally in social life, from education to generations of leadership of the state, we can not say that it is a successful society or a democratic state.

Albanian nation historically has been regressing in the emancipation and integration of women in society. However, in recent decades, it can be said that a satisfactory progress 33

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University has been made in this direction, but it is not enough. There is not a fact that women are banned from male influence, but there is still a deficit, especially as regarded to older generations and the middle ones.

Now we have enough examples in society for successful women and ladies, as in education, politics, as well as in the sphere of business. Even the women have too many good examples of cooperation, such as cases of various organizations and initiatives by women politicians, that know and want to eliminate partiac ideological differences for the benefit of society and the common good. Therefore, it is necessary to sensitize the whole society on mass education of women, emancipation and its full integration into society. This should be supported by both genders, but especially from females, from women who have already been successful, so women to enjoy their rightful place in society and not to become a tool of calculations through quotas, but to fight with all democratic means to be equal in representation.

Movements for the emancipation of women have enabled independent states to create a system of laws that guarantee the equality of both genders in all spheres of life but especially the Balkan reality of Albanians in the RM which has encountered difficulties in the political emancipation of women with emphasis, influenced by numerous ethnic problems which even today hinder a comprehensive progress of Albanians living in Macedonia.

LEGAL PROTECTION OF FEMALES IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA

Policy on gender equality and empowerment of women is one of the fundamental principles of democracy and social regulation. Gender equality is guaranteed by the Constitution as the highest act of the State and addressing to the exsistance of gender inequalities means different ways of working with women and with men because they often have different needs and different priorities, face different obstacles, have different aspirations and contribute to the development of society in different ways. In this context, from the perspective of women, gender equality means that women will work on their behalf, safely and clearly to present their views in order to be heard and taken into account. This means the advancement of women and the inclusion of men in the process of consultation and decision-making at all levels. When it comes to gender equality in the legislation of the Republic of Macedonia there are two approaches which are complementary to each other. There are laws which contain positive steps by which ensure gender equality, but there is a special law, the Law on equal opportunities between women and men adopted in 2006 and advanced version approved in 2012. The law has aimed at regulating the basic and special measures to create equal opportunities for

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University women and men, as well as the powers, duties and obligations of parties responsible for creating equal opportunities.

The legal framework consists of the following most important legal documents:

1. The Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia (1991) guarantees the equality of all citizens for the realization of human rights and freedoms regardless of their sex, race, color, national and social origin, political and religious beliefs, property and social status. Prohibition of discrimination and promoting equality play an important role in implementing the system for protection of human rights. In Macedonia prohibition of discrimination is placed in a higher level of legal framework. The principle of equality is set in the Preamble of the Constitution of Macedonia {next Constitution}, as well as Article 9 which states that citizens are equal in rights and freedoms irrespective of gender, race, color, national origin and social, political and religious beliefs, property and social status citizens are equal before the Constitution and laws. Constitution as the highest legal act also defines the joy of the freedoms and fundamental rights - 15 - foreign persons that are in the territory of the Republic of Macedonia. Besides the general provisions on protection from discrimination, the Constitution also guarantees equality of access to any workplace, as well as equal access to education. The Constitution also provides protection for certain categories of people, pregnant women, children, children without parental care, Minorities, etc. In case of violation of these rights and freedoms of all citizens are entitled to legal protection before the courts and the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Macedonia, the procedure based on the principles of priority and urgency. The rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution may be restricted, but this can not be done in a discriminatory manner on the basis of gender, race, skin color, language, religion, descent national or social origin, property or social status. The provision of the Constitution which prevents discrimination on various grounds features an oak-discriminatory basis. It may impose restrictions on the implementation of the provisions on protection from discrimination. Constitutional provisions that guarantee the rights and freedoms of the individual, and equality, are further regulated by specific laws and bylaws in some areas. Every law should be adopted in accordance with the Constitution. This means that a law can not provide a lower protection than the Constitution but can guarantee a more extensive list of freedoms and rights than those specified in the Constitution. This part of the report analyzes the specific laws which contain a more extensive list of protected grounds of discrimination; some are open lists and other legal documents refer that prevent discrimination.

2. Law on Secondary Education in the Republic of Macedonia (1995) guarantees equal access to secondary education and prohibits discrimination on any basis.

3. Law on Internal Affairs of the Republic of Macedonia (1995) ensures protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens guaranteed by the Constitution of the Republic of

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Macedonia 10 and ensure the absence of national hatred and intolerance, racial and religious grounds.

4. The Criminal Code of the Republic of Macedonia (1996) criminalizes discrimination on any basis by every person in Macedonia and provides liability to persons authorized to act with all due diligence and without discrimination in the performance of official duties.

5. Inheritance Law in the Republic of Macedonia (1996) recognizes no distinction between heirs, respectively, all citizens have the right to exercise their right of inheritance in our country.

6. Law on Local Self-Government in the Republic of Macedonia (2002) regulates the establishment and functioning of the Commissions for equal opportunities within the municipal councils. The provisions of the law stipulate responsibility for municipal councils to form such committees.

7. Law on Election of Deputies (2004) determines that the proposed list of candidates will represent all genders with at least 30%.

8. Law on Local Elections (2004) provides that the proposed list of candidates for members of the Municipal Council and the City of Skopje will represent every genre of at least 30% in the upper half in the bottom half of the list.

9. The law on political parties in the Republic of Macedonia (2004) provides that "the program and statutes of political parties can not be directed towards promoting national hatred and intolerance, religious or racial". It prohibited any kind of discrimination based on membership or non-membership in a political party, while guaranteeing gender equality in terms of availability of functions in political parties.

10. Changes and additions to the Law on Family (2004) with amendments of the law stipulates that the Republic of Macedonia provides protection of marriage and family relations deteriorating and violence in marriage and family. It prohibited any type of violence in marriage and family. Amendments to the Criminal Code (2004) with amendments to the Criminal Code defined domestic violence.

11. The law on labor relations in the Republic of Macedonia (2005) contains provisions on equal treatment of men and women regarding access to employment, vocational training and promotion, as well as related to working conditions. In addition, the Act contains special protective provisions for female employees of dealing with pregnancy, night work and other types of work.

12. The law on equal opportunities for men and women in the Republic of Macedonia (2006) aims to adjust the basic measures and the special creation of equal opportunities for women and men, as well as 11 powers, duties and responsibilities are

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University responsible for the creation of equal opportunities, the procedure of determining unequal treatment of women and men, as well as the rights and duties of representatives for equal opportunities for women and men.

13. Law courts in the Republic of Macedonia (2006) guarantees the right of equal access to all courts in the country in order to protect the human rights and interests based on positive legal provisions. In the selection of judges is not allowed to discriminate on the basis of gender, race, skin color, social status and / or other characteristics, and the judges in the performance of the judicial function must not discriminate against any parties to the proceedings at the base.

14. The Electoral Code of the Republic of Macedonia (2006) ensures fair representation and adequate men and women in electoral bodies in order to set the principle that among the three positions on the list of candidates for members of the Municipal Councils, at least one position It must belong to the less represented gender.

15. Law of higher education in the Republic of Macedonia (2008) provides equal access to institutions of higher education for all citizens and prohibits discrimination on any basis.

16. Amendments to the Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men (2008) is aimed at harmonizing the definitions of discrimination contained in Law with Directive 2002/73 / ЕС of the European Parliament and the Council.

17. Law on Social Protection of the Republic of Macedonia (2009) prohibits the direct or indirect discrimination based on sex, race, color, national, social, political, religious, property and social status, towards the realization of rights in the field of social protection.

18. Law on Prevention and Protection against Discrimination (2010) provides prevention and protection from discrimination in terms of exercising the rights guaranteed by the Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia, Law and ratified international agreements.

19. Law on Equal Opportunities (2012) - The purpose of this law is to create equal opportunities for women and men in political, economic, social, educational, cultural, civil or any sphere of social life. Creating equal opportunities is a concern of the whole society, namely the public sector entities and private and means removing barriers and creating conditions for full equality between women and men. Besides the legal framework, significant contribution to the achievement of equal opportunities has strategic documents such as the National Action Plan for gender equality for the period 2007 - 2012. It defines ten strategic areas for action, activities, indicators, as well as institutions responsible, 12 partners and stakeholders for the establishment of gender equality in different spheres.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

In 2010 adopted the Second National Plan of Action for the advancement of the social situation of Roma women in Macedonia, in order to continued integration of this target group in the social, where as priority areas included employment, health, education and human rights. In 2008 it adopted the National Strategy for protection against domestic violence for the period 2008 - 2011. The strategy envisaged the participation and role of the 5 main sectors (and their institutions in my portfolio) in the treatment and protection of victims of violence family, including: MLSP, MES, MIA, MOH and MOJ, as well as civil sector.

The Government of the Republic of Macedonia, the National Employment Strategy - 2010, including the gender perspective as a basis for employment policy. According to this strategy, the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy approves the annual operating programs and active employment measures. Plans so far adopted operative employment can identify programs where women earn favors certain than men and other groups of the target, which indicates that being made steps and concrete efforts to achieve the objectives of the strategy, namely to increase the employment rate among women and the empowerment of women's economic status in the country.

In 2009, in accordance with PNVBGJ, it approved the Program for Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the Ministry of Defence (UK) and the Army of Republic of Macedonia (ARM). The purpose of this program is to promote opportunities and ways to create basic measures and special and activities that will contribute to creating equal opportunities for women and men employed in the Ministry of Defense and in the service of ARM, in accordance the specific needs of the body.

Various laws that have been enacted or and their implementation, promotion of equal opportunities, prospects and limitations in relation to discrimination are borrowed mainly from the developed Western countries.

Non-governmental organizations that focus on the rights of women, say that in Macedonia there are a range of laws which guarantee gender equality legislative terms, taking as model legislation evropiane. The developed countries; the problem is that these provisions do not apply in practice, especially when it comes to the status of Albanian women in Macedonian society.

ACTIVE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN PARLIAMENTARY, PRESIDENTIAL AND LOCAL ELECTIONS OF ALBANIA, AFTER 1991

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Employment through political connections, friendly and old ties from the previous period, but also by giving bribes, is a reality that continues to be present in Macedonia. The state administration and institutions are overwhelmed by such individuals, most unprepared and very inferior to perform the task that requires workplace. This is demonstrated by statistics and research non-governmental organizations at home and abroad.

According to the latest data of the Employment Agency in Macedonia 36 PhDs were unemployed, of which 17 are unemployed femra.Ndërsa are 983 Masters of whom 600 are women. Official data show that the total number of unemployed, 15,357 are unemployed with higher education where 9568 are femra.Numri overall unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia who actively seeking work is 122,257 of which 49,145 are women. while the number of those present as unemployed and actively seeking employment is not 96.918.Nga data Agjesnionit employment in the Republic of Macedonia 26 521 81 093 Macedonians and Albanians. Based on official data calculated by the city of Skopje larger number of unemployed to 20,278 unemployed, and then comes the city of Tetovo with 13 505 unemployed.

Regarding political representation noun in Albanian politics within the territory of RM, we encounter significant changes in the analysis of data available from RM's independence in 1991 until today.

Concerning the presidential elections, the only female candidate for president and ethnic Albanian Hoxha was Mrs.Mirushe Hoxha the former director of the Institute for Cultural and Spiritual Heritage "Peter Bogdani" in the presidential elections of 22 March 2009 by the Democratic Party of Albanians (DPA).

In local elections, with the new territorial division that was in 2004, by 15 Albanian municipalities, only in the last local elections in Macedonia in 2013, the only female mayor is Teuta Arifi from the ranks of the Democratic Union for Integration. In the parliamentary elections of 1991 until today progress has been made in terms of active participation of women in policy Albanian daily. Parliamentary Compound years in 1991-1994 by 17 members of the Party for Democratic Prosperity (PDP), no member is not the females.

In the years 1994 to 1998.13 Parliamentary Compound deputies come from the ranks of the PDP and 4 MPs belonging Democratic Party of Albanians who arrived on the scene in the second parliamentary elections held in post Yugoslav Macedonia all 17 Albanian deputies were male. Parliamentary Compound years in 1998-2002, the Albanian

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Democratic Party counted 10 MPs belonging to no female male Albanian actively involved in politics as an MP.

In the years 2002-2006 parliamentary composition, BDI has 15 MPs out of which 3 belonged to females and 7 members total ADP and no women among their deputies. In the 2006-2008 parliamentary composition, DUI won 13 seats in the Macedonian Parliament with 3 women among them MPs and 11 MPs with ADP also 3 women in the composition of the parliamentary group of the DPA. In the 2008-2011 parliamentary composition, BDI secured 18 seats of which 4 female MPs, DPA secured 5 seats of which 2 female deputies and New Democracy (ND) with four countries of which one female MP. Parliamentary Compound years in 2011-2014, DUI won a total of 14 seats in the Assembly and set 6 female MPs and MPs DPA total of 8 women had 2 representative in Parliament. Parliamentary Compound years in 2014-2018, calculated According mandates from the State Election Commission, BDI results have so many female MPs MPs burra.Ose DPA, DUI will have 6 female MPs out of the total 19 seats, while DPA only 1 female MPs out of the total 7 as this party.

The representation of women in politics varies from country to country. For example, in Saudi Arabia the proportion of women in parliament is 0%, while in Rwanda, which currently has the highest proportion in the world of women in parliament is 56%. Sweden comes after Rwanda with 47.0%, South Africa 44.5% 43.2% then Cuba and so on. But there are also countries that have never had women in parliament such as Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar or Micronesia. Higher percentages of women members of the European Parliament have the Netherlands, where women are included in 52%. Estonia continues with equal percentage of 50% -50%.

CONCLUSION When redefining the status of education in Macedonia's pretty sore, then have the status of civil society is highly politicized, leaving aside all political s`janë problems, it is very difficult to determine the status of Albanian women in the Macedonian society.

With the opening of two universities in Albanian, during the past two decades, it is the State University of Tetovo and South East European University in Tetovo, over 60% of women who complete secondary school continue their studies. This represents a rate almost equal to those of males, but the problem lies in separating the form of equal priorities during Macedonia's ethnic Albanian bashkëshortore.Femra life currently faces three challenges, poor quality of education that enables not enough be competitive in the labor market, the passivity of civil society, and policy that is calculated as the train where the "brakes" only men should hold. Albanian women in Macedonia very little involved in numerous trainings organized by international actors with tools, training 40

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University those who not only encourage women to be part of policy making in every pore of society.

Although efforts are numerous, there are international projects that motivate, encourage women to be part of policy making in every pore of society in terms of Albanian women is much work to be part of this training, although in individual cases wife It has managed to challenge prejudices are many broader level leaves much to be desired. The message is here, to open doors for women, because opening the doors will be opening the doors to development, democracy, empowerment and national unity, within which I think as the union of our values, as the strengthening of the nation, what I think that the Albanian nation is becoming a leader in the Balkans. We have been printed in the twentieth century, but the XXI century is the century of Albanians and will be the leader in peace, stability and development.

Reference

1. CPHR - Convention for the Protection of Human Rights;

2. UDHR- Universal Declaration of Human Rights;

3. ICEAFDAW- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women;

4. ICEAFRD- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination;

5. The law on equal opportunities between women and men, Official Gazette of RM no. 66/06 from 29.05.2006;

6. Law on Social Protection, Official Newspaper of RM, 79/2009-Article 22, 43 and Article 58;

7. Labor Relations Act of RM, 158/2010 Article 5 (2);

8. The Criminal Code of the Republic of Macedonia, Article 143;9. http://www.mtsp.gov.mk/WBStorage/Files/Sektor_za_Ednakvi_moznosti_ENG[1].pdf p.3, ( last analysis of June 13, 2012).

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

10. Law on Local Self-Government, Official Newspaper of RM, 5/2002;

11. Basic Report: Strengthening of inter-ethnic cooperation in municipalities, MCEC, 2011;

12. Employment Law, Official Newspaper of RM, 158/2010;

13. The Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia,1991.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

THE PROTECTION OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN THE FIELD OF PUBLIC HEALTH

IN ALBANIA

Degjoni Rudina The Compulsory of Health Care Insurance Fond of Albania

Abstract

This paper is related to the protection of women's rights in the field of public health in Albania and the standards of CEDAW. The Albanian’s women health problems are evident and undermine their well being and potential to fulfill the right to health. The main causes of mortality among Albanian women are reported to be cardiovascular diseases and insufficient awareness of women's access to services, are the main obstacles to return to Albania health care services. Despite the improvement of health and nutrition indicators of maternal and child health inequalities linked to age, mentality, socio-economic level, geographic area and residence. There is an actual lack of integrated Albania public health services, resulting in health critical gaps that limit the effectiveness of programs to SRH and compromise human health and fuel stigma and discrimination against vulnerable groups. Despite the achievements, NGOs report as a problematic low level of use of modern contraceptive methods, particularly among adolescents, youth and other vulnerable groups of public health in Albania. Unofficial sources indicate a higher number of abortions than those published.

Keywords: woman, public health in Albania, health services

Introduction

The paper will analyze the components of article 12 of CEDAW and the meaning given in general recommendation 24 of the CEDAW Committee to confirm the achievements and address the needs for improvement. All main focus of methodological techniques, is the identification of critical issues based on progress made following the Concluding Observation Albania CEDAW committee. The information brought to the abstract covers a period of approximately 5 years, running from July 2010 to December 2015. The information will be used in connection with health issues contained in reports, studies, analysis of statistics made public publications of Albania institutions, international organizations, NGOs, etc. Initially we will focus on research and analysis related legislation, as well as its changes and evolution. Prepared questionnaires and responses received will help in a high degree to test the first findings from the research achieved by legislation and studies.

Chapter I

THE PROTECTION OF WOMEN RIGHTS (ALBANIA AND CEDAW)

1.1. CEDAW and health protection of woman in Albanian

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

The Convention of CEDAW defines discrimination against women as "...any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field."1 Under Article 12, Albania has undertaken obligations to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health care, to ensure that women have equal access to health services. This includes the obligation of Albania to provide health services that only women need. The Albanian legislation is complete and provides special support and special health services to women, mothers and children. Currently, problems remain in the laë and not its content. Although it is necessary to make improvements in legislation in areas such as relating to examinations screening and prevention associated with early pregnancies, domestic violence and measures for its prevention, as well as gender-based violence, mental health screening women's reproductive tract tumors, etc. Like wise, it highlighted the need for drafting and adoption of a laë guaranteeing the recognition of gender identity, gender recognition law. The legal framework must be accompanied with appropriate budgets, funding strategies, which are considered to be underfunded. Liabilities are immediate, because under Article 12 (2) the verb "to ensure". Such obligations may be eg, prevention of some diseases, such as maternal mortality and tuberculosis. Obligations may be more gradual in case of adoption of a therapeutic drug as safe and effective, but that is more costly initially to be distributed to the public. Article 12 requires states to ensure access to specific services "related to family planning" and appropriate services for pregnancy, the postpartum period and needed nutrition during pregnancy and breastfeeding the baby. But Article 12 (2) is also specific in terms of granting free services where necessary. While Article 12 (1) includes no specific obligations as States Parties may choose for themselves the measures they deem necessary for garatimin equal access to health services, although these measures for monitoring the CEDAW Committee.

1.1.2 Albanian Social objectives in the context of CEDAW

To touch the reality of CEDAW standards has been a long road for Albania. These challenges are often even for countries with a consolidated democracy. In our abstract will present the possibilities and prospects of Albania in order to customize measures CEDAW by reality.

1 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly 44

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

2. According to the RA Constitution [Article 122/1], "Any ratified international agreement constitutes part of the internal juridical system after it is published in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Albania". 3. Pursuant to Article 18 of the CEDAW Convention, Albania has approved and submitted the report of the first, second and third periodic within-t CEDAW and currently has approved the report of the 4th national periodical. In each report, as at present, efforts have been made to reflect the legislative, judicial, administrative or otherwise, undertaken by the state in the implementation of the Convention, as well as any factor that has positively influenced or made difficult the approach to standards CEDAW. 4. Ratification, recognition and implementation of the CEDAW Convention has contributed to the progress of the legal and substantive equality of women with men. However, it should be noted that the practical implementation of these instruments in Albania is limited. 5. In this RH, and have found place to underline the results achieved by the Albanian government are focused on civil society that considers problems and shortcomings which still violate the standards of equality, leaving the ground Albanian women discrimination issues general health and sexual and reproductive health in particular focusing on Articles 12/1, 14/1 to CEDAW. Some of the achievements as well as some of the progress has not been linked to the fact that the development and the progress are an endless process the progress of which has room for all the merits as well as responsibility. Some deficiencies related to inadequate measures taken by the government. Other features of the failing associated with stereotypes that still have strong ground of the conditions of Albania.

1.1.3 Albanian implementation objectives in the context of article 12 of CEDAW

Under Article 12, Albania has undertaken obligations to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health care, to ensure that women have equal access to health services. This includes the obligation of Albania to provide health services that only women need. The Albanian legislation is complete and provides special support and special health services to women, mothers and children. Currently, problems remain in the law and not its content. Although it is necessary to make improvements in legislation in areas such as: relating to examinations screening and prevention associated with early pregnancies, domestic violence and measures for its prevention, as well as gender-based violence, mental health screening women's reproductive tract tumors, etc. Likewise, it highlighted the need for drafting and adoption of a law guaranteeing the recognition of gender identity, [Gender Recognition Law]. The legal framework must be accompanied with appropriate budgets, funding strategies, which are considered to be underfunded. Liabilities are immediate, because under Article 12 (2) the verb "to ensure". Such obligations may be eg, prevention of some diseases, such as maternal mortality and tuberculosis. Obligations may be more gradual in case of adoption of a therapeutic drug as safe and effective, but that is more costly initially to be distributed to the public. Article 12 requires states to ensure access to specific services "related to family planning" and

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University appropriate services for pregnancy, the postpartum period and needed nutrition during pregnancy and breastfeeding the baby. But, Article 12 (2) is also specific in terms of granting free services where necessary. While Article 12 (1) includes no specific obligations as States Parties may choose for themselves the measures they deem necessary for garatimin equal access to health services, although these measures for monitoring the CEDAW Committee.

Chapter II

OVERVIEW OF ALBANIAN LEGISLATIVE FAMILY PLANNING

2.1. Reproductive health and sexual health

“Reproductive health", means the welfare of the general physical, mental, in general, lack of disease, disability problematic, and any condition other basic needs reproductive system functions, processes and ability of a sex life satisfying and safe. It means the ability of people to reproduce and freedom to decide on the manner and time of reproduction, as well as information on where you can do and where to find such services2. In Article 12 of the Convention states that "States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the health care field to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, opportunities for benefited medical services, including family planning them. The Constitution of the Republic of Albania to protect the health of mother and child is guaranteed by law and in Article 55 it is stipulated: "All pregnant women receive free periodic medical pregnancy, birth and postpartum, especially examinations of prenatal and postnatal, mandatory, as defined by act of the Minister of Health" In the interpretation and application of the Constitution was adopted Law no. 10 383, dated 24.2.2011, "On compulsory insurance of health care in the Republic of Albania", amended Article 3, which stipulates that compulsory health insurance covers the categories of economically inactive persons, payment of contributions which financed Budget Gouvernment, of the category of persons including persons benefiting economically from the Institute of Social Security. Albanian law in the interpretation of social security no. 7703, dated 11.05.1993, Article 27 "Maternity Benefit", entitles the insured woman in case of pregnancy, take a charge for a period of 365 calendar days analyzing Joining the Convention obligation that expresses assert that legislation Albanian, by Law no. 8876, dated 04.04.2002 "On reproductive health" as amended, Article 24, states that all pregnant women receive free periodic medical pregnancy, birth and postnatal particularly prenatal examinations and after birth, binding, appointed the act of the Ministry of health. The number and type of tests required and performance periods are determined by the Ministry of Health. All pregnant women

2 Albanian Law Nr. 8876 date 04.04.2002 “On Reproductive Health”, amended 46

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University have the right to perform free examinations mandatory traversed by a doctor and receive free personal notebook progress of the pregnancy. “Sexual health is part of reproductive health and means to improve the lives and healthy sexual relationships, information, counseling, and care related to reproduction. The health includes normal development, equal sexual relationships and responsibly accepted equally by each partner, avoidance of disease and any disability, liability, violence, and any conduct harmful practice associated with sexuality, the realization of an optimal sexual life”3. Improving the quality of maternal and child services through unified protocols and standards for tracking maternal and child health and development of a national plan to consult with stakeholders on the health of women and girls constitutes a key actor in the Albanian society.

2.2. Family planning and contraception

Based family planning services were part of a package of health services in 1992, where the Council of Ministers confirmed family planning as a human right base. Since that time until now, the modern means of contraception distributed free of charge in all public health services. Today modern contraceptive market is liberalized and modern contraceptives available in three ways: free in the public sector, subsidized by social marketing (NESMARK), as well as pharmaceutical network market prices in the private and non-traditional sales points4. Family planning understands the ability of individuals and couples to have the desired number of children and their birth at the time that they want. Family planning means the right of access to effective methods of safe, affordable contraception. Methods of contraception are tools, or methods that allow to avoid pregnancy during a period to be desired (interim or final Family Planning achieved through contraception was defined as any means capable of preventing pregnancy. Family planning can be defined as the totality of tools and techniques that allow us, to avoid unwanted pregnancies, the born child when desired, fix the intervals between births, to schedule births at the moment better in relation to the age of the mother avoiding pregnancies before age 20 and after 35 age. Family planning improves family health and well-being of individuals, families and in particular for women and children because it removes unwanted pregnancies, risk pregnancies (pregnancies in very young or very large pregnancies close to each other) and abortion uncertain; prevent mother and child deaths and prevent HIV / AIDS and IST5. In 2003 it drafted the first National Strategy of providing contraceptives, which aimed to provide and supplying a wide range of modern contraceptives every Albanian who need them, according to the purpose of the International Conference on Population and

3 Albanian Law Nr. 8876 date 04.04.2002, Article 4, “On Reproductive Health”, amended 4 http://www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/librishqip.pdf, page 12 5http://www.shendetesia.gov.al/files/userfiles/Baza_Ligjore/Dokumenta_strategjike/dokumenti_ strategjik_march_2009.pdf

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Development for universal access to health-related issues. A favor major objectives of this strategy and the achievement of independence in the provision of modern contraceptives in 2010, the objective now fully realized6. Family planning was confirmed as a basic human right. Since that time until now, the modern means of contraception distributed free of charge in all public health services. Today modern contraceptive market is liberalized and modern contraceptives available in three ways: free in the public sector, subsidized by social marketing and market prices in the private pharmaceutical network and non-traditional sales points. Under the guidance of the Ministry of Health, the public sector provided free pills, condoms and injections. This service is available to over 431 health facilities as hospitals, polyclinics, health centers and ambulances in some village. While methods that require a more specialized service, such as connection of pipes (female sterilization) and intrauterine devices (IUD), available only in centers with obstetricians and gynecologists7.

3. Conclusions and Recommendations:

The Albanian care services to mothers and children are offered in three levels of health care at the primary, secondary and tertiary. In primary health Albania care services in the city are offered in women's consultation centers, while in the countryside, municipal ambulances. In the secondary health care, reproductive health services are offered in maternity and pediatric services at the district level. Care for pregnant women starts in the early stages of pregnancy identification, control of pregnancy, information about the progress of pregnancy, breastfeeding care before, during and after birth, and periodic visits after birth. The Albania public health care has a very good system of vaccination, and vaccination coverage reaches over 98%. Regarding family planning services, they are offered in every health center and maternity centers women in public. While abortion services offered in public maternity hospitals and private clinics licensed to provide these services. About STIs and HIV / AIDS, the legal framework is complete and the infrastructure for maintaining control of these infections is satisfactory. Voluntary testing for HIV / AIDS carried out in centers of voluntary counseling and testing established in each county in SLI or by various NGOs that provide services in this area. Antiretroviral therapy is provided free by the state to all those infected, regardless of their employment status or insurance scheme. In the prison system are set up two centers for voluntary testing and counseling, which offer free tests and information for prisoners and prison staff.

6 Ministry of Health 2002: Strategjia Kombëtare e Sigurimit të Kontraceptivëve (2003 – 2010) 7 Desertacioni “Ndryshimi i qëndrimeve dhe sjelljeve të të rinjve ndaj shëndetit riprodhues dhe seksual në vendin tonë, faktor për të shmangur vulnerabilitetin e grupit”, Anisa Subashi, faqe 38 48

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Also, various NGOs even with limited budget and activities, provide preventive services primarily for vulnerable groups, such as adolescents, drug users, MSM, sex workers, prisoners, etc.8

3.1 Sexual health and reproductive health the recommendation and request are:

Measures to provide integrated service to sexual and reproductive health in primary health care level by the package of basic services PHC approved. o The distribution of clinical guidelines and treatment protocols at health centers, development of training manuals and training of personnel. o Provide sufficient and realistic budget for the implementation of reproductive health strategy. o Increase the level of knowledge and skills of health personnel through continuing education. o Provision of free medical visits and near settlements for women and girls belonging to vulnerable groups. o Women's awareness about their rights in obtaining health care and benefits services; community awareness. o Collection of sex-disaggregated data on all issues of reproductive health. o Preparation of a national study on the access of women and girls in the health system

3.2 For women with HIV / AIDS, sexually transmitted infections [STIs] and HIV / AIDS the recommendation and request are:

Develop and ensure the implementation of policies and a regulatory environment that supports the activities necessary and sustainable interventions to eliminate vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child. o The development of services specific antenatal screening of pregnant women for HIV, and implementation of programs for HIV counseling and testing for all pregnant women in health services centers, mother and child, as provided in the basic package of primary care services o Creating a supportive environment for girls and women, identifying, addressing and eliminating the barriers to prevention programs and interventions to sexually active women age. o Awareness programs among women belonging to vulnerable groups to enhance the possibility of identification.

8 http://www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/librishqip.pdf, pg 34

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

3.3 For the health of women as victims of violence in families the recommendation and request are:

An efficient and well coordinated to respond timely and effectively to outbreaks, as well as providing a range of support services and rehabilitation; o As long as sexual violence will continue to be taboo, denouncing its statistics will not be changes, so must further deepen the analysis of the phenomenon, its causes, consequences and effectiveness of the implementation of planned measures. o Implementation of the measures outlined in the political and legal documents from institutions to prevent and address cases of violence - victims and the community and addressing the factors / determinants of violence in different strategjitëe sectoral / crosscutting. o Effective coordination of efforts at all levels and with all stakeholders to address violence.

3.4 For victims of trafficking (VT / VMT) and recommended addressing health problems the recommendation and request are:

o Improve the quality of mental health services provided for VT / VMT. o Awareness and information for victims / potential victims of trafficking on health care issues, as the STI, HIV / AIDS, reproductive health and family planning.

3.5 Albanian women health care in rural areas the recommendation and request are:

o Emergency obstetrical service is limited or absent in small circles in these areas by increasing rates of maternal mortality. o Qualitative assessments and community participation related to service delivery and health problems in rural areas, with special focus women living in these areas. o Empowering women in rural areas to take the right decisions for their health and provide positive models of upbringing and care of children.

3.6 For women with disabilities [PAD] the recommendation and request are:

o To actively involved women with disabilities in developing and implementing programs, policies and protocols related to health and social issues. o Increase access to health services for women with disabilities by assessing needs and opportunities that these women to benefit from the services.

References

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

1. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) 2. Law Nr. 10 383, dated 24.2.2011, "On compulsory insurance of health care in the Republic of Albania ", amended 3. Law Nr.8876, dated 04.04.2002 "On reproductive health" amended 4. Law no. 7703, dated 11.05.1993, "On social insurance" 5. A. Subashi (2010) page 308 "Changing attitudes and behavior of young people on sexual and reproductive health in our country, to avoid the vulnerability factor of the group" 6. The Ministry of Health (2002) “National Security Strategy Contraceptive” (2003- 2010) 7. The Report Nr. Reference. CEDAW/C/ALB/1-2 8. The Ministry of Health (2002) “The National Strategy of Compulsory Contranceptive” 9. The Ministry of Health (2009) “Strategy of Health Care” 10. The Ministry of Health (2011) “The National Strategy of Compulsoru Contraceptive” 11. The Ministry of Health (2012) “The National Strategy of Compulsoru Contraceptive” 12. WHO 2014. World health statistics. http://www.who.int/gho/countries/alb/en/ 13. WHO Regional Office for Europe (2015) “HIV in Albania: A national Programme Report” 14. UNICEF, WHO, World Bank group joint child malnutrition estimates (2015) “Levels and trends in child malnutrition” 15. Wang H. e bp (2014). “Global, regional, and national levels of neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality during 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013”. Lancet 384:957-79. 16. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (2015) Highlights on Health 17. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005) OECD Health Data “How Does Albania Compare” 18. National Coalition on Health Care (2008) “Health Care in Albania” 19. European Monitoring Center for drugs and drug adiction. The Albanian Profile (2015) http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html 20. http: //www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/albanianbook.pdf 21. http://www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/albanianbook.pdf

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

THE IMPACT OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS COMPOSITION ON FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF LLC’s IN KOSOVO

Assit.Prof.Bekim BERISHA, University of Prizren, Msc.c. Albolena MORINA, University of Prizren, Kosovo

Composition of the Board of Directors of Limited Liability Companies (LLC) in Kosovo, in terms of corporate governance, plays a crucial role in two aspects as to the responsibilities for the quality of financial reporting as well as in enhancing financial performance. The research describes the impact of the Board of Directors composition (independence, size and expertise of the Board) the financial performance of LLC's in Kosovo. We have collected data through questionnaires in 125 LLC within different activities. Data analysis was done by SPSS, and findings from this research will help highlighting the importance of the composition of the Board of Directors and the impact that it has on raising the financial performance of the LLC-s in Kosovo.

Keywords: board of directors composition, corporate governance, financial performance

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

WOMEN IN SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING: CASE FROM TURKEY

Kiymet CALIYURT9, Ilke ORUC10, Trakya University, TURKEY

Abstract

Equality is an essential characteristic and indicator of democracy, which is why the goal of many modern societies is the desire to respect the principle of equal opportunities because undoubtedly translates into the quality of social, political and economic life of citizens, thus ensuring a more sustainable and balanced socio-economic development (Sawicka, Janina and Lagoda, Joanna, 2015). One of the most important elements of socio-economic development is to give importance to environmental, social and economic responsibility and its reporting that companies are responsible to publish in developed countries. Although the importance of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is rather widely discussed in scientific literature, there is lack of empirical research on basic CSR disclosure situation, especially in developing countries (Dagiliene, 2010). In this paper, issues on women in 63 sustainability reports published by Istanbul Stock Exchange Sustainability Index will be searched, classified and discussed according to qualitative methods.

METHOD AND ANALYSIS

In the discussions about the topic of women, despite women being categorized as others, we should not ignore that they are both employees of businesses and partners of the society as a piece of it. How women take a part in the CSR and sustainability operations of businesses, or how women are perceived problematique in the society and businesses are evaluated, and what is being done has been the starting point of the research. Thus, the review the sustainability reports of businesses included in Istanbul Stock Exchange Sustainability Index, claiming they are sensitive about CSR is sought for. It is observed that, most of the 63 businesses that appear in the list, most have not yet issued a sustainability report, some of them found annual reports adequate enough,

9 Prof.Dr. in Accounting & Finance, Deparment of Business Administration, Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, 22030 Edirne TURKEY [email protected]

10 Assist.Prof. Management and Organisation, Deparment of Business Administration, Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, 22030 Edirne TURKEY

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University and some of them issued CSR or CSR compliance reports. Since these reports do not answer the research question, they have been moved out of sample.

When the sustainability reports of those 31 businesses are taken into consideration, it is seen that some of these businesses have sustainability reports based on the holding that they are affiliated with. For this reason, in case the sustainability report of the sub-enterprises could not be acquired, the sustainability report of the holding was taken into consideration.

The responsibilities available within the context of social approach include all the activities which are adopted and applied by the enterprise and which aim at improving the welfare of the society and making the nearby environment a better place to live in (Karake, 1998, p: 208; Kotler and Lee, 2006, p: 201). Based on this mentality, social approach deals with social responsibilities of business enterprises from a wider perspective and in a more constructive way.

After data were interpreted and evaluated, themes and subthemes are determined. Researchers asked another expert (except the main researchers) to analyze data for reliability and validity. Later compare to obtained result and performed calculated to reliability and validity with Miles and Huberman (1994) formula (reliability=consensus/total consensus + difference opinion). Obtained result finding to reliability high and sufficient. There are some constraints in the research. It is not a generalizable study as grounding on the qualitative method and going over limited number of sample. Analyzing the organizations’ CSR applications through web-sites does not provide a definite and general result oriented for the applications. However, it provides a point of view for organizations. Based on the analysis made, it is possible to explain how women are treated within the stakeholder approach in the following themes and sub-themes.

4. Findings

As a result of the analysis made, based on the sustainability activities of the enterprises, it is considered that the topic of women can be considered in two dimensions. In the evaluations made, it is seen that the businesses emphasize that they are sensitive to some or many of the discrimination practices in business life about the topic of women that is stated in the literature. It is possible to state that holdings and international companies in the evaluation are making more efforts in this regard. The themes that are determined accordingly are assessed depending on how women are treated as internal and external stakeholders. As a result of the analysis made, it is possible to express the chart related to the determined theme and sub-themes as follows:

Women as Stakeholder

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Women as External Stakeholder Women as Internal Stakeholder (As Part of the Society) (As an Employee)

-Entrepreneur Support (micro loans and other applications) -Equality at Work -Sponsorships -Glass Ceiling -Health -Personal rights -Cooperation with NGO’s

1. As emphasized in previous studies, enterprises in Turkey usually practice CSR activities that are based on volunteering. Volunteering expresses the contributions made to the society without the expectation of direct profit and appears as charity (Ararat, 2005; Alakavuklar et al., 2009). Businesses try to fulfill their duties towards their shareholders while strengthening their corporate reputation (Friedman, 1970, p.33, 1984.) But when we approach the issue in a holistic manner, it should not be forgotten that this will have a long term positive contribution to both the business and its stakeholders (Porter, 2003, pp.2-3; Porter ve Kramer, 2002, pp.57). Especially studies made about women, who are citizens of the society and the business, could be considered to have long term positive contributions. Another important point to be emphasized here is that in the sustainability reports of the businesses there are factors such as the number of female employees, the number of women in the managerial level (upper, middle, lower), the number of female employees who take maternity leave and return (which is reflected in the statistics that 90-95% do not return), that there is no difference between wage distribution, age distribution, importance given to (important or intermediate) studies to increase female employees, and labor turnover rate. The explanations for internal and external stakeholder themes that we have determined based on these are as follows.

Women as External Stakeholder

1.1. Entrepreneur Support: In addition to increasing the participation of women in working life as employees, it is really essential to provide them with opportunities to build their own businesses and to develop entrepreneurial skills. In particular, as a social problem, the sustainability of these 55

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University activities which support the participation of women in their working life, is very important in terms of their place in business life. What should be emphasized here is the status of women, depending on sectoral distribution. This seems to support situations especially towards the sectors that are separated as women's and man’s businesses. Some work fields in certain sectors are socially accepted as especially suitable fields for women. In our country women are directed towards professions mostly in the service sector that are low wage, non-creative, with limited promotion possibilities professions; professions which are the extensions of traditional roles such as civil servant, bank clerk, midwife, nurse, janitor, caretaker, hostess, secretary, teacher, box office clerk etc. and density is established in these areas. So, how does the existence of women in business life in Turkey appears? In business life, it is observed that women most of the time work for wage or salary (%51.9). Their numbers as employers (%1.2) and as self employed (%12.9) are quite low. The existence of women as unpaid family workers (%34.9) still remains. When a sectoral survey is carried out, it is seen that women appear in the ratios of 43.2% in services, 40.2% in agriculture, 15.9% in industry and 0.7% in construction sectors. When the survey is done based on gender, it is apparent that their numbers are lower than males (TÜİK Households Employment Survey, 2011). For physical-biological or in other words ideological reasons, women have generally been located according to professions that require handcraft or professions that they can also spare time for their responsibilities at home. For this reason, it can be thought that the support statements of banks that are included in the sustainability index towards women entrepreneurship arises from the women intensive structure of the sector as well as banks being the most important points that can provide resources to women about entrepreneurship. It is seen that especially banks that have a sustainability report emphasize this matter;

"It was the first Turkish bank to become a member of "We Connect International ", a global organization that aims for women entrepreneurs to take part in the supply chain. It provided women entrepreneurs a total of 2.8 billion TL in loans until the end of 2015."

"In 2007, Xbank, the first bank in Turkey to support women entrepreneurs who want to start a business with Women Entrepreneur Loan, has also been in the pioneering position in the sector as the first public bank to use TV banking and have offshore branches abroad . The bank gives great importance to backing up women with entrepreneurial spirit who aim to establish their own business, and the improvement and strengthening of businesses that are driven by women's labor force. In this context, the Bank which has continued its support for women entrepreneurs since 1994, with its collaboration with KOSGEB— Small and Medium Industry Development

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Organization, has supported approximately 800 entrepreneurs with the trainings held in 17 provinces in 2013.”

As mentioned above, entrepreneur support is mainly provided by the banks that are in the resource provider position. Support for such practices is also very important in terms of ensuring that women own their own workplaces and strengthening their position in the society.

1.2. Sponsorship: In a previous study on how women are evaluated as stakeholders (Oruç, 2015), it has been seen that companies, in their CSR activities, supported women's sports teams by giving them sponsorships, supported them in cultural and artistic activities and supported them by investing in education and health.

X, whose 2013-2014 season Turkish X Basketball League sponsorship is going on, became the Presenting Sponsor in 2014 FIBA Men’s Basketball World Cup and the main sponsor of FIBA World Women’s Championship. X also continued the name sponsorship of Germany, Lithuania and Italy, which are some of the most important basketball leagues in the world.

When we consider it as sponsorships for sports teams, besides the positive impact on the health of the community, it plays an important role on professional women athletes who build their lives according to this, to maintain their lifestyle. Sponsorship can be seen as a beneficial investment because it positively affects the image of the company; it increases the trustworthiness of the brand and makes a positive impact on the life of the consumer (Sahin and Ozbek, 2008). In addition, sport activities today seem to be very important in terms of enabling companies to reach out to the masses and create persistence. It is known that some of these businesses on the sustainability list have female sports teams, although not mentioned in their sustainability reports, and compete in the leagues where they are relevant. We see it in the report of a business;

37.Sedat Simavi Awards organized by Journalists’ Association of Turkey have been given to VakıfBank Women’s Volleyball Team in 2013 due to their success in becoming the unbeaten champion in European Champions League (CEV); and also Women Entrepreneurs’ Association of Turkey awarded them for becoming the world champion without giving a chance to their rivals in the Women’s Inter-Club-Volleyball World Cup (FIVB) and successfully representing Turkish woman abroad.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Culture-art activities, which form the other part of the sponsorship activities, are very important in terms of developing awareness towards the arts, especially women artists, in the society. That very few businesses include this issue in their sustainability reports seems to be important in order to provide support for women artists. For example, it is seen that a business lists this in its sustainability report and supports it as a sponsor.

"17. Flying Broom International Women's Films Festival and "Women's Photography Artists Exhibition in the Bank of America Collection"

In order to draw attention to the violations of women's rights, a personal exhibit of artist Neriman Oyman was held in Kocaeli Governor's Fine Arts Exhibition Hall with the support of Kocaeli Governorship's Special Provincial Administration and Tüpraş on 8-16 March 2010 under the leadership of Kocaeli Bar Association Women's Rights Commission. On the average 200 people visited the exhibit daily. There are two exhibition halls at the airport. It has been the host of many exhibitions since the launch of the new terminal building in October 2009. For example, the painting exhibition under the curator Ülkü Cılızoğlu “Our Pioneering Women”, Anatolian Medical Center’s “Share the Miracle, Nurse Your Baby” photo exhibit which emphasizes the importance of breast-feeding, the photo exhibit “Lives Changed With Sports” in which the photos of disabled athletes are displayed. ISG has contributed to the improvement of social matters in the country through these exhibits.

Another point that should be emphasized here is the support given to practices on women's equal opportunity. Some of the businesses have stated that they signed the UN Women's Empowerment Principles Declaration, declaring that they support equality between men and women. This is important in terms of increased emphasis on women's issues in sustainability reports.

1.3. Health: The health system emerges as an important area for all societies and states are making significant investments on these issues. The studies of businesses who are a piece of the society on health reveal how much they care about the society as an external stakeholder and how much they care about their employees as an internal stakeholder. It is thought that the companies in Turkey perceive CSR activities as fulfilling their obligation and that they should be done with NGOs. For this reason, the elements of CSR are centered more towards topics such as education, environment, culture-arts and sports (Ozdemir, 2005). After the 1980s, businesses found out that 58

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University there is a relationship between their approach to social concerns and their financial indicators and in a competitive environment; some businesses are acquiring some advantages. For this reason, businesses have begun to deal with social issues such as culture, arts, health, sports, education especially in the context of strategy since 1990 (Wulfson, 2001, p.141). In the sustainability reports and CSR studies of enterprises, the topic of awareness based upon stakeholders rise to prominence and issues such as education, health, sponsorship are also mentioned. The above explanation explains why the sensitivities of businesses towards the society are important on the basis of external stakeholder.

X has been working with the Family Health and Planning Foundation of Turkey for many years to raise awareness of pregnancy and mothers about their and their baby's health. Thus, it aims to increase the quality of life of mothers and infants and to contribute to the reduction of maternal and infant mortality. The scope of the "Safe Maternity Project" is further expanded to support the "Women's Health Education Program" (KSEP) in order to raise the quality of life and health consciousness of families with limited income and education level, who immigrated to the city or were forced to migrate. In 2014 85 groups were formed with education given in 19 provinces within the scope of the project and 1453 women received a participation certificate. 5953 women have been reached with the project until today.

This campaign, in which health is assessed in conjunction with family health and carried out in collaboration with NGOs, seems to be supporting the responsibilities of woman emphasized within private domain—in public domain and private domain segregation. Nevertheless, maternity and maternity leave and childcare, which will be mentioned later, are important for supporting the image of women in business life.

1.4. Cooperation with NGOs: One of the most effective ways for businesses who are constantly in touch with their stakeholders because of the ease of information communication and the effective use of social networks by all stakeholders of the society to show that they care about them is through their cooperation with NGOs. This situation, besides the businesses’ contributions to the society, can provide the social and economic environment do develop in a way that is beneficial to them (Landim, 1997, pp.351-370; Yamamoto, 1999, pp.13-38; Frankental, 2001, pp.18- 23; Schwab and Sutherland, 2002, pp.1-18; Damlamian, 2006, pp.1-48; Leisinger, 2007, pp.315-342). The primary responsibility of the business in the society it operates is of course, economical. However, the society as an external stakeholder expects the businesses to also create social value.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

This situation leads to businesses spend some resources, time and energy in the social field (Gatamah, 2004, p.141). NGOs also need resources to continue their existence. This causes them to get closer with businesses and support them in continuing their activities (Barman, 2002, p.1194). NGOs aim to increase their relation with society using the media channel, while the businesses prefer to work with NGOs that are accepted in and supported by the society. This can provide a positive value for both organizations (Godfrey, 2005, p.792; Theaker, 2006, p.310).

NGOs operate in a wide range of areas such as sports, arts, culture and social services. The reduction of governments' roles and involvement in the above areas has led to the enlargement of NGOs' spheres of activity and increased their role in society (Barrett, 2001, p.37; Ribstein, 2005, p.22; Nijhof ve diğ, 2008, p.153). The increase in the importance given to internal and external stakeholders by businesses also causes the activities of NGOs and businesses to intersect and move together. This relationship will positively affect both the sustainable development of societies and the sustainability of businesses. (Warhust, 2005, pp.163-165). Based on this statement, it is wanted to emphasize that their interaction will be beneficial for both the NGOs and the businesses. Findings supporting the above explanations have also been observed in the analysis made and it has been seen that the businesses give importance to cooperation and support with NGOs. It is possible to show some NGO cooperation in the sustainability reports as follows;

X Foundation aims to create equal opportunities for women, young people and the disabled and the active participation of these groups in society, with the Community Development Grant Program and supports the projects carried out by non government organizations in this direction. Within the scope of the program initiated in 2008, as of 2014, with a total of 8.4 million TL grant support, it has been applied to 82,200 people with 46 projects supported on 72 provinces. In 2014 at the meeting held with the theme "October Time" which includes the experiences of 9 non-governmental organizations whose projects have been completed during the year and the "October Time: Grant Program Stories" book, where the stories of the projects is included was distributed.

It began to support the 'HeforShe' initiative, which emphasizes the importance of the role of men in women rights and gender equality.

X Community believes in the contribution to the development and strength of non-government organizations in both social and business life. In this context, Holding and Group companies become members of many NGOs, take part in their management mechanisms and support their activities. In this context, X Holding is a member of Turkey Businessmen and Industrialists Association (TUSIAD), Foreign Economic Relations Board 60

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

(DEIK), Turkish Exporters Assembly (TIM), Turkish Quality Association, World Economic Forum, Global Compact Turkey Executive Board, UN WEP Women Working Group, Ethics and Reputation Society, Turkish Corporate Governance Association, Business World and Sustainable Development Association and Corporate Communicators Association.

Xbank supported the Mother-Daughter at School project initiated by the Ministry of National Education. It was aimed for children personally teaching their mothers to read and write in the scope of the project started to make at least 3 million women who are illiterate, literate. During the period from September 8, 2008 to September 8, 2012, out of approximately 2.5 million people attending the courses, 2.1 million received literacy certificates.

On the World Women's Day on March 8, 2016, in cooperation with the Association of Solidarity for Environmental Organizations (ÇEKÜD) for all valuable women employees of X, sapling donations were made on behalf of each employee.

With the Kardelenler Project, which aims to create equality of opportunity in education throughout Turkey for children who are unable to continue their education due to the limited financial opportunities of their families, we have provided up to 100,000 scholarships to date.

After mentioning contributions towards women as external stakeholder, we evaluated the activities carried out about women in the business life and in businesses under the theme of "women as internal stakeholder". The projection of the topic will be tried to be given with the explanations for this theme.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

2. Women as Internal Stakeholder 2.1. Equality at Work: Wage is a concept that makes women visible, an individual in the society and helps them be equal in every field (Parlaktuna, 2010, p.1217). The gap between women's and men’s wages narrowed down with the increasing participation of women in business life but still continues (Barron vd.1993; Giddens, 2000:345). In most of the studies conducted in the literature, wage inequality appears as a significant discrimination factor. This is affected by the late participation of women in the business life, which is called the public domain, as well as the gender extensions that settled in communities (Macpherson and Hirsh, 1995). They spend less time on their careers in the business life because in the lives of women family life is prioritized over business life (O’Neil, 2003). In the literature, discrimination towards women in business life about paying them lower wages is approached from three perspectives. These are classified as distributive discrimination, evaluative discrimination and discrimination in the work. Distributive discrimination is about career progression and women's confrontation with limitations in reaching higher levels. This practice of discrimination affects the decisions of promotion and advancement to ensure that women stay in lower levels and receive lower wages. Evaluative discrimination is often the comparison that the performance of the work done by women is lower than the performance that was previously demonstrated by men. Discrimination in work means that women receive lower wages than men in return for given tasks. This discrimination is the result of negative prejudices that women do not have the qualities necessary for the work (Hultin ve Szulkin, 1999).

It is very important for businesses to consider the women as internal stakeholders and to support equal pay policies for equal work in order to abolish the discrimination practices mentioned above.

In order to emphasize the value we place on "Equality in Business" as Xcell and Group companies, we created "X Equal Opportunity Policy" in June 2013. We have published the policy initially on the employee portal and on our website so that the politics can be adopted and implemented by all our employees. After publishing, we have added it to the contents of "A to Z HR Training" and "Interview Techniques Training" that our new managers receive in order to increase their awareness.

X implements a salary policy based on the principle of job evaluation and stratification,

which employs the principle of equal pay for equal work. Equal salary is paid to all X employees as long as they do the same job, with overtime, performance premiums and

similar payments being different. Wage increases are based on various wage market research and performance evaluation results. 62

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

The concept of sustainability centers on a balance of society, economy and environment for current and future wealth. Here we have to discuss about why women workforce is important for sustainable economy. We know that women contribution to economy helps to decrease poverty and corruption. However women in business have many difficulties like mobbing, glass ceiling, quota in board so academicians who study on woman should discuss and publish on main issues on sustainability as follows;

 Regulations about women and sustainability in business.  Reporting system about women and sustainability.  Applications of sustainability about women in business.

After many financial crises, corruptions, natural disasters and developments in e-trade, companies understood that being sustainable and good governed are the most important issues in the competitive market rather than making profit and maximizing share value.

New Type of Stakeholder: Social Responsible / Green Stakeholders

Stakeholders, especially shareholders, like to follow companies' sustainability report very carefully. We call this kind of stakeholders as green or social responsible ones. As shareholders fund the publicly held companies, management knows that they have to put high in shareholders' order of priority. Stakeholders' tone has completely changed in last 30 years that they are not only interested in profit or investment of company, but they are also interested in environmental, gender, social, ethical strategies of companies.

Sustainability or Social Responsibility Reporting System and Women: Companies which pay attention to sustainability and develop new strategies for their women workers like to publish non- financial statements under the title "sustainability report" or «social responsibility report». Sustainability Disclosure Database announced that more than 22.000 sustainability company reports written according to Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) in their website (Sustainability Disclosure Database, 2015). The total of announced sustainability reports are 31.000.

Nearly all businesses with sustainability reports supporting the equality platform of the Ministry of Family and Social Policy, and trying to increase the number of female employees, especially in sectors not called as women's business such as refineries appear as particularly good practices. For this reason, it is thought that these practices for women as internal stakeholders can strengthen the position of women in business life in later periods. At the same time, the existence of a business

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University that disclaims it pays its women managers 5% more than males shows that there are positive practices towards positive discrimination.

X offers equal opportunity to all employees without any discrimination. Therefore, in the management of our human resources processes, especially in fields of determining salary, determining social rights and performance management, we give the greatest importance to competence and objective factors. Looking at the average salaries of male and female employees, it is seen that female employees in the management level are given 5% more wages than male employees.

Diversity and equality of opportunity can provide important benefits in the long run to the business itself as well as the alienated women. Another headline that appears in the topic of discrimination in the literature is the glass ceiling. This corresponds to a situation that confronts and persists when the number of employees of a business is examined.

2.2. Glass Ceiling: This concept is the invisible, artificial walls created by organizational and social prejudices that prevent women from reaching top management levels regardless of their competencies and achievements (Wirth, 2001, pp. 4-5). Glass ceiling is a topic that has organizational and social extensions besides the self made obstacles created by women (Dreher, 2003, p.542). Individual obstacles can be said to usually appear as the work-family conflict and can be said to surface because women put their responsibilities in the family to the front and purposefully avoid management (Çarıkçı and Çelikkol, 2009). It is possible to say that in the work done, there are a few businesses that care about the balance between home and work life of women. These businesses have addressed this under the heading Business and Family Balance. Finding a balance between work life and private life is one of the most important challenges that all employees face today. If this balance is not achieved, not only the employees but also the families and the close circles have various difficulties. Especially in cultures similar to the Turkish society in which the roles of women as housewife and mother and have become prominent, it is observed that it is very difficult to achieve this balance when it is thought that it is necessary to take time to do work such as cooking and cleaning. The time spent at work is crucial in keeping the work-life balance stable because long working hours can jeopardize employees' health and safety, causing stress levels to rise. X employees work 42.5 hours a week and work hours start at 7:30 am and end at 16:30 pm. In this way, our employees are prevented from enduring the rush hour in the morning and evening. The

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

evening shift ending early provides our employees to spare time for themselves and/or their families. X employees can also work flexibly; which allows them to plan their working hours on the basis of daily necessities.

Women continue to work home beyond full-time working hours (Barnett and Rivers, 1996; Moen and Yu, 1997). For this reason, women find themselves doing two full-time jobs. This workload often leads to tension, stress, and dissatisfaction in both jobs (Moen, 1992). Recently, the participation of men in a limited part of child care and housekeeping has been able to reduce the weight of women's burden to a limited extent. Businesses being sensitive to this issue can lead to reduced tension in women and improve their work performance. In the next sub-theme in which explanations about women's personal rights will be given, this situation is in particular overlapped with matters such as nursery and maternity leave. The sensitivity of businesses to these issues also makes the position of women in business life more bearable.

Social prejudice is another factor that affects women becoming managers in society (Bedük 2005, s. 12-113). The masculine structure which is dominant in the business world produces the male- dominated gender stereotypes and forces women in the business world to implement these as well. For this reason, female managers seem to be less qualified than men. Such prejudices towards the genders create psychological barriers in the selection, placement and promotion of women managers (Fullagar et al., 2003: 93-107). In the research of Sakallı and Beydoğan (2002, 647- 656) about patriarchy, gender discrimination and how gender affects the attitude towards managers, it has been determined that social prejudices affect the attitude towards women negatively. Looking at the number of managers in the businesses, we should not ignore that the two female executives in the CEO position come from family company ties. However, the rates outside of this change in sectors that are considered as women predominated or men’s businesses. Nevertheless, a large number of businesses have shown their sensitivity to this issue and claimed they made efforts to increase the number of women managers.

28% of our group management team is female. In 2014, 38% of the total number of our new hirings is female. In 2014, 50% of our female employees were promoted. Since 2006, we have increased the number of our female manager from 23%, to 28% in 2014.

As seen in the above explanation, positive arrangements that enable women to attain the managerial level they deserve as well as their participation in the working life are promising for the future in the context of the process. For this reason, efforts to increase the number of female executives and the glass ceiling should be seen as positive. Another important sub-theme is the personal rights and education opportunities of female employees. 65

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

2.3. Personal Rights: Personal rights refer to the social rights employees have gained by employment. Even though the social approaches based on men earning the keep of the family continue their dominance, it is a fact that women’s existence in business life is increasing. The dominance of men on women's choice of profession stems from the difficulty of transforming past structures. Families moving to where the male has found work, the prohibition of women to work in certain fields by legal regulations, the difficulty of male workers to work with women, and the presence of suppliers who refuse to do business with female employees are signs of the fact that social prejudices are still not broken (Özar, 2000: 10). The biggest problem encountered in recruitment in Turkey is string-pulling and favoritism. Giving priority to countrymen, gender and age discrimination are common practices in the business world (Arslan, 2001).In recruitment, young and single women who do not have any career expectations are preferred, in the cases of marriage and children, they are given lower wages and are left to work without social opportunities because of the thought that they will leave work (Durakbaşa and Cindoğdu, 1996). In sectors where women workers are predominant, we encounter difficulties in reaching managerial levels. The explanations for this topic are in the upper sub-theme. There are, however, also businesses that are trying to increase the number of female employees in sectors deemed "male work" and they report it in their sustainability reports.

In the overall of the Turkish business life, besides women’s labor not reaching the required level, there are also various difficulties in increasing the share of women's labor within the total workforce when considering the qualifications and working conditions of the refining industry. Tüpraş, besides offering equal opportunities for women workers during recruitment and employment, conducts education activities to encourage women choosing the refining sector, offers internship opportunities and executes with a widened sense in the benefit of the women employees some legal rights which are lead by maternity leave. As a result of the career opportunities and rights provided, Tüpraş has been able to increase the number and proportion of women's employment compared to previous years. According to this, while 279 female employees, who correspond to 6.8% of the Tüpraş workforce, were employed in 2009, a total of 330 female employees were

employed in 2011 and the share of the labor force was increased to 7.9%.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

On the other hand, due to family responsibilities such as marriage and the training of children, the business lives of women are interrupted more than men. When they want to return to the business life, they are left behind men because they lose their work experience (Kayaalp, 1998:24). This supports the existence of discrimination by having a negative effect on practices such as recruiting, paying, promoting, utilizing educational facilities and layoff.

Social rights in business life include practices such as union organization, social security and the right to strike. New production methods and the restructuring of the labor market have deepened the secondary and weak position of women in their working life. The fact that women are ignored as a labor force and are continued to be seen as a secondary labor force, forces women to turn to practices that are characteristically unskilled, irregular, small commodity production and home- based wage work (Urhan, 2009:84-89). It is necessary for women to take part in trade union movements in order to be able to reveal their business life assets and to represent themselves in this field. However, the number of women in trade union organization and trade union activities (15.2%) lags behind men. The fact that businesses are disturbed by the activities of trade unions also constitutes another predicament. According to a research, the reasons of women not joining trade unions are; that they do not know what unions can provide for them, that they cannot spare time for unionism because of the work load at home, that they have negative opinions about unions and that they do not think that unions can meet their needs (Urhan, 2009:84,91).However, some of the businesses have provided statistical statements about union activities and union memberships.

By the end of 2014 2,672 X employees -2,090 men and 582 female employees- are subject to collective agreements. In the whole of X and in a majority of the countries we operate, the percentage of blue-collar workers subject to collective agreements is more than 90%.

As can be seen in the above explanation, the fact that female employees take up little place in trade union activities makes it difficult for them to be represented in business life. However, studies on women employees in sustainability reports of businesses can reduce this negative situation. The other issue that covers social rights outside the unionization is social security. It is very important for paid employees to have social security towards risks such as inability to work, old age, work accidents, occupational disease, maternity and unemployment. Because of the high unemployment rate, most people are uninsured and are willing to work with low wages. There are necessary legal regulations in order for men and women to benefit from equal rights in business life. Compared to men, women taking part in business life later in their lives, working part-time and to take a leave from work based on reasons such as marriage and having children, causing 67

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University them to lag behind men in making payments at the retirement stage and benefiting from other social rights (Akpınar, 2005:18). The obligation to establish a breastfeeding room and a nursery in businesses with over 100 female employees of the legislation can make businesses reluctant to employ women. However, in most of the businesses that have sustainability reports support for social issues such as nurseries and birth permits can be observed.

Our employees have a kindergarten service for their children between the ages of 0-6. Breastfeeding chambers in our kindergarten serve all X mothers.

In addition to these, we provide the opportunity for our employees who reside in Istanbul to benefit from Bilfen Kindergarten and 110 children capacity kindergarten services.

In 2013, we have completed work on the private nursery for our female employees in our workplaces which have 150 or more females employed. As of 2014, all of the costs of the nursery and nursery related costs will be covered by our Company. At the same time, seven education institutions that are known for the quality of their education were interviewed about the kindergarten work, which are close to our workplace, and in a distance that the mother can reach in case of emergency. The companies that passed through the elimination have been presented to the Executive Board. Our Executive Board wanted the mothers to decide. These four institutions have been examined with the mothers and their opinions have been asked about which school they will prefer. The kindergarten that the employees prefer will be worked with. Our employees can use their breast-feeding permissions collectively. Unpaid leave can be taken after birth. Our employees can set up camera systems in their homes and observe the care of their babies from work. Alongside this, we have a breastfeeding room in our company. Return to work ratio after birth has been %100 for the year 2013.

The fact that women and men are treated differently in every workplace is an a priori11 situation. The tolerance of women to men, men of women or women of women varies relatively (Soyşekerci, 2006: 16). It can be stated that there is a difference between men and women in benefiting from the training provided to the employees by the business. Since the trainings in the business play an important role in the professional progress, it is seen that women are not willing to spend much

11The Latin phrases a priori (lit. "from the earlier") and a posteriori (lit. "from the latter") are philosophical terms of art popularized by Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (first published in 1781, second edition in 1787), one of the most influential works in the history of philosophy.[1] However, in their Latin forms they appear in Latin translations of Euclid's Elements, of about 300 bce, a work widely considered during the early European modern period as the model for precise thinking.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University time or participate in these trainings. This situation is explained by patterns related to the female gender roles. There are evaluations that women are reluctant to participate in the trainings due to the continuing responsibilities of women in their home lives (for reasons such as child care and house work) and participation is even becoming a problem if the trainings are outside the city. In addition, it is suggested that business management has tendencies to send men, because they think that their trainings (especially the developers abroad training) will be more effective in career advancement. (Eyüboğlu et al., 2000:18). For this reason, the training of businesses towards women is an important issue. Some of the enterprises with sustainability report have provided statistical data on their education-related practices and others have indicated that they are investing in education issues towards women.

X Academy Leadership School became operational in 2012 with the purpose of training, development and equipping with leadership abilities of managers at all levels that our partnerships and our aviation industry in general will need. In our changing and rapidly growing partnership and in the aviation sector, it is aimed to train leaders who are effective, high performance, who are compatible with the competitive conditions of today and who will realize corporate change. The Leadership School is aimed at candidates who want to get a better career opportunity at the institution they work in as well as senior executive positions. With the educational concept integrated with the Harvard University Distance Learning Programs, the Leadership School is on its way to becoming a global school that follows world standards. In 2014, a total of 147 employees participated in the leadership school's training programs, while the number of female participants reached 60, doubling the figures in 2012.

Nevertheless, we see from the statistical data that the training hours of the female employees are less than that of males and that more effort is needed in this regard. Even though there are a lot of data on employees' social performance indicators, it is not clear how these are taken into consideration in measuring successes and rewards. The other discrimination faced by women in their business life is inequalities in success and rewards. Women working in the business thinking that they are treated unfairly in terms of their success and rewards results in the business not getting the performance they want out of these employees. One of the issues that have been emphasized recently, businesses that care about the management of differences should be able to accept the existence of women in the business and understand their point of view. For this reason, it creates many advantages for the business to increase its employees’ awareness of feminist ethical practices that demonstrate their moral stance and to make the behavior of the

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University business in line with the approaches that this perception defends. At the same time, it argues in the justice ethic we discussed earlier that individuals should be treated equally and fairly depending on certain rules. For this reason, treating the individuals in the business equally and fairly may increase the motivation of the employees, their commitment to the business, their productivity and confidence. Businesses are expected to make further clarifications on this issue. Apart from these, one of the businesses talked about getting disabled people to business life and stated that they support these employees in this alienated group.

During the reporting period, we continued our works and renewed the structure of our various processes in order to make them suitable for employment of disabled people. Today, we have 286 disabled employees, 16 of whom are women and 270 are men. 277 of these employees work in blue collar, 9 work in white collar categories.

However, as we have seen, there are few women among disabled workers. For this reason, businesses need to work on this issue. Apart from these, the sustainability reports of the enterprises also show the investments and explanations made towards the health.

Our health center begins to provide its service with the comprehensive health check that is done when the employee first begins work. It provides services with activities for both our employees and jobs by effective, job and person based periodic examination, evaluation of work compatibility of employees, chronic patients and occupational accidents and occupational diseases, case management, boutique policlinic service presentation, fight against obesity with nutrition and diet policlinic, detection and improvement of psychosocial unit and stress factors and social psychological services such as group psychotherapy, environmental health and supervision, water and food sanitation, services for disabled, pregnant and female employees, ergonomics and hygiene committee studies, blood donation and organ donation, disabled workshop, female employees workshop, work health and safety our scientific centers and seminars, such as scientific meetings and seminars such as panels, health education and information about employees and their relatives, and healthy days bulletin and seminars. Our health center serves in emergency situations not only to our employees but also to their guests and the surrounding industry organizations with their knowledge, experience, understanding of service and the equipment that they have. In this respect, X was given many awards in the life-saving field, which is one of the most prestigious awards.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

As can be seen from the above analyzes, it is a positive situation to see that in the sustainability reports of the enterprises, the women are considered as both external stakeholder and internal stakeholder and activities are carried out towards them. With increased work towards in this regard and the filling of the missing points, significant steps can be taken to increase women's position in both the society and as employees in the business.

REFERENCES

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38. Sahin,G. and O. Özbek (2008). Gençlik ve Spor Genel Müdürlüğü Federasyonlarında Görev Yapan Personelin Sposorlukla İlgili Görüşleri. SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, VI (2) 75-80. 39. Sakallı-Uğurlu N. ve Beydoğan B. (2002). Turkish college students’ attitudes toward women managers: the effects of patriarchy, sexism, and gender Differences. The Journal of Psychology. 136(1): 647-656.

40. Sawicka, Janina; Lagoda, Joanna. Gender And Sustainability In The Economic Development - Equal Chances For Women At The Labour Market, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Oeconomia 14 (4) 2015, 115-125 41. Schwab, R.G. and D. Sutherland. “Philantrophy, Non-goverment Organizations and Indigenous Development”. Discussion Paper No.242. Center for Aboriginial Economic Policy Research. 2002, 1-18. 42. Sustainability Disclosure Database, Available in: http://database.globalreporting.org/ (Retrieved on May 10, 2015) 43. Soyşekerci, S. (2006) Cinsiyet ayrımcılığı olarak üstün erillik olgusunun aile işletmelerindeki etkisi: kuramsal bir bakış. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(2/2): 1-26 44. Theaker, Alison (2006). Halkla İlişkilerin Elkitabı, Çev: Murat Yaz, İstanbul: MediaCat. 45. Urhan, B. (2009). Görünmezlerin görünür olma mücadeleleri: çalışan kadın örgütlenmeleri. Çalışma ve Toplum, 2: 83-110. 46. Warhurst, Alyson (2005) “Future Roles of Business in Society: The Expanding Boundaries of Corporate Responsibility and a Compelling Case for Partnership”, Futures, 37, pp.151- 168. 47. Wirth, L. (2001). Breaking women in management: closer break thorough the glass ceiling. Women gender and work. (ed. M. Fehherlof Louti). Geneva: International Labour Office 48. Wulfson, Myrna (2001). The Ethics of Corporate Social Responsibility and Philanthropic Ventures, Journal of Business Ethics, 29, 1/2, pp.135-145. 49. Yamomoto, T. “Corporate-NGO Partnership: Learning from Case Studies”. Corporate-NGO Partnership in Asia-Pcific (Ed. T. Yamomoto and K. Gould). Ashizawas, Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange, 1999, 13-38.

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SECTION MANAGEMENT

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN ACADEMICIANS

Pınar AVCI, Namık Kemal University, TURKEY Semahat AYSU, Namık Kemal University, TURKEY

Abstract

Under law, it is illegal to discriminate against women, but they confront gender discrimination not only in their daily life but also in the academia. Hence, they have to cope with it for the sake of their career development. For instance, it is not so easy for them to promote to the senior academic positions when they are compared with their male colleagues. There are many factors which have a significant impact on women academicians’ career. Consequently, the study aimed to determine the factors which affect their career. Furthermore, it examined whether women academicians have perceived any gender disparity at their work. With regard to the aim, this study attempts to find out answers to the following research questions:1. What factors affect the career of women academicians? 2. Do women academicians perceive any gender inequality at the university they work? 2a. Does the title of women academicians affect their perceptions? 2b. Does the marital status of women academicians affect their perceptions? İrey and Karaçor’s (2011) questionnaire adapted for this study was used. It is divided into 2 sections. The first section contains the demographic information including academic title and marital status. The second section consists of 21 items aimed to find out the perceptions of women academicians about the inequality at their work. The collected data were analyzed through SPSS 20. The findings of this study show that women academicians at Namık Kemal University do not perceive any gender discrimination, which is not consistent with the findings of Fox- Cardamone’s (2010) study, in which women academicians perceive gender discrimination. For example in her study the salary of male academicians is higher than female academicians.

Key words: Women academicians; career; career development; promotion

1. Introduction

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

According to the data from Turkish State Personnel Administration (2015, cited in Şentürk, 2015:8), women at Turkish universities composed 30.20% of the professors, 34.06% of the associate professors, 37.6% of the assistant professors, 51.72% of the research assistants, 39.55% of the lecturers and 57.09% of the instructors. As it is understood from the percentages above, few female academicians can progress through the academic positions when compared with the large number of male academicians who can promote to the senior academic ranks. Schneider, Carden, Francisco and Jones (2011) describe this situation as “women also tend to hold positions at lower academic ranks” (p.1). In other words, women academicians cannot promote at the same rate as male academicians. Barinaga (1992) puts forwards a term leaking pipeline to draw our attention why women academicians move out of their career. Pipeline is described by Gasser and Shaffer (2014) as “careers in academia, which often require many years of education and training prior to entry to the pipeline” (p. 332). This implies that women academicians might leave their career at any stage in academia.

There are many factors which affect women academicians’ career negatively. One of the factors is the gender discrimination, which is mentioned in Fox- Cardamone’s (2010) study. She concluded that the studies relating with American universities discuss a particular topic, which is discrimination against women in terms of salary and promotion. The underlying reasons of the inequality between female and male academicians are listed as follows: “women’s different characteristics, women’s responsibilities such as childbirth and childrearing, institutional biases” (p. 3-4). Similarly, Newell (2007) draws our attention to the reasons why women cannot have senior managerial position in their career. She emphasizes that “low -skilled, low-paid and part-time work” is attributed to women who are generally in the lowest level of employment hierarchy (p.17). Therefore, they do not have senior jobs, which require high-skilled and full-time work. Other factors which affect career development of women are discussed by Njiru (2013) as “gender inequality, chauvinism and sexual harassment, organizational structure, the glass ceiling effect, discrimination at the workplace, cultural factors and structural factors” (p.24). Furthermore, Gasser and Shaffer (2014) also mention about the inequality between women and men academicians at the university and they add that the studies do not investigate comprehensively how women academicians achieve their career.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Schneider et al. (2011) explain the gender gap in academia and they state two main factors: pull factors and push factors. Family and home life of women academicians are under the category of pull factors, which force the women academicians to make a balance between their family and academic life. If the balance between family and work cannot be struck, there will be conflict and this conflict will lead “not only to lower quality job performance but also potentially result in denial of tenure or promotion”. Eventually, this will also affect career development and family life (O’laughlin and Bischoff, 2005: 80). On the other hand, according to Schneider et al. (2011), push factors consist of “social stereotypes (perceptions of females and their skills, abilities, stereotypical characteristics, or perceptions) and policies and procedures that hire, manage and promote women” (p. 4).

Gasser and Shaffer (2014) discuss five main categories which affect the women academicians’ career development and these are listed as follows: “cognitive, coping, environmental, personality and relational” (p. 343). For example “low self-efficacy, little perceived encouragement and few role models” make negative impact on women academicians’ career (p.347). The variables such as “academic duties, academic environments, individually centered, resources and social” also shape the women academicians’ experience at the university (p. 344). Additionally, Ismail, Rasdi and Wahat (2005) divide the factors which influence on the performance of women academicians into two main categories: the factors which affect career exploration and career establishment and maintenance.

As it is stated above, there are many factors which affect career development of women academicians when they are compared to their male colleagues. For this reason, this study aims to find out the factors which affect career development of women academicians working at Namık Kemal University. Furthermore, it will examine whether women academicians have perceived any gender disparity at their work and whether their perceptions are affected by their title and marital status.

2. Literature Review

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Fox- Cardamone’s (2010) study investigates the factors which affect the women’s career in an American university setting and it compares their salary and promotion with male academicians. Furthermore, it aims to examine whether the inequality between men and women academicians is influenced by social factors and institutional biases. One of the findings demonstrates that the salary of male academicians is higher than female academicians and the inequality in salary between male and female academicians is due to their experience and their department. At this case study male academicians have more experience than do females and males work in the college of Business or Arts & Sciences while females work in the college of Nursing and Education. Another finding shows that there is no discrepancy among the academicians in terms of promotion to Associate Professor. However, a great number of males can be promoted to Full Professor whereas few females can promote to Full Professor due to particularly the years after getting their degree.

The study of Crabb and Ekberg (2014) focuses on the role of gender in the academic career of Australian postgraduate students. The data gathered through both questionnaire and qualitative analysis reveals that there is no statistically significant difference between female and male postgraduate students in terms of their plans for their academic career. However, it is found out that future academic career plan appeals to men rather than women since women perceive that motherhood does not go hand in hand with successful academic career.

Ramli, Chin and Choo (2016) make a research in Malaysia and examine the factors affecting the career development of women who work in the higher education. They find out that self-esteem and perceived support from the organization have a significant effect on career success of women. In other words, having high self-esteem as an individual factor and perceived support from the organization as a structural factor affect women’s career positively.

Pruitt, Johnson, Catlin and Knox (2010) conduct a study to explore the views of women associate professors about their promotion to full professor. The researchers gather data through interview. Women associate professors state some requirements to become a full

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University professor such as “excellence in research, national reputation in research area, continuous record of publication, affective teaching skills, excellent service record and obtaining grants/external funding” (p. 1150). The underlying reasons why they would like to be a full professor are listed as follows: “Increased prestige/ satisfaction of reaching highest rank level, increased power/ influence at university, strengthening credentials for administrative positions and reaching highest level of profession” (p. 1150). The last finding is relating with why they would not like to be a full professor and the reasons are categorized as “anxiety about being rejected, other priorities, decreased professional mobility and previous negative tenure experience” (p. 1150).

Ismail, Rasdi and Wahat (2005) examine the career development experience of women professors in Malaysia by means of career history method. This type of method includes interviews and personal documents. The findings suggest that such common factors as early socialization during primary, secondary and tertiary education, boarding school experience and personal characteristics affect women professors’ career exploration in academic life. Furthermore, it reveals that the experience of post-graduate, support of family, having career goals, enjoying teaching, research and services, health consciousness and the balance between spiritual and material values have an impact on the women academicians’ career establishment.

Schneider et al. (2011) carry out a study with women academicians and they surveyed with 240 women but with only 17.1% response rate. The results of survey show the perceived gender gap in salary, composition of full time faculty, appointments to administrative, leadership roles, promotion and tenure rates and research acceptance rates. Moreover, the other results associated with potential costs to scholarly research demonstrate that the areas “peer or colleague collaboration and funding and grant opportunities” are the highest with the respondents’ rate of 65.4% and 46.2% respectively. Consequently, these potential costs have a major impact on the learning outcomes and student experiences due to both the lack of women professional role models and the lack of women academicians’ mentoring or networking opportunities.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

The purpose of Raburu’ s (2011) study is to explore the experience of women academicians regarding the factors and important events such as marriage or having child that affect their career and difficulties that they face in their career development. The researcher using qualitative research design in this study carried out a face-to-face interview with sixteen women academicians from the universities in Kenya. Firstly, the results of this study illustrated that women academicians could not progress into senior academic ranks as much as their male colleagues do since Kenya is male-dominated country and there is also a lack of role models at the universities for women. Secondly, family is important factor that shape a person’s characteristics, motivation and career. Thirdly, educational background particularly the encouragement of teachers and lecturers influence the choice of career. Fourthly, the conflict between responsibilities in the family and career hamper the career development.

Thanacoody, Bartram, Barker and Jacobs’s (2006) study compare the career of women in academia in two different cultures (Australia and India) by investigating the influence of the factors such as “culture, gender stereotypes, leadership and decision-making, work- family conflict, formal/informal network and mentoring” (p.538-541). The researchers employed a case-study approach. Hence, they compiled their data through the interviews and archival/document data. The study results show that both two cultures have similarities in terms of the conflict of women academicians’ work and family life and the importance of mentors while gender stereotypes and prejudices are the examples for differences between two cultures in that Indian culture is more conservative, which have a negative effect on the career development of women.

By using psychology variables such as motivation and self-efficacy, which affect on both subjective career and objective career, Riordan and Louw-Potgieter (2011) attempt to investigate women academicians’ career success in South Africa. 372 women academicians participated in this study. According to the findings of this study, “work centrality, self-efficacy, motivational expectancy, and motivational valence were positively related to subjective career success and two objective career success indicators: teaching evaluation, and community service” (p.165).

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

The purpose of the Alfred’s (2001) study is to investigate the career development of Black tenured women academicians and their strategies to fulfill their career expectations in the White- dominated academic culture since these Black women academicians work at a predominantly White research university. According to the findings of this study, it is noted that race, culture and identity have a significant effect on the career development of Black women academicians in the White-dominated university setting since they can use both cultures effectively to be successful in the academia.

It is undoubtedly accepted that each society or each institution should reveal its own factors which affect women academicians’ career development and attempt to find out solutions to their problems (Poyraz, 2013). Hence, this study aims to find out the factors which affect women academicians’ career development and their job satisfaction at Namık Kemal University in Turkey. Furthermore, it aims to investigate whether the title and the marital status of women academicians affect their perceptions about gender inequality at work. Consequently, the study attempts to answer the following research questions:

1. What factors affect the career of women academicians? 2. Do the women academicians perceive any gender inequality at the university they work? 2a. Does the title of women academicians affect their perceptions? 2b. Does the marital status of women academicians affect their perceptions?

3. Methodology 3.1. Design of the research The authors utilized a quantitative research methodology for this study.

3.2. Setting After necessary permission was granted from Namık Kemal University to administer the questionnaire to women academicians, the researchers sent the questionnaire 266 women academicians through e-mail with a 17.7% response rate. Therefore, the answers of 47 women academicians were used for the data analysis.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

3.3. Instrument Data for this study was gathered through the questionnaire, which was prepared and used by İrey and Karaçor (2011) for MA thesis. But the questionnaire was adapted for this current study. Therefore, its reliability was checked by a pilot study and it was found that Cronbach’s alpha for the 21career development items was .706, which is acceptable.

The questionnaire consists of 2 parts. The first part contains demographic information such as title, marital status, the reasons affecting their career choice and the factors influencing their job satisfaction. 21 test items consist of the other part, which is a “5-point Likert-scale” ranging from 1-5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree). This part includes the test items in order to reveal the perceptions of women academicians about their career development.

3.4. Data Analysis Data obtained from the participants through the questionnaire were fed into the computer and analyzed through a software package, which is SPSS 20. The findings were revealed after performing descriptive and inferential analyses.

4. Findings Firstly, performing descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage) title and marital status of women academicians were analyzed, which are shown in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. Secondly, in order to answer the first research question “What factors affect the career of women academicians?” descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage) are used and Table 3 and Table 4 demonstrate the analyses below. Thirdly, whether the title affects the perceptions of women academicians about gender inequality at work is examined through inferential statistics (One-Way ANOVA) and Table 5 illustrates the findings. Finally, the effect of marital status of women academicians on their perceptions was examined through Independent-Samples T Test, which is presented in Table 6. Table 1 Title Frequency

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Professor 5 10,6 10,6 10,6 Assoc. Prof. 6 12,8 12,8 23,4 Asst. Prof. 10 21,3 21,3 44,7 Research Asst. 6 12,8 12,8 57,4 Instructor 4 8,5 8,5 66,0 Lecturer 16 34,0 34,0 100,0

Total 47 100,0 100,0

As it is presented in Table 1 above, the participants of this study consist of lecturers (34.0%), assistant professors (21.3%), associate professors (12.8%), research assistants (12.8%) and instructors (8.5%).Finally, 10.6 % of the participants hold professorship positions in this study.

Table 2 Marital Status Frequency

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid single 18 38,3 38,3 38,3

married 29 61,7 61,7 100,0

Total 47 100,0 100,0

According to Table 2, 18 women academicians in this study are single while other academicians (n=29) are married. Table 3 Reasons Affecting Career Choice

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Goal 33 70,2 70,2 70,2 Lecturers 5 10,6 10,6 80,9 Family 4 8,5 8,5 89,4 Others 5 10,6 10,6 100,0 Total 47 100,0 100,0 Table 3 above shows the reasons of women academicians affecting their career choice and the underlying reason of their choice is “their goal” (70.2%). Their lecturers (10.6%), their family (8.5%) and other factors (10.6) are the other reasons.

Table 4 Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction

Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative cy Percent Percent Valid Productivity 23 48,9 48,9 48,9 Salary 1 2,1 2,1 51,1 Flexible working 4 8,5 8,5 59,6 hours Social status 17 36,2 36,2 95,7 Others 2 4,3 4,3 100,0 Total 47 100,0 100,0

Table 4 demonstrates that productivity (48.9%) is the major factor and social status (36.2%) is ranked second among the factors, which affects job satisfaction of women academicians. The factor “flexible working hours” is ranked third with the percent 8.5. Finally, salary (2.1%) and other factors (4.3%) also affect the job satisfaction of women academician.

Table 5 84

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One-Way Analysis of Variance of Perceptions of Women Academicians about Gender Inequality at Work by Their Title

Sum of Df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Between 1,215 5 ,243 1,496 ,212 Groups Within 6,662 41 ,162 Groups Total 7,877 46 p>0.05

A one- way ANOVA was conducted to investigate the effect of title (professor, associate professor, assistant professor, research assistant, instructor and lecturer) on perceptions of women academicians about gender inequality at work. The findings yielded that there is not a statistically significant difference across six groups in terms of their perceptions (F (5,41)=1.496, p=.212). It can be concluded that there is not a statistically significant relationship between title and perceptions of women academicians about gender inequality at work.

Table 6 Results of t-test and Descriptive Statistics for Perceptions of Women Academicians about Gender Inequality at Their Work by Marital status Marital Status 95% Single Married Confidence Interval of the M SD N M SD n t df Difference Perceptions .42 3.45 .405 18 3.54 29 -.340, .163 -.707 45 3 p>0.05

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There is not a statistically significant mean difference between single women academicians and married women academicians on the perceptions of them about gender inequality at work (t (45) = -.707; p>0.05). 5. Conclusion The findings of this study showed that the reason “having a goal to be an academician” is the most important factor which affects women academicians’ career choice. Furthermore, their family and their lecturers at university motivate them to pursue a career in academia. This result bears similar findings to the study of Ismail, Rasdi and Wahat (2005) whose study puts emphasis on family support for women academicians’ career establishment and maintenance. Furthermore, the factors “being productive while working” and “flexible working hours” satisfy them to be an academician and “social status” is another factor, which makes them satisfied with their job. However, “salary” does not provide job satisfaction.

Title of women academicians does not affect their perceptions about gender inequality at work since performing inferential statistics (One- Way ANOVA) show that there is not statistically significant difference among the groups. Moreover, marital status of women academicians also does not affect their perceptions about gender inequality at work since academicians being single or married have average mean scores (M=3.45, SD=.405), (M=3.54, SD=.423) respectively. Though married academicians perceive more gender inequality than single academicians, this difference is not statistically significant. Finally it could be noted that the findings of this study show that women academicians in Namık Kemal University do not perceive gender discrimination, which is not consistent with the findings of Fox- Cardamone’s (2010) study.

References 1-Alfred, M. V. (2001). Expanding theories of career development: adding the voices of african american women in the white academy. Adult Education Quarterly, 51:2, pp. 108- 127.Retrieved from http://aeq.sagepub.com/content/51/2/108.full.pdf.

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2-Barinaga, M. (1992). Profile of a field: neuroscience: the pipeline is leaking. Science, 255:5050,pp.1366-1367.Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/openview/ d6a6e07d2daf345516f720dea527be53/1?pq-origsite=gscholar 3-Crabb, S. & Ekberg, S. (2014). Retaining female postgraduates in academia: the role of gender and prospective parenthood. Higher Education Research & Development, 33:6, pp. 1099-1112. 4-Fox- Cardamone, L. (2010). Inequity in the academy: a case study of factors influencing promotion and compensation in American universities. Forum on Public Policy. Retrieved from http://forumonpublicpolicy.com/Vol2010no5/archivevol2010no5/fox.cardemone.pdf. 5-Gasser, C.E. & Shaffer, K.S. (2014). Career development of women in academia: traversing the leaky pipeline. The Professional Counselor, 4:4,pp.332-352. 6-İrey, Ç. & Karaçor, Z. (2011). Türkiye üniversitelerinde kadın emek gücü, Selçuk üniversisi kadın akademisyenler üzerine bir araştırma. (Unpublished MA Thesis). Selçuk Üniversitesi, Konya. 7-Ismail, M., Rasdi, R.M. & Wahat, N.W.A. (2005). High-flyer women academicians: factors contributing to success. Women in Management Review, 20:2,pp.117-132. 8-Njiru, F. (2013). Factors affecting career progression of women in the corporate sector: a case study of standard chartered bank in Nairobi. (Unpublished MA Thesis). University Of Nairobi : Kenya. 9-Newell, H. (2007). Gender and career development. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Retrieved from http://www.eif.gov.cy/ mlsi/dl/genderequality.nsf/0/88AC670378588FC3C22579A50037C8AE/$file/gender_and_ career_development-eiro.pdf, 22.11.2016. 10-O’laughlin, E.M. and Bischoff, L.G. (2005). Balancing parenthood and academia: work/family stress as influenced by gender and tenure status. Journal Of Famıly Issues, 26:1, pp.79-106. 11-Poyraz, B. (2013). Akademi kadınların cenneti mi?: Ankara üniversitesi örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 4:2,pp.1-18. DOI:10.1501/sbeder_ 000000057 12-Pruitt, N.T., Johnson, A.J., Catlin, L. & Knox, S. (2010). Influences on women counseling psychology associate professors’ decisions regarding pursuit of full

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University professorship. The Conseling Psychologist, 38:8,pp.1139-1173. Retrieved from http://tcp.sagepub.com/content /38/8/1139.full.pdf+html 13-Raburu, P. A. (2011). Women Academics’ Careers In Kenya. (Unpublished PhD Dissertation). Lancaster University: Lancaster. 14-Ramli, H.S.B., Chin, A.L.L. and Choo, A.C.P. (2016). Career success for women in higher education institution: the factors influencing the success of women academician. International Business Management, 10:17, pp. 3929-3935. Retrieved from http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/ibm/2016/3929-3935.pdf 15-Riordan, S. and Louw-Potgieter, J. (2011). Career success of women academics in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 41:2, pp. 157-172. Retrieved from http://sap.sagepub.com/content/41/2/157.short?patientinform-links=yes& legid= spsap; 41/2/157 16-Schneider, B.Z., Carden, W., Francisco, A. & Jones Jr., T.O. (2011). Women ‘opting out’ of academia: at what cost?. Forum on Public Policy. Retrieved from http://files. eric.ed.gov/ fulltext/EJ944197.pdf 17-Şentürk, B. (2015). Çokuz ama yokuz: Türkiye’deki akademisyen kadınlar üzerine bir analiz. ViraVerita E-Dergi, 2.pp.1-22. Retrieved from http://viraverita.org/sites/default/files/edergi-yazilari/cokuz-ama-yokuz-turkiyedeki- akademisyen-kadinlar-uzerine-bir-analiz.pdf 18-Thanacoody, P.R., Bartram, T., Barker, M. & Jacobs, K. (2006). Career progression among female academics: a comparative study of Australia and Mauritius. Women in Management Review, 21:7, pp.536-553. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/ doi/pdfplus/ 10.1108/09649420610692499

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

THE VIEWS OF WOMEN ACADEMICIANS ABOUT USING WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGIES IN THEIR CLASSROOMS Semahat AYSU, Pınar AVCI Namık Kemal University

Abstract

The past decade has witnessed the changes in technology, which is known as Web 2.0 technologies. These technologies such as blogs, social networks and wikis can be used to share information, to record knowledge and to interact with people. These tools can be used in educational setting, as well. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions of women academicians towards using Web 2.0 technologies in their classroom. Moreover, it was examined whether their age (digital native or digital immigrant) and level of education (bachelor, master and phd) would affect their perceptions. 53 women academicians participated in this research. This study was designed by using quantitative research method. Therefore, data for this study were gathered through the questionnaire based on the study of Zelick (2013) and it was adapted for this study. The questionnaire consists of two parts. Demographic information such as age and level of education forms the first of part of the questionnaire and the second part includes the items which are related to the perceptions towards the use of Web 2.0 technologies in the classroom. Regarding the aim of the study, the following research questions were answered for this study: 1. What kinds of Web 2.0 technologies do women academicians use in their teaching? 2. Do the perceptions of women academicians towards using Web 2.0 technologies change according to their age and their level of education? Consequently, it was found out that all the women academicians participated in this study use one of these Web 2.0 tools in their classes. Furthermore, their age and their education level do not affect women academicians’ perceptions towards using Web 2.0 technologies. Keywords: Women academicians; perceptions; Web 2.0 Technologies

1. Introduction

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

The development of technology makes changes not only in social, cultural, economical and political values but also in education. Therefore, it has affected how people learn and how they teach in recent decades. Consequently, the use of technology in the classroom has been investigated widely and the studies show that it provides efficient results for both teachers and learners (Nikian, Nor and Aziz, 2013). As Kiper and Tercan (2012:386) state, the use of technology in the classroom is necessary since it helps “to improve the quality and quantity of learning.

However, in the past decade a new generation of technology appeared which is known as Web 2.0 technology. It has changed “the way people work and the way records and documents are created, used and shared” (Dearstyne, 2007: 25). Social networks such as “MySpace, You Tube, Flickr, and Second Life” to share “personal information, photos, videos and other information”, Wikis, mashups and blogs are all examples for Web 2.0 technologies (Dearstyne, 2007: 26-27). Furthermore, these services include blogs, wikis, browsers with plugins, social networking, multimedia sharing, content syndication, podcasting and content tagging services (think of tagging a person in a photo to identify their name) (Zelick, 2013: 56).

Similarly, Grosseck (2009) lists the Web 2.0 technologies as follows: “Blogging, microblogging, wikis, photo/slides sharing, video sharing, syndication of content through RSS, social bookmarking, social networking and other tools such as instant messaging, survey and polls” (p. 479). Therefore, these technologies lead to changes in the activities of students and teachers, as well (Grosseck, 2009). For example, the use of “text messaging, wikis, social networks, and other Web 2.0 applications” is so high among the students (Ajjan and Hartshorne, 2008:71). Facebook as a social media tool in the Web 2.0 technologies is becoming widespread rather than being obsolete. The underlying reasons why these technologies are so common can be summarized by Weller (2013) as follows: Firstly, the same application can be accessed on many different devices (smartphones, tablets, netbooks, etc). Secondly, they are accessible from any computer anywhere in the world. Thirdly, many are free to use. Fourthly, they require lower-specification hardware, as the application is not run locally and

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so internet devices become cheaper. Lastly, html is the common language of the internet and unites all the different devices (Weller, 2013:40) Surely, there are both advantages and disadvantages of the use of these technologies in the classroom instruction. Peytcheva–Forsyth (2014) also emphasizes in her study that there are not only benefits but also risks of using Web 2.0 technologies for teachers, learners and education. She adds that social media as a tool of Web 2.0 technologies provides “learning through dialogue, exchange and collaboration” but there are still some risks which have not been revealed so far such as its “efficiency and the spectrum of their educational functionality” (p.20). Additionally, Grosseck (2009) describes Web 2.0 technologies as flexible, easy and fast technologies with low cost whereas she notes that people have to invest time and knowledge to learn and use these technologies. Therefore, it is investigated by the researchers in different educational settings.

According to the study of Ahmed, Almuniem and Mbhuh (2016) study, the faculty members such as associate professors, assistant professor and lecturers use Web 2.0 technologies in their classes in order to conduct scientific research, to reach materials and to investigate recent topics and studies related to their research area. Moreover, academicians appreciate the importance of Web 2.0 technologies and they note that these technologies are helpful for collaborative learning opportunities, for sharing knowledge and educational sources and for interaction and communication between teachers and students.

Additionally, in their study Rosen and Nelson (2013) put emphasize on the feature of Web 2.0 technologies which facilitate social sharing since the user can start sharing, can control what he shares and who will see the content that he shares and can discuss it and collaborate on it. Similarly, Wang (2013) conducted a study in a university to find out how social networking as Web 2.0 technologies could be used and what roles it has in educational setting. It is found that Facebook as a tool of Web 2.0 technologies could be used for instruction and it results in higher grade and higher engagement of students. The study of Koçak-Usluel and Mazman (2009) was carried out in the distance education to find out what kinds of Web

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2.0 technologies are used. It was revealed that Web 2.0 technologies created interaction between teacher and the students in distance education.

Consequently, it can be understood that there are many advantages of using Web 2.0 Technologies in education. Therefore, this current study aims to investigate the use of Web 2.0 technologies in the university setting and women academicians’ perceptions towards using them in their classroom. 2. Theoretical Background Çakır, Yükseltürk and Top (2015) investigated pre-service and in-service ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) teachers’ perceptions about the use of Web 2.0 technologies in their classrooms. They found out that in-service teachers have more positive feelings about the use of these technologies such as digital and social media in their classrooms than pre-service teachers. Moreover, in their personal lives almost all of the teachers use Facebook as social media and Wikipedia as collaborative authoring Technologies. However, they seldom use podcasts and blogs. Similarly, Baltacı-Göktalay and Özdilek (2010) attempted to find out perceptions of pre-service science and computer teachers towards Web 2.0 technologies in their learning process, their acceptance levels and their attitudes towards them. The findings of this study revealed that these pre- service teachers have positive attitudes towards the use of Web 2.0 technologies and they accept their importance and in their own teaching they would like to use them. Furthermore, these teachers state that they will use audio/video conferencing tools in their teaching.

Besides the studies of Çakır, Yükseltürk and Top (2015) and Baltacı-Göktalay and Özdilek (2010), Sadaf, Newby and Ertmer’s (2012) conducted a research with pre-service teachers. The aim of this studywas to understand whether the intentions of pre-service teachers are to use Web 2.0 technologies in their primary and secondary schools in which they will work. The results demonstrated that teachers will use these technologies if they believe that these technologies help students’ learning, engagement and self- efficacy and meet the expectations of students who are digital natives. Similarly, Eyyam, Meneviş and Doğruer (2011) conducted a research with pre-service teachers to understand their perceptions towards Web 2.0 technologies. Participants believe that they could use

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

“Instant Messaging Software, Audio/Video Sharing Programs, Social Networks and Video Sharing Websites”. But they state that they could not use “Social Bookmarking and Blogs” in their classrooms (p. 2665).Moreover, Weller’ s (2013) conducted a study with pre-service teachers in order to explore the use of Web 2.0 in their professional learning. These pre- service teachers were given two tasks to complete using a Web 2.0 collaborative online application, which is “Padlet”. Their work and their comments about the use of the Web 2.0 tool in their learning were evaluated. It was showed in the results that “almost all students thought that not only was the use of Web 2.0 beneficial to the task set but that it was fun to use as well” (p. 45). Finally, Kim and Jang (2015) attempted to explore whether pre-service teachers having a course related to the use of Web 2.0 technologies would use these technologies in their teaching practice or not. The findings of the study revealed that these teachers used Web 2.0 technologies in their classes since they experienced enjoyment in the class when they integrated these technologies into their course.

Capo and Orellana (2011) designed a survey study with high school teachers to reveal their intentions to use Web 2.0 technologies in their classrooms. The results showed that most of the teachers do not use these kinds of technologies whereas few of them use these technologies in their classroom. However, they believe that the interaction between students and teacher would be better. Furthermore, teachers are not familiar with these technologies since they are digital immigrants. Therefore, they have some difficulties to get accustomed to use them in the classroom. Teachers are using wikis more often than social networking, social bookmarking and blogs.

Kiper and Tercan (2012) conducted a study with teachers who received in-service training about information technologies and they investigated their use of information technologies in their classroom. The research revealed that teachers use information technologies in order to carry out warm-up activities and to make the learners more active in the classroom. However, teachers state that there are some problems such as the lack of internet connection or educational software in their schools.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Since Facebook is one kind of Web 2.0 technologies and it could be used in teaching and learning activities Wang (2013) attempted to explore the university students learning engagement using the Facebook activities based on course book. The results revealed that the use of Facebook for instruction and interaction help students to get higher grades and engagement and they are all more satisfied with their learning. Additionally, Bennett, Bishop, Dalgarno, Waycott and Kennedy (2012) aimed to explore how Web 2.0 technologies are used by university students for their learning. They carried out the study at three universities. Findings suggested that students do not have prior knowledge how to use these technologies though they attempted to accept the importance of them. Even if they appreciate their value, they have to struggle and spend time to learn them for their learning (Grosseck, 2009).

The study of Ajjan and Hartshorne (2008) attempted to explore the perceptions of lecturers working at university about the use of Web 2.0 technologies in their classes. The results showed that lecturers are aware that Web 2.0 technologies are helpful for students’ learning and improve their writing abilities and their interaction with their friends and lecturers. Students are also satisfied with their classes. However, just few lecturers use these technologies in their classes.

Hao and Lee’s (2015) study investigated the concerns of middle school teachers in Taiwan about the use of Web 2.0 technologies in their teaching. Moreover, it examined how the teacher’s characteristics affect their concerns. The findings of the study demonstrated that teachers’ concerns were more intense in the informational ad personal stages rather than awareness, management, consequent, collaboration and refocusing stages of the use of Web 2.0 technologies. Teacher’s characteristics such as teachers’ academic degrees and the number of classes at their schools do not affect their concerns while other characteristics such as the levels of use of innovations, gender, age, teaching experience and their field significantly affect their concerns.

Hramiak and Boulton’s (2013) project which was an action research focused on the use of Web 2.0 technologies. This research was carried out with trainee teachers at two universities and they were encouraged and asked to use the blogs as a Web 2.0 tool and

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University when they started to teach, they were asked to use blogs in their teaching at the secondary school. The results of study illustrated that all these participants could not use blogs in their first year teaching and provided many reasons why they could not use blogs such as the lack of technology usage skills of students, insufficient time in the curriculum and the barriers that the school has created because of the e- safety.

Koçak-Usluel and Mazman (2009) wrote down a study with two aims. Their aims were as follows: To investigate what kinds of Web 2.0 technologies are used and how the instructors adopt them in the distance education. They discussed blog, wiki, podcast and social network as the most widely used Web 2.0 tools. Consequently, they add that instructors could use these tools to interact with their students since distance education is not bound to time and place.

Consequently, different studies mentioned above show that both pre-service teachers and in-service teachers believe the advantages of using Web 2.0 technologies in their classroom or they actively use them and are aware of these advantages. Therefore, this study also aims to investigate particularly women academicians’ perceptions towards the use of Web 2.0 technologies in their classroom and the research questions of this study are as follows: Research questions: 1. What kinds of Web 2.0 technologies do women academicians use in their teaching? 2. Do the perceptions of women academicians towards using Web 2.0 technologies change according to their age and their level of education?

3. Methodology 3.1. Design of the research This study was designed by using quantitative research method.

3.2. Setting After necessary permission was received from Namık Kemal University, the questionnaire was sent to the women academicians whose e-mail addresses the researchers could reach on the websites of faculties and vocational schools. 53 women academicians working at

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Namık Kemal University responded to the questionnaire. Therefore, the answers of these academicians were used for the data analysis.

3.3. Instrument The questionnaire based on the study of Zelick (2013) was adapted for this study. The reliability of the questionnaire was checked by a pilot study and it was found out that the alpha value of the questionnaire used in this study was 0.716, which is reliable. The questionnaire consists of 2 parts. The first part includes demographic information such as age and level of education. The second part with a “5-point Likert-scale” ranging from 1-5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree) contains the test items which demonstrate the perceptions of participants towards the use of Web 2.0 technologies. 3.4. Data Analysis Data gathered through questionnaires were entered onto the computer by researchers and analyzed through a statistical program (SPSS 20). In this study both descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. 4. Findings While analyzing age, level of education and the tools of Web 2.0 Technologies used by academicians, descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage) were performed and the findings are presented in Table 1, in Table 2 and in Table 3 below. Table 4 and Table 5 demonstrate the analyses of inferential statistics (Independent -Samples T Test). Table 1 Age Frequency

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 20-35 28 52.8 52.8 52.8 36-over 25 47.2 47.2 100.0

Total 53 100.0 100.0

Table 1 above shows that 28 participants are in the age range of 20-35 years old as digital natives (52.8%) while there are 25 digital immigrants who are in the age range of 36-over (47.2%). 96

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Table 2 Level of Education Frequency

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid MA 25 47.2 47.2 47.2 PhD 28 52.8 52.8 100.0 Total 53 100,.0 100.0

Table 2 above demonstrates that 25 out of 53 participants have MA degree (47.2%) and the rest of them have PhD degree (52.8%).

Table 3

Web 2.0 Technologies used by academicians

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Facebook 3 5.7 5.7 5.7 Blog 4 7.5 7.5 13.2 Twitter 1 1.9 1.9 15.1 Skype 1 1.9 1.9 17.0 wikipedia 12 22.6 22.6 39.6 Youtube 32 60.4 60.4 100.0 Total 53 100.0 100.0

As it is presented in Table 3, more than half of the women academicians use “youtube” in their classes (60.4%) and “wikipedia” is another tool, which is used by twelve academicians (22.6%) while “twitter” and “skype” are used by one academician (1.9%). “facebook” (5.7%) and “blog” (7.5%) are also used by participants as Web 2.0 tools.

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

Table 4

Results of t-test and Descriptive Statistics for Perceptions of Women Academicians Towards Using Web 2.0 Technologies by Age

95% Age Confidence Interval of the Difference 20-35 36-over

M SD n M SD n t df

Perception s 3.485 2 -.04181, .29439 3.3579 .31797 25 1.511 51 0 8 .29595 p>0.05

There is not a statistically significant mean difference between two age groups on the perceptions of women academicians towards using Web 2.0 Technologies (t (51)= 1.511; p>0.05).

Table 5

Results of t-test and Descriptive Statistics for Perceptions of Women Academicians Towards Using Web 2.0 Technologies by Level of Education

95% Level of Education Confidence Interval of the MA PhD Difference

M SD n M SD n t df

Perceptions 3.450 .2578 3.402 .352 -.12381, 25 28 .563 51 5 8 3 40 .22035

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University p>0.05

There is not a statistically significant mean difference between having MA degree and PhD degree on the perceptions of women academicians towards using Web 2.0 Technologies (t (51)= .563; p>0.05).

5. Conclusion This study revealed that perceptions of women academicians towards using Web 2.0 technologies do not change according to their level of education since academicians having MA degree or PhD degree have average mean scores (M=3.4505, SD=.25788), (M=3.4023, SD=.35240) respectively. This difference is not statistically significant. Furthermore, their age does not have statistically significant impact on their perceptions though digital natives have an average mean score (M=3.4850, SD=.29439), which is higher than digital immigrants’ (M=3.3579, SD=.31797). However, this is not statistically significant. In other words, whether they are digital natives or digital immigrants do not affect their perceptions in this study although Capo and Orellana’s study (2011) found out that teachers are not familiar with these technologies since they are digital immigrants. Therefore, they have some difficulties to get accustomed to use them in the classroom.

Additionally, the findings of this current study do not conform to the categorization of Prensky (2006). He defined the terms “digital natives” to represent “native speakers of technology, fluent in the digital language of computers, video games and the internet” whereas “digital immigrants” are people “who were not born into the digital world” (p.20). Therefore, digital natives do not have problems to use technology while digital immigrants are not proficient enough to use it.

Finally, findings of this study showed that women academicians use “youtube” as a Web 2.0 tool more than other tools in their classes and “Wikipedia” is another common tool among the women academicians. “facebook” and “blog” are also used in the classrooms. However, “twitter” and “skype” are not as common as other tools. Consequently, all the participants use one of these tools in their classes. But in the study of Ajjan and Hartshorne (2008) few lecturers use them though they feel that students’ satisfaction with their

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University classes is so high when teachers use Web 2.0 technologies in their classroom. We can conclude that women academicians in this study are proficient enough to use these technologies in their classroom.

References 1-Ajjan, H. & Hartshorne, R. (2008). Investigating faculty decisions to adopt Web 2.0 technologies: theory and empirical tests. Internet and Higher Education, 11,pp. 71-80. 2-Ahmed, A. M., Almuniem, A. A. and Mbhuh, A. A. (2016). The current use of web 2.0 tools in university teaching from the perspective of faculty members at the college of education. International Journal of Instruction, 9:1, pp. 179-194. 3-Baltacı-Göktalay, Ş. and Özdilek, Z. (2010). Pre-service teachers’ perceptions about web 2.0 technologies. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 2, pp. 4737–4741. 4-Bennett, S., Bishop, A., Dalgarno, B., Waycott, J. & Kennedy, G. (2012). Implementing Web 2.0 techologies in higher education: a collective case study. Computers & Education, 59,pp.524-534. 5-Capo, B.H. & Orellana, A. (2011). Web 2.0 technlogies for classroom instruction: high school teachers’ perceptions and adopt,on factors. Fischler College of Education: Faculty Articles. Paper 8. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/fse_facarticles/8. 6-Çakır, R., Yükseltürk, E. & Top, E. (2015). Pre- service and in-service teachers’ perceptions about using Web 2.0 in education. Participatory Educational Research (PER), 2:2, pp.70-83 7-Dearstyne, B.W. (2007). Blogs, mashups, and wikis: oh my!. Information Management Journal, 41:4, pp.24-33. 8-Eyyam, R. Meneviş, İ. & Doğruer, N. (2011). Perceptions of teacher candidates towards web 2.0 technologies. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, pp. 2663-2666. 9-Grosseck, G. (2009). To use or not to use web 2.0 in higher education?. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, pp. 478-482. 10-Hao, Y. and Lee, K.S. (2015). Teachers’ concern about integrating web 2.0 technologies and its relationship with teacher characteristics. Computers in Human Behavior , 48, pp. 1– 8.

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11-Hramiak, A. and Boulton, H. (2013). Escalating the use of web 2.0 technology in secondary schools in the united kingdom: barriers and enablers beyond teacher training. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 11:2, pp.91-100 12-Kim, H. J. and Jang, H. Y. (2015). Motivating pre-service teachers in technology integration of web 2.0 for teaching internships. International Education Studies, 8:8, pp. 21- 32. Retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ies/article/view/42671/27586. 13-Kiper, A. & Tercan,S.S. (2012). The usage of information technologies in classroom environment among primary school teachers and their perception on in-service training programs on it (Sample of Sakarya). TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11:3, pp.386-892. 14-Koçak-Usluel, Y. & Mazman, S.G. (2009). Adoption of web 2.0 tools in distance education. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, pp. 818-823. 15-Nikian, S., Nor, F.M. & Aziz, M.A. (2013). Malaysian teachers’ perception of applying technology in the classroom. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 103, pp. 621-627. 16-Peytcheva–Forsyth, R. (2014). Web 2.0 technologies: the risks and benefits to consider when expanding the classroom walls. International Conference on e-Learning, pp.19-32. Retrieved from http://elearning-conf.eu/docs/cp14/paper-2.pdf 17-Prensky, M.(2006). Listen to the natives. The Best of Educational Leadership, 63, pp.20- 23. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/summer06/ vol63/ num10/Listen-to-the-Natives.aspx 18-Rosen, D. & Nelson, C. (2008). Web 2.0: a new generation of learners and education. Computers in the Schools, 25:3-4, pp. 211-225. 19-Sadaf, A., Newby, T.J., & Ertmer, P.A. (2012). Exploring pre-service teachers’ beliefs about using Web 2.0 technologies in K-12 classroom. Computers & Education, 59, pp. 937- 945. 20-Wang, J. (2013). What higher educational professionals need to know about today’s students: online social networks. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12:3, pp.180-193. 21-Weller, A. (2013). The use of Web 2.0 technology for pre-service teacher learning in science education. Research In Teacher Education, 3:2, pp. 40–46.Retrieved from http://www2.uel.ac.uk/wwwmedia/microsites/riste/Article-6.pdf

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22-Zelick, S.A. (2013). The perceptions of Web 2.0 technologies on teaching and learning in higher education: a case study. Creative Education, 4: 7A2,pp. 53-93. Retrieved from http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce.

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FACTORS AFFECTING CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN MANAGERS’ IN ORGANIZATIONS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Ass. Liridon Veliu PhD Candidate, Department of Management and Informatics, Faculty of Economics, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Kosovo,

Prof. Assoc. Dr. Mimoza Manxhari, Department of Management, Faculty of Economics, University of Tirana, Albania Besnik Kaleci, CEO at MTC GROUP sh. p. k, Kosovo

Arsim Veliu, Manager at Arjeta Group, Kosovo Abstract

Historically, women have been viewed as child-bearers and keepers of the home. They encouraged young women to find happiness and fulfillment through marriage and home making by completely devoting herself to the preservation of the female oriented position of home maker. Working women were viewed as morally wrong. But, the role of women in the current society has drastically changed. Women today are coming forth in this modern society. Women Play an important role in society as procreators of the coming generation, as well as producers of goods and services. In the modern economies they are playing an important role in the labor force.

We investigate the careers of women managers. The purpose of this literature review is to analyze the factors that affect the women managers in career development. The literature review comprises peer-reviewed journal articles, white papers, conference proceedings and the topic of women in management and career development for women.

Keywords: women managers’, career development, organizations, factors

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper was to identify through a literature review factors that facilitate women’s development in organizations. In recent years, women as well as gender issues have turn into a major area of concern. Seminars, workshops are being held over the world to discuss women issues and women progression in all area of life.

Some studies illustrate that during the last two decades there has been an increase in the proportion of women at entry and middle-level management positions, resulting largely from the activities of the women’s movement, policies of the political system, and corporate equal opportunity initiatives.

Gender differences in access to economic opportunities are frequently debated in relation to gender differences in labor market participation. The entry of women into the professional world has, without a doubt, changed the dynamics of the workplace over the past few decades.

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Research on women in management has become a significant field of study within the last twenty years (Kanter, 1977; Larwood & Wood, 1977; Nieva & Gutek, 1981; Powell, 1988). The first question could be asked: Can women be managers? Why are there few womens in top management? The second question emerged: Do male and female managers different attitude in organizations? Differentiations between the attitudes and behaviors of men and women in managerial positions were salient topics found in this literature (Powell, 1988; Henning & Jardim, 1977; Terborg, 1977; O'Leary, 1974; Schein, 1973). Emphasis was on comparative research studies and female managers could only be understood in comparison to male managers (Galas and Smircich, 1989).

Schwartz (1989) emphasizes on the role of women in management as a competitive advantage by stating that it is important for businesses to recognize that female managers are part of a talent pool that is essential to be retained and developed. Traditionally and for the longest time, women have been viewed as child-bearers and keepers of the home (Wright, 1990). Organizations face the pressure of accommodating the demands of a more diverse workforce, which is comprised of increasing numbers of women (Wirth, 2001a). Career development practices and relevance has changed over the past decades (Herr, 2001).

According to Kimmel (2001), women could not have it all because men did; men had the fulfilling careers as well as a loving family to which they could come home to.

Glass ceiling The glass ceiling concept refers to an invisible but powerful barrier that hinders women from rising to the top corporate positions (Carly & Eagly 2001).

However according to Meyerson & Fletcher (2000) women at the highest levels of business are still rare.

Booth et al. (2003) introduce “sticky floors” as an alternative explanation to the few women observed in the highest corporate positions.

According to Ilagan-Bian (2004), women faced many challenges in moving up such as non- supportive bosses or colleagues, sexual discrimination and male chauvinism. Women still list male prejudice and the „old boy network‟ as the main obstacles to their progress (Clutterbuck & Devine, 1987; Ilagan- Bian, 2004).

Women experience difficulties advancing in their careers because of various factors that Hewlett and Luce (2005) divided in two separate categories called “push” and “pull”.

Statistics show that the higher up in the corporate hierarchy, the lower the female representation throughout the European Union (EC, 2008).

The low representation may be considered paradoxical since women are more educated than men and represent a majority at universities (Tilastokeskus, 2011).

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Women are much less likely than men to be considered leaders. In 2015, only 5 percent of the companies in the Standard and Poor’s 500 index had female chief executive officers (Catalyst, 2015a).

1. 1. Problem Statement

There is a need to document efforts by organizations to develop women managers and professionals, and more knowledge about factors that positively influence the advancement of women in organizations is needed because research has mostly focused on barriers (Burke, 2002). Despite the fact that the workforce is becoming more diverse (Fernandez, 1999), and more women are participating in the workforce (International Labor Organization (ILO), 2004).

Extensive research has identified factors that hinder the advancement of women in organizations. Scarce literature exists about factors that affecting career development.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review presumes the factors that affect the women managers in career development in organizations by responding the following question: What factors affecting career development of women managers in organizations?

2. 1. Women career development

Women's career development into executive-level positions continues to lag behind that of their male counterparts in both the private and public sectors. It has been perceived that the labour market is structurally gendered and women in managerial positions appear to enjoy the leadership role. Although there is no evidence to support the contention that women are less efficient managerial leaders than men, as there are few differences between men and women in cognitive abilities and skills. Eagly & Carli (2007) perceive that women who hold managerial positions might exercise power somewhat differently from men.

Thomas and Pullen (2000) argue that research into organisation and management is almost exclusively from a gender-neutral position but point out that criticisms of this lack of gender awareness are not new.

In most instances women have to lobby seriously to be considered for job opportunities where they can to perform equally well. (Desseler, 2003).

Women’s career progress is more complex of men’s, because of the barriers they face (Broadbridge & Fielden, 2015). These barriers include “Early-gender role orientation, employment inequalities, and family responsibilities” (Coogan & Chen, 2007) which all confuse and limit women’s career choices and furthermore their progresion.

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Women tend to view career decisions through a relational lens, because women-operate relationally to others in both work and nonwork realms‖ (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005). Recent studies on the topic of women‘s career development have suggested that women‘s careers and personal lives are interconnected, and for many women, these two aspects of their lives cannot be viewed as separate (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; O‘Neil, Hopkins, & Bilimoria, 2008).

Some authors have argued that women‘s career development is not well understood because early career theories were developed mostly by men in a time when participation in paid work was an activity engaged in primarily by men (Hackett, 1981; Astin, 1984; Coogan et al., 2007).

Women are more likely to progress in their career to top managerial positions in large cities, as the conveniences provided in cities such as better availability of basic services may lead to less time spent on household chores and more on labor market activity (Fafchamps and Shilpi 2005). Furthermore, larger cities entail lower fertility rates, rising aspirations among women and the greater need for cash income due to higher cost of living (Kabeer, 2007). These factors tend to push women into the labor market. On the other hand, greater demand for leisure due to higher incomes, higher levels of crime targeted towards women and long commute times in the relatively larger cities may adversely affect women’s participation in labor market activity (see for example, Edward L. Glaeser and Bruce Sacerdote 1999; Carl Gaigne and Yves Zenou 2013; Black, Kolesnikova and Taylor 2007).

Women’s advancement in management career can be influenced by the individual factors within the person, organizational factors which are located within the organization, and societal and systemic factors (Fagenson, 1990).

2. 2. Factors influencing women’s career development

In this regard, this section looks at the factors affecting the career development of women. It first looks at friendships, personal factors, family responsibility, management experience, work and family conflict, mentors and networks, organisational policies and culture, societal factors, training and development.

Friendships:

Regarding the value that women place on relationships, the research is clear: women value relationships. According to Arthur, Patton, and Giancarlo (2007), the ―centrality of relational values is an important factor for women‘s career development. Interpersonal connections, including those acquired through relationships from family and peers, are important in validating the experiences of women in leadership positions and instilling in them a belief in their potential to succeed (Sotello Viernes Turner, 2007). However, Sherman, Munoz, and Pankake (2008) have suggested that although friendship as a

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University source of support is valuable for women in leadership positions, it does not provide the kind of mentoring that leads to career advancement. ―While friendship and collegial support are important, they are not necessarily synonymous with mentoring.

Personal factors:

Qin (2000) highlights a significant point, which contributes to women‟s lack of enthusiasm to advance. As a result, women would rather choose to be „family-oriented‟, as they do not want to be viewed as being more capable than their husbands. Meyerson‟s (2001) journal states that several researchers found that women managers are more at risk to role stress due to multiple role demands, which are inherent when running a career, while also running a home. In the long run, the success of these women is often at substantial cost to their personal lives. Meyerson (2001) further explains that owing to demanding jobs, women have to work long hours and may have to abstain from long-term relationships and opportunities to have children, if they wish to progress to higher levels of their professions. Furthermore, during an interview with BBC News (2005), Tsitsi Dangarembga outlined that one of the reasons why there are few women in senior positions who are reluctant to advance their careers, is a lack of unity amongst themselves. An explanation given was that since women vie for scarce resources, they tend to see other women as a threat and are jealous of one another.

Family Responsibility:

According to ILO (2000), family responsibility is an important feature of professions, since it sometimes requires long hours on site to gain experience and recognition, leading to women who want both family and a career have to juggle heavy responsibility in both domains.

Family responsibility refers to instrumental activities relating to child upbringing, providing goods and support services for the family. Family responsibilities had played a major role in whether or not the women had accepted the jobs. Some of them had delayed accepting them until their children were older (ILO, 2004). The conflict between work and family obligations is more acute for women than for men (Amaratunga et al., 2007). Research shows that contemporary women’s careers and lives appear to be inextricably entwined; work and private lives are interconnected (O’Neal et al., 2008).

Management experience:

Management experience is a second determinant of human capital. “Experience lends to development of a wide range of skills, abilities, insights, and values that increase individual’s capacity for effective functioning in their organizations” (de Pater et al., 2009).

Compared to men, women have reported receiving fewer challenging management opportunities and choices (de Pater et al., 2009). Yet, even the notion of choice may be gendered. A survey of Canadian managers reported that among “qualified” women, many 107

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University opted out of development opportunities due to perceptions about limited opportunities for advancement, feeling that they did not have the support of colleagues, perceived insoluble work-life balance issues, and isolation and/or harassment among male colleagues (Brady and McLean, 2002).

Work and family conflict:

Women try to balance success and struggle with work and family conflict, which leads to difficulties in career progression. A study which was conducted by Liu and Wilson (2001) revealed that work family conflicts are experienced when pressures from work and family roles are mutually incompatible since participation in one role makes it difficult to participate in another, and this makes it difficult for female senior managers to advance their careers.

Meyerson (2001) illustrates that more than half of the survey‟s female respondents felt that the difficulty of balancing work and family occurs largely because women are assigned a majority of childbearing responsibilities and perform a large share of the household tasks. Many women, especially those in top management positions often choose to be single or married with no children in order to avoid such conflict (Brownell, 2004).

Brownell (2004) identified another source of conflict as the fact that advancement usually requires leaving home, relatives and the family to move across the country for better opportunities and, therefore, this means loss of quality time with families.

Mentors and networks:

Support from mentors can be anything from positive advice, encouragement, providing a subordinate with information and advice, training and giving direction (Chovwen, 2007; Cross & Linehan, 2006). Mentoring relationships have enabled many women to face and overcome difficult challenges in the course of their careers (Chovwen, 2007). Networks and mentors are said to be such a critical element of a successful career that research has shown that individuals who excel in building networks are generally those who gets recognised for promotions first (Cross & Linehan, 2006). Senior female managers can become mentors or role models who encourage younger women in their organisations to develop to higher levels (Ogden et al., 2006).

Mentors are said to be one of the key contributing factors for the successful development of aspiring young females in organisations (Singh et al., 2006). In their study, Ogden et al. (2006) discovered that networking was the most important factor raised by both men and women as enablers of their careers.

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In a study done on mentors by Ehrich (2008) it was found that mentor relationships have a positive impact on women’s salary increases and promotions, learning and growth, and also provide support in the form of the friendships that are established.

Organisational policies and culture:

Straub (2007) drew on the existing literature on how companies advance gender equality and eliminate the glass ceiling in organisations. She then suggested that this can be done by eliminating and celebrating gender differences (Straub, 2007).

Facilitator to women’s career advancement in organisations is the provision of equal opportunity and family-friendly HR policies (Ogden et al., 2006).

Research shows that after organisations have implemented factors such as these organisational policies, female representation is positively associated with the percentage of senior management positions held by females (Ogden et al., 2006; Straub, 2007). In addition, Ogden et al. (2006) suggests that, as managerial gender ratios become more balanced, female managers may find more opportunities to form and join informal networks in their organisations.

Organisational structures, Enache, Sallan, Simo and Fernandez (2011) found that a values- driven approach by top management had a positive impact on women’s career advancement.

Societal factors:

Traditional believes and assumptions of gender rolës still exist and can be strong barriers towards career advancement of women. Social norms dictate that women’s appropriate behaviors should be nurturing, caring, and cooperative and it is less appropriate for women to be aggressive or assertive in getting deserved developmental or promotional opportunities (Eagly and Carli, 2007).

Society sets standards and expectations and customs to organizations and individuals, in all spheres of life and thus affects female leadership (Mirza and Jabeen, 2011).

Societal factors have effects on various dimensions of life and cannot be easily controlled. Hence, they are the most difficult and time taking factors to change (Elsi, 2013).

Training and Development:

Research by Morrison et al. (1987) indicates that managerial women should be given similar opportunities for training and development as equivalence as men. Ragins and Sundstrom (1989) also found that training can develop knowledge, skills, credentials, and credibility, and thus it will be beneficial for the promotion. Therefore, education and training seem to have a great importance to the career development of women managers. Burke and McKeen (1994a) mentioned that managerial women who participate in a

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University greater number of education and training activities are more likely organizationally committed, job-satisfied and involved, and have higher career prospects.

A study by Mondy et al (2002) found that training and development are organizationally directed experiences designed to improve employee competency levels and enhance organizational performance.

More specifically, women’s advancement to senior management is directly related to their increased knowledge and skills and professional development opportunities made available to them throughout their careers (Wentling, 2003).

Training’s objectives are helping the employees to improve or gain skills and knowledge that would help them in the job performances and as well as improve their career advancement (Mondy and Noe, 2005).

In order to overcome barriers in organisations, human resource (HR) departments need to offer development programmes to train and improve the skills of their female employees (Straub, 2007). One way to achieve this is to include gender-related issues in the socialisation or induction aspects of organisational entry (Chovwen, 2007).

In her study exploring the impact of a women-only development programme designed for women identified as high potential leaders, Clarke (2011) found that such programmes provide women with a safe and supportive environment. As a result, their self-confidence increases, they acquire new learning skills and learn from the experiences of successful role models.

3. Conclusion

Women may have to work a little harder to reach the top, but it can and does happen.

There is little guidance for women on how to overcome these barriers in the workplace, as many theories focus only on men’s careers. Much of the literature discussed in this chapter suggests that the female career path cannot be compared to the original male career path.

As women executives assume key leadership positions, they may be able to create the change that is needed in many organizations in the twenty-first century. Furthermore, as women enter key leadership positions, they will be able to build the social capital needed within their organizations that will help break an organization's status quo when it comes to culture. As this happens, it will hopefully help women gain a greater sense of financial independence that can be passed on to women of future generations.

The majority of the authors suggest that education and training programmes could help reduce the barriers to women’s career advancement.

Training and development of women are also recommended, so that the many women managers can assume leadership roles as much as their male colleagues. It is believed that

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University the attention to the above will positively affect the ‘psyche’ of women managers and further sensitize their aspiration for managerial positions.

This paper has argued that the advancement of women in organizations depends on nine factors: friendships, personal factors, family responsibility, management experience, work and family conflict, mentors and networks, organisational policies and culture, societal factors, training and development. What this paper found is that, despite the fact that the literature review reveals that there are ways in which organizations can promote women’s development, it is critical to understand how these factors operate.

4. References

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54. Wentling, R.M. (2003). The career development and aspirations of women in middle management (revisited). Women in Management Review, 18(6), 311-24. 55. Wright, B. D. (1990). Women, Work and Technology Transformations. USA. University of Michigan Press. Wirth, L. (2001a). Breaking the glass ceiling: Women in management. Geneva: International Labor Organization (ILO).

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HEALTH CARE FINANCING AND REFORM IN ALBANIA A SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

Degjoni Rudina12

Head of National Medical Packaging Department at Health Care Insurance Fund of Albania, AAB College of Pristine on Master level direction of Health Care Management

Abstract

Keywords: woman, public health in Albania, health services

Introduction

Chapter I

12 The Compulsory of Health Care Insurance Fond of Albania

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THE PROTECTION OF WOMEN RIGHTS (ALBANIA AND CEDAW)

1.2. CEDAW and health protection of woman in Albanian

The Convention of CEDAW defines discrimination against women as "...any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field."13 Under Article 12, Albania has undertaken obligations to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health care, to ensure that women have equal access to health services. This includes the obligation of Albania to provide health services that only women need. The Albanian legislation is complete and provides special support and special health services to women, mothers and children. Currently, problems remain in the laë and not its content. Although it is necessary to make improvements in legislation in areas such as relating to examinations screening and prevention associated with early pregnancies, domestic violence and measures for its prevention, as well as gender-based violence, mental health screening women's reproductive tract tumors, etc. Like wise, it highlighted the need for drafting and adoption of a laë guaranteeing the recognition of gender identity, gender recognition law. The legal framework must be accompanied with appropriate budgets, funding strategies, which are considered to be underfunded. Liabilities are immediate, because under Article 12 (2) the verb "to ensure". Such obligations may be eg, prevention of some diseases, such as maternal mortality and tuberculosis. Obligations may be more gradual in case of adoption of a therapeutic drug as safe and effective, but that is more costly initially to be distributed to the public. Article 12 requires states to ensure access to specific services "related to family planning" and appropriate services for pregnancy, the postpartum period and needed nutrition during pregnancy and breastfeeding the baby. But Article 12 (2) is also specific in terms of granting free services where necessary. While Article 12 (1) includes no specific obligations as States Parties may choose for themselves the measures they deem necessary for garatimin equal access to health services, although these measures for monitoring the CEDAW Committee.

13 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly 116

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1.1.2 Albanian Social objectives in the context of CEDAW

1. Albania ratified CEDAW in 1993 (Law 1769 / 9.11.1993), and in 2003, it’s Optional Protocol (Law 9052 / 17.4.2003), adopted by the General Assembly on October 6, 1999, and entered into force in December 22, 2000. 2. According to the RA Constitution [Article 122/1], "Any ratified international agreement constitutes part of the internal juridical system after it is published in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Albania". 3. Pursuant to Article 18 of the CEDAW Convention, Albania has approved and submitted the report of the first, second and third periodic within-t CEDAW and currently has approved the report of the 4th national periodical. In each report, as at present, efforts have been made to reflect the legislative, judicial, administrative or otherwise, undertaken by the state in the implementation of the Convention, as well as any factor that has positively influenced or made difficult the approach to standards CEDAW. 4. Ratification, recognition and implementation of the CEDAW Convention has contributed to the progress of the legal and substantive equality of women with men. However, it should be noted that the practical implementation of these instruments in Albania is limited. 5. In this RH, and have found place to underline the results achieved by the Albanian government are focused on civil society that considers problems and shortcomings which still violate the standards of equality, leaving the ground Albanian women discrimination issues general health and sexual and reproductive health in particular focusing on Articles 12/1, 14/1 to CEDAW. Some of the achievements as well as some of the progress has not been linked to the fact that the development and the progress are an endless process the progress of which has room for all the merits as well as responsibility. Some deficiencies related to inadequate measures taken by the government. Other features of the failing associated with stereotypes that still have strong ground of the conditions of Albania.

1.1.3 Albanian implementation objectives in the context of article 12 of CEDAW

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University violence, mental health screening women's reproductive tract tumors, etc. Likewise, it highlighted the need for drafting and adoption of a law guaranteeing the recognition of gender identity, [Gender Recognition Law]. The legal framework must be accompanied with appropriate budgets, funding strategies, which are considered to be underfunded. Liabilities are immediate, because under Article 12 (2) the verb "to ensure". Such obligations may be eg, prevention of some diseases, such as maternal mortality and tuberculosis. Obligations may be more gradual in case of adoption of a therapeutic drug as safe and effective, but that is more costly initially to be distributed to the public. Article 12 requires states to ensure access to specific services "related to family planning" and appropriate services for pregnancy, the postpartum period and needed nutrition during pregnancy and breastfeeding the baby. But, Article 12 (2) is also specific in terms of granting free services where necessary. While Article 12 (1) includes no specific obligations as States Parties may choose for themselves the measures they deem necessary for garatimin equal access to health services, although these measures for monitoring the CEDAW Committee.

Chapter II

OVERVIEW OF ALBANIAN LEGISLATIVE FAMILY PLANNING

2.1. Reproductive health and sexual health

14 Albanian Law Nr. 8876 date 04.04.2002 “On Reproductive Health”, amended 118

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University categories of economically inactive persons, payment of contributions which financed Budget Gouvernment, of the category of persons including persons benefiting economically from the Institute of Social Security. Albanian law in the interpretation of social security no. 7703, dated 11.05.1993, Article 27 "Maternity Benefit", entitles the insured woman in case of pregnancy, take a charge for a period of 365 calendar days analyzing Joining the Convention obligation that expresses assert that legislation Albanian, by Law no. 8876, dated 04.04.2002 "On reproductive health" as amended, Article 24, states that all pregnant women receive free periodic medical pregnancy, birth and postnatal particularly prenatal examinations and after birth, binding, appointed the act of the Ministry of health. The number and type of tests required and performance periods are determined by the Ministry of Health. All pregnant women have the right to perform free examinations mandatory traversed by a doctor and receive free personal notebook progress of the pregnancy. “Sexual health is part of reproductive health and means to improve the lives and healthy sexual relationships, information, counseling, and care related to reproduction. The health includes normal development, equal sexual relationships and responsibly accepted equally by each partner, avoidance of disease and any disability, liability, violence, and any conduct harmful practice associated with sexuality, the realization of an optimal sexual life”15. Improving the quality of maternal and child services through unified protocols and standards for tracking maternal and child health and development of a national plan to consult with stakeholders on the health of women and girls constitutes a key actor in the Albanian society.

2.2. Family planning and contraception

15 Albanian Law Nr. 8876 date 04.04.2002, Article 4, “On Reproductive Health”, amended 16 http://www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/librishqip.pdf, page 12 119

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University child when desired, fix the intervals between births, to schedule births at the moment better in relation to the age of the mother avoiding pregnancies before age 20 and after 35 age. Family planning improves family health and well-being of individuals, families and in particular for women and children because it removes unwanted pregnancies, risk pregnancies (pregnancies in very young or very large pregnancies close to each other) and abortion uncertain; prevent mother and child deaths and prevent HIV / AIDS and IST17. In 2003 it drafted the first National Strategy of providing contraceptives, which aimed to provide and supplying a wide range of modern contraceptives every Albanian who need them, according to the purpose of the International Conference on Population and Development for universal access to health-related issues. A favor major objectives of this strategy and the achievement of independence in the provision of modern contraceptives in 2010, the objective now fully realized18. Family planning was confirmed as a basic human right. Since that time until now, the modern means of contraception distributed free of charge in all public health services. Today modern contraceptive market is liberalized and modern contraceptives available in three ways: free in the public sector, subsidized by social marketing and market prices in the private pharmaceutical network and non-traditional sales points. Under the guidance of the Ministry of Health, the public sector provided free pills, condoms and injections. This service is available to over 431 health facilities as hospitals, polyclinics, health centers and ambulances in some village. While methods that require a more specialized service, such as connection of pipes (female sterilization) and intrauterine devices (IUD), available only in centers with obstetricians and gynecologists19.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations:

17http://www.shendetesia.gov.al/files/userfiles/Baza_Ligjore/Dokumenta_strategjike/dokumenti_strategjik_marc h_2009.pdf

18 Ministry of Health 2002: Strategjia Kombëtare e Sigurimit të Kontraceptivëve (2003 – 2010) 19 Desertacioni “Ndryshimi i qëndrimeve dhe sjelljeve të të rinjve ndaj shëndetit riprodhues dhe seksual në vendin tonë, faktor për të shmangur vulnerabilitetin e grupit”, Anisa Subashi, faqe 38

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University public maternity hospitals and private clinics licensed to provide these services. About STIs and HIV / AIDS, the legal framework is complete and the infrastructure for maintaining control of these infections is satisfactory. Voluntary testing for HIV / AIDS carried out in centers of voluntary counseling and testing established in each county in SLI or by various NGOs that provide services in this area. Antiretroviral therapy is provided free by the state to all those infected, regardless of their employment status or insurance scheme. In the prison system are set up two centers for voluntary testing and counseling, which offer free tests and information for prisoners and prison staff. Also, various NGOs even with limited budget and activities, provide preventive services primarily for vulnerable groups, such as adolescents, drug users, MSM, sex workers, prisoners, etc.20

3.2 Sexual health and reproductive health the recommendation and request are:

3.2 For women with HIV / AIDS, sexually transmitted infections [STIs] and HIV / AIDS the recommendation and request are:

20 http://www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/librishqip.pdf, pg 34

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basic package of primary care services o Creating a supportive environment for girls and women, identifying, addressing and eliminating the barriers to prevention programs and interventions to sexually active women age. o Awareness programs among women belonging to vulnerable groups to enhance the possibility of identification.

3.3 For the health of women as victims of violence in families the recommendation and request are:

3.4 For victims of trafficking (VT / VMT) and recommended addressing health problems the recommendation and request are:

3.5 Albanian women health care in rural areas the recommendation and request are:

3.6 For women with disabilities [PAD] the recommendation and request are:

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References

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) Law Nr. 10 383, dated 24.2.2011, "On compulsory insurance of health care in the Republic of Albania ", amended Law Nr.8876, dated 04.04.2002 "On reproductive health" amended Law no. 7703, dated 11.05.1993, "On social insurance" A. Subashi (2010) page 308 "Changing attitudes and behavior of young people on sexual and reproductive health in our country, to avoid the vulnerability factor of the group" The Ministry of Health (2002) “National Security Strategy Contraceptive” (2003- 2010) The Report Nr. Reference. CEDAW/C/ALB/1-2 The Ministry of Health (2002) “The National Strategy of Compulsory Contranceptive” The Ministry of Health (2009) “Strategy of Health Care” The Ministry of Health (2011) “The National Strategy of Compulsoru Contraceptive” The Ministry of Health (2012) “The National Strategy of Compulsoru Contraceptive” WHO 2014. World health statistics. http://www.who.int/gho/countries/alb/en/ WHO Regional Office for Europe (2015) “HIV in Albania: A national Programme Report” UNICEF, WHO, World Bank group joint child malnutrition estimates (2015) “Levels and trends in child malnutrition” Wang H. e bp (2014). “Global, regional, and national levels of neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality during 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013”. Lancet 384:957-79. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (2015) Highlights on Health Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005) OECD Health Data “How Does Albania Compare” National Coalition on Health Care (2008) “Health Care in Albania” European Monitoring Center for drugs and drug adiction. The Albanian Profile (2015) http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html http: //www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/albanianbook.pdf http://www.acpd-al.org/images/pdf/albanianbook.pdf

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LEADERSHIP AND TEAM-BASED TRUST IN WOMEN ACADEMICIANS OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES Yasemin ÇİFTÇİ ŞENER,Lecturer, Namık Kemal University, Vocational College of Technical Sciences

Duygu DOĞAN,Lecturer (PhD.), Namık Kemal University, Projects Coordination Office

Leadership is a key factor in business life, as well as in academic life. The leadership behavior for a trainer requires not only reflecting professional knowledge, but also measuring the needs of trainees, the needs of practice area, the enterprise and the environment before deciding on the appropriate way of teaching and transferring the knowledge. Leadership in technical sciences is the management of critical thinking, academic knowledge, practical skills and technical experience on the subject in a balanced manner. The academics and teachers of technical sciences, who prepare young adults to work in industry and business, use leadership skills both at academic level as well as team- building and administrative levels. Women academicians and teachers working in sectors such as textile, machinery and construction, where mostly male workers and administrators are employed, need to use leadership skills with trust-building behaviors to the team member of students and colleagues. Thus, it is more complicated to assess leadership skills of academics and teachers working on technical sciences.

This study aims to help the assessment of women academicians’ leadership skills based on team-building trust via their self-reported behaviors. It also aims to explore the strengths and weaknesses of women academicians leading students of technical sciences. The research method is based on a mixed-type survey of open-ended and Likert-scale questions measuring team-based trust and leadership skills. The study has been carried out with the lecturers of the Vocational College of Technical Sciences affiliated to Namık Kemal University in Tekirdağ, Turkey in 2016.

Keywords: Leadership, team-based trust, vocational studies, academic leadership, assessment

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ASSESSMENT OF THE LEADERSHIP SKILLS IN FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES Dr. Duygu Doğan, Lecturer, Namık Kemal University, Projects Coordination Office Lecturer Yasemin Çiftçi Şener, Namık Kemal University, Vocational College of Technical Sciences, TURKEY

Leadership is a key factor in career development of people getting prepared to start business life. The leadership behavior, which is usually seen as the reflection of personal traits, can be practiced and enhanced by managerial and leadership roles undertaken within the family and during school years. These pre-service tasks may encourage young employees explore their own potential for leadership. After initiating their business or career experiences, they start to adopt the corporate behavior and values, to which their leadership skills contribute and enhance the corporate culture. Thus, making young adults self-assess their leadership skills at during school years would allow them to be aware of their potentials and to improve them. It is particularly important for female students who study at technical programs of vocational colleges as they are trained to work at intermediary-level positions in industrial sectors such as textile, manufacturing or construction. These positions require both technical knowledge and managerial skills.

This study aims to help the assessment of female college students’ leadership skills via their self- reported behaviors and to determine more frequently practiced skills. It also aims to explore the similarities and differences between male and female students’ leadership attitudes at technical vocational studies. The research method and survey are based on the adaptation of the Student Leadership Practices Inventory (SLP-I) introduced by Posner and Brodsky (1992) and later developed by Arendt and Gregoire (2005). The study has been carried out with the freshmen and sophomore students enrolled in associate degree offering technical programs at the Vocational College of Technical Sciences affiliated to Namık Kemal University in Tekirdağ, Turkey in 2016.

Keywords: Student leadership, vocational studies, leadership skill, corporate behavior, self- assessment

1 Introduction

Leadership is a key factor in career development which is a part of both academic and business contexts. Leadership is also a key element in organizational discourse Leadership is the process ¨by which a person exerts influence over people and inspires, motivates, and directs their activities to help achieve group or organizational goals¨ (Nwokocha and Iheriohanma, 2015: 185) which is a similar definiton of Northouse (2004) where leadership is defined as a process towards a specific goal. The leadership style in an organization is based on how power is exerted within the organization. Traditional leadership styles were baed on personal traits of the leaders (Erdem ve Dikici, 2009). During 1800s, Great Man Theory was the influencing one accoording to which the personal traits of a leader determined the history of a society (Denmark, 1993. 344) The current research on leadership styles are more based on corporate atmosphere and situational contexts. Newokocha and Iheriohanma (2015) emphasizes the autocratic, democratic, bureaucratic, charismatic or Laissez-Faire.types of leaders. Eagly et al. (2003) compare and contrat transformaitonal, transactional and laisses-faire leadership Transformational leaders appera as role models by ¨gaining trust and confidence of others¨ whiile building up goals and plans fort he 125

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University future (Eagly et al., 2003:570). Erdem and Dikici (2009: 200) declares that transformational leaders consider the employees as members and note their ideas during decision making whereas transactional leaders expect them to act in stated behavior manners and monitor the mistakes or erring behavior models. The laissez-faire leaders try to lead the status quo.

Leadership in educatioanl and academic contexts have also been a focus for rrecent reseacrh ideas. Hacıfazlıoğlu (2010) studied the leadership styles of women academicians at higher education in USA and Turkey. Kouzes and Posner studied on a Leadership Practice Inventory implemented on 1200 managers, which was adapted by Posner and Brodsky (1992) to academic environment for the target group of students and named the tool as Student Leadership Practice Inventory (SLP- I). The SLP-I was based on five leadership practice types ¨model the way, inspire a shred vision, challenge the process, enable others to act and encourage the heart¨ (Posner, 2012: 222). Arendt and Gregoire (2005) implemented the tool on 344 hopitality management studnets with an addition of the self-reports of students on the contexts where they display the leadership behaviors the most. Boulais (2012) studied the SLP-I on children in a different perspective. This research studying the self-reporting perspectives of female students of vocational college of technical sciences is also based on the Student Leadership Practice Inventory based on the stements in Arendt and Gregoire (2005) and Posner (2012). 2 Research Design and Methodology

The research was designed to respond to two questions: 1) To assess female college students’ leadership skills via their self-reported behaviors 2) To determine more frequently practiced leadership skills based on demographic features of the attendees. The research was based on quantitative survey method using a paper-based questionnaire on SLP-I for students. Statistical Package for Social Sciences on Windows version 18 was utilized to analyze obtained data and descriptive statistics were calculated via this program. The research universe was the Vocational College of Technical Sciences affiliated to Namık Keaml University in Tekirdağ, Turkey and random sampling was done on four selected programs where girls’ population is relatively higher or nearly equals to boys’ population. Selected programs comprised Textile Technology, Food Technology, Biomedical Technology and Construction Inspection. Only female respondents’ surveys were involved in the analyses. Data collection procedures were carried out during the second half of October 2016.

The Scale for Leadership Skills in Vocational Training was based on the Student Leadership Practice Inventory which was originally created by Posner and Bordsky (1992).The statements and scale dimensions however were adapted from Arendt and Gregoire’s study (2005). The statements and the scale ranks in the referred article were first translated into Turkish by an English instructor, who is also one of the researchers, and later on translated in reverse by a second English instructor so as to check the meaningfulness, compatibility and relevance of each statement in Turkish.

After revision, the Scale for Leadership Skills in Vocational Training consisted of a paper-based questionnaire having 30 statements with 5-scale Likert-type items in addition to 6 demographic questions regarding age, gender, seniority in year as well as training and job experience and team leadership experience in social life. The Likert scale had frequency items ranked between 1-5 as ¨never, seldom, sometimes, very often and always¨. In order to reveal the perceptions of students on the personal image of a good leader, an open-ended question was added to the survey.

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Vocational College of Technical Sciences was founded on 15.10.1976 as an affiliation to the Ministry of National Education. It started to offer associate degree regarding the Law of Higher Education Council after being affiliated to Trakya University Tekirdağ Faculty of Agriculture on 20.07.1982.

Proceeding the establishment of Namık Kemal University on 17.03.2006, the college was bound to the un and on 23.05.2008 Technical Sciences and Social Sciences Programmes were divided so as to make up two different vocational schools.

Today, there are 29 technical vocational programs offering associate degree to more than 5000 students. There are 53 full-time and 13 part-time academic personnel and 18 administrative staff employed at the school. The academic staff is distributed into 2 associate professors, 20 assistant professors and 30 lecturers and instructors.

3 Results

3.1 Leadership Skills and Practices

The pilot study included 20 samples. The reliability statistics for pilot study displayed Cronbach’s alpha as 0,889 for the overall scale with 30 items. The scale is considered to be highly reliable. The reliability statistics if item deleted showed that questions 1-4 had a slightly higher effect on increasing the total reliability which was an expected result as in the original study of Arendt and Gregoire (2005), the same items defined under the dimension of enabling others to act had higher mean scores than the others. In order to provide the unity of the scale, no it4ms were excluded for the total study.

For the total study, Cronbach’s estimate on standardized items was α= .941 with 96 valid cases (81.4 %). The result showed that the overall scale was highly reliable since α |>,80 (Tavşancıl, 2010). Overall 118 students attended the survey .The vast majority of the students were in the age range of 17-20 years as they were all enrolled students at associate programs and the respondents’ distribution between classes was almost equal as 50.8 % representing the first year students. 96.6 % of the respondents were females which was compatible with the target group of the study. The respondents were the students of seven different associate programs though 78 % represented two programs comprising Textile Technology and Food Technology in which the former had the majority of attendees. Training or internship experience and work experience were included in the demographic questions so as to determine whether respondents had any chance to practice their leadership skills in a work-based or task-based context which was closer to working conditions and employee interactions in real life. Only 20,7 % of the respondents were identified with no training experience, where the remaining 80 % had the majority of students with training experience less than 12 months. Compared to the training experience, real-life job experience was relatively lower than training or internship rates with 47,8 % of the students somehow being employed in part- time or full-time jobs outside school. The last demographic criterion was asserted to reveal the school-based or society-based leadership tasks in which students had the role of a leader in a minor group. Only 25 % of the students responded positively to this statement. Table 1 displays the detailed demographic features of the respondents according to the above mentioned criteria.

The mean rates for self-reported leadership action statements were computed for each leadership skill. The action statements with the highest mean scores were explored to be ¨I treat others with 127

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University dignity and respect¨ (m=4,4 ± 0,6) and Ï foster cooperative rather than competitive relationships with people with whom I work¨ (m=4,2± 0,9) when enabling other team members to act collaboratively; Ï give people support and express appreciation for their contributions¨ (m=4,3 ±0,8) and Ï make sure that people are recognized for their contributions¨(m=4,2 ± 0,8) when motivating others in frustrating or exhausting times; ¨ I follow through on promises and commitments I make¨ (m=4,4 ±0,8) regarding the leader’s a bility to model the route for team members; Ï am upbeat and positive when talking about what our group is doing¨ (m=4,3 ±0,9) and ¨ I show enthusiasm and excitement about what others and I are doing¨ (m=4,2 ±0,9) as an ability to inspire others to share a vision or a future expectancy. The leadership skill referring to the leader’s ability to take risks and challenge to solve the problems was found to have a slightly lower mean score compared to other four skills. The action statement Ï look for opportunities that challenge my skills and abilities¨ was determined as the most frequently practices one among others in this dimension (m=4,1 ± 1,0).

Table 1 Demographic Features of Vocational College Students

Age n % Year n % 17-20 112 94,9 First 60 50,8 21-24 5 4,2 Second 58 49,2 25 and over 1 ,8 Total 118 100,0 Total 118 100,0 Training experience n % Gender n % No 24 20,7 Female 113 96,6 Yes, less than 12 months 75 64,7 Male 4 3,4 Yes, 1-2 years 17 14,7 Total 117 100,0 Total 116 100,0

Program n % Work experience n % Textile Technology 61 51,7 No 60 52,2 Biomedical Technology 2 1,7 Yes, less than 12 months 38 33,0 Food Technology 31 26,3 Yes, 1-2 years 10 8,7 Machinery 3 2,5 Yes, more than 2 years 7 6,1 Mechanical Drawing 10 8,5 Total 115 100,0 Construction Technology 9 7,6 Leadership experience n % Construction Inspection 2 1,7 No 87 75,0 Total 118 100,0 Yes 29 25,0 Total 116 100,0

Comparing the mean scores for each dimesnsion (m=23,5) and m=22,9 and m=24,9), inspiring a sharedvision was the most frequently practiced leadershp skill among the female students enrolled at vocational and technical sciences whereas enouraging the heart and modelling the way had slighly lower scores with m=24,0 and m=24,4 respectively.The first dimension entitled as enabling others to act had the fourth rank among all in this study although it was described as the most frequently practiced one in Arendt and Gregoire’s (2005: 6) study (m=24,4) and in Kouzes and Posner (1998) Challenging the process, which had m=22,9 in this study had a relatively lower (score m=21,5) in Arendt and Gregoire (2005), was identified as the least frequently practiced dimension in both studies. Inspiring a shared vision, which had the highest overall mean scores 128

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University with students of vocational and technical sciences had the lowest score in the study with hospitality management students. In contrats with Kouzes and Posner’s (1998) research where gender-based differences were revealed, the descriptive statistics for vocational college students were limited to female respondents only.Table 2 displays the mean scores for each action statment under five leadership practice dimensions.

Table 2 Mean Scores for the Dimensions of Leadership Skills

A) Enabling Others to Act Std. Action Statement Mean Deviation 1) I treat others with dignity and respect. 4,4746 ,66296 2) I support decisions that other people make on their own. 3,5678 ,92892 3) I include others in planning activities and programs. 3,7521 ,90883 4) I foster cooperative rather than competitive relationships with people 4,2479 ,97296 with whom I work. 5) I give others a great deal of freedom and choice in deciding how to do 4,1356 ,95107 their work. 6) I provide opportunities for others to take on leadership 3,3739 1,21005 responsibilities. B) Encouraging the Heart Std. Action Statement Mean Deviation 7) I praise people for a job well done. 4,0603 1,03242 8) I give people support and express appreciation for their 4,3898 ,86759 contributions. 9) I make sure that people are recognized for their contributions. 4,2222 ,89164

10) I encourage others as they work on activities and programs. 3,8632 1,11344 11) I make it a point to tell others about the good work done by our 4,0862 1,03478 group. 12) I find ways to celebrate accomplishments publicly. 3,6695 1,21286 C) Modelling the Way Std. Action Statement Mean Deviation 13) I follow through on promises and commitments I make. 4,4914 ,81822 14) I set a personal example of what I expect from other people. 3,9746 ,99967 15) I make sure that we set goals and make specific plans for the 4,0171 1,01695 projects our group undertakes. 16) I share my beliefs about how things can be run most effectively. 4,1966 ,99342 17) I break projects and work into manageable steps. 4,0508 ,93230 18) I talk about values and principles that guide my actions. 3,7542 1,06968 D) Challenging the Process Std. Action Statement Mean Deviation

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19) I look for ways to improve projects or tasks in which I am involved. 3,9828 ,99549 20) I look for opportunities that challenge my skills and abilities. 4,1610 1,01249 21) I let others experiment and take risks even when outcomes are 3,7712 1,14288 uncertain. 22) I keep current on events and activities that might affect others with 3,5983 1,18219 whom I interact. 23) I ask, “What can we learn from this experience?” whe things do not 3,6525 1,04903 go as expected. 24) I take initiative in experimenting with the way we do things. 3,8000 1,05298 E) Inspiring a Shared Vision Std. Action Statement Mean Deviation 25) I am upbeat and positive when talking about what our group is 4,3190 ,92876 doing. 26) I show enthusiasm and excitement about what others and I are 4,2393 ,99697 doing. 27) I look ahead and communicate about what I believe will affect others 4,1441 ,92704 in the future. 28) I describe to others what we should be capable of accomplishing. 4,1026 ,97719 29) I talk with others about how their interests can be met by working 4,0776 1,09664 toward a common goal. 30) I speak with conviction about the higher purpose and meaning of 4,0763 1,04723 what we are doing.

3.2 Characteristics of a Good Leader

The qualitative stage of the research accumulated the perspectives of the vocational students on the emerging characteristics of a good leader who is able to bring about a new prospect for the team while managing the activities and the team members involved in it. At this stage, 162 adjectives or phrases referring to personal traits were acquired from the survey. The data were semantically analyzed and classified under 38 leadership traits displayed in Table 3.

The analysis showed that the most required personal trait in a good leader is self-confidence. Entrepreneurship, respectfulness, trustworthiness and being fair to everyone around are other highly recommended personal traits described by vocational students. Leading a team or having the leader spirit as a personal trait is seen apart from managerial skills which is perceived mostly as an attribute to the administration and authoritative manner. Both of these traits are observed as required lements for a good leader in the perceptions of the participants.

Table 3 Mean Scores for Personal Traits of a Good Leader

Trait n Trait n Self-confident 14 Persuasive 2 Entrepreneur 10 Serious / Calm 2 Respectful 10 Researcher 2 Trustworthy 9 Courageous 2

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Fair 9 Motivating 2 Predictive 8 Hardworking 2 Determinant 7 Creative 2 Responsible 6 Tidy / Organised 2 Leading / Leader spirit 6 Competent / Wise 2 Deliberate 6 Tolerant 2 Positive 6 Intermediator 2 Successful 5 Faithful 2 Integrative 5 Active Listener 1 Honest 4 Modest 1 Authoritative / Administrator 4 Empathy 1 Having a purpose 3 Friendly 1 Disciplined 3 Easygoing 1 Effectively Speaking 3 Clever 1 Patient 3 Innovative 1

4 Conclusion

This study aims to give a Turkish perspective on the student leadership practices perceived and reported by female students enrolled at technical vocational programs in Namik Kemal University. The results exhibit that female students perceive themselves as highly demanding situation regarding their own leadership practices. Inspiring a shared vision is the most frequently used leadership skill by these students. They also describe a good leader in terms of different personal characteristics among which self-confidence, entrepreneurship, respect, trustworthiness and being fair or just in relationships seem to be the leading ones. This study might inspire more detailed studies in various academic contexts on gender-based comparisons between male and female students who prepare themselves for technical and managerial settings in business life.

References

Arendt Susan W., Gregoire, Mary B. (2005): ¨Leadership Behaviors in Hospitality Management Students¨. Journal of Tourisnm and Hospitality Education. pp. 1-19. Online manuscript. http://www.tandf.com/10.1080/10963758.2005.10696838.

Boulais, Nicole A. (2012): ¨Leadership in Children’s Literature: Qualitative Analysis from a Study Based on the Kouzes and Posner Leadership Framework¨. The Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 54-63.

Denmark, Florence, L. (1993): ¨Women, Leadership, Empowerment¨. Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 17, pp. 343-356.

Eagly, Alice H., Johannesen-Schmidt,, Mary J., Van Engen, Marloes L. ( 2003): ¨Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men¨. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 129, No. 4, pp. 569–59.

Erdem, Orhan, Dikici, Metin (2009): ¨Leadership and Influence Organizational Culture¨. Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, Summer 2006, Vol. 8, No. 29, pp. 198-213.

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Hacıfazlıoğlu, Özge (2010): ¨Balance in Academic Leadership. Voices of Wıomen from Turkey and the United States of America (US)¨, Perspectives in Education, 28(2), pp. 51-62.

Kouzes, J. M., Posner, B. Z. (1988). Student leadership practice inventory: Facilitator’s Guide. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, USA.

Northouse, P.G. (2004). Leadership Theory and Practice. Pastoral Psychology, 56 (4), 403-411.

Nwokocha, Izidor, Iheriohanma EBJ. (2015): ¨Nexus between Leadership Styles, Employee Retention and Performance in Organizations in Nigeria¨.European Scientific Journal. Vol.11, No.13, pp. 185-198.

Posner, Barry Z.(2012): ¨Effectively Measuring Student Leadership¨. Administrative Sciences, Vol. 2, pp. 221-234.

Posner, Barry Z., Brodsky, B. (1992). ¨A leadership development instrument for college students¨. Journal of College Student Development, 33, pp. 231-237.

Tavşancıl, Exel (2010). Tutumların Ölçülmesi ve SPSS ile Veri Analizi, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara.

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WOMEN IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDY OF KOSOVO

Kastrati, Artë21, Sahiti, Samire22

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to present the importance of women participation in business, respectively in leading and management positions of a business or institution. The main purpose of this paper is to present the challenges of women inclusion in the managerial process and in advancing and empower the role of women in society. Recent data from different reports and studies from other researchers claimed that despite the great importance for the country, women’s participation in business is quite low, especially in Kosovo. Women in business are improving the economic growth in countries worldwide. This is valid for businesswomen in Kosovo, although their participation in this process is quite low. In fact, less than 10 percent of businesses in Kosovo are run by women.23 Such a percentage is too small to ensure progressive growth in our country. There are many factors which influence women participating in business activities. Some of those are considered to be the existence of bureaucratic procedures to start up a new business; lack of education and orientation in specific profiles, limited access to loans etc. Including the fact that Kosovo is a developing country and, also in view of the situation created years ago, until now the Kosovo institutions have not allocated sufficient funds which would result in the improvement of the position of women in the doing business. However, the latest economic and social trends give positive signals towards the economic development, which precede the improvement of women participating in the business. All this will increase welfare in terms of gender, and also the welfare of the citizens of Kosovo. Creating the preconditions to integrate and advance women in business and in society such as; simplifying procedures to create a business, making it easier to access loans and other influential factors in this aspect would be an important step towards the sustainable economic and social development.

Keywords: Women, Business and Management, Kosovo, Economic Development, Challenges and Difficulties.

21 Master of Economy Sciences at University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”. Str. Agim Ramadani, n.n., 10000 Prishtinë. Email: [email protected]; Tel: 00377 44 983 177 22 Master of Economy Sciences at University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”. Str. Agim Ramadani, n.n., 10000, Prishtinë. Email: [email protected]; Tel: 00377 44 131 628 23 USAID| Kosovo, (2015). Success story. “Women Gain Traction in Kosovo’s Business Sector”. 133

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I. INTRODUCTION

Women, as part of the society, play a significant role in country’s development. This means women should be involved in all important processes occurring in the country, especially in processes related to the business activities and management. The main research questions about this paper are: - What are the reasons for women’s hesitation to participate in business and management? - Which factors are affecting the success of women in business and management?

Historically, the participation of women in these two important spheres was lower than it should be for a country in order to get a higher growth rate. Based on the previous surveys, it is argued that the participation of women in general is very important for the country, because women are contributing on numerous spheres such as; education, health, security, politics, economics, medicine, etc. However, in order to be more developed and integrated, it is important for the country to support women participating in activities which are considered to have a direct impact on social and economic development. Kosovo, as one of the developing countries, was facing challenges in the gender aspect. The role of women in business and management and, also in the other important spheres was lower during all the past years. A few years ago until now some changes have been made in the social and economic inclusion of the women, with regard to managerial positions and entrepreneurship. Besides this, more work needs to be done in order to improve women’s position in society and consequently to improve country’s development.

II. HISTORICAL EVIDENCE

In the past centuries, women were deprived of their rights in society, especially before the 21 century. Some substantial changes which have been made during the past years, have improved the role of women in society. Some of these changes that we have considered as the most important, and relevant to be part of this paper are presented in the following part, by presenting the most important events over the years. 1848 - The first women's rights convention is held in Seneca Falls, New York.24 This was a very important step towards improvement of gender equality and improvement of the role and the rights of women in society, and ultimately proceeding to the next steps and initiatives. 1850 - The first National Women's Rights Convention took place in Worcester, Mass.25 This was also an important step because it lifted the society to an equal one. 1893 - Colorado is the first state to adopt an amendment granting women the right to vote.26 Since this initiative was taken during this year, the role of women in society has improved more in terms of decision-making positions. Also, in the following years, women’s position in society started improving in the other aspects as well.

24 "Infoplease Article." Fact Monster. © 2000–2013 Sandbox Networks, Inc., publishing as Fact Monster. 28 Nov. 2016 . 25 Infoplease Article." Fact Monster. © 2000–2013 Sandbox Networks, Inc., publishing as Fact Monster. 28 Nov. 2016 . 26 Infoplease Article." Fact Monster. © 2000–2013 Sandbox Networks, Inc., publishing as Fact Monster. 28 Nov. 2016 . 134

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1896 - The National Association of Colored Women is formed, bringing together more than 100 black women's clubs.27 1903 - The National Women's Trade Union League (WTUL) is established to advocate for improved wages and working conditions for women.28 The most important step of women’s movement related to the topic of this paper is considered to be the establishing of this League because this led to an increased participation of women in labor market. This was reinforced more after 17 years when another crucial step was taken. 1920 - The Women's Bureau of the Department of Labor is formed to collect information about women in the workforce and safeguard good working conditions for women.29

III. WOMEN IN DECISION- MAKING POSITIONS

The society was characterized by a lower participation of women in all spheres for a long time, including education, economics, politics, health, social and numerous other aspects and activities which have a crucial impact on the economic and social development of a country. Therefore, it was necessary to start working on improving the decision-making positions for women in all countries worldwide. Women have made inroads into decision-making positions in many spheres of life and, although they still represent only 21 percent of board members of the biggest listed companies, this constitutes a significant (nine percentage points) improvement over the last five years.30 One of the most important improvements in terms of decision-making positions has been done in politics field, by enabling women to be elected as congresswoman with electoral gender quota. It is important to mention that the gender quota is set at 30 percent in Kosovo.31 This quota was put to facilitate the position of women in the Parliament and consequently in the most spheres which are considered to be more attractive and suitable for them.

IV. WOMEN’S INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS/ INSTITUTIONS

Women in all over the world are facing obstacles that preclude them from expressing their capacity in order to do the best for business and management as well. Therefore, since the beginning and organization of the institutional life, a strong support was needed from institutions and organizations in order to improve the gender equality. We have summarized briefly some of the many organizations and institutions which are established, and are functioning either at international level or at local level (Kosovo). Women for Women International - With more than 20 years of on-the-ground experience working with women in countries affected by conflict, Women for Women International understands that a comprehensive program addressing the social and economic empowerment of marginalized women is the most effective approach.32

27 Ibid 28Infoplease Article." Fact Monster. © 2000–2013 Sandbox Networks, Inc., publishing as Fact Monster. 28 Nov. 2016 . 29 Ibid 30European Union. (2015). Strategic Engagement for Gender Equality. Doi: 10.2838/454429, Brussel, Belgium. 31 The Law on General Elections, The Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, Law No. 03/L-073, Article 27, Paragraph 1. (2008)

32 Women for Women International. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.womenforwomen.org/what-we-do [28.11.2016] 135

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The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) is a global research institute, which identifies women’s contributions as well as the obstacles that prevent them from being economically strong and able to fully participate in society.33

Women Aid International - Founded over ten years ago as a humanitarian aid and development agency, Women Aid’s mission is to provide relief and assistance to women and children suffering distress caused by wars, disasters or poverty, to empower women through education, training, provision of credit and to campaign against violations of women's human rights.34 The Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID) is an international, feminist, membership organization committed to achieve gender equality, sustainable development and women’s human rights.35 The Association for Women in Communications is a professional organization that champions the advancement of women across all communications disciplines by recognizing excellence, promoting leadership and positioning its members at the forefront of the evolving communications era.36 The International Labour Organization also contributes on identifying the necessary measures to improve women’s position and consequently on implementing the necessary changes in this aspect. In the range of Kosovar institutions and organizations which are supporting women in business and management is the Institution which was established specifically to strengthen gender equality in Kosovo. The Agency for Gender Equality, which was established by the Prime Minister’s Office, has the role to provide support to all women, including organization of activities by which the role of women would be reinforced, preparation of documents which raise awareness among people about the importance of women’s inclusion in all spheres of the daily basis. Based on the responsibilities of this Agency, the Kosovo Program for Gender Equality has been prepared and published. This is a strategic document for integration of Gender Equality in policies and public programs of the Government of the Republic of Kosovo.37 Except the Agency for Gender Equality, other institutions of Government including ministries, municipalities, agencies, etc. have their existing offices (sectors) which take care of policies, documents and similar activities in order to achieve the gender equality within these relevant institutions. The Kosovo Women’s Network (KWN) mission is to support, protect and promote the rights and the interests of women and girls throughout Kosovo, regardless of their political beliefs, religion, and age, level of education, sexual orientation, and ability. KWN fulfills its mission through the exchange of experience and information, partnership and networking, research, advocacy, and service.38 The mission of the Kosovar Gender Studies Center (KGSC) is to integrate gender-sensitive analysis, programs, and policies in all sectors of Kosovar society by increasing gender awareness and a focus

33 International Center for Research on Women. (2016) Retrieved from http://www.icrw.org/about/ [28.11.2016] 34 WomenAid International. (2000) Retrieved from: http://www.womenaid.org/intro/mainfram.htm [28.11.2016] 35 Association for Women’s Rights in Development. [2016] Retrieved from: https://www.awid.org/ [28.11.2016] 36The Association for Women in Communications [2016] Retrieved from:…………………………………………………….. http://www.womcom.org/content.aspx?page_id=22&club_id=903060&module_id=193261 [28.11.2016] 37 Agency for Gender Equality. Office of the Prime Minister. (n.d) Kosovo Program for Gender Equality. Prishtinë. Kosovë 38Kosovo Women’s Network. (2016). Mission. Retrieved from: http://www.womensnetwork.org/?FaqeID=4 [28.11.2016] 136

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University on gender issues, developing gender studies and ensuring the inclusion of gender-sensitive policies through research, policy development, advocacy, and lobbying.39 In addition to the organizations and institutions for women’s, the Republic of Kosovo has also prepared and approved the Law on Gender Equality which has entered into force in 2015. This Law determines the general and specific measures to ensure and protect the equal rights of men and women and defines the Institutions responsible and their competencies.40

V. GENDER BUDGETING

When we talk about the supporting measures of the institutions and organizations towards the integration of women in Kosovo in institutional life, it is important to mention that gender budgeting plays a significant role in improving women’s position in that aspect. Gender Responsive Budgeting was launched at an event organized by USAID in partnership with the Kosovo Women’s Network (KWN). The initiative will institutionalize Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) within the Ministry of Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning.41 Furthermore, the Ministry of Finance, with the help of the Women's Network of Kosovo, in the First Budgetary Circular for the implementation of budget of 2017 has made clear requirements for gender responsive budgeting to comply with their obligations under the Law on Gender Equality. Under the current format of the budget process, requirements set by circulars are focused on information about gender distribution of budgetary inputs, wages and employment, goods and services, as well as other economic categories of expenditure.42

VI. CHALLENGES OF WOMEN IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT - INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT

The challenges that women face every day differ from circumstances in which they occur, but the most sensitive areas which affect women’s life are the business and management. Kosovo institutions have consistently increased their support towards women’s integration in the abovementioned fields by taking specific activities with the aim of encouraging women to be more involved in business events. One of those institutions is KIESA (Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency) which organizes some activities for women who are leading businesses. Some of these activities are as follows: The most successful women in business - It is an annual event of MTI /KIESA co-organized together with the Kosovo Women’s Chamber of Commerce – G7. It aims to encourage successful women entrepreneurs, who have managed to become competitive in the local and foreign market.43 Besides, the first prize for the most successful businesswomen, some other awards are given to the most successful businesswomen in some business activities such as; production, services, trade and the award for the most creative businesswomen.

39 Kosovar Gender Studies Center. (2015) Retrieved form http://www.kgscenter.net/?lang=en 40 Law on Gender Equality, The Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, Law No. 05/L -020, Article 1, Paragraph 2.(2015) 41 USAID Kosovo, (2016), Retrieved from: https://www.usaid.gov/kosovo/news-information/press-releases/launching- gender-responsive-budgeting-kosovo [28. 11.2016] 42 Ministry of Finance, (2016). News. Retrieved from; http://mf.rks-gov.net/page.aspx?id=2,2,384 [28.11.2016] 43 Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency, KIESA, Republic of Kosovo. [2016] Retrieved from: http://www.invest-ks.org/en/the-most-successful-women-in-business [27.11.2016] 137

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“Women’s Entrepreneurial Leadership” conference - It’s a conference which discusses important topics as the role of women in leadership and entrepreneurship. The conference presents successful examples of women leaders and entrepreneurs.44 This enables the businesswomen to discuss and exchange experiences with the participants of the conference. This conference provides considerable room to women to discuss their matters with the leaders of the Kosovo Institutions as well as find solutions for their matters. “Women in Business” trade fair - The fair aims to promote women in business, and create new opportunities in networking and new markets. It’s a traditional event organized by Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency. The fair gathers about 50 businesses that are owned or managed by women.45 This is also an opportunity for women to introduce and promote their products and consequently seek for a greater cooperation with other businesses and other relevant institutions. The other indicator that proves the support by the institutional mechanisms for women in Kosovo, is the fact that The Women’s Economic Forum is part of the Nacional Council for Economic Development (NCED). At the 115th meeting of the government of the Republic of Kosovo, the Women’s Economic Forum has become and equal member with full rights in the Nacional Council for Economic Development (NCED). The Women’s Economic Forum is made up by organizations that are engaged on empowering involvement of women contribution in economy.46

VII. RESULTS

With the purpose of getting real and significant data, we did a questionnaire for women in business and management. So, we have identified some of the women that are involved in these positions, and have sent it to them through email and physically as well. This questionnaire contains 15 questions which are classified in two categories: general questions and specific questions. The first part is about general questions, and in the second part are including questions about our research, with the main propose to make our paper useful and significant for policy-makers. We have formulated some questions that can be found at the end of the paper like an appendix, and we will elaborate them in this part.

44 Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency, KIESA, Republic of Kosovo. [2016] Retrieved from http://www.invest-ks.org/en/women%E2%80%99s-entrepreneurial-leadership-conference. [27.11.2016] 45 Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency, KIESA, Republic of Kosovo. [2016] Retrieved from: http://www.invest-ks.org/en/women-in-business-trade-fair [27.11.2016] 46 Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Kosovo. [2016] Retrieved from: http://www.mti-ks.org/en-us/Minister's- Activities/Women-s-Economic-Forum-becomes-part-of-the-National-Council-for-Economic-Development-3602-3602 [15.11.2016] 138

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Ethinicity

97%

Albanian Others

Age- Group Above 55 7%

46-55 23%

36-45 3% 21-35 67%

Fig. 1 and 2. Your age group and ethnicity?

According to the responds of the questionnaire, most of the women were Albanian, and only 3 percent of them were others, minorities specifically, Ashkali that live and work in Kosovo. We did this to see both Albanians and minorities’ women, if they have the same challenges and difficulties in business and management. We would like to mention that this is a very small percentage of minorities, but it is in correlation with Albanian’s women challenges, and it means we can conclude that both of them have almost the same challenges and difficulties, which will be elaborated below in the paper. Another important fact about women in business and management positions is women’s age. Based on our results, most of them are between 21-35 years, and it is near 65

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University percent, which means this category of women has better conditions in terms of education and advancement of their academic level. The second large group is between 46-55 years, the results of which are around 23 percent. The other age-group is 36-45 years, and it is 3 percent, and for women above 55 years is 7 percent. So, we can conclude that older women have more difficulties, and they do not have many opportunities for access in business and management, as result of many factors like; the lack of education, emancipation of woman, not enough support from family.

Education 60% 50%

50% 43%

40%

30%

20%

7% 10%

0% High School Higher Education/ Faculty Master/ PhD

Fig. 3. What is the level of education that you have completed?

Despite the fact that we have not enough women in business or leadership positions, women in Kosovo are well-educated, and according to the responds of the questionnaire we managed to understand their level of education, and came to the conclusion that it is a relatively good level of women’s education. Based on this point, most of women (50 percent) have a master degree or Ph.D., and 43 percent have higher education/ faculty completed, and only 7 percent have a high school diploma.

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Main Occupation

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

0% Economist Lawyer Politologist Other

Fig. 4. What is your main occupation?

As it can be seen in the above figure on the question related to the women’s occupation, the results show that most of them were in other occupations including; psychologist, sociologist, etc. Then the other large group of their main occupation is Economist, Politologist, and a few of them are lawyers. This means that the purpose of this question was to obtain information from most of the professions, and to achieve the results as close to the reality of women in business and management respectively.

Employment sector

10%

27%

63%

Public Sector Private Sector Other

Fig. 5. Which sector are you engaged in?

Regarding the women’s professions, we have also formulated a more detailed question to understand in which sectors they are engaged in. The results of this question show that 63 percent of women respondents are currently working in the public sector, 27 percent are working in the 141

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University private sector, and always based on our questionnaire, the smallest percentage is for women that are involved in others sector e.g. NGOs, and it is 10 percent. Current position 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Decision-making position Entrepreneurship

Fig. 6. What is your current position?

To see the involvement and position of women in public sector, private sector or at NGOs, we have formulated another question with regard to their current position, and from the women surveyed, most of them (80 percent) are in decision-making positions, and the rest of 20 percent are entrepreneurial.

Limited participation in competitive Our Social Norms activities 35% 41%

Patriarchal family behavior 24%

Fig. 7. How do you explain the hesitation of women to participate in business activities and management in Kosovo?

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In order to see more closely why women are hesitating to participate in business and management, we did this question, with some alternatives that are presented in the above figure. According to the responses of women in that question, we have achieved the following results; 35 percent of our social norms, 24 percent are from patriarchal family. Also, women think their biggest hesitation to participate in business and management derives as a result of restricted participation in the competitive labor, which is 41 percent. Women in Kosovo face multifaceted obstacles due to inter alia the strong traditional and patriarchal social norms. Often, these norms limit women to own and inherit property and land, and it is estimated that women own only 8 percent of the properties in Kosovo. Women’s own independence is limited due to the inheritance issues and limited access to financial resources.

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% Poor Fair Good Very Good

Fig. 8. Institutional support for the role of women in society?

Except the question why women hesitate to participate in business and management, we have designed another question, because we consider that there are more factors that negatively affect women’s participation in these activities. In other words, the question is; which are the factors affecting the success of women in business and management in Kosovo? We have received different answers for this question and the results are as follows; 53.3 percent think it is poor, 6.7 percent think that it is fair, 33.3 percent think that is good, and 6.7 percent think it is very good. Then we can conclude that the lack of institutional support in our society is another important factor which has an impact in women’s hesitation in business and management.

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Simplification of procedures for establishing a business 33% Easier access to credit

60% Education and orientation on specific profiles

Fig. 9. Which are the factors affecting the success of women in business and management in Kosovo?

We are aware that starting a business and succeeding on it is more challenging. The procedure to obtain the Business Registration, Fiscal Number, and VAT number has been merged into a single procedure. One stop shops have been established in 26 municipalities and are now routinely issuing business registration and fiscal numbers (and if requested, VAT registration) in a single procedure.47 But women who have achieved success in business and decision-making in Kosovo say that there are some factors that have a significant impact to reach the success in that field. Therefore, the answers by women’s for our research are as follows; it should exist a simplification of procedures for establishing a business, make it easier the access to credit, and it should exist a guide for women to education in specific profiles. Specifically, the results by their answers are; 6.7 percent simplification of bureaucratic procedures, easier access to credit is 33 percent, and for education and specific orientation are around 60 percent. However, there are not the only hesitations facing women’s empowerment in Kosovo. Also, they have presented other important institutional barriers that, if addressed, can lead to a greater systematic change.48 Strengthening these economic and political institutions will ensure Kosovo’s democracy delivers to all citizens, regardless of gender.

47 World Bank, (2016). Doing Business in Kosovo. Retrieved from: http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/kosovo#starting-a-business, [28.11.2016] 48 CIPE (2012). Women’s Empowerment in Kosovo. Retrieved from: http://www.cipe.org/blog/2012/04/19/womens- empowerment-in-kosovo/#.WFpUtxorLIU, [28.11.2016] 144

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35.00%

30.00%

25.00%

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00% YES NO I DO NOT KNOW

Fig. 10. Do you think profiling of women in Kosovo is in the right direction?

We have expressed interest in the opinion of women who are currently part of any business or in decision-making positions, and we asked them whether they think the profiling of women in Kosovo in the right direction and their answers were; 26.7 percent think profiling of women is in the right direction, 33.3 percent think it is not in the right direction, and the rest that is 36.7 answered that they does not know whether or not is in the right direction.

50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Entrepreneurship Management Education Politics

Fig. 11. In which fields / areas you think is necessary to empower women?

According to the above question whether if the profiling women in Kosovo is in the right direction, most of the answers were for not and we asked them to give their opinion on where they think women in Kosovo should be focused and we achieved these results; Entrepreneurship 50 percent, management 26.7 percent, Education 13.3 percent, 10 percent political.

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Fig. 11. Occupation of the employed, female (aged 15 and above) 2014-2015:

Source: KAS (2016). Occupation of employed, female (aged 15 and above) 2014-2015.

As it can be seen in the above table, women in Kosovo are characterized by some occupations during the 2014-2015. Thus, the labor market is covered mostly by women professionals (33percent) that mean women in Kosovo have improved their position in society in the last two years. Service workers and shop and market sales workers with 16.6 percent cover a significant part of the labor market, given that the service and sales sector have a widespread range on the Kosovo’s market. The other occupations such as Technicians and associated professional and Craft and related trade workers are characterized by a 10 percent of women’s participation in those sectors. The Elementary occupations also are characterized by a significant participation of women, more concretely with 14 percent.

VIII. CONCLUSION As a final point, we can arrive to some conclusions which are considered even important or have impact for the events that will be developed further. Overall, as important conclusion is that women are not satisfactorily at the position in the society, and efforts have been made repeatedly for their support and contribution. Such a thing has had a result but it is not reached the level of equitable with men. For this purpose, there are established various local and international organizations around the world and in Kosovo as well. The main aim of those organizations was to help women succeed and have a key role in society. Women have made many achievements in education, so as the result the management skills are increasingly rapidly. The other important conclusion of this paper is that the results of the questionnaire we have managed to identify the problems and challenges faced by women, the absence of institutional support have been a factor or stumbling why women have not managed to engage in business, as they do not have their support from family, lack of property rights are also factors that have influenced the current situation, that means women do not have "the right" to be part of a business. Another important thing that we can draw is that over 50 percent of respondents stated that they are not taken their pleasure with the support of the institutions of Kosovo, which remains a major challenge for women in business and management. Meanwhile, the new initiatives taken by the

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University relevant institutions are expected to impact on improving the women’s position in these two important fields. In the end, the women always had great influence in the world and supporting them with no doubts, it would be the greatest thing that a country could do, because they would lead up to a large develop economy in a country. For Kosovo, as a developing country, it is important to support women in business and management in order to make the country more sustainable and developed.

8.1. RECOMMENDATIONS

The data presented on this paper, and the responds of women on our questionnaire gave us a brief overview of the situation in which women are now and consequently led us to some recommendations. First of all, in that questionnaire we have asked women on the way of how they would support women if they had this opportunity. We decided to make those responds as recommendations because women are directly affected by them and no one could know better than them about the challenges, and how much and in what way they need support.  Women should primarily have moral support in our society, by family and friends;  They should be supported through training and should have access to supporters’ donations;  Organizing of study visit abroad for women, and take the best practice from them;  Ensuring equal opportunities for both men and women, and increasing the number of women in decision-making positions;  Identifying the areas where they have the capacity and can achieve success, providing grants and creation of new jobs in order to bring positive results for the country's economic development;  Supporting young women to create start-up businesses.  Creation of database in order to reinforce professional skills of women. Based on the question if profiling of women in Kosovo is in the right direction, their recommendations are as follows: Women should be profiled where they can contribute greater for their family, and for society, and above all where they find themselves better in which position they fit well. They also recommend that women should engage in self-initiative behavior and they should be more involved in public sector.

However, women think that the problem is in the weakness of education system and as such, this problem affects whole society but in particular women and girls due to patriarchal rates which have only reinforced the education system. Therefore, solving the problem starts in this field. Furthermore, they think, women should have support from the government to create the best conditions for the opening a business or offering specific training.

IX. REFERENCES Agency for Gender Equality. Office of the Prime Minister. (n.d) Kosovo Program for Gender Equality. Prishtinë. Kosovë; Kosovo Agency of Statistics, (2016). Occupation of the employed female. Prishtinë, Kosovë

Association for Women’s Rights in Development. (2016); CIPE (2012). Women’s Empowerment in Kosovo;

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Infoplease Article. Fact Monster. © 2000–2013 Sandbox Networks, Inc., publishing as Fact Monster. 28 Nov. 2016; International Center for Research on Women. (2016); Kosovar Gender Studies Center. (2015); Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency, KIESA, Republic of Kosovo. (2016); Kosovo Women’s Network. (2016). Mission; Law on Gender Equality, The Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, Law No. 05/L -020, Article 1, Paragraph 2. (2015); The Law on General Elections, The Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, Law No. 03/L-073, Article 27, Paragraph 1. (2008) Ministry of Finance, (2016). News; Ministry of Trade and Industry, (2016). News; European Union. (2015). Strategic Engagement for Gender Equality. Doi: 10.2838/454429, Brussels, Belgium. The Association for Women in Communications (2016); USAID| Kosovo, (2015). Success story. “Women Gain Traction in Kosovo’s Business Sector”; USAID| Kosovo, (2016). News & Information; Women for Women International. (2016); WomenAid International. (2000); World Bank, (2016). Doing Business in Kosovo.

X. APPENDIX October, 2016

QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT WOMEN’S POSITION IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

This questionnaire aims to collect data for realizing of the research paper about the Women’s Position in Business and Management in Kosovo. This paper will be presented on the Conference: “7th International Conference of the Balkan Women and Business”, which will be held in the University of Prizren. So, we kindly ask for your help in order to have a research with a statistical importance and completed with real information. Your answers will be completely confidential and compliant with international standards of research, and your personal information will not be published in any way. (PLEASE: Click on the answer that best describes you and fill in the required information) Comment: Questions noted with (*) are optional!

General questions:

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21 -35 years 36-45 years 1. Your age-group? 46-55 years >55 years

Albanian Turkish 2. Your Ethnicity?* Serbian Ashkali

Bosnian Other: ______

Economist Doctor 3. What is your main occupation? Lawyer Other: ______

Politologist

High school Higer education/graduated 4. What is the level of education that you have completed? Higher education/not Master/PhD graduated

Following questions require your opinions about women’s position in society

Public Sector 5. Which sector are you engaged in? Private Sector

Other: ______

Decision-making position 6. What is your current position? Enterpreneurial

Explain: 7. Your challenges to reach this

position?*

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8. How do you see the women’s position It is not in the right level in kosovar society? It is in the right level

Other:______

Our social norms

9. How do you explain the hesitation of Patriarchal family behavior women to participate in business and management in Kosovo? Limited participation in competitiveness Other:______

Poor 10. Institutional support for the role of Fair women in society? Good

Very good

Simplification of procedures for establishing a new business

11. Which are the factors affecting the Easier acces to credit success of women in business and management in Kosovo? Education and orientation on specific profiles Other______

Explain: 12. If you would have the opportunity to support women, in which field you wold support them?*

Enterpreneurship

Management

13. In which field you think need to Health empower women? Education

Politics

Other:______

14. Do you think profiling of women in Yes Kosovo is in the right direction?

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I do not knoe

Explain:

15. If not what would you suggest?

Thank you for your help on responding these questions. If you have any questions please do not hesitate to contact us on the following information: [email protected] and [email protected]. Your comments for us:* Date: __/__/______

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PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE CONDUCT OF COMPANIES

Assist.Prof.Drita KRASNIQI, University of Prizren ”Ukshin Hoti”

Abstract

The structure of the business owners who own firms is an important indicator and gender is treated in terms of business founders, their age group and level of education and professional training for business management.

In any economy with market gender structure of owners of firms in business is analyzed and treated with the utmost care, with the aim in this field are performed equal gender rights and to support equal access to opportunities for establishing new businesses

Gender structure of the owners of enterprises is an important element in analyzing and monitoring the activities of enterprises. Although in our country women's participation in the leadership of enterprises its small, in recent years has been seen an increase of female participation in the registration of enterprises .

The purpose of this research is to produce results relevant to the current situation, structure, problems, difficulties, and to measure the trend of development of micro, small and medium enterprises, to determine the criteria and advanced recommendations for the possibility of supporting the development of them.

Analysis of obstacles and difficulties for business development including: a lack of qualified staff, lack of training in various areas, the lack of market, using modern equipment, workspace, physical infrastructure, transportation, finance, legal, economic and fiscal policies, offer the possibility of analysis, creation and research methods and methodologies to support small enterprises and medium enterprises in our country.

Keywords : Economic, management, businesses, structure of SME, Developmet.

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WOMEN on CORPORATE BOARDS: THE CASE of CHAMBERS of CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS in TURKEY

Dr. Serol Karalar, Trakya University, Turkey

Prof. Kıymet Çalıyurt, Trakya University, Turkey

Abstract

Corporate boards play crucial roles for organizations’ daily activities and future. Therefore, they should be qualified in terms of hierarchical structure. Despite having equal characteristics with male colleagues; it can be mentioned that senior and experienced women cannot easily gain access to corporate boards. Due to being in a male dominant profession, there aren’t many women accountants who can have chairs on corporate boards. From this point of view, the purpose of this study has been determined as revealing percentage of women on boards of directors, disciplinary boards and auditing boards at chambers of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Turkey. In accordance with this purpose, websites of chambers of CPAs were reviewed and the chambers were classified into 7 geographical regions. After analysing the chambers it was found out that only 7% of boards of directors, 13.8% of disciplinary boards, 18.1% of auditing boards and 12.05% of all boards are women directors even though female members form more than one quarter of total. While Marmara Region has the highest percentage of female members on auditing boards, Aegean Region is leading in terms of boards of directors, disciplinary boards and total percentage. It can be mentioned that percentage of women accountants on boardrooms in Turkey is still below global level and should be increased rapidly.

Keywords: Corporate Board, Women, Certified Public Accountant

Introduction

Women don't have the satisfactory participation in politics, business world and management even though they are almost equal to men or even more in population. This can be attributed to male-dominant business life and hidden barriers, bias, traditional frame of mind against women. Considering that corporate boards with their strategies shape organizations' actions, they should be well-formed and balanced. Corporate boards should contain qualified directors who can represent all the groups in the organization, including women.

Traditional “male-oriented” industries continue to report the lowest inclusion of female corporate officers and include such identified areas as construction, automotive sales and service, manufacturing, mining, and engineering. Softer-side companies, like media, retailing, and service, have more female directors (Arfken, Bellar and Helms, 2004: 181). Accounting is a profession which is also thought to be male dominant in general. Therefore, organizations which control the profession don’t include women on their boards. It has been known that the situation is almost the same in Turkey although certain percentages of female accountants on chamber boards haven’t been displayed in any Turkish studies. Thus, the purpose of this study is revealing the percentage of women on 153

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University boards of directors, disciplinary boards and auditing boards at chambers of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Turkey.

This study consists of two parts. In the first part, importance of female directors on corporate boards has been stressed. In the second part, the status of female accountants on boards of directors, disciplinary boards and auditing boards at chambers of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Turkey, has been revealed.

1. Literature Review

Most research on women as directors of boards has focussed on women’s under- representation on boards, which was documented as early as 1977 and continues to be well documented by many researchers (Burges and Tharenou, 2002: 39). The study of women directors has received increased attention since the early 1980s (Huse and Solberg, 2006: 113). Due to related legislations and changing business life especially in the 1980s and 1990s, attention has been paid to women who could break the “glass ceiling”.

A Google search reveals 340,000 webpages for female or women corporate board directors, including 25,400 webpages in Google Scholar. Extant research emerges from an interdisciplinary academic community, across psychology, sociology, leadership, gender, finance, management, law, corporate governance, and even entrepreneurship (Terjesen, Sealy and Singh, 2009: 320). It can be mentioned that number of academic researches on female board directors rises even though the situation isn’t the same in practice.

It is obvious that one woman on a board is not likely to change corporate policy but their presence in positions of visible power and legitimacy may help break down the barriers that constrain top corporate women from effective representation and recognition (Bilimoria, 2006: 47). Therefore, more women should be placed on corporate boards. Researchers have identified a range of strategies for companies to appoint women to boards (Burgess and Tharenou, 2002: 42): o Redefinition of the pool of eligible directors: Broadening of the candidate pool would provide increased opportunities for women. o Internal company promotion: Women within the company may become suitable appointments for their own company board. o Objectification of the selection process: Development of a more formal set of guidelines for nominating committees could help avoid a tendency to select people that are similar to the current (predominantly male) incumbents. o Board subcommittee involvement: Increasing women directors’ visibility in core board governance roles will lead to enhanced recognition of the value of women directors. o Diversity and good business: CEOs should be encouraged to support and acknowledge the importance of women as a business source and commit to enhancing women’s opportunities in management and on the board.

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Having well-balanced boards that include women directors improves financial performance, impacts the reputation of a company, reduces the likelihood of corporate failures, contributes an independent view and new ideas to the board and generally monitors the application of social justice and equity policies in recruitment (Ocak, 2013: 108; Burke, 2003: 37; Burges and Tharenou, 2002: 40). They may suggest new ways of bringing products to market, based on knowledge of females as consumers (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2004: 481). Those benefits constitute the effect of female board directors on the organization itself.

On the other hand, roles of powerful female directors on boards help other female employees not to lose their hopes. Chief executives often say that having women on the boards makes female employees at the company generally feel more positive about their own career prospects (Bilimoria, 2006: 49). Women directors play an important part as role models for younger women, and symbolise career possibilities to prospective recruits (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2004: 481). It can be mentioned that the existence of female board members may have a positive effect on the recruitment, retention and representation of other women (Singh, Vinnicombe and Johnson, 2001: 207).

Female directors may influence the perceptions of external agents that a board will function more effectively either because of an expectation that the presence of female directors will improve board processes or because female directors bring important skills, knowledge and competencies to the boardroom. In particular, the presence of a female director may help the organization manage its relationships with key stakeholder groups (Brammer, Millington and Pavelin, 2009: 19). Although number of women serving on corporate boards of directors is still relatively small, there is some anecdotal evidence that the number of women serving on a firm’s board does exert some influence on the level of a firm’s involvement in activities related to corporate social responsibility (Williams, 2003: 1). Organizations with more equal representation of female and male board members are more able to fulfill social agency missions (Terjesen et.al., 2009: 331). The above mentioned benefits form the non-organizational effects of female board directors.

Other five ways women may make contributions on corporate boards are (Huse and Solberg, 2006: 124): o Creating alliances o Preparation and involvement o Attending the important decision-making arenas o Taking leadership roles and o Being visible

Despite all the benefits, women sit on 19% of board seats globally (ILO, 2015: 9). The situation seems worse in Turkey as only 11.7% of companies have at least one woman on its board while the average is 18.7% in Eastern Europe and 17.3% in the developed world (www.ifc.org, 2016). Due to The Capital Markets Board (CMB) of Turkey's legislation,

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Turkish companies are actually required to have at least one female member on their boards (www.spk.gov.tr, 2013). Therefore, percentage of women directors on corporate boards in Turkey is expected to increase in the future. Similar legislations should be made for public sector and NGOs as CMB's legislation refers organizations in private sector.

2. Methodology

2.1. Purpose and Importance

Two statistics about women’s board representation are commonly reported: the percentage of board seats held by women, and the percentage of organizations that have one or more women on their board (Burges and Tharenou, 2002: 39). This study aims to reveal the percentage of women on boards of directors, disciplinary boards and auditing boards at chambers of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Turkey. There are various studies on women on corporate boards although we haven't come across any studies on women directors in the accounting profession in Turkey. Thus it can be mentioned that this study is important in terms of determining the status of female accountants on chamber boards in Turkey.

2.2. Data Collection

Websites of chambers of CPAs were visited in August and September, 2016. Website links of the chambers were attained from TÜRMOB. TÜRMOB, the Union of Chambers of Certified Public Accountants Turkey, is the national professional body with the sole authority to award professional license. TÜRMOB was founded in 1989 with the Law 3568 on Certified Public Accountancy and Sworn-in Certified Public Accountancy. The organizational structure of the TÜRMOB is supported by two distinct Chambers; Chambers of Certified Public Accountants (SMMM) and Chambers of Sworn-In Certified Public Accountants (YMM). 85 Chambers form the TÜRMOB, of which 77 are SMMM Chambers and 8 are YMM Chambers (www.turmob.org.tr, 25.09.2016).

First of all, the number of male and female directors who work on boards of directors, disciplinary boards and auditing boards were determined at 77 chambers. Then, 77 chambers were classified into 7 geographical regions of Turkey. In line with the study purpose; number and percentage of women directors on corporate boards were revealed by geographical regions. Besides that, number of female chairs on chambers boards was also presented.

2.3. Findings

Number and percentage of female and male accountants in Turkey have been displayed in Table 1.

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As it can be seen in Table 1, female CPAs constitute 27.9% of all CPAs with 27538 members according to The Union of Chambers of Certified Public Accountants Turkey (TÜRMOB). The number of female accountants in Turkey should be increased as male accountants dominate the profession.

Number of female and male directors in chambers of CPAs by geographical regions of Turkey, has been shown in Table 2.

Table 2 shows that Aegean Region has the most female directors on boards of directors while Black Sea Region has the most female directors on disciplinary boards and Marmara Region comes first on auditing boards with the most female directors. On the other hand, Black Sea Region has the most female directors in total. Disciplinary boards of the chambers have the most female directors while boards of directors have only 29 female directors.

Table 3 displays the percentage of female directors on boards of chambers of CPAs by geographical regions of Turkey.

As it can be seen in Table 3;

- Aegean Region has the highest percentage of female directors on boards of directors, disciplinary boards and in total,

- Despite being the most developed region in Turkey, Marmara Region comes fourth in terms of female directors on boards of directors,

- Marmara Region has the highest percentage of female directors on auditing boards,

- Eastern Anatolia Region is third in disciplinary boards ranking,

- Southeastern Anatolia Region comes second in auditing boards ranking,

- Central Anatolia Region which includes big and developed cities such as Ankara, Eskişehir, Konya and Kayseri, is placed last in total percentage.

Table 4 shows number of female chairs on boards of chambers of CPA by all regions.

Table 4 displays that only 18 female directors carry out the chair duty even though there are 124 female directors on the chamber boards. It is worrying for the accounting profession that there aren’t any female chairs on boards of directors.

2.4. Conclusion and Recommendations

Female representation in corporate decision making is an important issue for policymakers. For example, the Norwegian government requires that boards of directors of publicly held firms be comprised of at least 40 per cent women and the Spanish

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University government has committed to 40 per cent by 2015. Around the world, other countries are considering legislation while developing economies, such as India and China, and Middle East countries (Tunisia and Jordan) are beginning to recognize the importance of developing female talent up to the board level (Terjesen et.al., 2009: 321). Turkey, as a developing economy, also promises hope in terms of having more female board directors in the future. TÜRMOB which is the highest authority in accounting profession plays a crucial role to improve status of female directors on chamber boards in Turkey.

Therefore, a study was conducted on websites of chambers of CPAs in Turkey with the purpose of revealing percentage of women on boards of directors, disciplinary boards and auditing boards at chambers. After analysing the chambers, it was found out that only 7% of boards of directors, 13.8% of disciplinary boards, 18.1% of auditing boards and 12.05% of all boards are female directors even though female profession members form more than one quarter of total. Those percentages show that Turkey is still global level in terms of the accounting profession. Following recommendations can be made in order to increase those percentages: o Improving women’s quality and level of education, o Encouraging women for the accounting profession, o Increasing the number of qualified female accountants, o Providing equal standards with men and more participation of women on boards with legislative regulations on accounting, o Eliminating the prejudices about female accountants being unsuccessful on administrative level, o Developing positive discrimination policies for female accountants.

Further studies are needed and planned to be done about comparing other countries and cultures in terms of percentage of female directors on chamber boards in the accounting profession. Besides that, number and percentage of female directors on boards at chambers of CPAs in Turkey should be compared on yearly basis.

References

Arfken, E. D., Bellar, L. S. and Helms, M. M. (2004), “The Ultimate Glass Ceiling Revisited: The Presence of Women on Corporate Boards”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 50, pp. 177- 186.

Bilimoria, D. (2006), “The Relationship Between Women Corporate Directors and Women Corporate Officers”, Journal of Managerial Issues, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 47-61.

Brammer, S., Millington, A. and Pavelin, S. (2009), “Corporate Reputation and Women on the Board”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 20, pp. 17-29.

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Burgess, Z. and Tharenou, P. (2002), “Women Board Directors: Characteristics of the Few”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 37, pp. 39–49.

Burke, R. J. (2003), "Women on Corporate Boards of Directors: The Timing is Right", Women in Management Review, Vol. 18, Iss. 7, pp. 346-348.

Huse, M. and Solberg, G. A. (2006), "Gender-related Boardroom Dynamics", Women in Management Review, Vol. 21, Iss. 2, pp. 113-130.

Ocak, M. (2013), “Yönetim Kurulu ve Üst Yönetimde Yer Alan Kadınların Finansal Performansa Etkisi: Türkiye'ye İlişkin Bulgular”, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, Ekim Sayısı, ss. 107-126.

Singh, V., Vinnicombe, S. and Johnson, P. (2001), “Women Directors on Top UK Boards”, Corporate Governance, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 206-216.

Singh, V. and Vinnicombe, S. (2004), “Why So Few Women Directors in Top UK Boardrooms? Evidence and Theoretical Explanations”, Corporate Governance, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 479-488.

Terjesen, S., Sealy, R. and Singh, V. (2009), “Women Directors on Corporate Boards: A Review and Research Agenda”, Corporate Governance: An International Review, Vol. 17, Iss. 3, pp. 320-337.

Williams, J. R. (2003), “Women on Corporate Boards of Directors and their Influence on Corporate Philanthropy”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 42, pp. 1-10.

International Finance Corporation (March 2016), http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/news_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/ne ws+and+events/news/moving-the-needle-on-turkey-female-board-presence.

International Labour Organization (2015), Women in Business and Management: Gaining Momentum Global Report, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--- dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_316450.pdf. http://www.spk.gov.tr/displayfile.aspx?action=displayfile&pageid=66&fn=66.pdf&subm enuheader=null, 2013. http://www.turmob.org.tr/Attachment.aspx?param=2IDREYlTixYra3RmS7lAoXxw37P7p n+opoGXvWxPaHEmRq79fKboVCgZwQbqG3kI/2SuWc2N3cs=, Access date: 25.09.2016.

http://www.turmob.org.tr/TurmobWeb/Kurumsal/UyeIstatistikleri/Istatistik.aspx? param=vXvxwCI6ot9pPcXFubSCwbt6HC4VRmWbBt1c3GqpPMPPVd/CG1XAs8KhjwnilX 244LGHtByPAxXvPkK7F7gbbg==, Access date: 25.09.2016.

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WOMEN ON CORPORATE BOARDS OF DIRECTORS: EXAMINING OF TOP 100 COMPANIES OF 2016 FORTUNE 500 RANKING IN TURKEY

Dr. Işıl USTA, Trakya University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences

Prof. Kıymet TUNCA ÇALIYURT, Trakya University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences

Abstract

The corporate board is one of the most important and necessary structures of companies and plays vital role in terms of companies’ today and future. Because the business policies and strategies of companies are determined by the corporate boards. Therefore corporate boards of companies are required to be well-formed. The corporate board consists of men or/and women. The corporate boards which include both men and women have a number of benefits including new opinions and knowledge, differentiation of strategies, various problem solving methods etc. Because of that, diversity in corporate boards of directions is crucial. Women on corporate boards of directors have been examined in this study.

Top 100 companies of 2016 Fortune 500 Ranking in Turkey was examined in this paper. According to findings, top 100 companies have total 705 members on board of directors and 62 of 705 members of the board are women. Accordingly female members on board of directors ratio is approximately %8.8 while male board members ratio is %91.2. 47 percent of 100 companies have female member on corporate board of directors. 33 percent of 100 companies have only one female member, 13 percent of 100 companies have only two female members and only one company has at most 3 female members on corporate boards. In this direction, it can be said that women have a few seats on corporate boards. In this direction woman members on corporate boards of directors should be increased.

Keywords: Corporate Boards of Directors, Women, Fortune 500 Ranking

1. Introduction

Most research on women as directors of boards has focused on women’s under- representation on boards, which was documented as early as 1977 (Burgess and Tharenou, 2002: 39). Due to a few companies included women on corporate boards of directors, in those years this situation was very bleak (Arfken, Bellar and Herms, 2004: 177). At the present time women’s progress on corporate board of directors has been improving and increasing. Companies have come under pressure to appoint more women to their corporate boards of directors. Each of this pressure has come from legislative regulations. Many countries have corporate governance regulations about corporate boards.

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The purpose of this study is to investigate percentage of women members on corporate boards. In accordance with this purpose, top 100 companies of 2016 Fortune 500 Ranking in Turkey was examined in this paper.

This study is organized as follows. In the first part, importance of women members on corporate boards has been explained. Methodologies have been presented in the second part together with sample, data collection and findings of the research. Finally, results, and suggestions for the future have been taken part.

2. Literature Review

Board serves a number of roles, including providing continuity for the organization and often selecting and appointing a CEO who is charged with the administration for the organization. The board governs by broad objectives, policies and publicly accounts for all organizational expenditures and funds (Arfken, Bellar and Herms, 2004: 178). Appointment as a director of board is viewed as significantly. Corporate boards of directors consist of women and men. But it is stated that number of men members on corporate boards are exceed than women member in all over the world. Women are still under-represented at corporate board level worldwide. The situation is somewhat better in Europe than in other regions of the world (Fagan, 2013: 4).

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Figure 1. Percentage Share of Women on Boards Kaynak: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/--- publ/documents/publication/wcms_316450.pdf. A woman in Business and Management Gaining Momentum Global Report was published by International Labor Organization (ILO) in 2015. Data which has taken a part in report was cited from Catalyst Knowledge Centre, Women on Board. According to Figure 1. Women are represented at corporate boards better in European countries than other countries.

The study of women directors has received increased attention since the early 1980s (Huse and Solberg, 2006: 113). During the past 5 years, gender diversity in corporate boards has been a popular around the world. This situation is partly due to some evidence demonstrating a positive link between gender diversity in boards and financial performance (Ararat, Alkan and Aytekin, 2016: 5). Companies have women members on corporate boards may send positive signal internal and external components (Elstad and Ldegard, 2012: 597). Having women on corporate boards impact the reputation of a company, provide strategic input women’s product/issues and company direction, improves the constructiveness of board processes and deliberations contributes to the

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University companies’ female employees (Burke, 2003: 347). If women add a new perspective that is value enhancing, women will become more prevalent on boards and will be associated with more enhanced shareholder value (Farrell and Hersch, 2005: 87). It was found that women directors contribute to governance, reducing CEO dominance due to their “power sharing” style. Having women in key position to be associated to long term company success and competitive advantage, adding value through women’s distinctive set of skills and creating cultures of inclusion through a diverse workforce. Woman directors, especially outsider directors, contribute an independent view to the board and demonstrated how one woman director’s intervention can change the strategic direction of a company (Burgess and Tharenou, 2002: 40). It can be said that women on corporate boards have positive effects on firm value, success, strategies and stakeholders (e.g. employee, public and other companies).

The role of women in board position is getting increased attention. Some countries have even introduced formal laws requiring women representation on corporate boards (Nielsen and Huse, 2010: 136). Five in 12 largest European markets, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and Norway, have mandatory quotas for female board membership and other countries have optional quotas or comply-or-explain best practice recommendation concerning gender diversity in boards. During the years 2011-2015 Italy, Belgium and France experienced the highest levels of growth in women board membership, by 20.4, 16.2 and 16.2 percentage points respectively (Ararat, Alkan and Aytekin, 2016: 5).

France, Norway, Jordan, Singapore, Sweden, Poland and Germany have corporate governance principles about women on corporate boards and those principles indicate that balance should be provided in terms of gender (Ocak, 2013: 110). Also Capital Markets Board of Turkey made regulations about women on corporate boards in 2012.

Corporate Governance Principles are determined by Capital Markets Board of Turkey have quotas for women board membership. According to Corporate Governance Principles, “corporate boards have at least one female member”. This principle is advisable in accordance with comply-or-explain if you don’t apply (http://www.spk.gov.tr). Accordingly in this study, we investigated corporate boards of the largest companies in Turkey.

3. Methodology

3.1. Purpose of the Study, Data Collection and Limitations

The purpose of the study is to find out percentage of women members on corporate boards of companies. For this purpose, top 100 companies of 2016 Fortune 500 ranking in Turkey was examined. Data about companies’ corporate boards of directors were gathered from official websites of companies, board reports, official gazette and e- sirket.mkk.com.tr on September 2016.

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Companies which are located in the list of Turkey are ranked by net sales magnitude (http://www.fortuneturkey.com). We choose Fortune list for some reasons. First of all, it is stated that larger firms tend to have larger boards (Agrawal and Knoeber, 2001: 185). Also representation of women on boards of directors is greater in larger firms (Carter, Simkins and Simpson, 2003; Agrawal and Knoeber, 2001). In this direction, it can be said that larger companies have larger boards and greater seats hold by women on corporate boards.

This work has several limitations. First, year 2016 of Fortune 500 ranking in Turkey was examined. Besides that, due to time constraint only top 100 companies was selected for examining.

3.2. Findings

Findings of the study have been presented below.

Table 1. Number of Female/Male Members on Corporate Boards of Top 100 Companies

Table 2. Number of Female/Male Members on Corporate Boards of Top 100 Companies (Continued)

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Table 3. Number of Female/Male Members on Corporate Boards of Top 100 Companies (Continued)

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Table 4. Number of Female/Male Members on Corporate Boards of Top 100 Companies (Continued)

Corporate Boards of Top 100 companies of 2016 Fortune 500 Ranking has been shown in Table 1, 2, 3 and 4. According to those tables, 47 percent of 100 companies have female and male members while 53 percent of 100 companies have only male members on corporate boards of directors. 33 percent of 100 companies have only one female member, 13 percent of 100 companies have only two female members and only one company has at most 3 female members on corporate boards. Although number of companies with female members on corporate boards is very high, the number of female members on corporate board is low.

Table 5. Percentage of Female and Male Members on Corporate Boards

According to Table 5, top 100 companies have total 705 members on board of directors of which 62 members are female and 643 members are male. Female members on board of directors ratio is approximately 8.8% while male board members ratio is

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91.2%. It can be mentioned that the ratio of women’s representation on corporate boards is very low.

Table 6. Female Members on Corporate Boards Distribution by Position

The distribution of female members on corporate boards by position has been shown that Table 6. According to this table, 5 women are chairman of board, 1 woman is co-chair, 4 women are vice president of the executive board, 1 woman vice chairman of the board, 43 women are members of board, 8 women are outside directors.

Table 7. The Strongest Business Women within Top 100 Companies

Fortune Magazine ranked “The Strongest 50 Business Women” in 2016. Table 7 shows the strongest business women within top 100 companies of 2016 Fortune 500 Ranking. Women in the four companies’ corporate boards are located in The Strongest Business Women List.

4. Conclusion and Suggestions

The objective of this paper is to examine the ratio of women on corporate boards in Turkey. For this purpose, top 100 companies of 2016 Fortune 500 ranking was determined as a study sample. According to findings of examination;

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 47 percent of 100 companies have female members and 53 percent of 100 companies don’t have any female members on corporate board of directors.  Top 100 companies have total 705 members on board of directors of which 62 members are female and 643 members are male. Female members on boards of directors ratio is approximately 8.8% while male board members ratio is 91.2%. Most research on women as directors of boards has focused on women’s under- representation on boards. And two statistics about women’s board representation are commonly reported: the percentage of board seats held by women and, the percentage of organizations that have one or more women on their board. Researches show much lower percentage of board seats held by women than the percentage of companies with women on their board (Burgess and Tharenou, 2002: 39). In this study the percentage of board seats held by women (8.8%) is lower than the percentage of companies which have women on their corporate boards (47%). In this direction it can be mentioned that findings of this study support these opinions. Also it can be said that companies have women on corporate boards but women on corporate boards are represented inadequately.

To increase the ratio of women on corporate boards:  Companies and policymakers should impose mandatory quotas.  Companies’ politics can be readjusted about women on corporate boards.  Companies should adopt a participatory management approach in which women are represented on corporate boards.

In the future studies, a larger sized sample can be selected, number of women board members should be compared by years and cross-cultural analyses may be implemented to investigate ratio of women members on corporate boards.

5. References

Agrawal, A. and Knoeber, C. R. (2001), “Do Some Outside Directors Play a Political Role”, The Journal of Law & Economics, 44, 1, 179-198.

Ararat, M., Alkan, S. and Aytekin B. (2016), 4th Annual Report Women on Board Turkey, Independent Women Directors Project Sabanci University Corporate Governance Forum of Turkey.

Arfken, D. E., Bellar, S. L. and Helms, M. M. (2004), “The Ultimate Glass Ceiling Revisited: The Presence of Women and Corporate Boards”, Journal of Business Ethics, 50, 177-186.

Burgess, Z. and Tharenou, P. (2002), “Women Board Directors: Characteristics of the Few”, Journal of Business Ethics, 37, 39-49.

Burke, R. J. (2003), “Women on Corporate Board of Directors: The Timing is Right”, Women in Management Review, Vol: 18, Iss: 7, 346-348.

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Carter, D. A., Simkins, B. J. and Simpson, W. G. (2003), “Corporate Governance, Board Diversity and Firm Value”, The Financial Review, 38, 33-55.

Elstad, B. and Ladegard, G. (2012), “Women on Corporate Boards: Kay Influencers or tokens?”, Journal of Management & Governance, 16, 595-615.

Fagan, C. (2013), “Gender Equality- Women on Corporate Boards in Europe”, Directorate- General For International Policies, Policy Department Citizens’ Right and Constitutional Affairs, European Parliament.

Farrell, K. A. and Hersch, P.L. (2005), “Additions to Corporate Boards: The Effect of Gender”, Journal of Corporate Finance, 11, 85-106.

Huse, M. and Solberg, A. G. (2006), “Gender-Related Boardroom Dynamics How Scandinavian Women Make and Can Make Contributions on Corporate Boards”, Women in Management Review, 21, 2, 113-130.

Nielsen, S. and Huse, M. (2010), The Contribution of Women on Boards of Directors: Going Beyond the Surface, Corporate Governance: An International Review, 18 (2), 136-148.

Ocak, M. (2013), Yönetim Kurulu ve Üst Yönetimde Yer Alan Kadınların Finansal Performansa Etkisi: Türkiye’ye İlişkin Bulgular, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, 60, 107- 126. http://www.spk.gov.tr/apps/teblig/displayteblig.aspx?id=437&ct=f&action=displayfile&s ubmenuheader=null, Access date: 20.09.2016 http://www.fortuneturkey.com/Fortune500/2015#links, Access date: 20.09.2016 http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/dgreports/dcomm/publ/documents/publicatio n/wcms_316450.pdf, Access date: 20.12.2016

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SECTION ENTREPRENEURSHIP

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TRANSCENDENTAL ENTREPRENEURIAL WOMEN CAN BE THE POSITIVE REVOLUTION IN BUSINESS MAKING IN OUR YOUNG COUNTRY

Amantina Pervizaj Kelmendi 1 Festim Tafolli 2 Abstract "My country needs entrepreneurs, and those should be women" - advantages and disadvantages.Being young country and having changes of gender proportion within 2 decades by 51.6% -male and 48.4 % female participation , we have got a change 51.2% of population presents to be female and 48.8 % Male ,we clearly can define the change makers of new era : Women.

Many examples of success are women inspirational successes ,because business making worldand women world has not many changes:both struggle for equity or domination while competing .While women are mostly trying to outcrop by the gender pressure, businesses are trying to outcrop by internal and external risks. So the way women fights on her gender rights she can fight properly with business making risks .

Hereby we are going to reflect in the reality of success in economy especially in business and entrepreneurship, whereas women are the main protagonists.

So what is to be done to support women entrepreneurs? How do we encourage her, and facilitate her way? Is she the key we need to overcome the business confusion? Which are the fields she can contribute, as business maker? Is she ready to thrive in digital age ? Is our entrepreneurship allowing her to express herself normally? Which are their challenges in this way?These and many other questions are going to be answered within this paper and conclusions will be based on the result reflected by the investigation.

"Successful women business leaders have often figured out how to make the puzzle pieces of life fit together, such as Yahoo's Marissa Mayer"

KEY WORDS: Women, entrepreneur, business, challenge.

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Introduction

The world of XXI century is the world of diversity, where men and women share equally the responsibility in the office as well as in family life. Diversity is a good point but not just for companies, it also allows good side to society and the economy as a whole. "Raising women means growth of economy and our country .So we must be sure that someone is on their side." Barack Obama

The World Bank report "Doing Business"1 2014 identifies Kosovo as one of the 10 countries with the best reform in 2013, the reforms carried out in 3 out of 10 indicators of doing business (starting a business, obtaining construction permits and registering property), effectively improve]ing Kosovo's ranking from 96th in 2013 to 86th in 2014 (in the 66th during this year, 2016).

However, Kosovo continues to be plagued with the weak economy, unemployment and poverty. From a gender perspective, the current economic situation unfold large gender gaps in a range of factors that contribute to economic growth, employment, leadership, business ownership and access to finance.

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In May 2014 USAID249 published a report, whereas the main topic was "Gender Equality in Business", based on research conducted in public where the research base were 1,288 people selected randomly and with these features:

49 2 The publication was prepared by the USAID for Law Enforcement (CLE), implemented by Checchi and Company Consulting Inc.

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 Gender: 55.72% were female , 44.28% were male;  Ethnicity: 64.30% were Albanians; 17.81% Serbs; 3:36 Bosnian%; 0.78% Gorani ; 5.23 %Turkish; 2.66% Roma ; 3.20% Ashkali ; and 2.66% Egyptian;  Marital Status: 67.98% were married; 25.22% were single; 0.79% were divorced; 3.32% were widowed; and 2.69% reported living with their partner;  Schooling, the majority of respondents said the level of education as follows: 1) primary school (26.26%); 2) secondary school / technical / vocational (27.69%) and; 3) university education / graduate (27.6%).

As a result of this survey, taking as focus on the Environment of Doing Business it was as follows:

 More than half of respondents (57.91%) believe that both genders have equal access to employment opportunities.  Nearly half of respondents (49.56%) think that both men and women can be equally effective as business leaders, and most of them (60%) think that both sexes were equally good political leaders. However, these two questions have also found that nearly a quarter of women surveyed believe that men are better leaders in business and politics, and that, probably, is the result of traditional and patriarchal environment in which women are taught that house works fit better on them and that their contribution is not valued in business and politics.  Key obstacle towards participation of women in business are reportedly the family responsibilities (52.03%).  From a third to half of the respondents believe that the probable cause of insufficient participation of women in business can be the embedded gender stereotype "women do not tend to business."  The majority of female respondents (68.52%) think that the lack of state aid is to be blamed for the insufficient number of women in senior positions in companies.  In accordance with the very low percentage of female participation in the economy of Kosovo, a little less than half of respondents believe that both sexes have equal access to business opportunities (43.81%) and the required support for business (43.06 %), citing tradition as the main obstacle.

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 Unlike women (4.42%), more than double of surveyed men (10.28%) reported that they are business owners. Compared with men, women business owners reported lower level of engagement in daily activities, and more than 40% of them have left decision in the hands of their male.  Most respondents were businesses funded by the family (10.53%) and personal (8.70%), as it is the case with women entrepreneurs who participated in the focus groups.  In general, the greater and the most common problem for business owners (both men and women) are high interest rates (45.24%) and lack of investment capital (41.22%).  In accordance with the general fears of loans, less than one third (32.55%) of respondents have taken a loan from or another bank or financial institution, with a significant difference between males (38.69%) and females (27 , 81%). However, around four fifths (80.45%) of respondents think that both genders have equal opportunities to borrow. Lack of cooperation and contacts between female entrepreneurs was identified as a major obstacle to the further development of women-owned businesses by participants of focus group.

Perceptions by surveys in various fields

If husband and wife have the same age and education level, who are more likely to be employed, husband or wife? Fig.1

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 Are you engaged in any activity that brings you income (not necessarily registered business)? Fig. 2  In your opinion, in business do we have more men or women? Fig. 3

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In your society, who are more likely to be appointed to a senior position in a company? Fig. 4 • In your opinion, who are the best business leaders, men or women? Fig. 5

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Fig. 4

 In your opinion, who are the best political leaders, men or women? Fig. 6  Do you have your own private business? Fig. 7

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The presence of women in enterprise

Kosovar women comprise only 0.3% of top managers in private companies, this percentage is among the lowest in Europe and Central Asia350, where women make up 20% on average of managers of companies4. A study of Economic Chamber of Kosovo in 20125 on women in decision-making positions in the public and private sectors has found that of 71 private companies (mainly small and medium enterprises (SMEs)), representing four sectors (ICT, tourism, agriculture and finances), women were believed only an average of 4.2% of decision making positions6. Moreover, in three important public enterprises, the Post and Telecom of Kosovo (PTK), Kosovo Energy Corporation (KEK) and the Airport of Prishtina, the percentage of women in decision-making positions was 20%, 11% and 9%. This lack not only provides women "less direct experience in managing businesses compared with men, but also hinder the chances of women to start businesses."

3 Central and Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and Turkey. 4 World Bank Unit poverty reduction and economic management, the region of Europe and Central Asia (2012). 5 The study does not specify what is meant by position "decision-making". 6 Chamber of Commerce and GIZ (2012), the current decision-making power of women in Kosovo, attitudes and perspectives in economy, Pristina, p. 16.

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Data of "Women, Business and the Law 2014" of the World Bank in 2013, which evaluates the differences in front of the law between men and women in the following categories: accessing in institutions, using property, getting a job, providing incentives for job , good borrowing history, going to the court, and the protection of women from violence, found that 10 of 143 countries that were part of the study, including Kosovo, did not make any gender distinction in legal terms7. Generally , as greater the gender equality the greater is the number of women-owned businesses8. However, this conclusion seems unfounded in the case of Kosovo. Since 2012, Business Registration Agency within the Ministry of Trade and Industry has collected data about ownership of businesses that are classified by sex, and reports a percentage of 11% - women-owned businesses9. This percentage is much lower compared with the regional average of 36%10. Almost all women-owned businesses (99%) are micro-enterprises11, which means that are operating with lower profit, with fewer workers and lower capitalization12.

Particularly disadvantaged are women entrepreneurs in rural areas. A study done in 2006 found that most of them "do business from their homes, less than 5% travel outside the village to go to work, 77% leave control over all important decisions for business male family members and only 13% reported living mainly from their personal income13. "Leaving the decision in the hands of the spouse, sons or brothers is not uncommon for female entrepreneurs in Kosovo. In a survey of 1,450 women who are business owners, 25% of those co-business report that do not make decisions for their business and that many decisions have left at spouses (50%) and brothers ( 20%)14.

The Government of Kosovo has adopted several instruments that seek to promote entrepreneurship and SME development. Kosovo program for gender equality (KPGE) within the Agency for Gender Equality (AGE) and the Kosovo Action Plan for the Economic Empowerment of Women (2011-2013)1551, establish the activity contours designed to

51 7 Data for Kosovo are available at: http://wbl.worldbank.org/data/exploreeconomies/kosovo/2013 8 Ana Stupnytska Catherine Kosh, Amy Mekbith, Sandra Lawson and Kejthi Katsui (2014), deserved praise knit How could give rise to global growth gap reduction of credit to SMEs owned by women, Goldman Sachs, f .11. 9Correspondence between CLE and MTI, March 20, 2014. 180

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University increase the participation of women in economy , including women entrepreneurs. Also, the Agency for the Promotion of SMEs (ministry of Trade and Industry), in its strategy for SMEs (2012-2016), is committed to improve the position of women entrepreneurs, recognizing the fact that facilitating and creating favorable environment for creation and growth of their enterprises should be supported by the policy and data on women's participation in entrepreneurship, training, improving access to finance, creating a work network and good practices16. At the level of civil society, the National Platform of Women Entrepreneurs of Kosovo intends to promote women entrepreneurs in Kosovo through public and private partnerships.

Access and financial aspects

Finance access is often cited as one of the main obstacles facing women-owned enterprises. It is estimated that in all around the world till 70% of SMEs owned by women in the formal sector in developing countries are not served or are served less - the financial gap of 285 billion dollar 17. "In Kosovo, only 3% of commercial bank loans go to women18. Additionally, the sector of microfinance institutions (MFIs), which is often used internationally for securing loans for women, marked contraction in Kosovo "because of increased competition from banks, the unclear regulatory regime ,and disability of many MFIs to create a business model that will respond to the market needs "1952approximately

10 World Bank Unit poverty reduction and economic management, Europe and Central Asia (2012), Kosovo: Gender Gaps in educational opportunities, health and economic, Washington: World Bank, p. 23. 11 UNDP, Human Development Report Kosovo 2012 Pristina: UNDP, p. 71. 12USAID in Kosovo 2014-2018: Strategy for cooperation for development of the country, Pristina: USAID in Kosovo, p. 10. 13 UNDP, Human Development Report Kosovo 2012 Pristina: UNDP, p. 75. 14 Kozarelli Catherine (2012), Country Gender Assessment for USAID in Kosovo: Version audience outside Washington, USAID, p. 34. 15 Riinvest and CIPE (2012) Corporate governance in public enterprises in Kosovo: Improving the transparency and governance of public funds in Kosovo, Pristina: Riinvest Institute, p. 28.

17Ana Stupnytska Catherine Kosh, Amy Mekbith, Sandra Lawson and Kejthi Katsui (2014), deserved praise knit How could give rise to global growth gap reduction of credit to SMEs owned by women, Goldman Sachs, f .19. 18 EBRD (2013), Strategy for Kosovo, p. 51. 19 Weidemann Associates (2012), Assessment of medium-term performance of the USAID project in Kosovo to guarantee the loan portfolio (LPG) with Raiffeisen bank JSC .: Final Report, Washington: USAID, p. 10. 181

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6% of the total lending market, with the average amount of loans given 1,800 euro. When it comes to the possibility of lending by the government, the Ministry of Trade and Industry is currently at the stage of creating a scheme of loans for micro-businesses and SMEs, which is based on a feasibility study conducted recently. The criteria for receiving the loan will be favorable to women , giving them extra points 5-10 to apply for loans. However, there is still a special fund dedicated to women-owned businesses.

According to a survey of 600 SMEs Riinvest Institute in Kosovo in 2011 74% of SMEs are financed by income and personal funds, 12% of banks and 10% by family and friends2530. The main reasons why SMEs do not apply for loans include high interest rates, not having the need to borrow, the belief that they will not be able to borrow from banks, as well as unattainable criteria for collateral. According to Central Bank data, interest rates for business loans are about 15% of consumer loans by 13%21.

The situation in Albania

In Albania there are no formal obstacles for both genders in getting a similar education and career advancement. In fact, it is quite interesting that the level of education in Albania is reflected almost perfect equality between men and women. Of all the people who have a university degree, are of a proportion of 50.2% females and 49.8% males22. Yet, equal education does not reflect the same equality in career advancement .It is a widely accepted fact that within the world of entrepreneurship and public sphere comes the number of women drops dramatically as more as we climb the stairs in the hierarchy of career .This inequality is also reflected in the entrepreneurial environment in Albania. Only 27.8% of operating companies in Albania are owned by women. These companies seem relatively small, with business scope mainly in consumer businesses , where 29.1%

20 Riinvest Institute (2012), Banking Sector: Facilitator or Barrier, Pristina: KFOS, p. 40. 21 Deloitte Consulting sh.p.k (2013), pikëreferimit system in the financial sector: Overview for Kosovo, USAID, p. 6.

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The importance of gender diversity in work and business

According to the survey2354, 62.4% of respondents selected leadership skills as the most important quality required in management positions for men. In executive positions men are perceived as confident leaders with very strong (50.8%), convenience in taking decisions (60.1%), as well as being effective in the negotiations (37.7%). In research ,men in executive positions, have received less appreciation for honesty (4.2%), communication skills (17.9%) and for bringing innovation (12.9%).Key criteria for senior executives are self- assessment and the ability to take risk over constitute . As an effort to understand the strong perception that comes as a result of this research which considers men as leaders, let's have a look at the key and essential elements to the definition of leadership. It includes: social impact; maximizing efforts of others; all towards achieving the goal24. Characteristics of men, as confidence, comfort in effective decision-making and negotiation ability lead us to a faster response to issues and solutions. The general perception is that men tend to be more effective in achieving the goals. While women are more focused on sustainability, ease of communication, which results on avoiding conflicts. Also, women seem to differ from men for some other reasons as having strong capabilities and negotiation commitment that often allow them finding better solutions. While men and women are two different role models in management, studies of sociologists and psychologists who have researched this subject show that men are more focused on power in terms of prestige and status in the social hierarchy, while the main style of women's management is based on the influence through cooperation with others, looking for opinions and advice. In this way, they tend to inspire and increase the involvement more than pressure. Psychologists say that women have the organizational

22 INSTAT Women and Men in 2013 23 Deloitte Albania 24 Forbes.com/sites/kevinkruse/2013/04/09/what-is-leadership/

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As it is seen below , in Fig.8, men and women have different features in management process. This proves that a company is important to have both sexes within it in order to have complete and compacted staff.

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Characteristics of men and women who hold executive positions

Profesionalizmi 30 66,4

Komunikimi i lehte 17,9 28,2

Ndershmeria 4,2 40,5

Dije gjitheperfshirese profesionale 27,1 26,1

Komoditeti ne marrje vendimesh 60,1 13,6

Aftesia e Lidershipit 62,4 31,6

Negociatat efektive 37,7 33

Qendrueshmeria 20,1 31,3

Menyra e angazhimit 21 36,1

Aftesi te mira analitike 21,3 40

Sjellja e risive 12,9 21,4

Aftesia ne planifikimin strategjik 35 20,2

Vetebesimi 50,8 23,6

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

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Situation in Europe

To a woman who is planning to invest in a productive activity, European funding remains an ideal solution helping the project to meet the expenses. In 2015 Law 215/92 provides facilitations for "Pink Quotes" and relevant enterprises, new and existing ones. A part of the funding is to not be restored while the rest with an interest rate of 0.5% for 10 years. Numbers which have nothing to do with those that exceed 10-15% Kosovo.

Those who can take advantage of these benefits are small enterprises mostly with female management, which are:  Enterprises with a female owner;  Enterprises or cooperatives should have at least 60% of shareholders female  In the corporations` the case, at least 2/3 of the shares must be women, and of the administration must be at least 2/3 of women.

Concerning small enterprises, should respect certain criteria: should be less than 50 workers, the turnover should not exceed 70 million euro and total balance should be inferior to 5 million euro.

These grants are destined in these sectors : industry, agriculture, trade, handicraft services and tourism. Businesses campaigns which have been exempted are : steel industry, artificial textile fibers production also the construction and repair of ships.

Recommendations

- Recommendations in terms of state:

 Collect and categorize qualitative and quantitative data about the participation of women in the economy.  Create packages of services to women entrepreneurs.  Strengthen and expand the services offered to women employees.

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 The identification of banks, MFI`s and other organizations that provide lending services to women entrepreneurs.  Financial institutions in the private sector should be encouraged to provide better conditions of lending to women entrepreneurs.  Initiating gender advocacy campaigns for sensitive issues that contain examples of gender inequity in business making and entrepreneurship.  Analyze women business making environment .  To increase awareness of mediation and arbitration.  To continue cooperation with the Women's Chamber of Commerce in Kosovo (G7).  Create an action plan based on needs and assessments of female entrepreneurs based on the findings/recommendations .  To create and apply a special fund of guarantees for women entrepreneurs within the DCA.  To organize a task force or working group to start a dialogue on issues related to women in business.

- Recommendations in social aspect

As in natural terms genres that differ among each other, in each work or social environment, there is a need diversity and completion of the frailties of either sex with the opposite gender priorities.

• Based on reports of aforementioned ( "Doing Business") in Kosovo although the percentage of low female has reflected to increase 0.3%, but again we are far from the region where women represent the upper echelons leader on 20%, so more to be worked in order to achieve regional parallel upswing.

• 11% (Kosovo) & 36% (Region) is the proportion of registered businesses owned by women, so 25% challenge to overcome as European society .

• Gender Equality Agencies for should not be the single points to advocate for change, change must start essentially in :Family. As in Albania, the BROTHER state, the situation 187

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University is better, but not as it seems. Although the level of education of women to men is higher the affordability continues to be detrimental to them. This proves that the reason is not related to the issue of the ability of a woman, but of a traditional concept where women are still not accepted as a working partner, except that a member of the family. • Raise awareness of women for the right to property and decision making will play the leading role in our cause for diversity • Economic independence of female will end masculine ignorance . • Institutional and business diversity, whether being productive or clientele makes the aim or the target of both easier achieved. • And finally in terms of Gender Equality, if women have evaluated positively by a very low percentage in the higher one within a couple of years, it would have functioned properly if the same war and form of challenge would be done in economical and business making aspect would have reflected in doubling achievements . • As a society it is sufficient to accept changes without overtones "PINK" or "BLUE", as such we will make our regional history of economy .

Conclusion

As a reflection of the recommendations above mentioned we shortly can cite that:

There is a whole society to contribute in the positive change of the current position of women,eventhough it does not mean that we are stumbbling , bu we are too slow to feel the difference.

The national and international results, seems to be a strict significant of what we should and how we should make the difference.

Overall, as this work is an interlaisment of both genders ,Festim & Amantina,2 genders with different profiles,competences and knowledge, two view pointsand many other bipolarisations that make this work more colorfull and attractive.

Aim and end are more than clear , but the most undeffinite one is timeto achive the target ,but it depends on how institutions spend energy and society wants the modernisation, europianisation - internationalization ,because to be modern it is not enough to be worn modern but thinking and acting modern. 188

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Ackowledgements

Thanks God for giving us the opportunity to express our ideas and experiences.

Many thanks to the cnference organisers "Trakya University -7th International Conference of the Balkan Women and Business,for honouring us with their colaboration and the oppportunity to contribute worldwide from small Kosovo. Lastly we thank all volunteers for their unreserved contribution.

References

1. World Bank Unit poverty reduction and economic management, the region of Europe and Central Asia (2012). 2. Chamber of Commerce and GIZ (2012), the current decision-making power of women in Kosovo, attitudes and perspectives in economy, Pristina, p. 16. 3. Data for Kosovo are available at: http://wbl.worldbank.org/data/exploreeconomies/kosovo/2013

4. Ana Stupnytska Catherine Kosh, Amy Mekbith, Sandra Lawson and Kejthi Katsui (2014), deserved praise knit How could give rise to global growth gap reduction of credit to SMEs owned by women, Goldman Sachs, f .11. 5. Correspondence between CLE and MTI, March 20, 2014. 6. World Bank Unit poverty reduction and economic management, Europe and Central Asia (2012), Kosovo: Gender Gaps in educational opportunities, health and economic, Washington: World Bank, p. 23. 7. UNDP, Human Development Report Kosovo 2012 Pristina: UNDP, p. 71. 8. USAID in Kosovo 2014-2018: Strategy for cooperation for development of the country, Pristina: USAID in Kosovo, p. 10. 9. UNDP, Human Development Report Kosovo 2012 Pristina: UNDP, p. 75. 10. Kozarelli Catherine (2012), Country Gender Assessment for USAID in Kosovo: Version audience outside Washington, USAID, p. 34. 11. Riinvest and CIPE (2012) Corporate governance in public enterprises in Kosovo: Improving the transparency and governance of public funds in Kosovo, Pristina: Riinvest Institute, p. 28. 12. Kosovo Agency for Support to SMEs (2011), Strategy of development of SMEs in Kosovo 2012-2016 with 20/20 vision, Pristina: Kosovo Government, p. 30. 13. Ana Stupnytska Catherine Kosh, Amy Mekbith, Sandra Lawson and Kejthi Katsui (2014), deserved praise knit How could give rise to global growth gap reduction of credit to SMEs owned by women, Goldman Sachs, f .19. 14. EBRD (2013), Strategy for Kosovo, p. 51. 15. Weidemann Associates (2012), Assessment of medium-term performance of the USAID project in Kosovo to guarantee the loan portfolio (LPG) with Raiffeisen bank JSC .: Final Report, Washington: USAID, p. 10. 16. Riinvest Institute (2012), Banking Sector: Facilitator or Barrier, Pristina: KFOS, p. 40. 17. Deloitte Consulting sh.p.k (2013), pikëreferimit system in the financial sector: Overview for Kosovo, USAID, p. 6. 189

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CHALLENGES FACED BY FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS

Dafine Abazi, University of Pristina, Kosovo

Abstract

Entrepreneurs starts a business for a variety of reasons such as spotting an opportunity, motivated by wanting to make money or flexible working hours, meaning that they want a lifestyle that is not bound to nine to five or feel they have no other option. It is not only to come up with an idea turning it into a profitable business; it is just one part of it. It can be difficult to start a business in any circumstance and you will face challenges until you reach the top. Furthermore, turning extraordinary ideas into reality takes spectacular courage. There is evidence that some groups may find it more difficult. Women in particular, may face some challenges compared to men. Some of the main challenges faced by female entrepreneurs are; access to markets, limited access to resources, limited access to industry networks and connections, lack of role models and mentors and lack of confidence. These challenges affect the business ability to grow. Many of the mentioned challenges are a result of gender bias and stereotypes. Female entrepreneurs often have to work harder firstly to overcome these challenges but also to get respect and recognition. However, we have also heard about different stories of famous female entrepreneurs worldwide who overcame the challenges and succeed. Moreover, this paper will mostly pay attention to the challenges faced by female entrepreneurs and stories of female entrepreneurs in Kosovo. Specifically, Arta Shehu from Jcoders Academy and Sara Fusha from Balkanspring who have specified if they have faced any challenge in the beginning and have also made some suggestions for the future female entrepreneurs what steps to follow in order to have success. With the elimination of the abovementioned challenges and appropriate funding, support and training the female entrepreneurs will have the potential to make a sizable contribution to the economy.

Keywords: Women, Entrepreneur, Challenges, Stereotypes, Economy

1. Introduction

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The motives for addressing this problem flow from the challenges that the female entrepreneurs face that are different from their male counterparts. Moreover, Entrepreneurship can be found in all professions despite gender such as architecture, arts, distribution, education, engineering, law, medicine, research and social work. According to Hisrich “Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence.”55 Entrepreneurship is growing throughout the world and the future appears to be very bright for entrepreneurs. But does there exist any gender differences in entrepreneurship where facing challenges in entrepreneurship differs depending on gender. In recent years, the number of female entrepreneurs across the world has been gradually growing and some researches have been paying attention to discrimination and obstacles that the female entrepreneurs go through, such as finance.56 There does also exist different stereotype and discrimination of women which varies of different cultural settings which women have to work harder to eliminate and to overcome in order to have success.

1.1 Methodology

The methodology of accomplishing this objective will be done through empirical approach, meaning, by exploring the data, facts, statistics, interviews and different research papers. All of them will of course be interpreted, to conclude about the female entrepreneurs, the challenges faced by female entrepreneurs, the aspect of female entrepreneurs in Kosovo, and two examples of successful entrepreneurs in Kosovo, and in the end a conclusion of it all.

2. Female entrepreneurs

In recent years, there is a record number of women who have been embracing entrepreneurial careers as a reason for spotting an opportunity, motivated by wanting to make money, the desire to put their knowledge and skills into use or flexible working hours, meaning that they want a lifestyle that is not bound to nine to five or feel they have no other option.57 Entrepreneurship has brought in a new revolution as we witness women emerging as business owners in economic sectors they have not previously occupied.58 Being an entrepreneur as an alternative to unemployment will give women the

55http://www.thunderbirdangelnetwork.org/angel-investor-phoenix-blog/bid/51662/Global- Entrepreneurial-Leadership-by-Robert-Hisrich-Ph-D/ 56 Nancy M Carter, Colette Henry, Barra Ó Cinnéide and Kate Johnston – “Female Entrepreneurship: Implications for Education, Training and Policy”, Routledge 2007, United Kingdom, p 1 57 Fuller-Love, N. 2008. Female Entrepreneurship. In M. Galindo (ed), Female Entrepreneurship, in Entrepreneurship and Business: A Regional Perspective. Springer Nature pp.291-292 58 Jeanne Halladay Coughlin and Andrew R. Thomas – “The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs: People, Processes and Global Trends”, Praeger 2002, pp. 105 191

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University opportunity to balance work and family responsibilities, while improving family welfare and social cohesion.59 Some countries have realized the potential contributions women make to the nation’s economic growth through entrepreneurship and that is for a variety of reasons. 60First, female entrepreneurs create jobs for themselves and others. It also allows them to capitalize on their experience, acquired skills and training and helps to reduce the discrimination against women in the labor market. 61As the gender stereotypes exists in daily life such as in education and politics it has also been found in entrepreneurship where women truly experience it.62 Despite the fact that entrepreneurs are important to the economy and job creation, the role of female entrepreneurship is often undervalued and underplayed.63 It is all as a result of our social belief, cultural and expectation of women rather than men. This might also answer the question of why there are fewer women than men in leadership position worldwide.64

2.1 Aspect in Kosovo

Kosovo is still in the transition phase where Kosovo is also ranked as 60 out of 189 to do business in according to the World Bank Group.65 In the recent years, as Kosovo ended its war in 1999 and got independent in 2008, there is an ongoing rise of women in leadership positions. The female aspect in leadership position has changed by firstly having a female president, a female mayor and few female ministers. Moreover, there exist institutions and organizations that are helping to empower the women’s role in society and business. NGO Women in Business is one of them which provide services and support women who have ideas and initiatives to start a business, including those who have informal businesses and women who have already established their businesses and need to develop them further. They provide services within training and education, consulting, advocacy and networking. According to NGO Women in Business the challenges that female entrepreneurs face are66

- Possession of property; women tend to lack access to assets, including property; according to cultural norms, men within their families manage such assets - Education level of the women - Lack of women’s business experience

59 Jeanne Halladay Coughlin and Andrew R. Thomas – “The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs: People, Processes and Global Trends”, Praeger 2002, p. 104 60 http://www.pecob.eu/Women-entrepreneurs-new-opportunities-challenges 61 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283667669_Female_entrepreneurs_in_transition_ec onomies_Insights_from_Albania_Macedonia_and_Kosovo 62 Kathleen Dolan – “When does gender matter?; Women Candidates and Gender Stereotypes in American Elections”, Oxford University Press 2014, p 3 63 Nancy M Carter, Colette Henry, Barra Ó Cinnéide and Kate Johnston – “Female Entrepreneurship: Implications for Education, Training and Policy”, Routledge 2007, United Kingdom, pp.2 64 Tina Kothari - “Women in leadership”, Arena Book 2008, United Kingdom, p.8-9 65 http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/kosovo 66 http://gratenebiznes.com/en/about-us 192

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- Lack of women’s access in information and finances - Lack of institutional support, including here the family, traditions and mentality. - Other social and environmental factors

The female entrepreneurs in Kosovo are getting support from institutions different organizations for the activities of female entrepreneurs. A number of them are;

- Kosovo Investment and Enterprise Support Agency(KIESA)67 - NGO Woman In Business68 - SHE-ERA69 - Innovation Centre Kosovo (ICK)70 - United States Agency for International Development (USAID) USAID is helping women to advance in business through the Advancing Kosovo Together and Empower Private Sector Support programs, which run from 2014 to 2017. 71 - European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) TEB and EBRD have launched the program to support women entrepreneurs which is focused on supporting the development of women-led small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the region by providing access to finance and know-how.72 - Kosovo Women’s Network (KWN)73

Referring to Kosovo Agency of statistics the categorization of enterprises according to size and gender are:

67 http://www.invest-ks.org/en/support-to-women-entrepreneurs 68 http://gratenebiznes.com/ 69 http://she-era.org/ 70 http://ickosovo.com/ 71 https://www.usaid.gov/results-data/success-stories/women-succeeding-business- kosovo 72 http://www.teb-kos.com/en/index.php/lajme/teb-ebrd-i-perkrahin-femrat- ndermarrese-ne-kosove/2015/ 73 http://www.womensnetwork.org/ 193

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Source: Kosovo Agency of statistics74

According to the table and graph 4 we can see that the men are still dominating on business owners rather than women. There is a higher percentage of micro businesses with 1-9 workers owned by women rather than small business with 10-49 workers. Also, in the medium business for quarter 2(Q2) of 2016 there has been no registration of both genders.

74 http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2078/statistical-repertoire-on-economic-enterprises-in- kosovo-q2-2016.pdf 194

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3. Challenges faced by female entrepreneurs

Obstacles are the stumbling blocks that often become the steppingstones to success

Swahili saying75

Becoming an entrepreneur gives the chance to create and to build something new and different or to leave something behind. No matter what the motivation, creating something from nothing that grows and develops through the years is not that easy. Being an entrepreneur is not easy, it is fraught with struggle, entailing both risk, effort and obsession as you invest your money, time, passion and creativity. No one can truly understand the triumphs of an entrepreneur other than the person involved. 76 Even though, women have to go through the same stages of setting up an enterprise as men, and have similar challenges, irrespective of gender, female entrepreneurs often face a set of challenges that are not typically shared by their male counterparts.77 The challenges faced by female entrepreneurs first impede their entry as entrepreneurs and later their survival as successful business-women are78

- Women’s entrepreneurial abilities are not always approved by their family;

The female entrepreneur can either be highly motivated in her new venture or completely demotivated by her family/husband. The socio- cultural factors is the main impact on the family’s approval of having their wives or daughters as entrepreneurs. Also, in some societies, the women’s role is not next to, but beneath the male. Traditionally, women are associated with the home and hearth. These socio-cultural factors act mainly as barriers to women’s entry in entrepreneurship.79

- Workloads are exhausting with the double burden of taking care of home and family;

One of the greatest challenges facing women in the business world is how to balance business and family responsibilities. Females are traditionally the backbone of the family, and are expected to provide the foundation for family life

75 Jeanne Halladay Coughlin and Andrew R. Thomas – “The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs: People, Processes and Global Trends”, Praeger 2002, p. 101 76 http://www.ilo.int/public//english/region/asro/bangkok/library/download/pub96- 01/chapter5.pdf, pp.17-18 77 Jeanne Halladay Coughlin and Andrew R. Thomas – “The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs: People, Processes and Global Trends”, Praeger 2002, p. 104 78 http://www.ilo.int/public//english/region/asro/bangkok/library/download/pub96- 01/chapter5.pdf, pp.17-18 79 http://www.ilo.int/public//english/region/asro/bangkok/library/download/pub96- 01/chapter5.pdf, p.20 195

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and raising children. Social expectation of women’s role and family responsibilities usually mean that women assume a greater responsibility for household, child care and dependent care. As a result, women too often opt for either raising a family or growing a business.80

- They have limited access to capital;

A big challenge when starting any kind of business is raising capital, even more so if you are a woman. According to Robert D. Hisrich and C. G. Brush (1986) The Woman Entrepreneur: Starting, Managing, and Financing a Successful New Business, for a woman entrepreneur who lack experience in executive management, has had limited financial responsibilities, and proposes a non-proprietary product, the task of persuading a loan officer to lend a start-up capital is not an easy one. As a result, a woman must often have her husband co-sign a note, seek a co-owner, or use personal assets or savings. Many women feel strongly that they have been discriminated against in this financial area.81

- They have lack of access to resources, raw materials, markets, connections and networks;

Knowing where to find the right support network is not always easy as the majority of the high-level business world still being dominated by men. Networks provide critically important information for entrepreneurs. Networks help entrepreneurs learn more about their industry and build important connections for additional resources and business growth. It is challenging for women to find the connections they need when starting their business and later on when they are seeking advice for business development Moreover, in some countries, women are less welcome in social networks, which exclude them from opportunities, which limit their access to often critical information.82

- Lack of confidence and fear of failure

As a female entrepreneur, you’re going to hear the word “no,” experience sexism, and constantly have to defend your expertise and how it translates into your

80 http://yweclub.com/the-challenges-female-entrepreneurs-face-and-how-to-overcome-them/ 81 Nancy M Carter, Colette Henry, Barra Ó Cinnéide and Kate Johnston – “Female Entrepreneurship: Implications for Education, Training and Policy”, Routledge 2007, United Kingdom, p.17 82 http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/5268-women-entrepreneur-challenges.html 196

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market. In order for you as a female entrepreneur to see the change, you need to keep going. 83 Lack of available advisers and mentors limits their professional growth results in lack of confidence and fear of failure and with lack of confidence will hold you back from starting and growing a viable business. You need a strong confidence to keep you focused on your journey.84

3.1Factors that affect the success of female entrepreneur

The barriers and obstacles that female entrepreneurs face can be divided into three groups. The first group of barriers has to do with women who are motivated by push factors. This group of barriers include: creating confidence necessary to start business; finding the proper sources for help and advice; providing access to financial resources; lack of mentors and advisors for individual owners; problems of the isolated feelings/adaptation to change from employed to being self-employed; accepting the offers provided by suppliers, other businesses and clients; difficulties of managing both family and business affairs; low entrepreneurial spirit; coping with the risk; and access to business networks. The second group of barriers has to do with women who are motivated by pull factors. Barriers in this category include: lack of financing; access to risk-capital, capital market, real networks and business consultants; lack of ability to establish management control and create a strong management team; and access to mentors, knowledge and information necessary for business growth. The third group of barriers occurs for younger women who start their own businesses: discrimination in terms of age by consumers, government institutions and agencies; not being accepted by other colleagues-entrepreneurs and other business contacts; insufficient support from family and friends; and lack of a proper advice.85

Despite these and countless other obstacles and challenges, there is an increasing number of women starting a business worldwide, and today, it is not uncommon to meet a successful female entrepreneur. We must not forget that the common challenge that both men and women entrepreneur face is the strong personality to achieve their goal. Above all, the feeling of will overcomes all the challenges and obstacles.86

4. Two example of successful female entrepreneurs in Kosovo

83 http://madamenoire.com/484177/common-challenges-female-entrepreneurs-face/9/ 84 http://womenssuccesscoaching.com/2016/03/the-top-5-challenges-women- entrepreneurs-face-today/ 85 http://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/WREMSD.2015.072066 86 Nancy M Carter, Colette Henry, Barra Ó Cinnéide and Kate Johnston – “Female Entrepreneurship: Implications for Education, Training and Policy”, Routledge 2007, United Kingdom, p 13 197

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Jcoders Academy

Jcoders Academy was established with a focus on education. Jcoders Academy offers a unique training program for the next generation of developers. After the training, students will be transformed by technology users in creative technology. The software developers are the creative minds behind the software. Its approach is to strengthen the skills needed to become a good developer. It will focus on the programming logic and the age group for this course is 8-15 because they believe that early training will inspire great mind.

Arta Shehu from Jcoders Academy started this business because she spotted a new opportunity. She started the business by herself including self-financing at first, later on she found support from an institution in Kosovo namely Innovation Centre Kosovo (ICK). In Arta’s case she faced difficulties with getting into the market which she also specified as her challenge with starting the business. As a new business, started a year ago, she is having a huge success as it continues to grow. Her recommendation for other female entrepreneurs is to have courage and to believe in yourself while she stated that Kosovo is in a primitive stage for doing business.

Balkanspring

Balkanspring is an online shop dedicated on bringing you a great variety of products crafted from Kosovo, both modern and traditional, such as clothes, shoes, fashion accessories, gift items, souvenirs and beauty products. Balkanspring aims to improve the international export channels for businesses, talented designers and creators in Kosovo, through the Internet. The online shop links quality producers with buyers from around the world the online boutique offers selected range of high quality products, of both traditional, modern fashion and high fashion brands, such as clothes, shoes, fashion accessories, gift items and beauty skincare products. Balkanspring.com includes manufacturers such as Flutura Dedinja, Krenare Rakovica, Remzije Januzaj, Krenare Rugova, NGO Sabor, FolkanShqip, NGO Gora, NGO Soroptimistene, NGO Sapun(The Ideas Partnership NGO) etc., whose main goal is to offer these products online to customers around the world but also to customers in the Balkans.

According to Sara Fusha from Balkanspring she specifies that the reason for starting this business was because of the motivation to have more money. When questioning about the financing she said that it was all self-financing and that she only faced difficulties within finances stating that it is difficult for a startup to get loan or support in any other form. However about doing business in Kosovo, as a part of Balkan, she did not feel any discrimination because of the gender but she clearly stated that Kosovo does not have the right climate of doing business as the informal competition comes with damage as causing loss in business. Sara’s recommendation for female entrepreneurs is that before starting a business to find access and get the right information about the business environment, to 198

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University find ways of getting finances and finding a market, otherwise the business will fail within the first year

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, the challenges among female entrepreneurs have been a recent concern where there are certain things female entrepreneurs have to face that aren’t fair. There is a rising number of women who is working hard enough to overcome the challenges and stereotype of being a female entrepreneur and that has succeed. The female challenges that are not typically shared by their male counterparts might be as a result that in the past entrepreneurship was considered to be male dominated sector which has also effected the social beliefs and expectations of having a woman in a leadership position. Some of the challenges that the female entrepreneur faced that impede their entry as entrepreneurs were lack of access to resources, raw materials, markets, connections and networks and limited access to capital. But there were also some challenges that varies from different cultural setting affecting the family’s support and lack of confidence as in some countries the women are still undervalued and are not getting the same education as the men. But through the years, nowadays it is not uncommon to hear or meet successful female entrepreneurs worldwide. Today, the aspect of women’s position in leadership including in entrepreneurship is changing as the contributions of female entrepreneurs make to the nation’s economic growth and family welfare. This has made that the women is getting support not only from the family but also from the institutions and organizations to empower the women’s role in society and business.

In Kosovo, as a part of the Balkan countries and being in the transition phase, the women role in society and business is improving, but slowly. Firstly, we are seeing women being involved in different leader positions in politics and in business. According to the Kosovo Agency of Statistics there are a higher number of female owners in micro businesses with 1-9 workers than small businesses 10-49 workers. Further, the women are still facing problems with possession of property, lack of women’s business experience and access in information and finances, lack of institutional support, including the family, traditions and mentality which is holding women back from starting a business or getting involved in one.

5.1 Recommendations

 Government leader can help women to overcome their lack of confidence by lifting up stories of successful female entrepreneurs. This will also give the women a chance to have female role models in business.  To overcome the limited access to capital is to create a female angel investor group and to get female investors to support one another.

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 Female business leaders to advice and support other women on connections, markets and network.  In order to overcome the social expectation and discrimination against women is to stick with your belief to achieve your goal and have confidence on what you want.

6. References

Literature:

Jeanne Halladay Coughlin and Andrew R. Thomas – “The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs: People, Processes and Global Trends”, Praeger 2002, pp. 101,104-106

Kathleen Dolan – “When does gender matter?; Women Candidates and Gender Stereotypes in American Elections”, Oxford University Press 2014, p 3

Nancy M Carter, Colette Henry, Barra Ó Cinnéide and Kate Johnston – “Female Entrepreneurship: Implications for Education, Training and Policy”, Routledge 2007, United Kingdom, pp. 1-3, 13-15 and 17

Tina Kothari - “Women in leadership”, Arena Book 2008, United Kingdom, p.8-9

Publication:

Women “Take Care”, Men “Take Charge”: Stereotyping of U.S Business Leaders, Catalyst 2005, p. 6

Fuller-Love, N. 2008. Female Entrepreneurship. In M. Galindo (ed), Female Entrepreneurship, in Entrepreneurship and Business: A Regional Perspective. Springer Nature pp. 291-292

Internet: http://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/WREMSD.2015.072066 http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/5268-women-entrepreneur-challenges.html http://madamenoire.com/484177/common-challenges-female-entrepreneurs-face/9/ http://womenssuccesscoaching.com/2016/03/the-top-5-challenges-women- entrepreneurs-face-today/ http://www.ilo.int/public//english/region/asro/bangkok/library/download/pub96- 01/chapter5.pdf pp.17, 18, 20 http://yweclub.com/the-challenges-female-entrepreneurs-face-and-how-to-overcome- them/ http://www.teb-kos.com/en/index.php/lajme/teb-ebrd-i-perkrahin-femrat-ndermarrese- ne-kosove/2015/ http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/kosovo 200

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University http://gratenebiznes.com/en/about-us https://www.usaid.gov/results-data/success-stories/women-succeeding-business-kosovo http://www.thunderbirdangelnetwork.org/angel-investor-phoenix- blog/bid/51662/Global-Entrepreneurial-Leadership-by-Robert-Hisrich-Ph-D/ http://www.pecob.eu/Women-entrepreneurs-new-opportunities-challenges https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283667669_Female_entrepreneurs_in_transit ion_economies_Insights_from_Albania_Macedonia_and_Kosovo http://madamenoire.com/484177/common-challenges-female-entrepreneurs-face/7/ http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2078/statistical-repertoire-on-economic-enterprises-in- kosovo-q2-2016.pdf http://www.invest-ks.org/en/support-to-women-entrepreneurs http://she-era.org/ http://ickosovo.com/ http://www.womensnetwork.org/

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CHALLENGES OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR IN NON-PUBLIC EDUCATION

Dr.Eranda BILALI, Department of Education Faculty of Education University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi” MSc.Edit LEZHA, Faculty of Education University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi”

Assist.Prof.Fatmir VADOHEJ, Faculty of Education University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi”

Dr. Mehdi KRONI, Faculty of Education University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi”

Abstract

In recent years the improvement of the women position in society seems to have influenced for a better participation of its managerial level. Democratic developments in Albania opened up new prospects for private enterprise which one of them was the expansion of non-public education. The article gives some data on women's participation in business management in the non-public sector of education focusing on the district of Shkodra. Thanks to their creative capabilities of leadership and management it has made possible that their businesses not only survived, but to be competitive in the local market. Also, this study aims to present the problems faced by women entrepreneurs not only socially, but also economically in their bold venture. Through a procedure that combines data obtained from the database of the Regional Education Directorate of Shkodra and based on semi-structured interviews conducted with women leaders of private schools of Shkodra, they were analyzed their perceptions of their experiences, professional developments, difficulties, professional self efficacy, commitment and challenges in the process of organization, management and operation of private education institutions.

In paper some important conclusions are based on that the direction of the school, its performance depends mostly on the educational level of leaders, the school's profile, experience, managerial skills, etc. This article gives some recommendations in order to help women in education business management.

Keywords: private enterprise, education, woman, challenge

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WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN TURKISH ACCOUNTING PROFESSION

Dr. Betul Açıkgöz, Hitit University, Turkey

Abstract

Entrepreneurship is initiating a new business in a competitive environment while taking all the risks. One of the rewards of taking the risks is making profit instead of working as an employee. The concept of entrepreneurship is not limited with only running the business but also designing and launching the operations under harsh conditions. Although the literature of the women entrepreneurship is very broad, it is lacking of accounting profession. This paper focuses on the women accountants who start their own business in the industry and face the financial and/or non-financial obstacles in Turkey.

After the Turkish Republic was founded in 1923, the economic activities have been increased with the new economic entities. In order to regulate and follow the emergence of new industries, the accountancy had a great impact. The profession has been established by the regulations since 1932. The roots of public accounting profession are based on the law for public accountants and certified public accountants which was passed in 1989. There are 103185 public accountants and certified public accountants providing service in Turkey in 2016, yet 27% of this number is women accountants. Although the number of women accountants has increased by years, the percentage of women certified public accountants is only 7%. The numbers indicate the unproportional gender distribution in the profession.

When the word of “accountant” is called, the term is very broad which consists of the bookeepers from the bottom to the certified public accountants to the top. The target group of this research is entrepreneur women accountants who own their own office and provide their services as an employer at the same time. This distinction is important to specify the scope of the study. The previous studies show that gender discrimination is very common in this occupation. This fact results in the lacking of client portfolio and lower earnings among women accountants comparing to men accountants.

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The methodology of the research is based on survey data. The correspondents’ responses concerning about difficulties they face, and demographic variables are collected and analyzed using descriptive and statistical methods. The objective of the study is emphasizing the obstacles, and challenges from the perspective of women entrepreneurship in accounting practice.

Key words: women entrepreneurship, accountancy, accounting profession, Turkey.

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CHALLENGES FACED BY FEMALE ENTREPRENUERS

Abdullahu, Dafina. D87

ABSTRACT

Participation of women in business is considered as a powerful tool in order to strengthen the role of women on one side, and the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs on the other. The focus of this study is based on the challenges faced by women leaders in the private sector. This research aims to explain the impact of Kosovar women in business ie how many of them serve in leadership positions in companies? Are they equal in making decisions? What are the barriers that restrict women from Kosovo to be in leadership positions? Does this mean that men have the ability and skills better than women to lead or to establish a business? What would be the best way to overcome the barriers that women deserve their rightful place? These and many other questions will be the backbone of this paper. In this research we have selected some 25 companies to complete the questionnaire. Data analysis performed by SPSS statistical program. The analysis of the data shows that the number of women in leadership positions in different companies that help increase the performance of those companies. entry

Introduction

Participation of women in business, but why not also in their leadership considered a problematic area with special attention. Nowadays the role of women in business is increasing. This is due to the fact that women nowadays are more educated and educated as never before. Today we have a large number of women participating in different governing structure, education, business, or almost in all spheres of life which serve as models for a new generation .. This made us realize that women have the power to choose and to define themselves, not only when it comes to a family or household and the organization, but also in choosing their career path. Kosovo government decision no. 5/131 dated February 1, 2005 established the Office for Gender Equality as a special body of the Government of Kosovo in accordance with article 5.1 of UNMIK Regulation no. 2004/18, dated June 7, 2004, on the promulgation of the Law on Gender Equality adopted by the Assembly of Kosovo (Law no. 2004/2). With the decision of the Government of Kosovo nr. 03/2006 dated 12.07.06, Office of Gender Equality from 1 September 2006 into the Agency for Gender Equality88, Office of the Prime Minister.89

When it comes to gender equality in Kosovo, mainly meant to advance the position of women in society, especially in public life and in decision-making positions. Law on Gender

87 Msc.cand at University of Prizren, Economic Faculty,[email protected] 044/648-152 88 Agency for Gender Equality is an important for the functioning of democratic institutions and has a mandate to develop, implement, propose, coordinate and monitor national and international public policies on gender equality and is responsible for the promotion, protection and advancement. 89 Newsletter 2014 Gender Equality Agency http://abgj.rks-gov.net/Portals/0/Shqip_B9.pdf pp.3 205

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Equality90 defines the conditions and opportunities for gender equality through policies that support overall development and improvement, especially the position of women, so that they are valued and enjoy authority in the family and society.

Kosovar society has continuously made efforts to achieve gender equality, in particular the advancement of women in society and public life. After the last war in Kosovo, efforts for the emancipation of women, not only increased, but also to assessed their contribution to society and advanced their position. A considerable number of different organizations, including non-governmental organizations, local and international, through various programs and projects have contributed to the advancement of women towards achieving gender equality. Kosovo institutions have consistently taken a number of actions to ensure equal opportunity and treatment without discrimination, including gender differences. In some cases, affirmative action measures were taken that lead to the achievement of gender equality such as the assignment of gender quotas or similar. To reflect the current situation in the field of gender equality and efforts made by public and private institutions, the following report provides an analysis of the legislation in power in Kosovo, which promotes and encourages the achievement of gender equality Kosovo, in particular the promotion of participation of women in the workplace and in leadership positions and decision-making91

The weak economy, cultural practices, discrimination in the labor market, even property rights and inheritance constitute some of the obstacles in improving the situation. According to the latest data from the Agency of Statistics, women have a high degree of absenteeism in the labor market, with 81.9% of them are not active.92

Review of the literature

Women play an important role in guiding small businesses especially. Due to the numerous skills and training that they have made to achieve a balance between professional and personal life, making you more work performed by them to give excellent results.93

According to Kofi Annan "Gender Equality is more than a goal in Itself. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of Therapeutic Poverty, Promoting sustainable development and building good governance. "94

According to Caliper (2005), women leaders are more assertive and persuasive, have a stronger need to get things done and are more willing to take risks than men

90 Law on Gender Equality GENERAL PROVISIONS Article 1 Point 1.2 http://www.gazetazyrtare.com/e- gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=76&Itemid=28&lang=sq 91 Women in the work process and decision making http: //abgj.rks -gov.net/ pp.11 92 Empowering women challenge for Kosovo http://www.ekonomia-ks.com/?page=1,5,392649 93 Importance of women in business http://www.bmabaroda.com/importance-of-women-in-business 94 http://careeradvancementblog.com/male-female-leadership 206

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University leaders....Women leaders were also found to be more empathetic and flexible, as well as stronger in interpersonal skills than their men counterparts95

(Akanji, 2006; Cheston & Kuhn, 2002; Kuzilwa,2005).The main obstacles that women face in business are educational and work-related. Skills, training and business education have a positive effect on enterprise performance

Shane, (2003) It is acknowledged that the exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunity depends on the entrepreneur’s level of education, skills or knowledge acquired through work experience, social network and credit.

Ibru,(2009)Many women entrepreneurs lack training and education both in developed and developing countries and hence the need for training especially in developing economies must be highlighted

Hadary (2004) argues that women also tend not to have the relevant education and experience in starting and managing a business and this in most cases leads to less96

The importance and role of women leaders in Kosovo

Kosovar women are considered the ongoing talent untapped potential business from a significant number of local and international organizations. However, use of this potential has remained far from the levels of expectation. Official data on the structure of our businesses show that gender differences are significant ownership and evident. Women in Kosovo today generally tends to be the owners of smaller businesses in size, operate with capital many times lower than men, establish the functional businesses in sectors with value predominantly small and have barriers to social , cultural and environmental. To increase the participation of women in business, to change the current nomenclature gender of businesses say that a multi-dimensional approach is the necessity of today. This multidimensional approach requires intensive involvement of institutions, agencies and business associations. Such an approach requires a more friendly, and favorable business environment, easier access to capital and a more fair society. Moreover, change our attitudes towards women through faith, even given the opportunity and the protection of female entrepreneurship initiative is a prerequisite for an environment that creates value. Women in Kosovo have a lot to give Kosovo's economy97. Many sectors (where trace textiles and food processing) where Kosovar women gives the country not only domestic

95 Maseko,I. Th.(2013) A comparative study of challenges faced by woman in leadership, University of Zululand Dissertation,pp.22 http://uzspace.uzulu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10530/1338/CHALLENGES+FACED+BY+WOMEN+LEADER SHIP.pdf;jsessionid=E93E4F8DF5DC963EB135DC21BF672BBE?sequence=1 96 Mandipaka, F. (2014) "An Investigation of the Challenges Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries" University of Fort Hare December, pp.1188 http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/viewFile/5196/5013

97 This opinion is supported by z. Lumir Abdixhiku role of women in the Kosovo economy http://abdixhiku.blogspot.com/2012/03/roli-gruas-ne-ekonomine-kosovare.html 207

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University but also potential comparative advantage in the region. Kosovo needs to build on these advantages. Based on this we can conclude that large exist gender differences in the labor market where among other things we will mention:

 Nearly one in five (18.1%) women of working age are active in the labor market, compared with about three-fifths (56.7%) of working-age men.  Among persons in the labor force, unemployment is higher for women than for men (36.6% compared with 31.8%).  The employment rate among working age women is only 11.5%, compared with 38.7% for men.  This very low degree of unemployment among women stems from the combination of very low participation in the labor force and high unemployment.  Family responsibilities were the main reason for non-activity of women in the labor market, 38.5% of female respondents gave this reason.  Women were employed mainly in the sectors of education and health (40% of employed women).  Men were mainly employed in the manufacturing, trade and construction (employing more than 40% of employed men).  Men tend to work longer hours than women, 29.5% of men work more than 48 hours a week compared with 10.6% of women. A greater proportion of employed women (26.4%) worked less than 40 hours compared with 13.2% of men98.

The challenges facing the Kosovar women today

Regarding what are the challenges women face nowadays kosovo can say that there are many. First of mentality that exists in our society. There is little, because if there are ways and mechanisms for changing the reports of representation of women in society the change of mentality requires a longer time. We as a society need to build a new mentality on the role and status of which are part gravem komplemtentare society as men. Therefore, greater unemployment One usually falls to women. Today more women than ever before are very keen to see as educated as the only opportunity to walk in life and to confront it with all its difficulties.

It is generally known that leadership is a male dominated one, however women are trying to enter leadership places and adopting men’s style. Both, male and female are having different style of leadership. Therefore, what are the main reasons that male are holding leader positions and females are having some barriers to the leadership and management positions. Though, my research is based on theory about leaders, leadership and management, male and female leadership style. That’s why I am using qualitative method in my research, and making investigation of research issue by using relevant information

98 Statistical Agency of Kosovo results of the Labour Force Survey in Kosovo, June 2016 http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/1684/rezultatet-e-anketes-se-fuqise-punetore-2015-ne-kosove.pdf pp8,19 208

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University from articles, journals, books, and information from internet, web sites. To analyze a research data, found out answers and open new findings for myself as researcher is the core of the thesis. It is common knowledge, that female want to reach top management and they have some barriers and traits toward high positions and promotions to the top. Also, it is obvious that men have leaders’ positions in many spheres. However, my research is mostly about differences in leadership and management betwen females and males.99

Female leadership qualities:

1.openness,

2.flexibility,

3.empathy,

4.relational strengths,

5.inclusiveness, and

6.a preference for collaboration.100

Research results

The main work was intended to identify the participation of women in leadership positions in various companies. Therefore we surveyed 25 companies whose results have shown that a very small participation of women in leadership positions. Therefore, all results will be presented through the following graphics:

Fig.1. Years of the founding of Fig.2.How many board members your company has your company?

0% 4% 32% 32% 1- 5 years 1-3 members 64% 6-10 years 68% 3-5 members 10 years 5-7 members

Fig.3. What is women board Fig.4.Does it affect women in participation? decision making

40% 44% 99 http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:238/fulltext0260% 1-3 female MASTER THESIS: FEMALE AND GENDER56% Yes LEADERSHIP pp 7Ainura Kadyrkulova Universitythere of is Kalmar no Kalmar, Sweden 2007-2008 No 100 Cocchio, L.K EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP FOR WOMEN University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada March 11, 2009 pp.8 209

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Fig.5. Does the company enhance Fig.6.It is equal to the salary of performances by the presence of women to men in the same position women ? 16%

20% Yes Yes No 80% No 84%

Fig.7. Do women get influenced by Fig.8.Are women informed about

other people when making their rights? decisions?

20% 16% 4% More informed Yes Less informed 80% 80% No No informed

Testing of hypotheses

Hypothesis 1

H0 -Female has no impact on decision-making in companies that work

HA- Female has impact on decision-making in companies that work

Case Processing Summary Cases Valid Missing Total N Percent N Percent N Percent As it affects women in 25 100.0% 0 0.0% 25 100.0% decision-making

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Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. Monte Carlo Sig. (2-sided) Monte Carlo Sig. (1-sided)

(2-sided) Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Sig. 95% Confidence Interval

Lower Upper Lower Upper Bound Bound Bound Bound

Pearson Chi-Square 5.114a 2 .078 .050b .045 .054 Likelihood Ratio 6.129 2 .047 .050b .045 .054 Fisher's Exact Test 4.520 .050b .045 .054 Linear-by-Linear .486c 1 .485 .599b .589 .608 .443b .433 .453 Association N of Valid Cases 25 a. 4 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .40. b. Based on 10000 sampled tables with starting seed 926214481. c. The standardized statistic is .697.

Symmetric Measures Value Approx. Sig. Monte Carlo Sig. Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Phi .452 .078 .050c .045 .054 Nominal by Nominal Cramer's V .452 .078 .050c .045 .054 N of Valid Cases 25 a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. Based on 10000 sampled tables with starting seed 926214481.

This hypothesis is confirmed by non-parametric Chi-Square test (Hi square). As seen above, the value calculated by SPSS-Pearson Chi-Square is X2 = 5:11. Once Asymp.Sig. p = 0.000 <0.078 H0 hypothesis is rejected. So the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which means that Female impact on decision-making in companies that work Hypothesis 2

H0- years of establishment of the company have no impact on the growth of the female employed

HA- years of establishmet of the company have impact on the growth of the female employed

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2- sided) 211

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Pearson Chi-Square .781a 2 .677 Likelihood Ratio .997 2 .607 Linear-by-Linear Association .750 1 .386 N of Valid Cases 25 a. 4 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected

count is .20.

Symmetric Measures Value Approx. Sig.

Phi .177 .677 Nominal by Nominal Cramer's V .177 .677 N of Valid Cases 25

a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

This hypothesis is confirmed by non-parametric Chi-Square test (Hi square). As seen above, the value calculated by SPSS Pearson's Chi-Square = 0871 X2. Once Asymp.Sig. p = 0.000 <0.667 or 67.7% H0 hypothesis is rejected. So the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which means that the founding years of the company have no impact on the growth of the female employed

Conclusions

From the study we can see that the concern remains that we have a low number of women employees, especially in leadership positions. Therefore, the government should develop policies aiming at raising awareness and increasing the role of women in active labor market, given that the labor market in Kosovo is unfavorable taking into account the fact that unemployment is quite large and dominate the female gender. Women should have as many equal opportunities in terms of their professional orientation. Increasingly need to increase the number and impact of women in leadership positions and decision-making.

Recommendations:

 The equal treatment without discrimination,  To be informed about the rights that belong  To increase the participation of women in the labor market  To give more support from local institutions in order to promote decision-making skills  To have as much training which inform women that should be part of the labor market  To have the highest level of educated women 212

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References

Maseko,I. Th.(2013) "A comparative study of challenges faced by woman in leadership", University of Zululand Dissertation,pp.22 http://uzspace.uzulu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10530/1338/CHALLENGES+FACED+BY+WOMEN+L EADERSHIP.pdf;jsessionid=E93E4F8DF5DC963EB135DC21BF672BBE?sequence=1

Mandipaka, F. (2014) "An Investigation of the Challenges Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries" University of Fort Hare December, pp.1188 http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/viewFile/5196/5013

Kadyrkulova, A. (2007-2008) "Female and gender leadership" University of Kalmar Kalmar, Sweden pp.7 http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:238/fulltext02

Cocchio,L.K (2009) "Executive leadership for woman" University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada March 11, pp.8

Role of women in the Kosovo economy http://abdixhiku.blogspot.com/2012/03/roli-gruas- ne-ekonomine-kosovare.html

Statistical Agency of Kosovo results of the Labour Force Survey in Kosovo, June 2016 http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/1684/rezultatet-e-anketes-se-fuqise-punetore-2015-ne- kosove.pdf pp8,19

Newsletter 2014 Gender Equality Agency http://abgj.rks-gov.net/Portals/0/Shqip_B9.pdf pp.3

Law on Gender Equality General Provisions Article 1 Point 1.2 http://www.gazetazyrtare.com/e- gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=76&Itemid=28&lang=sq

Women in the work process and decision making http: //abgj.rks -gov.net/ pp.11

Empowering women challenge for Kosovo http://www.ekonomia- ks.com/?page=1,5,392649

Importance of women in business http://www.bmabaroda.com/importance-of-women-in- business , http://careeradvancementblog.com/male-female-leadership

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WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR IN KOSOVO, THEIR CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

MSc.C. XHEMAJ, Vetan, Albanian (Universiteti i Prizrenit “Ukshin Hoti”, fakulteti Ekonomik, Administrim Biznesi) MSc.C. ZEKOLLI, Blerta, Albanian (University of Prizren “Ukshin Hoti”, Faculty of Economics, Business Administration)

Abstract

Women-owned businesses are one of the populations of enterprises with the fastest growing in the world. As such, these provide an important contribution to innovation, employment and economic welfare.Women in Kosovo have historically been at a disadvantage compared to men, especially when it comes to representation at senior management levels in both the public and private. Women are often subject to economic discrimination and lack of access to income or capital. They rarely own property and often had to waive their right to property in cases of inheritance. Thus, they aren’t able to achieve economic independence or provide financial loans to start businesses. Statistics show that only 11% of businesses in Kosovo are run by women, while the employment of women in administration and other sectors is not a satisfactory percentage. In the area of entrepreneurship, the presence of women is very small compared to the average of countries in the region (33%) and global average (38%).Women-owned businesses are smaller in number and with most serious barriers than those of men. These barriers differ profoundly from interest rates, the rights of doing business compared to men. Our country is failing to treat equally half its population, losing nearly half of Kosovo's economic potential. There are many sectors, such as tourism, health, textile or food processing, where Kosovar women can not only give the country the internal potential, but comparative advantage in the region. This paper focuses on women entrepreneurs and provides current understanding of motivations, problems and perspectives of women entrepreneurs in Kosovo. The goal is to provide enough information about the profile, difficulties, challenges, strengths and weaknesses of women entrepreneurs in Kosovo.

Keywords: Kosovo, women entrepreneur, challenges, opportunities.

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1 INTRODUCTION

Women’s entrepreneurship needs to be studied separately for two main reasons. The first reason is that women’s entrepreneurship has been recognised during the last decade as an important untapped source of economic growth. Women entrepreneurs create new jobs for themselves and others and by being different also provide society with different solutions to management, organisation and business problems as well as to the exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities. However, they still represent a minority of all entrepreneurs. Thus there exists a market failure discriminating against women’s possibility to become entrepreneurs and their possibility to become successful entrepreneurs. This market failure needs to be addressed by policy makers so that the economic potential of this group can be fully utilised. The second reason is that the topic of women in entrepreneurship has been largely neglected both in society in general and in the social sciences. Not only have women lower participation rate in entrepreneurship than men but they also generally choose to start and manage firms in different industries than men tend to do.The industries (primarily retail, education and other service industries) chosen by women are often or have until recently been perceived as being less important to economic development and growth than high- technology and manufacturing.

1.1 Women Entrepreneurship Defined

“When women move forward, the family moves, the village moves and the Nation moves”- Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

Definition

“An enterprise owned and controlled by a woman having a minimum financial interest of 51% of the capital ang giving at least 51% of the employment generated by the enterprise to women”- Government of India. “A woman entrepreneur can be defined as a confident, innovative and creative woman capable of achieving self economic independence individually or in collaboration, generates employment opportunities for others through initiating, establishing and running the enterprise by keeping pace with her personal, family and social life”.- Kamal Singh [1].

2. Importance of Woman Entrepreneurs

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It is imperative to note the participation of women in economic activities as self-employed individuals. Many of the traditional occupations open to women were mainly based on caste and creed and the nature of self-employment was based on the standard of living. Presently, not only are women generating employment for themselves in the unorganised sector, they are also providing employment to others.Participation of women in the Kosovar market is observed in many sectors, especially in tourism, healthcare, textile and food processing, where Kosovar women can not only give the country the internal potential, but comparative advantage in the region, which advantage in the end can undo the current trade imbalance.The country needs to mobilise and utilize fully all its resources including human resources. The participation of women in economic activities is necessary not only from a human resource point of view but is essential even for the objective of raising the status of women in society. The economic status of women is now accepted as an indicator of a society’s stage of development. Therefore, it becomes imperative for government to frame policies for the development of entrepreneurship among women.

2.1. Factors Influencing Women Entrepreneurs

The following are the major factors influencing women entrepreneurs.  Economic independence,  Establishing their own creativity,  Establishing their own identity,  Achievement of excellence,  Building confidence,  Developing risk-taking ability,  Motivation,  Equal status in society,  Greater freedom and mobility [2].

3. Women Entrepreneurs in Kosovo

Despite the fact that women constitute more than 50% of the overall Kosovo population, extremely low participation of these women in entrepreneurship and their very low entrepreneurial activity, testify unbalanced position of women entrepreneurs [3]. In Kosovo, women are still hardly active as entrepreneurs – at least in formal terms. Businesses owned by women are rare. Chart 1 informs that, overall, only 13% of SMEs are owned by women and another 3% are co-owned by women. So the remaining 84% of SMEs are owned by men. The incidence of female entrepreneurship is however much higher in personal and business services where 23% and 35% of enterprises respectively are controlled by women. In the other sectors, the share of women is much lower; in construction in particular there are virtually no women-owned businesses at all. Furthermore, business women are mainly active as solo-entrepreneurs, while in larger size categories women become even rarer. Finally, there are relatively more female entrepreneurs in the Prishtina Region (18% plus 6% co-ownerships) than in the other Regions (10% plus 2% co-ownerships on average). Women-led companies are - by average 216

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- also slightly younger than men-led ones, which means that self-employment constitutes a more recent career option for women [4].

Chart 1.Share (%) of businesses owned by women, by sectors, size categories and regions

100

Female owners Male and female co-ownership

Source: KOSME SMEs Survey 2014

Women are somewhat better represented among the total workforce of SMEs than among entrepreneurs or owners. Nevertheless they constitute a minority of 22% in this respect, too (see Chart 2). Again the smallest share of female workers is being found in the construction sector (12%), while in personal and business services 30% of staff is women. However, enterprises owned by women usually also employ more women than men[5].

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Chart 2. Share of women (%) in total staff of SMEs

100

30 30 30 24 23 21 22 20 15 12 10

Source: KOSME SME Survey 2014

4. Challenges in the Path of Women Entrepreneurship The problems and constraints experienced by women entrepreneurs have resulted in restricting the expansion of women entrepreneurship. The major barriers encountered by women entrepreneurs are as follows.

Lack of Confidence

Women generally lack confidence in their own capabilities. Having accepted a subordinate status for long, even at home, members of their family do not appear to have total confidence in their abilities and on their decision-making.Society in general also lacks confidence in a woman’s strength, traits, and competence. This is quite apparent in the family’s reluctance to finance a women’s venture, bankers are reluctant to take risks on projects set up by women, and individuals are unwilling tgo stand guarantee for loans to a women.

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Problems of Finance and Working Capital

Another problem faced by women entrepreneurs is lack of access to funds because they do not possess any tangible security and credit in the market. Since women do not enjoy right over property of any form, they have limited access over external sources of funds. Women entrepreneurs face serious problem in obtaining working capital for financing day-to day operations of the enterprises, including purchase of raw materials, meeting pay-rolls. The chronic shortage of working capital leaves women entrepreneurs extremely vulnerable to competition and other emergencies.The complex and complicated procedure of bank loans and the delay in obtaining the loans, deter many women from establishing enterprises [6]. Women rarely own property and often had to waive their right to property in cases of inheritance. Thus, they are not able to achieve economic independence or provide financial loans to start businesses. Women are often subject of economic discrimination and lack of access to income or capital. Only 2% of the total number of loans were given to women [7].

Socio-Cultural Barriers

A woman has to perform her family duties irrespective of her career as a working woman or an entrepreneur. In our society, more importance is given to educating the male child as compared to the female child. This results in lack of schooling and vocational training of women, their lack of attaining technical skills and thereby lack of awareness of opportunities available.This adds to the constraints in establishing enterprises by women. Even the male labour force is generally seen as not preferring to work undes a lady boss. Women entrepreneurs are not taken seriously enough by the labour force. All this hinders women entrepreneurship.

Production Problems

Production in a manufacturing enterprise involves coordination of a number of activities. While some of these activities are in control of the entrepreneur, there are others over which she has little control. Improper coordination and delay in execution of any activity cause production problems in industry. The inability of women entrepreneurs to keep pace with the latest advances in technology and lack of technical know-how results in high cost of technology acquisition and machinery utilization. These problems result in increasing the cost of production and adversely affecting the profitability of the unit.

Inefficient Marketing Arrangements

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Heavy competition in the market, and their lack of mobility makes the women entrepreneurs dependent on middlemen. For marketing their products, women entrepreneurs are at the mercy of middleman who pocket a major chunk of profit. Further, women entrepreneurs also find it difficult to capture the market and make their products popular. They lack information on the changing market. In addition, women entrepreneurs, face difficulty in collection of payments.

5. Identified Barriers of Women Entrepreneurs in Kosovo

Women, therefore, in most of the barriers that remain foremost in the country, are more marginalized, more limited in their addressing and eventually most disadvantaged. The economic and business environment in Kosovo remains little or nothing easy for women to experience entrepreneurship. Businesses women - on average - achieve annual turnover of no more than 20,000 euros; while for men this average amounts to about 50,000 euros a year. Women and men are not equal, neither in terms of realizing profit margin in a year. Thus, while women on average score always a profit of 18%, men reach 22%.

Women are limited in terms of diversity of financing business activities. Thus, for the majority of business women (55%) bank credit remains the most common form of financing. Men on the other hand have a range of financing alternatives. They, except can be financed by banks (35%), also have alternatives of financing from family budgets, lending of friends and similar [8]. In addition to variation in different regions of Kosovo, businessbarriers are also experienced and perceived differently by men and women entrepreneurs in Kosovo. In Kosovo, nearly all female owners (99.9%) are micro-enterprises. For them, the cost and access to finance remains at the top (the intensity of 60,respectively 61), compared with the general barriers of the private sector in Kosovo (56 and 57) and compared to men (58 and 56). Therefore, it is not surprising that women entrepreneurs tend to have smaller businesses and operate with lower levels of overall capitalization compared to men [9].

Women are recognized as a largely untapped reserves of entrepreneurial talent from a wide number of regional, national and international agenciesof economic development in Kosovo. In general aspects, literature research finds that women entrepreneurs tend to have smaller businesses, operate with lower levels of overall capitalization, tend to start and manage firms in industries different than those run by men, while growth rates of their businesses tend to be lower and always able to existence of some social, cultural and environmental barriers. In Kosovo, the entrepreneurial activities of women are still constrained by gender-specific restrictions, including social conventions, legal and institutional frameworks, unequal employment opportunities and work-life balance.

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Table 3. The intensity of the perceived barriers of businesses in Kosovo by gender Male Female

1 Access to business services and information 38.6 33.8

2 Access to financing 56.5 60.3

3 Access to the use of land 36.0 33.3

4 Anti-competitive practices of other competitors 69.6 60.5

5 Business licensing and permits 40.7 35.1

6 Breach of contract by Customers and Suppliers 60.5 50.5

7 Corruption 63.4 52.8

8 Cost of financing 58.0 61.1

9 Customs and trade regulations 49.4 37.0

10 The functioning of the judicial system 54.5 48.2

11 Work Regulations 38.3 33.6

12 Organized crime and mafia 62.3 50.7

13 Political Instability 59.8 51.2

14 Tax Administration 50.2 43.4

15 Tax rates 50.8 45.8

16 Telecommunications 35.3 33.5

17 Unfair Competition (evasion and informality) 77.2 70.3

(where 20 is the lowest intensity and 100 the highest)

Source: Enterprise Barriers Survey, Riinvest 2011

6. Strategies for the Development of Women Entrepreneurs

In small and medium enterprises due to limited sources, majority of the functions have to be performed by the owners themselves. In case of women entrepreneurs, the problems get compounded because certain functions have gender dimensions attached to them.

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Domestic commitments and child-care support are the two main responsibilities of women. This, along with the still narrow outlook of society in accepting a woman as an entrepreneur makes her life more difficult. Some suggestions to meet these challenges and to encourage women entrepreneurship are given below.  To overcome the resistance from husband and members of the family at the time of setting up of their venture, prospective women entrepreneurs are advised to maintain their cool and persistently convince them, without confronting them, regarding the benefits of setting up of an enterprise. The women requires to have a strong will power under the circumstances. The inflow of money will eventually solve this problem.  Shouldering the dual responsibilities of an entrepreneur and a homemaker can be effectively undertaken by a women entrepreneur through better time management. The members of the family can also be involved in the business, which will help in sharing the burden of entrepreneurial work. Moreover, the women entrepreneur must try to make her husband and children self-sufficient at home. With tact and diplomacy, she should solicit cooperation in running the enterprise from the family.  A women can set up a home-based business. By operating her business from home, a women can better coordinate her household and business responsibilities.  For marketing her products, a women entrepreneur must establish her credibility in terms of quality and competitiveness of product or service. She should acquire relevant techniques and skills to win costumer’s loyalty. E-commerce business will also help greatly in this regard. For publicity and advertisement, the women entrepreneur can work on alternatives like cable TV, pamphlets, leaflets, slides in cinema halls, banners at strategic locations, and so on.  Effective and efficient use of information technology like the Internet can help in assimilating information about the variety, range, and quality of say competing products, and publicity and marketing of products and services.  Workshop and seminars should be organized frequently for the officials of financial and support agencies and for women entrepreneurs to make their relations more cordial.  Procedures for financial assistance by banks and government organisations must be simplified. Women inspectors, if available, should be asked to inspect women enterprises.  It has been observed, that there is tendency to project a higher valuer of sales, production, and profits in project reports to impress the bankers. Such a project profile is not appropriate from financial management point of view. So, women entrepreneurs need to undertake training in various aspects of financial management to understand its finer implications.  Since complicated and lengthy procedures make it difficult to acquire loans from government financial agencies and banks, it is suggested that women entrepreneurs search for non-formal sources of finance like private financiers, relatives, friends, and others.  Banks and financial institutions must maintain a minimum target of loan to be disbursed to women entrepreneurs. Collateral security should be dispensed with in the case of women entrepreneurs because many women hardly have any property

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or other assets in their name to keep as guarantee. Subsidies should also be given to women entrepreneurs at the initial stage itself.  Women entrepreneurs should acquire relevant training in technology and in details of their plant and machinery. They should be knowledgeable about the functioning of machines and processes. They should be more assertive with their employess and should employ more woman workers in their enterprises. They must undergo training in management skills to handle human resources as well as training in effective communication skills and practices and the legal aspects of running a business.  Group entrepreneurship is a viable option for the weaker sections of the society and it helps woman to overcome their poverty. It empowers women and provides the necessary confidence for entrepreneurship. Women’s organisations, women’s cooperatives, and NGOs should be promoted to assist self-employment for poor women [10].

7. Supportive Practices as a Condition of Increasing the Participation of Kosovar Women in Business

In terms of improving the opportunities of women entrepreneurs in Kosovo, state institutions have taken concrete steps in terms of improving the legal and material infrastructure in order to concretise the ideas of women.As guarantor of providing equal opportunities for female with the male, the Assembly of Kosovo passed the Law on Gender Equality, where besides the right for education, a special part occupies the participation of women in decision-making, respectively in the enterprise. Organization of conferences for women entrepreneurs from various ministries headed by women, are a strong pillar of raising the participation of women in the Kosovar market and finding opportunities for expansion in markets abroad.An example of such organization of conferences attended the Ministry of European Integration, at the time of the leadership of Vlora Çitaku, where the aim was to inform and prepare the women in terms of absorption of funds from abroad and meeting the standards of the EU, as an opportunity to integrate into the market of EU. One of the ways of promoting the work of women entrepreneurs is the organization of fairs as a good practice to see work of female potential in our country.Such examples we have in Prizren, where every year is organized '' Fair of various clothing '', where women from different cities exhibit their hard work. Also, an example of this we have to Velika Krusa, where the orientation of the women of this locality is the production of food products. With the help of institutions and support of organizations from outside, these women have overcome the pain of the past war in Kosovo and have shown their strength in terms of achieving the goal of self-employment. One obstacle faced by Kosovar women in access to finance especially in the banking sector in the past, is the problem of inherited property, it was almost impossible or very difficult

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University for women entrepreneurs to get loans from government agencies, banks and development organizations. Banking practices such as those that require a male co- signatories also discourage women who aim to materialize their ideas in practice. Fortunately the state and banking policies in recent years have made positive efforts to change this discriminatory practice. Now women can easily access funds to support their businesses. In this regard, the TEB bank in support of women entrepreneurs has signed in 2015a cooperation agreement with the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) in favor of providing financial opportunities for business development of women. As a part of the program, TEB Kosovo offers women entrepreneurs free banking services for a year, flexible collateral requirements, as well as training that covers business planning, strategic management, marketing and finance, in partnership with the Frankfurt School of Business. The bank has also begun to target women whose businesses are in the ideation phase, offering them coaching services to help develop their business plans.In 2015 the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) granted the bank a $ 1.5 million credit guarantee facility for women-owned SMEs [11].

8. Conclusions

-In developed societies, participation and advancement of women is one of the conditions that meets this label. Participation and growth of businesses owned by women can be seen in two contexts: The first has to do with economic and social independence of women affected by the prejudices of the past, especially in society and Secondly, the participation of women in doing business means the possibility of generating new ideas, since female gender is an untapped potential.

-Kosovo as a country emerging from war and with a brief period of time of proclaimed state, in terms of gender representation has had and still has challenges in terms of fulfilling the rights of females, especially in the sphere of business. But, fortunately in recent years, the results indicate that the number of female entrepreneurs in Kosovo has increased, with a positive trend, but should not be self-satisfied as the challenges still remain, overcoming of these challenges can be reached with a concrete and serious approach.

-Regarding the legal infrastructure in terms of strengthening the role of women in the Kosovar market, our institutions have taken concrete steps ranging from gender equality law and the various initiatives, that are key to supporting and unlock various challenges.

-Another fact in terms of representation and empowerment of Kosovar women in entrepreneurship is also the support of organizations and financial institutions from abroad, commitments which have borne fruit within many sectors. 224

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-Barriers identified by the various findings of this paper mainly are: access to financing, the cost of financing and unfair competition (evasion and informality), barriers which often make impossible concretization of business ideas.

-As a barrier with particular emphasis we can mention access to finance, where as a result of the trial social of discriminating female gender or not having the right to property, women have encountered difficulties regarding possibilities of borrowing financialfunds.

8.1 Recommendations

- To provide more support for women through the provision of educational support, and through opportunities for various professional training.

-To facilitate unnecessary and discriminatory criteria for access to funding.

-Creation of additional mechanisms if necessary, in order to strengthen and increase the participation of women in entrepreneurship.

-Advisory assistance for meeting the standards, as a condition to penetrate in the EU market, if not beyond.

Literature

[1] Charantimath M. Poornima, (2009), Entrepreneurship Development and Small Business Enterprises, Dorling Kindersley, Fifth Impression, India, Fq.99-100.

[2] Po aty, Fq. 99-100.

[3] Republika e Kosovës, (2011) “Strategjia e Zhvillimit të NVM-ve në Kosovë 2012-2016”- Me vizion 2020, Korrik, Fq. 37.

[4] OberholznerThomas, (2014), Austrian Institute for SME Research, “Report on SMEs in Kosovo 2014”, Kosovo SME Promotion Programme, December, Fq. 18.

[5] Po aty, Fq. 19.

[6]Charantimath M. Poornima, (2009) Entrepreneurship Development and Small Business Enterprises, Dorling Kindersley, Fifth Impression,; India, Fq. 106.

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[7] “Ndikimi i Ligjit të Punës tek Gratë në Kosovë”, (2011), Qendra Kosovare për Studime Gjinore, Fq. 10, në dispozicion tek: http://www.kgscenter.net/wp content/uploads/2015/05/Ndikimi i ligjit te Punes tek Grate ne kosove.pdf

[8] Abdixhiku Lumir, (9 Mars 2015) “Mbi përfshirjen e gruas në biznes”, Portali “Koha.net”, në dispozicion tek: http://koha.net/?id=31&o=580

[9] UNDP, (2012) “Raporti i zhvillimit njerëzor në Kosovë 2012”- Sektori privat dhe punësimi, Prishtinë, Fq. 71.

[10] Charantimath M. Poornima, (2009), Entrepreneurship Development and Small Business Enterprises, Dorling Kindersley, Fifth Impression, India, Fq. 107-109.

[11] “Women at TEB Kosovo”, në dispozicion tek: http://www.gbaforwomen.org/members/teb-kosovo/

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FINANCIAL IMPACT OF WOMEN AS ENTREPRENEURS IN PROVIDING REVENUES AND FOSTER FAMILIES

PHD can.Bekim Syla European University of Tirana Dr.sc.Veli Lecaj, University “Ukshin Hoti “ Prizren Faculty of Economics Abstract

Households provide their financial stability through investments and continuous efforts, which can’t have equal potential in all stages and times of a family social development, with particular significant role of women as entrepreneurs in providing revenues and family care in the Balkan region.

Therefore, the integration of women in society as entrepreneurs as well as its role in foster families, in the course of preservation of cultural, traditional and economic values of societies in the Balkan region correlated with the stages of investment and factoring agreements reached within EU as a region in terms of factoring benefit of women and the exploitation of national resources in terms of regional economic stability. Geographically, these countries lays under the same environmental conditions and gender rate with some particular small difference that differs some of the Balkan states, which also may have pre-eminence over other countries, but these countries do not utilize the potential of these advantages.

In this paper, we have brought up the strengths and factoring of women as entrepreneurs through investments especially the financial impact of women and the effectiveness of these investments in the integration of societies in the Balkan region.

The gathered data of financial impact that creates women as entrepreneurs by comparing the abilities they had before women take the decision to become entrepreneurs, and opening new opportunities for investment in those families or society, but from the perspective of effectiveness these investments have factored women as entrepreneurs, as an opportunity to enhance the care and foster families and society in the countries of the Balkan region and have used those opportunities following the decision of women to become entrepreneurs for their integration in the societies and investment market in the Balkan region. Thus the position and the impact of women in the society integration of the Balkan states and the opportunities provided to this region by women as entrepreneurs active in the market has been remarkable.

Key words: Women in business, financial impact, business, finance, social economic impact.

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Section Academic Life

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WOMEN IN ACADEMIC LIFE - CHALLENGES AND OBSTACLES THEY FACE IN ACADEMIC CAREER Lecturer Luan VARDARI, Prizren “UKSHIN HOTI’ University, Faculty of Economics Lecturer Nazli TYFEKÇI, Gjakova “FEHMI AGANI” University, Faculty of Philological, KOSOVA

Abstract

Kosovo's economy in recent years has faced numerous problems. Change the system, from the totalitarian and centralized to a market economy was accompanied by events that had significant impact on the economy of Kosovo. Lack of experience with regard to free market economy made it more difficult to change the system. One of the sectors, which suffered during this transition period was a radical change banking system. Exactly these problems and challenges faced and is facing the banking system, will be the subject of this paper. It will also analyze the policies pursued by the banking system to see if they were suitable or not, in order to improve their future.

An important part of this paper will be devoted to human capital, which is one of the main factors affecting the development of the banking system or not. It will examine how motivation affects the performance of human capital in the banking system. Who will look at factors that affect employee motivation and satisfaction. Part of the paper will be a model econometric analysis about the motivation of human capital in the banking system. This model is based on the survey conducted in some of the most important banks in the banking system in Kosovo.

The methodology used in this paper is a combination of theoretical analysis, the analysis of the real situation, as well as treatment of an econometric model, so that the conclusions drawn and recommendations are more accurate.

Key words: woman, academic career, challenges, obstacles, advancements

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Section:

Development

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KOSOVAR WOMEN'S ROLE IN DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL BUSINESS

Ass.Prof.Hamdi Hoti, Faculty of Economics, University of Prizren

Assist.Prof.Bekim Berisha, Faculty of Economics, University of Prizren

Abstract

Kosovar women’s role in general development of business and society should be the one of the priority of Kosovar society and wider of that regional and global. Because good coordination and sustainable work and activity works between women’s to take common initiatives and cooperation between of them general help women to have dominant role that they deserve in democratic society. In Kosovo women’s are still far of reality and needs of proper to move forward, because a lot of cases are treating as a group left out in society and the main challenge in the future it should be empowering their role in Kosovar society to develop business and educate family in general.

Therefore, enterprise to Kosovar women’s and wider it’s not gender issue but economic and it should be see with careful in the future. And women’s in region are not in good condition where they can be, so empowering of them in leadership positions, in business it must be the main priority of Kosovar society in the future.

Key words: Women, development, strategy, management, business.

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WOMEN IN THE LABOUR MARKET AND DECISION MAKING IN KOSOVO

Halil KUKAJ, Prizren “UKSHIN HOTI’ University, KOSOVO

Luan VARDARI, Prizren “UKSHIN HOTI’ University, KOSOVO

ABSTRACT

Gender equality is defined as a prerequisite for European integration and as such the Action Plan for European Partnership is listed on Political Criteria. The Government of Kosovo in April 2008 approved the Kosovo Program for Gender Equality GENERAL six goals and eight specific objectives. With this objective case for women in the labor market and decision-making requires a greater commitment of all stakeholders.

This study provides an overview of the rough that evaluates the legal framework and cross-sectoral policies and positioning of women in conformity with their school preparation in decision-making positions. Economic independence remains as one of the main key to the realization of the equal right to decision-making positions. Although Kosovo with gender representation in decision-making level of the seventeenth in the world counted in the labor market situation remains a challenge that requires a great commitment to the local factor and even international.

Therefore, the research enables the opening of discussions, improving the working environment and the implementation of the Action Plan for Empowering Women in Economy as a key factor of the welfare of family and society.

Key words: Women, Labor Market, Decision Making, Kosovo

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PROPERTY INHERITANCE BY WOMEN IN KOSOVO

Beshi, Simeana Lecturer, FAMA College, Faculty of Law Abstract

One of the most important challenges in Kosovo remains the rule of law. In Kosovo society, women are discriminated against in terms of the division of inheritance in relation to males, although legally the property should be divided equally. In Kosovo there are still barriers in that direction. Today in Kosovo, there is a weak rule of law in general, since it still shows the dominance of patriarchal practices, especially in rural areas, where inheritance is not shared as defined by the law, as well as property created during matrimony is not recorded as property of both partners. Lack of proper realization of women's rights in general and insufficient existence of property rights on property acquired during the marriage life, in particular, is a major obstacle to the development and empowerment of women in Kosovo. Gender equality in our country is very controversial. Tradition is considered one of the key factors that made women in Kosovo more reluctant in search of the right for inheritance. Some people see the request of the inheritance of women as a risk of weakening or total termination of relations of the woman with her family. The number of proceedings initiated in the courts for heritage profit is only 10% of them are initiated by women, making 90% of them are initiated by men. Although Kosovo is still rather traditional, it is still rising awareness of the equal right to property, for both genders, compared with the past. The mentality has changed in urban areas of Kosovo, while in rural areas still it is dominated by traditional mentality. Through the treatment of this topic I will aim at increasing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms by women's rights in Kosovo.

Keywords: inheritance, position of women, inequality, notary, common wealth

1. Introduction

Heritage is an ancient social category. It was first shown from the early stage of development of human society, when some of the best material, in addition to the social community, belongs to the designated persons. Legal basis for the determination and implementation of inheritance rights in Kosovo is the Law on Inheritance of Kosovo it is based on the principle of equality in inheritance between men and women. Kosovo laws guarantee equal rights and non-discrimination. The right to own and inherit in terms of both the men and women indiscriminately. The right to inherit is among the fundamental

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University principles of human rights without discrimination guaranteed by the international conventions. Referred to various factors that affect the property's heritage separating women, such as the preservation of family relations, patriarchal traditions, education, unemployment, (...) that reflect the typical traditional mentality of Kosovo society. Although the right to inheritance is regulated by law and international conventions, in Kosovo, it is practically solved by traditions and customs. The customary law recognizes only a man as the heir and that is the reason that drives most women to give up the right to inherit. Right codified still unable to supplant the customary rules. The Canon continues to be present in rural areas as a regulator of relationships hereditary.

1.1 General description of the problem

Realization of the legal and moral rights of inheritance by women is seen as a problem that requires additional commitment of all institutional mechanisms and civil society. Despite some achievements, women in Kosovo, especially in rural areas, continue to be in an unequal positions in many spheres of life, with particular emphasis on non- fulfillment of the right to property inheritance. So, the right of women to inheritance, was treated by the society, but not in accordance with the law and with modern European values. The number of women, which realize their legal right to inherit is symbolic, therefore, the increased need for a more active approach to the institutions and the general public awareness of the population, that this legal right of women is realized. Compared with the past, now there is a growing trend of women who carry their owned properties, but the situation is still not at a satisfactory level. We can say that the right of women to inherit is in its embryonic stage. It is disturbing mentality and consciousness of the population, in terms of women's rights as heir and owners. Lack of inheritance of property by women is affecting the position of women in the society, therefore, rightfully we can say that the role of women in society is about (in)visible.101 This study explores and addresses the impact of various factors that affect the indivisibility of property inheritance for women as patriarchal tradition, education, unemployment, illiteracy, low levels of awareness, not disturbing the parents (brothers), lack of awareness for their rights, reflecting the typical traditional mentality of the Kosovo society. Women in Kosovo, in most cases, do not enjoy the right to family heritage, as family wealth evenly divided only between male family members. In practice we see that there are discrepancies between tradition and the legal rights that it may have legal consequences.

101 Kosovar Gender Studies Center., (2011). “Women’s property inheritance rights in Kosovo”. KGSC, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (17) 234

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Laws applicable in Kosovo guarantee equal rights for men and women, but the weight of culture and tradition, the poor economic situation, low education, against any effective equality and the use of legal rights and legal mechanisms remains extremely difficult. Otherwise, the right to inheritance is a fundamental right guaranteed by the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo, as the highest legal act of the country. Kosovo women "de jure" are equal before the law, but "de facto" remain discriminated. The large number of international instruments for human rights has made the issue of gender equality to be a field of interest not only nationally, but also internationally. Those conventions determine the equal rights without discrimination between men and women and undertake initiatives to promote gender equality in all aspects. An important place among the International Conventions on Human Rights, occupies the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which establishes the equality of human rights for men and women, both in family and in society, as well as the elimination of all forms of discrimination.102 Equality between men and women in Kosovo remains a sensitive issue. The main research question is how are women heiress property in Kosovo. In empirical work, focuses on the analysis of the position of women as successor. The main result is that we have a great heritage disproportion in favor of men. On the other hand, the notary functionality has improved the position of women in terms of common property.

1.2 The importance of the study

This study attempts to provide a theoretical analysis of property inheritance by women in Kosovo. The research conducted will help raise awareness of civil society on women's rights, including their inheritance of the directors as equal gender. The importance of this study consists in the recognition of the provisions of domestic laws and international instruments on human rights that are relevant to women's rights, especially those that are relevant to women's property rights. This research includes the identification of the challenges that women face in practice as well as the possibility that voice can be raised in order to realize and advance the position of women in society. The study carried out is important, because it formulates the hypothesis that determine the position of women as the property owners and heiress in Kosovo.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The main scientific question is how women are heirs of property in Kosovo. The aims of this study are:

102 Idrizi, Nehat., (2014). “Instrumentet Ndërkombëtare për Barazinë Gjinore”. Instituti Gjyqësor i Kosovës, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (4)

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 To increase institutional law enforcement for heritage and gender equality law;  To increase the number of women on the use of their right to own and inherit property;  Enriching the knowledge of beneficiary parties and relevant officials;  The impact of traditional unwritten rules on the welfare of women in the realization of inheritance and property rights;  Strengthening the role of women, and her awareness of the general public in relation to inheritance and property rights.

1.4 Research question and hypothesis

Based on the conducted scientific research and literature review, we formulate the main research question: How much are women heiress of property in Kosovo ? To answer the main question we formulate the research hypotheses as follows: Hypothesis 1: Males inherit more and women much less. There is a great imbalance in favor of males heritage. Hypothesis 2: Functionality of notary impact on improving the position of women in terms of common property.

2. Literature review

The right of women to take legal action is limited [...] and its ability to seek action by the courts. In others, her status as a witness or her evidence is less respected or weight less than any male. These laws or traditions restrict women's right to seek or retain her equal share of property and diminish her position as a member of the independent, responsible and valued member of her community.”103 Illiteracy in Kosovo continues to be gender and age issue. Women in general are more than twice as illiterate than men (7.5% versus 3.3% in urban areas and 11.3% compared with 5.5% in rural areas).104 The Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo, Article 22, for the advancement of the rights belonging to both genders in general and women in particular, has provided direct implementation of the Agreement, as international instruments.105 The issue of equality and non-discrimination in legacy is ensured by the international legal instruments that are applicable. As a point of reference for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) which prohibits any kind of discrimination against women. These principles are set out in the preamble of the Declaration which

103 Instituti Gjyqësor i Kosovës., (2012). “Trajtimi i çështjeve të barazisë gjinore dhe mbrojtja e të drejtave të gruas në Instrumentet Ndërkombëtare”. IGJK, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (9) 104 Population of Statistic Department., (2011). “Women and Man in Kosovo”. Sida, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (5) 105 Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës., (2008). „Kushtetuta e Republikës së Kosovës”, Kap. II 236

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University states that "recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal rights and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world”.106 Other international instruments that guarantee and sanction equality and non- discrimination are the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the European Convention on Human Rights (...). Common to these legal acts is to guarantee, validation, legal protection and enforcement of the signatory states to the internal legislation to harmonize these rights. These rights fall within the group of civil rights that include political, economic, social, cultural, etc. where is promised the fight against all forms of violence against women. Also Resolution 1325 of the Security Council of the United Nations on Women, Peace and Security invites women from their experience in conflict contribute to maintaining peace and international security. This resolution promotes increased representation of women at all levels of decision-making in the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts.107 In terms of these Conventions, the Constitution of Kosovo, Article 21 guarantees human rights and fundamental freedoms, while Article 24 provides for equality in front of the law and equal legal protection of rights regardless of gender, race, national background, religion etc. Within the positive laws in Kosovo that are against discrimination the law that guarantees the right of persons to be treated equally by the law and to enjoy equal rights and duties in all areas of life and not to be discriminated against for any reason and in any environment.108 Then, the Law on Gender Equality, which in Article 16. 12 envisaged that children, women and men inherit property equally.109 The Law on Inheritance as a legal basis for inheritance, Article 3.1 provides that all natural persons under the same conditions are equal in inheritance.110 Canon of Lek Dukagjin, which is part of customary law, women are excluded from heritage. According to the canon: "If the heir is a woman, then the male shall be required until the 12th degree, only just that this property shall not be given to a woman “.111 The right of inheritance in general does not rule out the inheritance either gender, rather, legal instruments in positive law and in international law, guarantee the right of women to inherit. Examples of this are international documents and national legislation referred to in this paper.

106 United Nations., (2016). “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights”. [Online] Available: http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/, (accessed on: June 7, 2016) 107 Gender Training and Research Center., (2008). “Të kuptuarit e Rezolutës 1325 të Këshillit të Sigurimit të Kombeve të Bashkuara mbi Gratë, Paqen dhe Sigurinë”. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Prishtinë, Kosovë. p. (6) 108 Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës., (2004). „Ligji Nr. 2004/3 kundër Diskriminimit“, K. I 109 Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës., (2004). “Ligji Nr. 2004/2 për Barazi Gjinore”, K. I 110Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës., (2004). „Ligji Nr. 2004/26 për Trashëgiminë i Kosovës“, K. I 111 Kosovar Gender Studies Center., (2011). “Women’s property inheritance rights in Kosovo”. KGSC, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (22) 237

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From the reports of NGOs and international organizations operating in Kosovo from 1999 onwards, there is an overall assessment that women continue to be subjected to unequal inheritance proceedings. A research conducted by the monitors of BIRN about heritage in Kosovo and court cases in this area of law, state that in most cases only men are subject to the right to inheritance, while women voluntarily waive this right. Only in Prishtina, Gjakova and Prizren, there are cases where women have inherited from their parents' property. In Ferizaj, Peja, Mitrovica, Glogovac, in 98% of cases women waive their inheritance rights.112 In Kosovo, often in professional debates or research studies have indicated that in practice, however, women are excluded from property they own or have given up their share of the property in favor of men in the family. In a survey about the right of property inheritance for women in Kosovo conducted in 2011, conducted by USAID, more than 61% of respondents stated that, even if we wanted the inheritance their right will be prevented by the family and even those few women who may be aware of their right to inheritance can decide to waive that right. 27.3% of respondents put first the relations with brothers and their parents, then property.113 According to the OSCE report conducted in 2010, there are a number of obstacles related to the social position of women related to their right to inherit. These obstructions occur especially due to masculine mentality, that the property of the house should remain in the hands of man, as "the woman belongs to the man's door”.114 Monitoring activities by USAID, regarding the justice system have focused on several issues, including the treatment by the courts in property disputes, including women. In court as discriminatory practices were observed: failure to notify the married daughters in the hereditary procedure (Basic Court of Gjakova) and counseling of married women for their share of inheritance to give them to their brothers (Basic Court of Peja).115 “A justice delayed is a justice denied” with all its meaning, it is present in Kosovo, which represents what can rightly be considered as the main problem in the lack of public confidence in the judiciary. With functioning of notary system of the Republic of Kosovo citizens have multiple interests. Citizens need not apply to a court for cases that are elected in an extra procedure; each contract, which has to do with the circulation of properties certified to the notary, not to the Clerk of the Court confirmations. Also, the application of the notary system has a very large discharge of the courts with cases, dealing with contintious proceedings, resolution-setting which Kosovo citizens have to wait for months.116

112 Drejtësia në Kosovë., (2012). “Trashëgimia në Kosovë- femrat ende besnike ndaj “traditës dhe Kanunit”. [Online] Available: http://kallxo.com/dnk/trashegimia-ne-kosove-femrat-ende- besnike-ndaj-tradites-dhe-kanunit/, (accessed on: November 12, 2016) 113 USAID., (2014). “Women and Commerce Report”. CLE, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (12) 114 OSCE., (2010). “Të drejtat e gruas në legjislacionin Shqiptar”. Kingdom of the Netherlands & Sida, Shqipëri, p. (32) 115 USAID., (2014). “Women and Commerce Report”. CLE, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (25) 116 Beka, Agron., (2009). “Noteria dhe Kadastri në Kosovë”. Kolegji Universitar Biznesi, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (13-14) 238

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According to a survey conducted by "POLIS", respondents, who refused to elaborate why would examine the notaries, all have an answer, because the procedure is faster. 117 Only recent transactions and agreements between spouses dealing with property relations should be legalized by a notary service. This, de jure, has improved the status of the division of marital property.118 Since 2012, it has begun functioning of notary service, the Courts is observed reduction of the hereditary materials to the area. Notary has enabled citizens to exercise their rights more quickly and easily. From the work of notaries practice proved that no transaction or transfer of property is not done without consent of both spouses and women respectively. This is an important step to support women in the field of heritage and common property. From the sayings of the above mentioned, we can say that, despite the existence of legal infrastructure in which women are treated as equal inheritance, practice shows that the right of women to inherit, despite evolutionary changes, after 1999, is still far from legal provisions because of the mentality, traditions and specific position of men in the family.

3. Research methodology

Research methodology, which is used in this study is qualitative analysis, which will focus on the analysis of survey results. Some of the methods that will be used during this study will be: descriptive method; Inflict access qualitative methods (survey with judges from civil field, notaries and civil clerks) and historical methods.

3.1 Sample

In this study it is used the probability sample groups (Clusters) so that each group represents or is a representative of the complete population. The population is divided into several groups (Clusters), each representative of the population. A selection of study groups and are all units in the selected groups. The reason for the selection of the sample relates to the eligibility level and provides a better representation of the population for hereditary issues. In seven municipalities in Kosovo were surveyed judges from civil field, notaries and clerks, because hearings for inheritance begins and ends in the presence of these profiles. The research surveyed 10 judges who deal with the examination of civil cases in seven Basic Courts of the Republic of Kosovo: Pristina, Prizren, Peja, Gjakova, Ferizaj,

117 USAID., (2015). „Të Gjeturat dhe Rekomandimet e Organizatave Lokale nga Aktivitetet e Monitorimit të Gjykatës“. Atrc, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (9) 118 Färnsveden, Ulf., Qosaj-Mustafa, Ariana., & Farnsworth, Nicole. (2014). “Profili Gjinor i Vendit”. Orgut, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (20)

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Gjilan and Mitrovica. Part of the survey were 7 clerks and 13 notaries from the municipalities of Kosovo. Total part of the survey respondents were 30 profiles abovementioned. It is applied detailed interviews with professionals in the field. Data collection was conducted through personal interviews and direct written and e-mail, then the data / information sources are primary. Next will be presented samples of selected tables and charts:

Table 1: Structure of respondents in table form

MUNICIPALITY CIVIL LAW JUDGES NOTARIES CLERKS

PRIZREN 2 3 1 PRISTINA 2 3 1 PEJA 1 2 1 GJAKOVA 2 2 1 FERIZAJ 1 1 1 GJILAN 1 1 1 MITROVICA 1 1 1

Chart nr. 1: Structure of respodents in chart form

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3,5

2,5

1,5

0,5

0 PRIZRENI PRISTINA PEJA GJAKOVA FERIZAJ GJILAN MITROVICA

JUDGES NOTARIES CLERKS

3.2 Research instrument

This research was conducted through a questionnaire, which contains a total of ten (10) questions about the implementation of property rights and inheritance of property by women in Kosovo. Questions are considered to be sufficient to demonstrate the gap between laws and their practical application in society. Opinions of the respondents about the property's heritage of women in Kosovo, containing questions, which give information on whether the provisions are foreseen by the law on the right to property inheritance for women and their access to inheritance. The challenge is not faced ex-officio initiation of the law on inheritance, in terms of reviewing the heritage of the responsible official, who mostly disaffects women and customary law. The survey was conducted through direct interviews with professionals in the field area, where the possibility of mistakes is small and the data are more accurate and more reliable. Submission of survey questions has become so generalized, which gives more opportunities to respondents, to escape the essay question and comment on something

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University else or otherwise of what was required by the questions. In the questionnaire, there are specific questions, so that we will have concrete answers. Inadequate responses by the respondents increases the possibility of mistakes in reflection of reality regarding property and inheritance of property by women and misrepresent it. We can say that half of the respondents gave complete answers.

4. Research results

From the results obtained based on a qualitative approach to the inheritance of property by women in Kosovo we can say that men inherit more and woman much less. There is a great imbalance in favor of males heritage. Functionality of notary impact on improving the position of women in terms of common property. Heritage Law of the Republic of Kosovo shall ensure that all natural persons under the same conditions are equal in inheritance. Therefore, to emancipate our society regarding property and inheritance rights of women in Kosovo, it has conducted research in the form of a questionnaire in seven Basic Courts of the Republic of Kosovo, through which we get the answers and opinions of judges who deal review of civil cases. Part of the survey are also notaries and clerks of these municipalities.

5. Discussions

1. Heritage Law of the Republic of Kosovo recognizes the principle of equality and ensures that all natural persons under the same conditions are equal in inheritance. Besides the existence of legal infrastcture, Kosovo, in the context of inheritance and property rights of women, facing the poor implementation of the Law on Inheritance and continuity of existence of unwritten laws and the impact of customary law. Legacy although is regulated by law, de facto governed by tradition and custom in the division of property. In practice we see that there are discrepancies between tradition and legal rights. 2. Based on the responses received from respondents, we can emphasize that the procedure for examining the legacy ex-officio, unfortunately still remains at a low level of implementation, because the civil registry officers fail to submit the act of death in the courts, so that the inheritance procedure is initiated only upon the proposal of the interested parties. 3. By hereditary reviewed cases, rarely or no review procedure was initiated ex officio for heritage by the court. Initiate court proceedings after lodging hereditary proposals from parties. As a result of the examination procedure of not initiating the procedure for the heritage it is also ex officio delayed the submission of the request for reviewing of the heritage draft. Often these proposals are not made until many years after the death of the testator. From the data provided by the courts we conclude that the death certificate is marked not by all heirs especially female heirs are not included.

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4. Discriminated women do not file a claim and do not require to be entitled to judicial decisions. According to court statistics, the number of proceedings initiated lawsuits in the contentious procedure by women is extremely small, or not initiated any subject for that matter. 5. The relevant municipal authority (registrar's office) do not provide regular monthly court information about documents of death certificates that issued to citizens. At the entrance to the civil registry service we did not find any public announcements, which reminded citizens that false declaration of family status and giving false testimony by witnesses is a crime and they are sanctioned if they do act such. 6. Obtaining information from the Office of Civil Status, for each death certificate, we have found in many cases that many female successor in death certificates do not appear at all. Not included in the civil registers of all family members and unreported deaths courts. 7. According to officials interviewed by the Civil Registry Office of the obstacles they encounter in which are: insufficient human resources (lack of staff) and financial services, the lack of space in the office, lack of adequate equipment to work. Increasing the number of staff made only during the summer to accommodate the additional requirements for the needs of the diaspora. 8. Judicial practice and research conducted with notaries, proved that men possess more and women posess less, there is a large gap of inheritance in favor of men, while the region of Pristina and Prizren lead to cases when women inherit hereditary wealth. Even in the few cases where women inherit dominance observed in urban areas, much less to say at all in rural areas. 9. Despite that by law women and men inherit equally, in practice, when several factors affect women waive the right of realization of the right to property and inheritance. These factors are: the social, economic, traditional customs, maintaining relationships with brothers or family, avoidance of conflicts, non-efficiency of the courts, etc. ignorance of the law. The reasons and causes of the phenomenon of our heritage are largely patriarchal society, where tradition and law collide with each other. 10. Patriarchal traditions, living in large family community always had a negative impact on the development of women's rights to property and inheritance. However, the establishment of education, educational, intellectual and cultural level, invasions from one place to another, it has contributed to our families, relatives, society emancipated and feminine in supporting the realization of property and inheritance rights. If women encounter obstacles from family, necessary for the inheritance, the law on inheritance, the law on gender equality and anti-discrimination law obliges the state bodies and courts to protect the rights of citizens and thus also women's rights. 11. Since 2012, it has begun functioning of the notary service, the courts are observed reduction of the hereditary materials to the area. Notary has enabled citizens to not face delays in the processing of cases of inheritance, prolong the proceedings, delays in execution of court decisions and other procedural problems. Now citizens of their rights of inheritance can realize without delay and in a shorter period of time. Notary offices 243

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University engage more in verification of the heirs, before issuing a document on the right to inheritance. 12. From the work of notaries the practice proved that no transaction or transfer of property is not done without consent of both spouses and women respectively. This is an important step to support women in the field of heritage and common property. Functionality of notary services has led citizens to provide services more quickly and easily and improvements of the position of women in terms of the common property, as it is considered that it is registered in the name of both spouses.

6. Conclusions

Women in our country is lagging behind in the implementation of the right to property as a result of customary law and traditional relationships within the family and our society. Women's rights remain a major challenge for the development of Kosovo society, in particular about their right to own, to inherit wealth and their equal participation in the economy. The current study examines the inheritance of property by women in Kosovo how much are women successors of property in Kosovo, the influence to citizens to perform notary services more quickly and easily and to improve the position of women in terms of common assets. Through this research we prove what respondents think in different municipalities of Kosovo for these two hypothesized cases. The survey for the research questionnaire was used as the primary instrument to get the views of respondents about the property and inheritance of property by women in Kosovo, the impact of notary performing legal services for citizens and improve the position of women in terms of common assets. The main goal of this research is to emphasize that in Kosovo men inherit more, women much less. There is a great imbalance in favor of males heritage. Functionality of notary impact on improving the position of women in terms of common property. To answer the main research question and to achieve the purpose of the research, this study developed a basic theoretical and conceptual model. The information used in this study are the combination of theories and research results on the ground. Making validation of these two hypotheses, determining the property and inheritance of property by women in Kosovo, the impact of notary performing legal services for citizens and improve the position of women in terms of the common property, and contribute scientific literature and the field of inheritance and property rights in general, with special emphasis of property and inheritance of property by women. A democratic state can not be imagined without the woman and her active participation in all spheres of social and political life.

6.1 Study limitations

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This study has its limitations, because it studies the property and inheritance of property by women only in Kosovo. The findings are based mainly on the territory and population of the Republic of Kosovo. It had to be used the quantitative research methodology, statistical data collection by the court administration, the civil registration offices, notaries, municipalities across Kosovo, which lacks. It explores only the Republic of Kosovo, therefore, future studies should be extended to other countries in the region, namely in the neighbors states, using comparative analysis between Kosovo, Albania, Macedonia or other countries beyond. In the research females are have not been surveyed to understand their views on "Heritage property by women in Kosovo", how they consider the practical implementation laws. Much of the research is conducted by respondents with ethnic Albanians, leaving aside the inclusion of minorities.

6.2 Future directions of the research

The research can be extended to other countries in the region, namely in neighboring countries and beyond, and the application of the comparative method. Comparison of inheritance of property by women in Kosovo to other countries in the region still presents an opportunity to research the future by academics and experts in this field, but also by local NGO’s in various countries of the Republic of Kosovo. In future research it should be expanded the circle of respondents and increase their number so that the information collected would be more convincing and the possibility results be more realistic. The study should be expanded in terms of inclusion of communities living in Kosovo, in order to possess the attitudes resources and their position as part of Kosovo society about the property and inheritance of property. In the future, civil society, NGO’s, law-making institutions, should organize awareness campaigns for citizens (through public debates, brochures, social media), especially among the youth regarding property and inheritance rights of women.

References

1. Beka, Agron. (2009). Noteria dhe Kadastri në Kosovë. Kolegji Universitar Biznesi, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (13-14) 2. Drejtësia në Kosovë, (2012). Trashëgimia në Kosovë- femrat ende besnike ndaj “traditës dhe Kanunit”. [Online] Available: http://kallxo.com/dnk/trashegimia-ne- kosove-femrat-ende-besnike-ndaj-tradites-dhe-kanunit/, (accessed on: November 12, 2016) 3. Färnsveden, Ulf., Qosaj-Mustafa, Ariana., & Farnsworth, Nicole. (2014). Profili Gjinor i Vendit. Orgut, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (20) 4. Gender Training and Research Center. (2008). Të kuptuarit e Rezolutës 1325 të Këshillit të Sigurimit të Kombeve të Bashkuara mbi Gratë, Paqen dhe Sigurinë. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Prishtinë, Kosovë. p. (6) 245

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5. Idrizi, Nehat. (2014). Instrumentet Ndërkombëtare për Barazinë Gjinore. Instituti Gjyqësor i Kosovës, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (4) 6. Instituti Gjyqësor i Kosovës. (2012). Trajtimi i çështjeve të barazisë gjinore dhe mbrojtja e të drejtave të gruas në Instrumentet Ndërkombëtare. IGJK, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (9) 7. Kosovar Gender Studies Center. (2011). Women’s property inheritance rights in Kosovo. KGSC, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (17-22) 8. Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës. (2008). Kushtetuta e Republikës së Kosovës. Kap. II 9. Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës. (2004). Ligji Nr. 2004/3 kundër Diskriminimit. K. I 10. Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës. (2004). Ligji Nr. 2004/2 për Barazi Gjinore. K. I 11. Kuvendi i Republikës së Kosovës. (2004). Ligji Nr. 2004/26 për Trashëgiminë i Kosovës. K. I. 12. OSCE. (2010). Të drejtat e gruas në legjislacionin Shqiptar. Kingdom of the Netherlands & Sida, Shqipëri, p. (32) 13. Population of Statistic Department. (2011). Women and Man in Kosovo. Sida, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (5) 14. United Nations, (2016), The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [Online] Available: http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/, (accessed on: June 7, 2016). 15. USAID. (2014). Women and Commerce Report. CLE, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (12-25) 16. USAID. (2015). Të Gjeturat dhe Rekomandimet e Organizatave Lokale nga Aktivitetet e Monitorimit të Gjykatës. Atrc, Prishtinë, Kosovë, p. (9)

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PROMINENT WOMEN ECONOMISTS OF THE WORLD AND TURKEY

Fatma CESUR Trakya University, Faculty of Business Administration and Economics, Turkey

Abstract

Women’s involvement in business life engages them in social life and improves them economically. Considering that a society consists of women and men, women should also actively assume roles therein. Just like in any field of society, women should be encouraged across business life and education as well. Constituting the half of global population, women should be entitled to equality in education. Women should not be restricted within chores and care for family members. Equality of women and men is a topic that should be emphasized in education, just like in any aspect of society. There are valuable women who stood out and became prominent in a wide range of professions. They keep performing their job in the best way possible against all odds. A historical review indicates that there are well-known women economists in the field of economics. Women are generally overlooked in economic discussions. In the theories of Conventional Economists, the persons modeled are perceived as men. However, an interpretation that entails women's perspective should also be included. Currently, the number of women with very valuable economics perspectives is increasing exponentially both in the world and Turkey. To exemplify, Tansu Çiller is the first women prime minister of the Republic of Turkey and she is also a professor of economics. Another example in Turkey is Prof. Dr. Gülten Kazgan, who is a very famous woman economist and known by the nickname 'Master of Academicians'. In Turkish business scene, there is a good number of very successful women involved in industry and management and their number is increasing each day. Janet Yellen, the chair of the United States Federal Reserve, is also a woman economist. In this paper, we will focus on the profiles of prominent women economists in Turkey and the world.

Keywords:Woman in Society, Woman Education, Famous Women economists, Famous Women Economists in Turkey

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1. Introduction

Provision of good education for everyone in a society, without gender discrimination, is essential for countries to develop and achieve the best in any aspect. Since the foundation of our republic, Turkey has aimed to educate women in the best way. As the education status of a women gets higher, their participation in economic and social life will be more. Today, education of women is protected under a number of provisions as per constitution and Fundamental Law of Education. With a higher level of education, women become more active in the society. Benefits of educating girls are transmitted through generations(http://notoku.com/kadinlarin-egitim).

Women’s participation in business life engages them in social life and improves them economically. Considering that a society consists of women and men, women should also actively assume roles therein. Just like in any field of society, women should be encouraged across business and education as well.

2. Women In Socıiety And Their Educatıon

Women constitute nearly the half of world population. When discussed in terms of population, women's participation in education is evidently important. Education matters both for men and women. Since a society comprises participation of both men and women, it becomes powerful through the driving educational force of these two groups. A look into the countries with biggest achievements in all areas indicates that the most powerful countries are those offering good education for both groups, women-men. Even a simplistic observation would make the need for educating women clearer, making it easy for one to see how we need their power in education. It is woman who gives birth to, grows and educates a child. Gardening, animal care, as well as kitchen and house cleaning always entail participation of women when it comes to rural areas. In the case of cities and developed countries, women's roles include teaching in schools; working at hospitals as doctors or nurses; engineers and architects in offices; academic members in universities; executives in corporations. Societies educating women develop and soar in any field. As the other half of society, if women are not entitled to benefits of education, that would directly imply unemployment for the half of society. More women have been educated ever since the early years of Republic in Turkey.

Atatürk placed great importance on the education of Turkish women. In terms of the education of Turkish women to have access to equal rights and opportunities has worked a lot on. As Ataturk said, "women should be educated as men even more so". Which tells us that women in society are trained in every field, if it works in every profession of society a more advanced society. A lot of the women who worked for the better in all areas of Atatürk is one of the rare leaders. Men and women occur to society if both genders must be educated on equal terms. If women are uneducated, that society is doomed to backwardness. The woman who raised because of individuals in society. Women always

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University needs to be more educated. Atatürk, Turkish women the most effective source in the rise of education that is expressed at every opportunity.

Pursuing a study at universities, women can work in any field. In this study, we will focus on the profiles of prominent women of economics in the world and Turkey (Kayadibi 2003: 19-31); (Koçer: http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr Erişim Tarihi:15.10.2016 ); (Eroğlu, 2004:53- 81).

3. Famous Women Economısts In The World

Our modern age witnesses women's engagement in economics. Beside that, many women stood out in economics even in the toughest times when their engagement in such a discipline was difficult. In this study, we will focus on the prominent economists in the world and Turkey. Women economists standing out in the international realm include the following figures:

3.1. Edith Abbott (1876-1957) Born in Nebraska, Abbott pursued her PhD in economics at University of Chicago in 1905, later becoming dean of School of Social Service Administration in the same university. She is among the first women in the USA to receive a PhD. She later helped draft the 1935 Social Security Act, which is among the first social welfare legislative act enacted by the USA. A woman's role in such a significant act during that time of the USA is considered as a critical step for women (http://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/abbott_edith_1876_1957).

3.2. Anna Schwartz (1915-2012) Anna Schwartz was born in 1915, in New York City. She graduated from Barnard College at the age of 18 and gained her master's degree in economics from Columbia University in 1935. Following the World War II, Anna Schwartz and Milton Friedman co-authored "A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960", a book deemed to be the most reliable source for monetary economy in the USA. However, only Friedman was entitled to Nobel Prize granted for the book. The Nobel committee considered the book to be Friedman's the most outstanding and respectable work yet did not award Schwarz. This book globally served as a guide for economists and politicians to build their monetary policies (http://www.wsj.com/articles; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Schwartz; http://www.city-journal.org/html/monetarism-defiant-13165.html). Accessed on: 10/15/2016

3.3. Deirdre McCloskey (1942) Deirdre McCloskey is a well-known English professor of economy and the world's most prominent historian of economy. Her phenomenal book titled "Bourgeois Dignity: Why Economics Can't Explain The Modern World" paved the way for academic and corporate arguments. From the middle of 2014, world-renowned Professor of Economics and author 249

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University of Thomas was one of piketty Kapital's harshest critics in the twentieth century. As an economist, McCloskey has had a great impact on both liberals and conservatives in terms of economy.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey; https://econ.uic.edu/economics/faculty/deirdre-mccloskey). 3.4. Dambisa Moyo (1969) Following her MBA study, Moyo received a PhD in economics from Oxford University. Moyo is globally respectable for her efforts focusing on aiding developing countries and the economies of low income countries. Her book titled "Dead Aid: Why Aid Is Not Working and How There Is a Better Way for Africa" has so far been one of the best books in its field. It not only became a bestseller but also is cited as one of the most prestigious sources authored in this field thus far. She was entitled to the Lifetime Achievement Award granted by an institute founded by Friedrich Hayek

(http://akademie.notenstein-laroche.ch/en/events/event-calendar/special- events/dambisa-moyo).

3.5. Carmen Reinhart (1955) Carmen Reinhart is considered to be the most influential living female macroeconomist. After graduating from Columbia University, she worked for International Monetary Fund and J.F Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University as an chief economist. Co- authoring the book titled "This Time Is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly and Growth In a Time of Debt", Reinhart provided guidance for governments' austerity policies during a time of financial crisis faced by the world (http://celebiography.com/carmen-reinhart.html) (http://www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/robinson.htm).

3.6. Joan Robinson (1903-1983) Robinson coined the term "monopsony", a term describing a market structure in which there are many sellers of a particular product; however, there is only one buyer. The term, which is the converse of monopoly, gained recognition as a whole new concept and a significant invention for labor economics. The best example to explain monopsony is based around the relation of employees (one buyer) – workers / labor (many sellers). Today, it still builds the ground for the concept of "minimum wage". Grown up in Cambridge, Robinson also became the first female honorary fellow of King's College

(http://www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/robinson.htm).

3.7. Janet Yellen (1946) Janet Yellen is the chair of Federal Reserve Bank of the USA, the main monetary policymaker of the world. Yellen is cited among the most powerful women of the world and her decisions are followed by global market actors, including the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of the USA, and politicians. Currently chairing the US Board of

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Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Yellen is one of the most powerful decision- makers in the world. The articles most cited economist Janet Yellen the woman all over the world.

She graduated from Pembroke College at Brown University with a degree in economics in 1967. In 1971, she received her Ph.D. in economics from Yale University. After teaching at Harvard University for five years, she joined academic staff of London School of Economics. In 1980, she continued with her studies at Berkeley University, pursuing her academic career at this university until 1994. Between 1994 and 1997, she was appointed as a member of the Board at Fed. Until 1999, she chaired Bill Clinton's Council of Economic Advisers. On 2004, she was appointed as the chair of Fed San Francisco. In 2010, she became Vice Chair of Fed, which made her undoubtedly the most experienced chair in the history of Fed. In January 2014, she became the chair of Fed. She therefore also became the first female chair of Fed.

One of her most distinctive qualifications, based on her personality, is seen in the low of margin of errors in her forecasts, which is reflected upon the economy policies. In 2005, she warned that a possible crisis may occur by suggesting that the increasing housing prices may lead to huge economic loss. The first official announcement on the financial crisis in the USA was also delivered by Yellen. Following the crisis, Yellen was considered to provide the most accurate forecasts among the 14 Fed policymakers between 2009 and 2013. Her accurate forecasts contribute significantly to achievement of desired outputs for monetary policies.

A look into Yellen as a politician shows that she has a different background than other Fed chairs, another distinctive qualification of her. Yellen follows the teachings of Keynes who believes in the requirement of government intervention to mitigate the implications of financial crisis in the capitalist system, which distinguishes her from Greenspan ve Bernanke, former Fed chairs, who advocate minimized government intervention in economics as well as free market economy.

Yellen emphasizes in any chance that it is critical for authorized representatives of federal reserve bank to communicate in the most proper way in monetary policies: "The effects of monetary policy depend critically on the public getting the message about what policy will do months or years in the future. But I hope and trust that the days of 'never explain, never excuse' are gone for good," she explained, which indicates the importance she attaches to effective communication.

Yellen is only one of the many examples for handful of women who serve as leaders in the world. With the kind of lifestyle and career she boasts, she marks an encouraging and influential profile not only for women engaged in economics and business realm, but also for many other women from any field of work (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi- bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=98049086).

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3.8. Mary Paley Marshall (1850-1944) Mary Paley Marshall was one of the first five students to get admission from Cambridge University as a woman. She became the first female economics teacher at the university 43 years ago when women did not have the right to vote, and actually, to be elected at that time in the UK. She and her husband Alfred Marshall co-authored The Economics of Industry, which is still considered as one of the most influential books of the world in the field of economics.

(http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=98049086).

3.9. Christina Romer (1958) Romer was born in Alton, Illinois. She graduated from Glen Oak School in Canton, Ohio in June 1977. She obtained her bachelor's degree in economics from The College of William and Mary in 1981, and her Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technologym in 1985. Her doctoral advisors were Rudi Dornbusch and Peter Temin Upon completion of her doctorate, she started working as an assistant prfessor at PrincetonUniversity. In 1988 she moved to the University of California, Berkeley and was promoted to full professor in 1993 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Romer). "Romer's early work focused on a comparison of macroeconomic volatility before and after World War II. Romer showed that much of what had appeared to be a decrease in volatility was due to better economic data collection, although recessions have become less frequent over time. She has also researched the causes of the Great Depression in the United States and how the US recovered from the depression. Her work showed that the Great Depression occurred more severely in the US than in Europe, and had somewhat different causes than the Great Depression in Europe. Romer showed that fiscal policy played a relatively small role in the recovery from the depression in the US, because taxes were raised in the US almost as quickly as government spending increased during the New Deal .However, accidental monetary policy played a large role in the US recovery from depression. This monetary policy came first from the devaluation of the dollar in terms of gold in 1933–1934, and later from the flight of European capital to the relatively stable US as war in Europe became more likely" (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Romer). Accessed on:15.11.2016 Romer became the second female economist to become the chair of Council of Economic Advisers under the USA President. She had a primary role in offsetting the financial crisis faced by the US economy in 2009 when Obama was elected as the president. The primary focus of her most significant works was on the Great Depression and the recovery efforts in the aftermath, while her more recent works, together with those of her husband David Romer, focus on the changing taxing system in the USA

(http://alchetron.com/Christina-Romer-372521-W).

3.10. Elinor Ostrom (1933-2012) 252

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Elinor Ostrom was an American political scientist and economist. Having held a PhD in political science, Elinor Ostrom is the only woman economist to receive the Nobel Prize until today. Her scientific and mathematical research on the shaping of policies for official and non-governmental political entities are well-acclaimed across the world. In 2009, she was entitled to the Nobel Prize in Economics for "her analysis of economic governance, particularly on how common property could be successfully managed by groups using it" (http://alchetron.com/Christina-Romer-372521-W).

4. FAMOUS WOMEN ECONOMISTS IN TURKEY

4.1.Tansu Çiller (1946) Tansu Çiller was born in Istanbul, in 1946. Graduating from Robert College, Tansu Çiller studied Economics at Boğaziçi University. She continued part of her study at University of New Hampshire and University of Connecticut in the USA. She received a PhD from the University of Connecticut. She later completed her postdoctoral studies at Yale University. Before embarking on politics, she worked for Boğaziçi University as a professor of economics. On the 70th year of Republic of Turkey, she became the first female prime minister of Turkey. She also became the first women in Turkey to become the minister of foreign affairs. Turkey elected a women as a prime minister before the democratic countries of the West did, as in the case of granting women the right to vote and to be elected earlier. She went into politics during her academic involvement at Boğaziçi University as a professor. She culminated her political career in a short time, within two years, holding the authority to form the government. She enjoyed significant media support when she took office. Her term of office coincided with some of the most unstable times of the country (http://www.mailce.com/tansu-ciller-kimdir.html).

4.2.Türkel Minibaş (1953-2009)

Following her primary education, she was granted the AFS scholarship through which she studied at Los Angeles Pacific Palisades High School. In 1971, she returned to Turkey to study at Marmara University, Economics and Administrative Sciences Faculty. In 1985, she received a PhD from Istanbul University. After 3 years, she became associate professor. In 1995, she became a professor of International Economics. She conducted critical research on development economics and agricultural economics. During her academic membership at Istanbul University, she was appointed as vice chair at the "Women's Problems Research and Application Center". She took part in organizations such as "Globalization" panel for the Five-year Development Plan and "Expertise Commission on Women's Participation in Society", globalization panel for 2023 Vision. She authored the following books: "Azgelişmiş Ülkelerde Kalkınmanın finansman Politikaları ve Türkiye" (Financial Policies for Development in Underdeveloped Countries and Turkey), "Çağ

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Atlatma Serüveni 1453-1080" (An Adventure of Facilitating Modernization 1453-1980), "Bu Kez Düşmanın Adı: Terör" (The Enemy Is Now Called Terror), (https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrkel_Miniba%C5%9F; http://www.turkelminibas.net/ozgecmis.asp).

4.3. Gülten Kazgan (1927) In 1946, she embarked on her study at Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics. In 1950, upon the completion of her study, she started workingfor the Industrial Development Bank. She later was appointed as an assistant at the same university.

She received her PhD through her dissertation titled"Tarımsal Gelirin İstikrarsızlığının Uzun Dönem Eğilimleri" (Long-Term Notions of the Instability in Agricultural Income). Following that, Gülten Kazgan became a competent figurein the field of agricultural economy. Granted the Rockefeller scholarship, she studied at University of Chicago in 1957 for two years with T.W. Schultz. She later returned to Turkey to continue with her studies in agricultural economy under her dissertation titled "Türkiye Ziraatında Arz Fonksiyonu" (Supply Function in Turkey's Agriculture). In 1961, she became an associate professor. In 1994, she retired from Istanbul University where she had worked as a professor. Prof. Dr. Gülten Kazgan is the founding rector of Istanbul Bilgi University where she worked as the Head of Research Center at the Department of Economics. In the realm of economics, she is often referred to as "Master of Academicians" and "Doyenne of Economics". In 2010, she was appointed as "Professor Emeritus" by Istanbul Bilgi University

(https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3% Gulten_Kazgan), (http://www.vitae.gen.tr/?p=7496).

4.4. Tülay Arın (1945-2009)

Born in 1945, Prof. Dr. Arın received a Bachelor's Degree from Ankara University, Faculty of Political Science, and a PhD from George Washington University. In 1997, she became an academic member at Istanbul University (IU), Faculty of Economics, and taught at universities such as METU, Ankara University and Erciyes University. She is among the founding members of Turkish Historical Society. Dr. In addition to her engagement in economics, finance, crisis management, she was also involved in women rights with significant efforts. Besides financial policies, she translated texts, authored papers and compilations on criticism of capitalism.

Her following articles were featured in feminism journals: "Türkiye'de Kadın Olgusu: Kadın Gerçeğine Yeni Yaklaşımlar" (Woman as a Fact in Turkey: New Approaches to the

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Phenomenon of Woman), "Neoliberalizmin Tahribatı - Türkiye'de Ekonomi, Toplum ve Cinsiyet" (Destruction of Neoliberalism - Economy, Society and Gender in Turkey). She was among the very few people focusing on the intersection between women and economics, financial issues of women and evaluation of the tradition of economics in terms of feminism inTurkey. " Unforgettable memories and valuable scientists Tülay Arın raised, discussed, and together he wrote the thesis, and all the students who read his writings, the student will recall with respect and affection of a generation. (http://bianet.org/biamag/emek/116871-yakinlari-tulay-arin-i-anlatiyor-ardinda-basari- birakti).

4.5. İmren Aykut (1940) She is the first female minister in the Republic of Turkey. She was born in Kozan, Adana in 1940. In 1964, she graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics. Turkey is the first female minister to be elected by popular vote. She was specialized in "Worker - Employer Relations", "Industrial Relations" and "Unionism" during her study at Oxford University. At Oslo University in Norway, she completed a study program focusing on "Labor Participation in Management".

Besides, she carried out analyses on "Arbitration and Mediation" in the USA, and on "The Structure of Labor Unions and Education of Workers" in the UK where she made research and worked for the British Confederation of Labor Unions and Ministry of Labor.

She became a "Doctor" upon receiving a PhD through her dissertation titled "Workers' Remittances and Analysis Thereof In Terms of Turkish Economics" at Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics. Her field of specialization: Industrial Relations, Labor Economics and Labor Law. She became the first minister to be elected and to pursue a political career in the history of Turkey. She continued her career as the minister of labor and social security.

During her term of office, she was entitled to a good number of awards, particularly including the following: “ISABEL LA CATOLICA” and "CHIVALRY" orders as granted by Juan Carlos, His Majesty The King of Spain back in October 12, 1983. “ISABEL LA CATOLICA” is one of the greatest orders in Spain and granted to 800 people in the world maximum. That was the first time it was granted to a Turk, a Turkish woman politician. In 1988, she became "The Economist of Year" and was awarded a "Golden Ant Award". On November 15, in 1994 she made it in to the list of "Top 100 Successful Women of the Century", a list prepared by the International Organization of Women Clubs. She has a lot of published works (http://www.kimkimdir.gen.tr/kimkimdir.php?id=4600).

5. CONCLUSION:

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The women economists covered in this article constitute a selected list of a few women in the field. As long as discrimination against women is avoided, women can be notably successful in any field. Educating the women in a society through generations paves the way for well-educated, well-informed and developed populations. Education of women continues through generations. Therefore, their education should continue at all times without setting it aside. Any society preventing women's education and excluding women from society is doomed to oblivion. Any society educating women becomes a well- developed society in any field.

In this article we have explored economist in the areas of women. University academics, leading politicians, Prime Minister, Trade unionists as. In Turkey, women working in the profession. Our women in the field of economics who are training their mission in the best possible way. The number of woman prime minister in the world is very small. In Turkey Tansu Çiller is an economist who earlier than many western countries, has been Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey in 1993. The araepapic of Turkey great leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk said, "even more so as men and women should be educated".

References 1. EROĞLU, Ömer (2004), "İktisat Düşüncesinde Kadının Konumu ve Feminist İktisat", Maliye Araştırma Merkezi Konferansları 46. seri, Prof. Dr. Salih Turhan'a Armağan, İstanbul Üniversitesi, İktisat Fakültesi, İstanbul pg. 53-81 2. KAYADİBİ, Fahri (2003), Sosyoloji Konferansları Dergisi (Journal of Sociological Sutudies), "Kadın Eğitiminin Önemi ve Kalkınmadaki Rolü", Sayı:28, pg.19-31 3. KOÇER, Hasan Ali, "Türkiye'de Kadının Eğitimi"http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr, pg. 81-124, Erişim Tarihi:15.10.2016 4. http://www.mailce.com/tansu-ciller-kimdir.html Accessed on:12.10.2016 5. http://www.gazetebilkent.com, Accessed on:25.09.2016 6. http://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/abbott_edith_1876_1957), Accessed on: 15.10.2016 7. (http://www.wsj.com/articles; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Schwartz; http://www.city-journal.org/html/monetarism-defiant-13165.html). Accessed on: 15.10.2016 8. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BClten_Kazgan Accessed on:15.10.2016 9. http://www.vitae.gen.tr/?p=7496 Accessed on:15.10.2016 10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey Accessed on:1.11.2016 11. https://econ.uic.edu/economics/faculty/deirdre-mccloskey). Accessed on:1.11.2016 http://akademie.notenstein-laroche.ch/en/events/event- calendar/special-events/dambisa-moyo, Accessed on: 5.09.2016 12. http://celebiography.com/carmen-reinhart.html http://www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/robinson.htm, Accessed on: 20.09.2016 13. http://www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/robinson.htm, Accessed on:30.09.2016 14. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9804908, Accessed on:05.08.2016 15. http://paratic.com/janet-yellen-hayati/ Accessed on:05.08.2016 16. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=98049086, Accessed on:30.11.2016 256

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17. http://notoku.com/kadinlarin-egitimi, Accessed on:30.8.2016 18. http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/ erişim tarihi:15.10.2016 19. http://bianet.org/biamag/emek/116871-yakinlari-tulay-arin-i-anlatiyor-ardinda- basari-birakti, Accessed on:10.11.2016 20. http://alchetron.com/Christina-Romer-372521-W. Accessed on:15.10.2016 21. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom, Accessed on:12.11.2016 22. http://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/abbott_edith_1876_1957 Accessed on: 15.10.2016 23. http://bianet.org/biamag/emek/116871-yakinlari-tulay-arin-i-anlatiyor-ardinda- basari-birakti Accessed on: 20.10.2016 24. http://www.kimkimdir.gen.tr/kimkimdir.php?id=4600, Accessed on:04.11.2016 25. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrkel_Miniba%C5%9F; Accessed on:15.10.2016 http://www.turkelminibas.net/ozgecmis.asp, Accessed on:22.09.2016 26. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Romer. Accessed on:15.11.2016 27. (http://www.wsj.com/articles; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Schwartz; http://www.city-journal.org/html/monetarism-defiant-13165.html). Accessed on: 10/15/2016 28. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Romer. Accessed on: 10/15/2016

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THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EXAMINATION OF THE WOMEN WORKING IN SEAFOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN THE BLACK SEA

Emre Çağlak, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey

Barış Karslı, Trabzon Directorate of Provincial Food Agriculture and Livestock, Turkey Muhammed Ali Altun, Trabzon Directorate of Provincial Food Agriculture and Livestock, Turkey

Abstract

The coastline of the Black Sea region of Turkey is 1700 km. There are 11 provinces in this coastline and 28 seafood processing facilities. For this study, which examines the socio-economic analysis of the women working in seafood processing facilities in the Black Sea region with true data, a survey of 24 questions was executed in 28 facilities on 192 women. According to the obtained data, the highest portion regarding the educational level of the workers is high school with 41.1%. The highest proportion (35.4%) of the working age are between 31 and 40 years old. Also, 98.9% of the women workers have social security by Social Security Institution. 74.2% of the workers think that their salary is adequate to get by. It was noted that the rate of the women who have a habit of reading book or newspaper is quite low. In the study, various data with regard to the women working in seafood processing industry are provided and significant socio-economic findings is determined.

Keywords: Seafood industry, socio-echonomic, women workers, black sea

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THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN KOSOVO AS A FACTOR IN DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY Assist.Prof.Halim BAJRAKTARI, University of Prizren ”Ukshin Hoti”, Associate Dean- Law Faculty

Abstract

Possibility to respect freedoms and human rights in Kosovo today is not a lack of knowledge, knowing that these rights in a large measure are addressable in local and international laws, but lack access their implementation in practice. The possibility to implement these rights is indicative of new horizons of economic and legal development of the country. Where those rights in social and business life, as these rights are respected in these sectors. Why should eliminate these obstacles in future we as a country?.

What is a negative indicator in the area of discrimination in economic development not, as done in this direction in order to eliminate those obstacles in principle to smaller but heavy viewing to eliminate. The question as we stumble from the violation of these rights?. Are indicators important for this society disregard of these rights. These and many other aspects will be the main pillars that supported development of the country rather than being seen as an obstacle for the country.

Key words: Human rights, Kosovo, relevance, discrimination, development and Obstacles.

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ROLE AND CHALLENGES OF WOMEN IN TOURISM SECTOR

Skeja, Afërina119, Keskin Gülay120

Abstract

Tourism industry is considered to be one of the fastest growing industries in the global economy. Due to the diverse nature of the industry, it becomes an important source of both direct and indirect employment at all skill levels. Women employees enrich both upper stage and lower level for tourism establishments because of being in need of qualified individual and service sector. On the other hand, women employees are exposed to gender discrimination in tourism sector and this poses an obstacle especially for upper stage. That’s why this problem should be figured out. Thus women in our country should acquire a profession, go out to work and also contribute real economy. The role and importance of women in tourism sector and their contribution to national economy will be expressed in this study. Keywords: Women, Tourism, Economy

1 Introduction

Tourism sector is considered to be one of the fastest growing industries in the global economy. Around the world, a high proportion of women are employed in the tourism sector, but the number of female employees varies per region. Women worldwide have high contribution in tourism whether it is through being visitors, hosts or employees in the tourism destination sector. When we look at Turkey, we see that tourism sector is becoming one of the sectors that keeps developing continuously. This research examines the position of women’s employment in the tourism sector of Turkey. In this study, we’ve studied the chances of women being able to work in the tourism section. It also aims to discover if women have the opportunity of rising to senior positions. There has been a serious increase in participation of women in the tourism sector. Tourism offers women opportunities for income-generation and entrepreneurship.

2 Tourism Sector and Woman Employments

The definition of tourism: While the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) describes it as “the travelling of people to a place other than their place of stay, for less than one year, and the entire connections that during that visit” (www.unwto.org), The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism defines it as “The travels that are made to a destination other than the play of stay, that last less than 12 months and are made for business, leisure etc.” (www.kultur.gov.tr).

119 PhD cand. (Trakya University, Faculty of Economics and Administration Sciences

120 Lecturer (Çanakkale 18Mart University, Gokçeada Vocational School

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The impact of tourism on the economy is calculated by considering factor such as foreign exchange revenues, gross domestic product and contribution to the balance of payments, employment and multiplier effects. The impact of tourism on the economy is calculated by considering factor such as foreign exchange revenues, gross domestic product and contribution to the balance of payments, employment and multiplier effects. Developed countries are trying to take advantage of the income effect of the tourism sector, while developing or underdeveloped countries want to benefit from this sector's ability to make foreign exchange profit and create new employment opportunities. A report published by The World Tourism Organization shows that tourism grows almost continuously in the world, despite the shocks happening in the world. In the tourism sector, more than 232 million people are employed globally, which is 8.3% of the world total labor force. Additionally, tourism has made rapid progress in the last 30 years, creating new jobs and employment opportunities of more than 8.5 million people (UNWTO, 2015).

Due to the labor-intensive endurance of the tourism sector, employment in this sector is more intense than in other sectors (Lea, 1989: 45). For this reason, it has a great role in increasing employment and in solving the problem of unemployment. However, as in every sector, there is gender discrimination in the tourism sector as well.

According to World, Travel & Tourism generated 107,833,000 jobs directly in 2015 (3.6% of total employment) and this is forecast to grow by 1.9% in 2016 to 109,864,000 (3.6% of total employment) (WTTC, 2015:4).

Women and men discriminate not on the grounds of biological differences between sexes, but on the grounds of the concept of gender. Though many studies were performed on the concept of gender differences in the 1970s, its existence dates back to the beginning of human history (Connell, 1998:5). Being born in a certain gender is not a matter of choice, but gender is an influential factor in many issues, from the in-society situation to the social roles. The concept of profession is a phenomenon that interacts with gender in this way (Bassey et al., 2012: 238).

Evaluations from the past concerning the role of day-to-day women and men in society, gender perception, cultural and value judgments have made women's gender particularly disadvantageous in working life. Sexual discrimination in working life limits the wages, aims, desires and opinions of women. In post-industrial economies, it is observed that gender discrimination in working life has diminished and efforts have been made to improve equality. However, it has not been possible to eliminate sex discrimination completely. As a result of some legal regulations, it is an indisputable fact that women have some basic rights in their working life. However, it is known that these legal regulations cannot completely eliminate gender discrimination against women, either in the world or in Turkey (Dalkıranoğlu and Çetinel, 2008:277, 278).

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Women in many countries, including Turkey, face a number of obstacles because of their sex compared to men. This obstacle, coupled with the challenges posed by the working conditions of the tourism sector in particular, makes women's career opportunities in this area even more challenging (Pınar et al., 2011:74).

This obstacle, coupled with the challenges posed by the working conditions of the tourism sector in particular, makes women's career opportunities in this area even more challenging (Tükeltürk and Perçin, 2008:114). It is important to determine the reasons why women, who are employed more in tourism sector compared to other sectors, are brought to the lower level of administration. The difficulties that women face in the tourism sector cause them not to be able to get enough tasks in some jobs and positions, these jobs and positions to become male dominant in structure, and for female employees to be mainly employed in some disadvantaged jobs and positions. As in other businesses in tourism businesses too, increasing women's employment should not be focused solely on equality and solving women's problems. Employment of women is also important in terms of enabling countries to provide competitive advantage and development (ILO, 2015: 7).

The UNWTO/UN Women Global Report on Women in Tourism shows that tourism can offer significant opportunities to narrow the gender gap in employment and entrepreneurship as women are nearly twice as likely to be employers in tourism as compared to other sectors.

UNWTO Secretary-General, Taleb Rifai, has called upon the tourism sector to step up policies and businesses practices that promote gender equality and women’s empowerment. Rifai recalled that “though in most regions women make up the majority of the tourism workforce, they tend to be concentrated in the lowest paid and lowest status jobs and perform a large amount of unpaid work in family tourism businesses”. Governments and the private sector have a major role to play in promoting policies that step-up equality and women's empowerment. “There is a particularly important opportunity to promote empowerment through entrepreneurship as tourism has almost twice as many women employers as other sectors”, he added (UNWTO, 2015).

Tourism is a tool for economic, social and political empowerment of women. The Global Report on Women in Tourism 2010 is a first attempt to develop a quantitative framework for monitoring the status of women working in tourism across the globe. Its focus is on tourism in developing regions (Global Report on Women in Tourism, 2010).

The UN Millennium Development Goals have also brought gender equality to the forefront of the international development agenda. Five of the eight goals directly relate to the role of women in development. Gender equality and women’s empowerment are essential for achieving all the Millennium Development Goals (The UN Millennium Development Goals, 2015).

Women make up close to 70% of the total global workforce in the tourism sector. However, they hold less than 40% of all managerial and supervisory positions, hold less than 20% of general management roles, and make up only between 5% and 8% of corporate board members of publicly-quoted hospitality businesses (EYD, 2015). Women employed in the tourism industry are concentrated in lower-paid jobs with fewer opportunities for career progression. This inequality

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The share of women's employment has increased considerably in the services sector compared to other sectors. This ratio, which was 41.1% in 1995, has risen to 61.5% in 2015 (ILO, 2016: 22).

Looking at employment statistics in the tourism sector, the employment rate of women in European countries is 45% in 2008 and 46% in 2014. According to this, the percentage of women in employment did not reach a very large change within these six years.

Table 1: Distribution of Tourism Sector in Europe by Gender. Gender Year 2008 2014 2008 (%) 2014 (%) Man 123 038 118 093 55 54 Woman 99 836 100 190 45 46 Total 222 875 218 284 100 100 Source: (Eurostat, 2016, ec.europa.eu)

3 Role and Challenges of Women in Tourism Sector

The tourism sector in Turkey, which is growing so rapidly in the world, is developing in parallel with the trends in the world. Turkey has accepted tourism as a driving force for economic development in the post-1980 period and has devoted a significant portion of its inadequate economic resources to tourism development. As a result of these efforts, the tourism sector has developed rapidly and has become one of the youngest and dynamic sectors of Turkey and today it is one of the driving sectors of Turkey (Unur, 2000:11).

In Turkey, Travel & Tourism generated 600,000 jobs directly in 2015 (2.3% of total employment) and this is forecast to fall by 0.2% in 2016 to 599,000 (2.2% of total employment). This includes employment by hotels, travel agents, airlines and other passenger transportation services (excluding commuter services). It also includes, for example, the activities of the restaurant and leisure industries directly supported by tourists (WTTC*, 2015:4).

According to the International Labor Organization reports, Turkey is in good condition when it comes to women’s company ownership with 11.1% compared to the countries that have no ownership, even though it has remained back on the issue of female employment. Turkey ranks 95th among 108 countries with 12.2% middle and upper level female managerial positions in 2012 (ILO, 2015: 19). 263

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The reason for this is the fact that the family responsibilities of women are higher, especially the role of a wife and mother in family structure in Turkey is more effective and can create a disadvantage for women in business life compared to men. While the fact that a mother who has, a small child is not chosen can be used as a justification for negative discrimination, a man with bad habits such as alcohol abuse, gambling habits, etc. won’t encounter the same obstacles. In this respect, there is an inequality in gender discrimination (Demir, 2011: 767).

Table 2: Distribution of Tourism Sector in Turkey by Gender Years Man (%) Woman (%) Total 2008 15.596 73,6 5.597 26,4 21.193 2009 15.402 72,4 5.868 27,6 21.271 2010 16.168 71,6 6.424 28,4 22.593 2011 17.131 71,1 6.969 28,9 24.099 2012 17.511 70,6 7.308 29,4 24.819 2013 17.878 70,1 7.641 29,9 25.520 2014 18.241 70,3 7.689 29,7 25.930 Source: (Eurostat, 2016, ec.europa.eu)

When tourism statistics of Eurostat in Turkey are examined, the employment rate of women in the tourism industry was 26.4% in 2008 and this rate has increased to 29.7% in 2014. According to this, although Turkey has a more positive increase than European countries, it is still quite low compared to European countries.

The tourism sector does not exceed 10 per cent, especially in management positions such as senior management or women's tourism doyens. The reason for this is that women who are responsible for everything have not been able to adopt the organizational work structure. Even though women and men are equal in the family and cultural order in our country, the duties of the woman are always different and higher. The duty of the woman is not to manage the office, but to provide the order in the house (www.turkiyeturizm.com).

4. Conclusion

In addition to economic development, tourism is a sector closely related to intercultural dialogue, preservation of cultural heritage, environmental awareness, technological developments. It is an opportunity for countries to evaluate. Enterprises operating in the tourism sector should develop new strategies in the interest of the intended humanity, to promote a strong representation in international decision-making mechanisms, to promote the preservation of natural and cultural heritage, to raise people's standard of living.

Especially “women’s hand” in tourism is a very important development in terms of our country and tourism. Tourism, a labor-intensive sector, is the most important competitive power

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The tourism sector is a sector where women can participate and offers opportunities for the development of their entrepreneurial activities. In this context, courses planned and projects prepared with the intention for women to gain a profession and participate in the working life and to contribute to the real economy, show that the number of working women in all sectors will increase in the coming years.

Reference

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Connell, R.W. (1998): Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Iktidar, Publisher, Ayrıntı Yayınları, Istanbul

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Musa Pınar, McCuddy McCuddy K., Birkan Ibrahim and Kozak Metin (2011): Gender diversity in hospitality industry: An empirical study in Turkey. International Journal of Hospitality Management, pages 73-81.

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Roberta Lepre, Gender issues in tourism, 2013, (http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20130707/business-news/Gender-issues-in- tourism.477003)

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE LEVEL IN WOMEN EMPLOYEES OF BANKING SECTOR

Agon Skeja, PHD candidate – Faculty of Economy, University of Tetovo, Macedonia

Ema Skeja, MSc, MA- Developmental and Clinical Psychologist

ABSTRACT

Individuals who have a high degree of emotional intelligence are in tune with both their own emotions and the emotions of other people with whom they come in contact. In an economy characterized by scarce labor, it's going to become increasingly important to hold on to the good employees. At the same time, competition for the best employees is going to become even more fierce, and good workers who feel they aren't treated fairly at work will have an easy time finding employment elsewhere. The best way to hold on to the employees that you want to keep is to incorporate emotional intelligence into your personal and organizational management philosophy. Women can be more sensitive to emotions, that sometimes can mean feelings get in the way of logic. It's important for those women to use that emotions in adequate manner in their working place. In this study, it will be analyzed the emotional intelligence level in women employees of banking sector.

Keywords: Women, Emotional intelligence, Economy, Banking Sector

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FEMALE CONTRIBUTION TO DWELLING IMPROVEMENT WITHIN LATIN AMERICAN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS: THE CASE-STUDY OF CARACAS, VENEZUELA

Assoc.Prof. Jean Caldieron, Florida Atlantic University School of Architecture Fort Lauderdale, USA

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Section Education

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TURKISH WOMEN'S EDUCATION IN KOSOVO: THE ROLE IN SOCIETY

Asst. Prof.Elsev BRİNA LOPAR, University of Prizren, KOSOVO

Abstract

Our study tried to address innovation and characteristics of change seen in women of our society in our region, education of women who were able to put successfully together motherhood and marriage too, their freedom focused on different types of models in this context. Their effort has been observed to demonstrate their existence in the community. It has been observed in studies done until today that woman is protected in her social life and involved to current issues altogether. We tried to deal with framework of studies done related to situation and evaluation done of Turkish women in Kosovo up to the present.

We deal with women among who can maintain their responsibility in the community by providing stability to it and types of them who are aware of their responsibilities and who express their opinions in finding solutions. Based on our researches done, we have noticed that women have to be taken care in order to maintain public stability. It shows that not a lot emphasize has been give to women in educational and business aspects; our attention was given to present the topic of our study based on the importance of the women in society and believe that this work will reveal their creativity.

It demonstrated responsibility in expresing solutions, suggestions and ideas for woman as being a pillar of a society,

We dealt with expectations of woman as a culture carrier. While there are critics related to the topic; but if we take into consideration the status of Kosovo being of multi-cultural region, there are as inequalities in sources for development related to education, health and employment issues within both genders, as it continues to be in different female segments, too. Similar comparisions are offered for consideration. There is tolerant critisism approach towards women visible in our assessment related to our subject.

We have tried to identify whether they are being neglected by society, evaluate changes that they underwent related to periods of social lives, effect of innovations and changes in our region on their social lives. To continue with their lives based on their preferences and to by showing their position and effect in the society.

After 1951 where women gained new rights, they started to get education and were seen in business areas where changes in thei social lives were seen to appear closely with features of that period of time. Parallel developments in our regions, had offered more to women in educational and social life areas. There were more intense cultural activities after 1970 as it was after 1990s, where women began to appear in many areas of life. The establishment of Women Associations has brought a new dimension to women's issues; 270

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University they had the opportunity to express themselves through publications in newspapers and magazines; and Turkish women in Kosovo have begun to show influence in society based on their political and social preferences. Apparently, these innovations and improvements seen in social aspects have also given more role and influence in the society to them.

The position of women in the Kosovo society was also discussed in our study, by showing how our Turkish women were influenced through cultural interactions with other cultures. Regarding to that, thoughts, concerns and suggestions are expressed, too.

Part of our study that covers the current time related to values lived and present too, were difficult to write for. However, we think, after being through a time filter, it will serve as a source for further comments. The subject we have dealt, we believe will show the creatitivy of Kosovo Turkish Women in Education and Social aspects and at the same time cultural elements will serve as carriers and be helpful in being aware of the importance and position of women in the society.

On the one hand, it shows the importance of Turks of Kosovo as transmitters of history, habits, customs, traditions and culture and also emphasises the importance of women in bringing up and educating new generations. On the other hand, it is concluded that women have to be taken care in social life in order necessary stability to be maintained. Our goal in this study was to compare a certain period of time and show the role, importance and position in educational and social aspects of Turkish women in Kosovo.

Key words: Kosovo Turkish Women, Education, Social Life, Women’s Role and Importance

Introduction

Our study is closely related to the fact that women have the opportunity to evaluate the situation as well as understand their womanhood. The changing world circumstances have changed the position of our women in the world. It can be said that women are determinants of balance in a society. Our work tried to address the characteristics of novelties and changes visible in women’s social lives in our region and to emphasize education and freedom altogether with nourishing motherhood and marriage together. And their efforts have shown to put their own existence into the society.

Since its declaration of independence in 2008, Kosovo is an 8 years state that has a multi- national structure, with young population who make efforts for the democracy. In Kosovo there are around 3000 Turkish students in Prizren, Mamuşa, Priştine, Gilan, Dobırçan and Vıçıtırn who study in 3 preschools, 11 elementary schools, 6 high schools, Turkish Language and Literature department within University of Pristina and Pre-School Teaching, Primary-School Teaching, Math-Informatics, Physics-Chemistry and TIT departments in Faculty of Education within University of Prizren. Educational system in Kosovo is done in four languages: Albanian, Serbian, Bosnian and Turkish.

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According to the laws, each community is entitled to education in mother tongue until the university level. Until then, Turkish children who had the only opportunity to study in Albanian and Serbo-Croatian languages gained the opportunity to study in their own mother tongue/Turkish in towns and villages as Prizren, Priştine, Mitroviça, İpek, Vıçitrn, Gilan, Mamuşa, Dobruçan, Bilaç where Turkish schools were established. Altogether with elementary schools in Prizren where Turkish language education in high school was introduced in academic year of 1951/1952, opportunity to Kosovo Turks to study in their mother tongue in secondary level was created. It is known that Turkish high school education in Priştina was introduced in 1959. (KORO, 1994:10)

Process of Turkish Woman's Education in Kosovo: The Role in Society

In our region, with the withdrawal of the Ottomans and until the 50s, in a way education in mother tongue had an interruption and of course had its effects on our women, too; but after this period, education continued in Madrasas. After the withdrawal of Ottoman’s administration in 1912, education continued in Madrasas. After the 1940s, from Gilan to Prizren, Lady Imams of Madrasas education system were Servet Hoca Hanım, Asiye Hoca, Binnas Hoca, Nazlı Hoca are considered as valuable personalities in our community. Therefore, during this period, Kosovo Turkish woman was studying in non-mother tongue where twice per week they took Religion and Turkish courses; in official elementary schools, Girls’ Ingenuity Schools, in classes at homes with lady imams, at various associations were taught Turkish, mother tongue, religion, culture, tradition and customs to our people. (Bako, 2002:191)

Actually, since the XVI century, schools and madrasas were built in many village and towns of Kosovo. One of them is the high religious school-Madrasa which was built by Mehmet Paşa in XVI in Prizren. Along with the ‘reorganization’ and ‘westernization’ movements, reforms brought by Edict of Tanzimat also had spread to Kosovo. Madrasas stood along with modern schools and it was the beginning of the formal education of women. This education was firstly applied in cultural and vocational fields. At the other end, Girl’s Ingenuity schools could be used by female children. Elementary schools alumni could enroll to them. Children were educated by female educators. In these schools, educations consisted of general knowledge in the mornings while in the afternoons, handcraft, silk-weaving, art, music, literature and every other skill were taught. In these more sophisticated, better educational condition and quality schools, Turkish girls were brought up in order to be able to create warm, pure, civilized and moral families and be in same level with men.

Since 1960s, it can be said that women in Kosovo were more active in institutional areas and gained certain rights too. With the formal education given to women, education was firstly applied in cultural and vocational areas. Turkish women firstly started to work in education. Schools that were established in 1951 that produced teachers; those graduated from vocational schools worked in industries; high school graduates were employed as

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University civil servants in governmental offices; the other who graduated in med-schools worked as nurse, chemist, midwife, lab staff; girls who graduates from technical schools worked as construction and machine technicians. By intensified education in professional and cultural aspects, women reached certain level of culture and started to play an important role in community and social areas. University alumni Turkish girls served as lawyer, economist, journalist, poet, thespian and politicians. In 1962 three Turkish girls graduated from teachers school; in 1963 seven Turkish girls graduated from high school and in 1968- 70 four graduated from the University. After these years, reflection of motherhood influenced selections of professions as teaching and nursing in women. Thus, women not only for themselves, but also started took into consideration other needs of their community. (Bako, 2002:193)

Leaving their intimate area and getting into the public sphere has also provided their presence in social aspects. By this freedom aspect, woman has become more visible in public space. Therefore, among the concept of women who were fed by Islamic traditions, educated women have become more active in society. While attempting to establish a modern female identity from one side, other side tried to maintain the values of traditional society.

Kosovo is an interesting example of women's position as a region that interacts with all the contradictions of globalization and tradition. Majority of population in Kosovo being Muslims, nowadays, women in different levels of government are taken into consideration at the other hand reaching important development sources as in education, health, employment inequalities as between women and men and different women sections is continuing. Gender inequality in education directly effects women's employment opportunities. In our region, this inequality is less visible in comparing to villages. Especially in Kosovo, in the only Turkish village Mamuşa related to girls’ education, even though importance of this concept is emphasized, there are still few issues available. In our region today, although women's participation in the workforce is available, there has not been much success in implementation of it and still continues with the issues in certain area of women. Even though step-by-step progress is seen, the participation of women in the workforce differs according to the settlement areas. In comparing to men, women’s unemployment rate is higher in urban levels. But in the recent years, it is possible to talk about a positive relationship between women's education and employment rate in these territories. (Brina, 2002: 524)

After the 1951, women who acquired new rights become modern and got education and started to be seen in business life, the chances in community are closely related to the characteristics of the period. Development in our region in parallel way made women use more services of education and also made them being seen more often in social lives. As in the 1970s, when cultural activities were intense, after the 1990s, women began to appear in many areas. By establishing women associations has given new perspective to issues of women who got more opportunities to express themselves through newspapers 273

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University and magazines. Kosovo women started taking part in political and social aspects. The developments seen in social areas increased the role and importance of women in the society.

We know if women are given the deserved positions and by their education healthy society can be built. We can say that a Kosovo woman has to be seen as woman who is stuck between west and east values. It seems that the main issue of our women (leadership intellectuals) is that they cannot find a common area of understanding between eastern and western values, and their efforts have been continued even nowadays. Proponents of westernization argue that women must be educated as European women from all aspects and that it is imperative that they act as western women as spouses and mothers and that woman should not be pushed away from the social aspects.

This characteristic seen in the woman's social life in our region; women who brought motherhood and marriage together successfully, then carried the role of educated, free and equal women too. In our region, women in our region, "Islamic woman", and characteristics brought during the period of Yugoslavia labeled women as "Socialist woman", "Modern woman" and at other side become a "woman only". Some women have also occasionally faced with different types of role models that are given to them without their consent. (Göle, 2008: 49)

Through the historical adventure of our region that has been shaped for a long time related to many social issues which are shaped by nourished against Islam-West; it should be noted that the issue of women is formed by the tension between these two basic concepts. It is possible to say that the same fate is valid for our woman who lives in the Balkans. Just like the Turks in Kosovo, also women who lived with other national and religious elements, but they were able to maintain their own identity. As results of the relations with others, women added something to them and also give something from themselves to others. By taking into consideration the place and position, mother appears to be carrier of the culture. Therefore, in culture of the Balkans, women are seen as reality and valuable culture carriers. But these productions are seen as part of the daily life. Even though, these products and attitude behaviors play important roles in the survival of the culture. The mother identity, which is an inseparable part of the Turkish woman, comes to the forefront when teaching the child's mother tongue or teaching the cultural behaviors that society expects from the child. So, mother’s behavior pattern has importance function in passing culture forward. Especially, Turkish cuisine is closely related to above mentioned functions of women. Preparing food at home is as it is in many cultures, is main factor in bringing families together in Turkish culture. Therefore, creating cultural products, previously acquired experiences play of huge role in it.

At the other side, mother is one of the main factors as a carrier of the language. The child who is separated from the family and the mother will not be able to acquire the language and cultural values in a healthy way. And it will effect child’s personality and see

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University positively his/her future. Because of that, woman can be said to be society balancer. This ambition will be best explained by “We have to support women as language and culture carriers in order to family to live, make family worthy so country and population will live”

In our study I can say that even we tried to express education of woman and her position in society in our region, freedom of speech for woman is still one of the main issues.

Conclusion

Our study tried to show place of woman in Kosovo Turkish society related to their education, success and employment in the process that started with the Ottoman’s withdrawal from the Balkans and dealt with it afterwards. Thus, it has shown the inequality among different women’s groups and women’s duty in the society and at the other hand, evaluate their own structure seen that women can be conscious even though sometimes hesitant in it.

Especially, in after 1951 Kosovo Turkish community, changes seen in society, is closely related to women’s education and employment. It can be said that the participation rate of women in the labor force is limited in the villages in comparing to the cities, even though importance of participation in it was known, it is not seen to be successful in practice. It is seen that this issue can be solved, if certain projects are implemented to women in villages, For instance, preservance of Kosovo Turkish cuisine and similar cultural products could be of great functional importance to women as it can bring economic income to them and be cultural carriers, too. Therefore, it should also be taken into account that pre-gained experiences can play an important role in women's income.

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Reference

Bako, Müveddet, (2002), Kosova'da Türk Kadının Eğitimi, I. Türk Dünyası Kadınlar Kurultayı (Konuşmalar ve Bildiriler), Ankara 2002, s.189-194.

Brina, Elsev, (2002), Kosova’ da Türk Kadını ve Sivil Toplum, Türk Dünyası Kadınlar Kurultayı

(1.:2001). - Ankara: Türk Ocakları Genel Merkezi, Türk Ocakları Genel Merkezi, 2002.

- 523-525. Ss.

Göle, Nilüfer, (2000), Modern Mahrem, Metis Yayınları, İstanbul.

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Balkan Ülkeleri Türk Halk Edebiyatı ve Türkçe Sempozyumu Bildirisi, Üsküp,

Makedonya.

İsen, Mustafa, (2003), Balkanlarda Türk Edebiyatı, Balakan Türkleri, Asam Yayınları, Ankara.

İsen, Mustafa, Engüllü, S, (Haz.), (1997)Türkiye Dışındaki Türk Edebiyatları

Antolojisi, c. 7 Mekedonya Yugoslavya (Kosova) Türk Edebiyatı, T. C. Kültür Bakanlığı,

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İsen, Musatafa, (2003), Balkanlarda Türk Edebiyatı, Balkan Türkleri, Avrasya Stratejik

Araştırmaları Merkezi, Ankara, S. 224-238

İslam, Ayşenur, Balkanlarda Türkçe Basın, (2003), Bay, sayı 87, Prizren, S. 7

Kaya, İ. Güven, (1993), Yugoslavya’da Türk Halkı Edebiyatı, Boğaziçi Üniversitesi

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Dergisi, Prizren sayı: 1, Eylül, s. 9-10

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Lika, Salih, (1999), Yugoslavya’da Türkçe Eğitim Hayatı, Balkan Ülkelerinde Türkçe Eğitim ve

Yayın Hayatı Bilgi Şöleni (20-24 Nisan 1998) Bildiriler, Atatürk Kültür Dil ve Tarih

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THE ROLE AND THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN THE BUSINESSES MANAGED BY WOMEN

Prof.Brilanda Bushati, Dr. Eranda Bilali, Assist.Prof.Blerta Dragusha, Assist. Prof.Elidiana Bashi

Abstract

Recent years to improve the position of women in society seems a better participation of its managerial level. Women are opening their own businesses at a rate that is double what it was open to their male equivalents. Recent years more women are engaged in private businesses, leading various businesses by means of conditional economic or educational factors. This study is focused on the argument that businesses managed by women has great social value and economic positive impacts on family and community. The article gives some statistics on women's participation in business management and also displays problems faced by women in social and education terms but also economic in their daring venture, as business manager. Identified concrete results have emerged from interviews made to women from the north Albania – specially focused in Shkodra area, which run small businesses and show managerial behavior. Besides identifying the problems, from the interviews emerges the necessity of suitable education and training of business women, as a necessity to increase the number of businesses managed by women, especially in Shkodra. This article aims to, emphasize the role of the academic curriculum offered by university, in order to improve the managerial capabilities of the women. Women in this area need suitable education offered by university, in order to develop their managing capabilities. Education increases women’s trust to succeed.

Key words: women, education, business, management, curriculum

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GENDER INCLUSION IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT TRENDS IN KOSOVO

Aliu, Luljeta, PhD candidate, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Faculty o Economics

Dedaj, But, Prof. Dr., University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Faculty o Economics

Carabregu, Mjellma, PhD candidate (University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Faculty o Economics

Abstract

The position of women in social and political sphere has significantly changed over years. This has happened for many reasons, but most important is the increase of the percentage of the women involvement in the education. In this context, actions undertaken by the governments and world organizations played crucial role to strengthen women position in society. Although many efforts have been given to the gender equality, there are still some obstacles that need to overcome to not face the gender differentiations. Therefore, the study is focused on analyzing the gender level of higher education graduates at University of Prishtina “HasnPrishtina” and correlation in employment in Kosova. The number of employed females is significantly increased. Additionally, the paper will present the fluctuation of generated incomes in last two- three decades through employment. Paper is composed of the theoretical review, secondary research and data analysis. The inclusion of women in socio-economic activities undoubtedly contributes to the economic growth and enriches social welfare; differentiations are still present in terms of employment rate. Significant role plays macroeconomic and social policies, where women with the same preparation level of education, in general are less employed. Figures show very slightly increasing trends of women unemployment level over analyzed periods. The study concludes that, even the number of higher education female graduates is increased, this does not mitigate and equalize gender unemployment level.

Key words: Gender, inequality, graduates, higher education, unemployment

I. Introduction

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Modern times have been characterized with women emancipation. Differentiations are encountered in many countries. In Kosovo, there are some endeavors by national and mainly international organizations that are trying to reinforce gender mainstreaming, gender equality and women’s empowerment across Kosovo operations, programs and projects. In this aspect, UNDP Kosovo has been accelerating the integration of gender dimensions in all sectors and strengthening its performance in delivering for women and men. Additionally, there is a solid legal base, one of the documents is the UNDP Gender Equality Strategy 2014 – 2017, where the emphasis is also being placed on protecting women’s social, economic, political and cultural lives in a context of sustainable livelihoods121.

Usually, in developing countries most of the institutions of higher education are being confronted with an increasing distance between quality of graduates with the requirements of the society, business and industry, for more flexible workforce and competent in contemporary developments122. Therefore, two components are subject of this study: gender level of graduation and employment. The study analyzes the gender level of graduation at all three study levels at the University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina” and correlation in employment in Kosova in the following decades:

 1986  2000/ 2002  2011/2012  2015/2016

The study is undertaken by also considering gender equality not just about economic empowerment. But also as moral imperative, fairness and equity, and includes many dimensions: political, social and cultural. Gender equality, however, is also a key factor in self-reported well-being and happiness across the world123. Research Methodology: Literature and theoretical analysis and Secondary research: Statistical yearbook for Kosovo, 1989 and reports from the Statistical Office of Kosovo from after war periods, respectively, 2000-2016 with focus on graduates and employment.

II. Research Limitation:

The research has limitations on which future researches can be focused on their studies. This study is focused in the higher education gradates, where University of Prishtina - UP, from 2014 -University of Pristhina “Hasan Prishina” was the only public university in Kosovo until 2011, while there were some other private higher education providers established mainly after 2004, that have started with first generations. Therefore, even the University of Prishtina represents the majority of students; graduates

121 UNDP Kosovo, “Gender Equality Strategy 2014-2017”, August 2014 122 Pula, Justina, Dedaj, But, Aliu, Luljeta;“Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy”, p. 197 123 OECD, “Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship: Final Report to MCM, 2012, OECD Week 2012 280

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University from other higher education providers – mainly private are not included in the study. Further studies could include graduates also form these institutions, as well as studies to be focused on the education level of employees.

II.2 Literature Review

In developing countries, the economic empowerment of women is a prerequisite for sustainable development. Additionally, gender equality and empowered women are catalysts for multiplying development efforts. Therefore, investments in gender equality yield the highest returns on all development investments. Most countries around the world have won the battle to provide universal primary education, but the picture is much more mixed at secondary and higher education levels, while policy also needs to ensure the continuous improvement of the quality of education124. An increasing trends of the women graduates is not leading to the same dimension as regards to the employment in comparison to their counterparts. The transition from education to paid work is a crucial moment which lays the foundation for many of the inequalities encountered in the labour market throughout women’s working lives. Tensions between work and family life are at the heart of the employment puzzle when it comes to gender. Additionally, gender differences exist to a large extent because women still bear the brunt of the unpaid but unavoidable domestic tasks of daily life, such as childcare and housework. In this aspect, governments have indeed made great efforts in many countries to promote and legislate policies to help parents reconcile work and family life, such as paid parental-leave entitlements, public childcare facilities and family-friendly work conditions. However, governments across the world still have an important role to play in promoting gender equality, not just by monitoring the gender dimension when crafting and evaluating policies, but also by ensuring equality of opportunity in the public service125.

III. Research Results:

3.1 Characteristics of period 1986

The University of Pishtina - UP, was the only university in the territory of Kosovo, that was established in established in 1970 until period after 2002, where some private Higher Education Institution were established, without the right to offer PhD study programs. The UP, initially had 4 faculties: Philosophy; Law; Engineering and Medicine. Then in 1990 the number of faculties was increased to 13 and 7 and higher schools were attached to this university. Some of the higher schools were operation in the different cities of the Kosovo. In 1991 all academic Albanian staff was dismissed within 6 months, and the teaching have

124 OECD, “Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship: Final Report to MCM, 2012, OECD Week 2012 125 OECD, “Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship: Final Report to MCM, 2012, OECD Week 2012 281

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University continued in the parallel system in private houses due to the political situation, where the Serbian regime occupied the university and only serbian students were allowed to follow studies. This situation continued for around six years, respectively, during 1992-1998, where there was established an illegal self-financed education system. Additionally, in 1992 the academic staff of all other level of education; from primary schools to high schools have been dismissed within a day (23,000 academic staff) 126 . Of course this situation had impact on the quality of the education, the results of which are seen in the later periods.

3.1.1 Gender Graduates and Employment

The political situation in Kosovo was not stable. Therefore, there were males dominated in the participation in the higher education, meaning at the only higher education provider -University of Prishtina. In the table below are presented the number of graduates divided by gender and percentage:

Tab. 3.1 Graduates of year 1986 in Kosovo, Source: Statistical Annual book for Kosovo,1989

The table shows the gap between the female and male graduation, where from 3,034 graduates, only 931 females, meaning in the ratio with males 30.6% of total graduates are females. The number of the population in the approximate period was 1.9 million127. Almost same trends were followed as regards to the employment. The ratio between employed male and females was not equal as it was the case of graduates. Female employment was 22% and male employment 78%128. The figure below presents the gender inequality in graduates and employment:

126 Statistical Office of Kosovo, “Statistikat për Arsimin në Kosovë 2001”, Prishtina, December 2001, p.11 127 Statistical Office of Kosovo, “Statistikat për Arsimin në Kosovë 2001” – registration of year 1991 128Statistical Office of Kosovo, “Statistical Yearbook of Kosovo”, Prishtinë, December 1989 282

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• Female • Male Graduates Graduates

30.6% 69.4%

22.0 % 78.0%

• Female • Male Employed Employed

Fig. 3.2 Gender graduates and employment in percentage in 1986

From the figure, we understand that the gender employment gap is significant in both: graduates and employment. The education aspect stands a bit better than employment, where employment is gap among gender is even higher than graduates in favor to males. According to the statistics, public sector was the main employer for women.

3.2 Characteristics of Period: 2000/2001

This was an after was period among Kosovo and Serbia, that was ended in the mid year of 1999. There was almost everything destroyed, and everything needed to start form the scratch. Except enormous material damages, there were quite a lot of human losses. According to the report from Statistical Office of Kosovo - Statistics for Education in Kosovo 2001; population was around 2 million. In anyways, Kosovo had a rare characteristic that could be considered as an advantage and have impact on the study, where the population was very young. Actually, 1/3 of its population was under 15 years

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On the other hand, as regard to the employment, in the conditions the economy was, very hard to create jobs and keep the economy working in that time. It was not able to create sufficient working places, in order to absorb the labour force. Hence, the result of the unemployment rate was tremendously high, in the difficult time, where the economy was diminishing. What was specific and continued even after for the long time, where remittances were almost the main sources mainly for households.

3.2.1 Gender Graduates and Employment

Since the country had a very young population, participation in education must have been impacted. The table below presents data of women graduates in HE in academic year 2000-2001 in different HE levels, including higher schools that were part of the University of Prishtina:

Tab. 3.3 Higher education graduates including higher schools in the academic year 2000/2001 Source: Statistical Office of Kosovo, “Anketa mbi Fuqinë Punëtore 2002”, Prishtina, 2004

129 Statistical Office of Kosovo, “Statistikat për Arsimin në Kosovë 2001”, Prishtina, December 2001

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The data revealed that females are more concentrated in the higher schools of the University of Prishtina, that are located in main cities of Kosovo, and not only in capital- Prishtina. As we can see, the number of female graduates is higher comparing to male, only at the higher schools (belonging to the 5th level of the National Qualification Framework of Kosovo). The rest, are in favor of the males. If we look at the gender ratio, female graduates in academic year 2000/2001 are 42 % and 58% males. In comparison to the previous analyzed period – 1986, the women graduates percentage is increased for approximately 12%. In this context, a progress was made in equalizing gender inclusion and graduates in the tertiary education.

Regarding to the employment, there were much differences. Data shows that the percentage of the women employment in the post war period was decreased in comparison to analyzed period of around 15 years ago – year 1986. Even the number of graduates was increased; the women employment in 2002 was decreased to 19.3 %, while male employment represents the majority, respectively 80.7%130 of total employment.

• Female • Male Graduates Graduates

42% 58%

19.3 % 80.7%

• Female • Male Employed Employed

Figure 3.4: Gender analysis: HE graduates at UP and employment in %, year 2000/2002

As the figure shows, women are “marginalized” in both: graduation and employment. The situation in the level of graduation is slightly changed in positive way for women, while in employment it is not the case, and the difference is even increased in gender base.

3.3. Characteristics of period 2011/2012

The University of Prishtina still plays the main catalyst for the preparation of educated workforce for the social needs. Even the number of higher education providers is largely

130Statistical Office of Kosovo, “Anketa mbi Fuqinë Punëtore 2002”, Prishtina, 2004, p.5 285

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University increased, by establishment of tens of private higher education provider, there were only two other public universities established: University of Prizren “Ukshin Hoti” in 2010 and University “Haxhi Zeka” in Peja in 2011131. Anyways there were no graduates from these universities. Another important component introduced in this period was the Quality Assurance component that was introduced by the Kosovar Accreditation Agency- KAA. The agency was established by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) in accordance with the Law on Higher Education - LHE (2003/14) in Kosovo, as the Agency that guarantees the quality of educational and scientific research work in Higher Education Institutions in Kosovo. Therefore, each institution/ study program must be accredited by KAA as an independent authority which accredits and reaccredits public and private institutions of higher education for a limited time period132.

3.3.1 Gender Graduates and Employment

According to the report from the Agency for statistics of Kosovo for year 2011/2012 the following data were reveled: The ration between women and male graduates: 53% are female graduates and 47% male graduates. In this period females have been more represented comparing to males. In the two other previously analyzed periods, the graduation of women were increasing and even exceeds the number of male graduates at all three levels. The difference is not significant, only 6% in favor of females. From the data revealed, it is concluded that position of women in the inclusion of the HE have changed in the positive way, thus it has impact on the improvement of the women position in the social and political sphere over years.

Nevertheless, the employment still remains problem for the entire society. Kosovo is facing an enormous high unemployment rate from the post war, and it is continues challenge for the politicians and population. The total level of employment according to the report of Statistical Office of Kosovo (2012) was 50.6%, where the gender ratio: 21.1% females employed and 78.9% male employed. Unbalanced gender employment is still present.

131Aliu, Luljeta; Dedaj, But, “Decison – making in the curriculum development in higher education” LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2015, Saarbrucken; Germany p. 40 132 Kosovar Accredditation Agency - http://www.akreditimi-ks.org/new/index.php/en/about- us/mission; last accessed 28.11.2016 286

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• Female • Male graduates graduates

53% 47%

21.1 % 78.1%

• Female • Male Employed Employed

Fig. 3.5 Gender analysis: HE graduates at UP and employment in %, year 2011/2012.

The graph 3.5 clearly shows women progress in education, while the stagnation in employment is significant. Despite this, legal framework have contributed to some aspects of women participation e.g. politics, social and economic fields. Anyways, by having the main objective to fully integrate women in all aspects, unemployment still remains only as objective to be fulfilled maybe in the future.

3.3 Current situation – characteristics 2014-2015

Labor market indicators in Kosovo are the worst in Europe, and women are particularly disadvantaged. The exceptionally low employment rates of women can be explained by low education levels, lack of childcare institutions, the persistence of traditional social roles, and low market demand for female labor. Education is a major determinant of labor market outcomes133. On the other hand no employment plan exists in Kosovo and the Ministry struggles to implement any strategy. Development of public infrastructure, including roads, rail, energy supply, and electricity distribution, have been key governmental activities expected to positively affect economic development and employment, mainly for men in the construction sector. There was developed a strategy

133 World Bank, “Kosovo: Gender Gaps in Education, Health and Economic Opportunities” 2012. 287

7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University for Women’s Economic Empowerment for 2011-2013, but no budget was allocated, and it has not been implemented 134 . The gender graduate keeps the positive trends of increasing. The table below shows the number of graduates divided in gender base of the academic year: 2014/2015:

Tab. 3.6 Number of graduates at the University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina” in the academic year 2014/2015

Source: Statistical Office of Kosovo, 2016 Prishtina

Gender/ Female Male Percentage

Level Female

University level 3,520 2,505 58.4%

From the data above, we can conclude that the ratio between gender graduates is remaining higher for females, respectively 58.4% and 41.6% for male. In comparison to the previous studied period 2011/2012, where female graduates percentage was 53%, no much differences appeared for the last one, with an increasing of approximately 5%.

As regarding to the women employment, a little progress was made. Female employment envisaged to be almost in the same level: 22.9% and male 77.1%. The progress is 1.8% for around 4 years.

134Färnsveden Ulf, Qosaj - Mustafa Ariana , Farnsworth Nicole. (2014): Country Gender Profile- An analysis of Gender Differences at all levels in Kosovo, Prishtina, Kosovo

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• Female • Male graduates graduates

58.4% 41.6%

22.9 % 77.1%

• Female • Male Employed Employed

Fig. 3.6 Gender analysis: HE graduates at UP and employment in %, year 2014/2015

The figure shows a comparison on the gender differences on graduates and employment, where the correlation is positive, but with very little progress on employment.

IV. Conclusions:

Although many efforts have been given to the gender equality, there are still some obstacles that need to overcome to not face the gender differentiations. Gender graduates and employment for the studied periods and the link among these two components is not strong over decades. Even the study periods were quite stretched: study included different social and political situations of Kosovo; from being under the Serbian occupation: period of 1986; right after the war period of 2001/2002; after becoming independent country (independence declared in 2008) 2011/2012 and the current situation of 2014/2015.

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Graduates at UP- Gender ratio over decades 80,0%

70,0%

60,0%

50,0%

40,0% Percentge 30,0%

20,0%

10,0%

0,0% 1986 2001/2002 2011/2012 2014/2015 Female 30,6% 42,0% 53,1% 58,4% Male 69,4% 58,0% 46,9% 41,6%

Huge differences were in the first studied period of year 1986 of the gender graduates, continuing with an increase of the women inclusion in the higher education. The second studied period still was in the favor of males graduates, by decreasing the gap among. This positive trend continued over years and during the year 2009/2010 the ratio matched and continued changing in favor of women, herewith by exceeding number of male graduates at the University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”. An increasing situation is still evident, where the percentage of female graduates is around 58%, while male graduates belong to around 42% of the total graduates during year 2014/2015.

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Employment - Gender Ratio over decades 90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40% Percentage 30%

20%

10%

0% 1986 2002 2012 2015 Female 22% 19,3% 21,1% 22,9% Male 78% 80,7% 78,9% 77,1%

The employment is still the main problem of the society. According to the analyzed periods, almost no improvement shown in the women employment comparing to males. As we see, the difference is very big. In the first analyzed period, women employment in ratio with males was 22%, than after the war period it was decreased for nearly 3 % . Slight progress started afterwards, to the other decade by approaching, still not equated the period of around 25 years ago, respectively year 1986 to 2012. The year of 2015 have exceeded the first analyzed period for less than 1% , the period of 1986, where women employment was only 22% and in 2015 is 22.9%. This means standing in the same situation as around 30 years ago!.

Consequently, there are still much differences in the sector of employment in terms of gender equality, it is very slowly improving. Additionally, according to the analysis and development trends, it is not expected that in the upcoming decade the gender employment ratio to be equal. Therefore, the correlation between the gender gradates and employment is not closely related, since the first exceeds male ratio, and this improvement is not significant in the second component, employment.

Anyways, the official data does not show the exact women employment. There are many cases that women are discriminated and not considered equal workers as men. There are cases that womens work for their family businesses and not declared officially as workers, as well as they are more involved in the childcare and unpaid household tasks.

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Global Perspective: Women’s socio-economic disadvantage is reflected in pervasive gender inequalities in earned income, property ownership, access to services and time use. Globally three quarters of working age men are in the labour force compared to half of working age women. And among those who are employed, women constitute nearly two thirds of contributing family workers, who are employed in family businesses and farms, but receive no direct pay, and it known that globally, women earn on average 24 per cent less than men and are less likely than men to receive a pension, even the income between women and men is not balanced. Yet in all regions women work more than men: on average they do at least two and a half times more unpaid care and domestic work than men, and if paid and unpaid work is combined, women work longer hours than men in nearly all countries135.

4.2 Recommendations

- Actions to be undertaken by the government through different social and economic policies, which support/ facilitate women`s to be engaged in the employment, thus these policies can play a role in fostering women employment. - Government should be a role model for other employers in promoting gender equality, by ensuring equality opportunity.

- Even graduation does not mean equality in labor market, however, priority should be given to women graduates - Women`s work and life to better be balanced. Childcare to be shared in the parental leave, thus reducing the job leave by women; - Studies to be provided in the field of gender equity by higher education provider in Kosovo - Public sector is major women employer, thus private sector should be improved; - World organizations can play crucial role to boost women inclusion in all levels by awareness raising of benefits, and policy changing; - Improvement of gender statistics.

References:

1. Agjensioni i Akreditimit të Kosovës http://www.akreditimi- ks.org/new/index.php/about-us/mission 2. Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM). http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/graph.do?pcode=tesem180&language=en 3. Färnsveden Ulf, Qosaj - Mustafa Ariana , Farnsworth Nicole. (2014): Country Gender Profile- An analysis of Gender Differences at all levels in Kosovo, Prishtina, Kosovo

135UN Woman, “Progress of the world’s women 2015-2016”, Transforming Economies, Realizing Human Rights, 2015, p. 44

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4. Harrison T. Richard, Mason M. Colin. (2007): Does Gender Matter? Women Business Angels and the Supply of Entrepreneurial Finance”, Baylor University 5. Kosovo Agency of Statistics. (2001): Statistikat për Arsimin në Kosovë 2001. Prishtinë, Kosovo 6. Kosovo Agency of Statistics. (2012): Statistikat e Arsimit 2011/2012. Prishtinë, Kosovo 7. Kosovo Agency of Statistics. (2016): Statistikat e Arsimit 2015/2016. Prishtinë, Kosovo 8. Ligji mbi Arsimin e Lartë në Republikën e Kosovës. (2011). Nr. 04/L-037. Prishtina, Kosovo 9. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Kosovo Agency of Statistics. (2016): “Education Statistics in Kosova”, 2015/2016. Prishtina, Kosovo 10. OECD. (2012): Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship: Final Report to MCM, 2012. OECD Week 2012 11. Statistical Office of Kosovo. (1989): Statistical Yearbook of Kosovo. Prishtinë, 12. Statistical Office of Kosovo. (2004): Anketa mbi Fuqinë Punëtore 2002. Mars 2004, Prishtina, Kosovo 13. Statistical Office of Kosovo. (2015): Punësimi sipas aktiviteteve dhe gjinisë 2012- 2015. Prishtina, Kosovo 14. Statute of the University of Prishtina. (2011), Prishtina, Kosovo 15. The Boston Consulting Group. (2014): Bridging the Entrepreneurship Gender Gap, The power of networks 16. The World Bank. (2012): Kosovo: Gender Gaps in Education, Health and Economic Opportunities, Kosovo 17. UN Woman. (2015):Progress of the world’s women 2015-2016, Transforming Economies, Realizing Human Rights 18. UNDP Kosovo Human Development Reports. (2014): Kosovo Human Development Report 2014, Migration as a Force for Development 19. USAID. (2014): Kosovo: 2014-2018 Country Development Cooperation Strategy”, Kosovo

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TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF CAUSES OF VIOLENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE TOWN OF PRİZREN

Dr. Sc. Shpresa Zaplluzha

Faculty of Education, University ”UkshinHoti”in Prizren, Kosovo

Abstract

School violence includes any behavior aimed at causing physical or emotional harm to a person or his/her school belongings, and should be seen as a relationship between the individual, the school and the community. A good proportion of studies focus on considering school violence from the students’ perspective, while other studies, although few in number, have shown that teachers’ perceptions are very important in studying this school phenomenon.

This study presents the perceptions of causes of school violence by 117 teachers (MA = 42.3 years, DS = 11.1) of six upper secondary schools in Prizren. The responses were analyzed by descriptive analysis, the numbers and the respective percentages of each question and the Pearson Test Chi squarein order to find the correlation among several variables in the study.

The results show that almost half of the respondents do not believe that school related factors may be the causes of school violence, while the factor which teachers associated most with the school was the lack of rules in the school. In analyzing the family factor, domestic violencerated at 27.3%(N = 36) was identified as the main cause affecting the violence in schools. In addition, movies and computer games depicting violence were rated at 64.1% (N = 75),as having a major influence on student violent behavior.

Key words: student, teacher, violence, perception, causes.

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EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN PRIZREN

Mr.sc . Sanela Lutvić

Mast. pedag. Džulizarka Mislimi

Univerzitet Ukshin Hoti, Prizren

Abstract

A woman, representing the fundamental base of the family, has been exposed to the modifications in the social occasions. Women have fought for centuries for the reputation they deserve in society. A woman’s education represents the education of the whole society indeed. The development of the social awareness has followed the development of the female population accordingly. Even nowadays, in the era of modernism and democracy, women are exposed to torture and vilification in some areas.

This paper, directly, show the educational situation of the female population of the Bosniak population. Education and employment are, undoubtedly, one of the most important segments for the development of a certain society, thus the development of the female sex. Conducted researches evidently give an insight for the education and employment situation in the areas of Prizren, Župa and Gora. Acquired results conclude that education is a very important component for female enfranchisement, consequently, a demand for research for the education and employment situation of this part of the society has derived.

Keywords: Education, upbringing, employment, unemployment, Bosniaks, Župa, Gora, Prizren

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THE WOMEN`S POSITION IN ENTERPRISE AND THE LEADERSHIP ON ENVIRONMENT OF ALBANIA

Ph.D Eriona DEDA

Msc. Leonora SOPAJ

Abstract

While working on this research, will disclosed the entire of precious competencies that women bring into business life of companies, in organizations and institutions. "Any woman who understands the problems of the welfare in house is much closer to understanding the problems of the welfare of the country." It is told by "Margaret Thatcher", pointing out neatly in a single sentence the woman's unique skills, the ability to adapted, lots duty to perform, sensitivity and spirit of leadership. In addition, through the basic arguments that can be found in this research, you will understand that diversity is an excellent tool for expanding opportunities for enterprises, enables a better utilization of human capital, bringing value enhanced enterprise, government, society , in all the world. The world in XXI century is the world of diversity, where men and women share responsibility both in the office as well as in family life. The diversity is good not only for companies, but also provides the best way for society and the economy as a whole. "Raising women means increase of our economy and increase of our country should be make sure that someone is at their side "Barack Obama". key words: Enterprises, leadership, environment, society

1.Introduction

This paper aims to highlight the essential role of women in business and the need to encourage gender diversity at the highest levels of management. Albania has entered a new phase of economic reforms for a better future and the prosperity of the country. The country’s development is linked to the strengthening and enhancement of the pri-vate sector, which is one of the strongest pillars for ensuring the successful integration of Alba- nia into the European Union.The development of private sector, especially of SME, seems to remain one of the Government priorities. The women entrepreneurs are clearly recognized as playing an important role in the SME sector. Actually there are around 106 thousands private businesses operating in Albania, which contribute to up to 80% of GDP and endorse the employment of 82% of labour the force. According to INSTAT, 18% of private business managers are women. Furthermore, despite the fact that more than 50% of women in rural areas work in agriculture, they only own and manage 6% of farms. There are several reasons why the percentage of women who run a private business is so low. Women have larger problems than men to access

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1.1 The general problematic In many countries women are participating in areas of public life where they were not previously visible. Women are slowly but increasingly occupying senior positions in the public and private sectors, including the judiciary, the academia and the media. There was less evidence in the discussion of women in leadership roles in trade unions, professional associations, and non- traditional areas. Men are still overwhelmingly the decision makers as senior executives and board members of corporations, public sector officials, judges and law - makers, media executives, negotiators in trade unions, and leaders of civil society organizations and may not have wom en’s issues as their primary concern. Participants frequently highlighted the gains that have been achieved including in the political arena, with women heads of state or government in a few countries.

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The overall objective of the study is about the status of women in leadership and decision making positions of public institutions and the factors that affect the role of women in leadership 2.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES 1.To examine the current status of women in leadership of public and private institution .

2.To identify the major barriers that affect the access of women in to management positions.

3.METHODOLOGY

The method of study that is used for this purpose of study is descriptive study It is concerned with assessing about factors that are affecting women participation in leadership and decision making in public and private institution. In this research the descriptive type of research is the most appropriate Date sources The main sources used for data are affair office report, different books in the area of sociology, management & leadership, internet , INSTAT ,ect.

4.CONCEPT OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS The concept of women Entrepreneurs is :The women or a group of women who starts working in a business enterprise. Many investigations showed that females usually talk to the same gender about business if they need help to expand a company plan. They are opened to ask frequently for the steps they need to provide and makes an advantage for them . On the other side women showed to be more understandable than men as for example in consumer marketing. They have more ability to communicate with others in order. The Women entrepreneurs are engaged in business to push and pull factors which encourage women to have an independent occupation in business activities . 297

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The women entrepreneurs choose to be profession and do something new.

5.WOMEN`S ACCESS TO BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT SERVICES AND TO FINANCIAL RESOURCES . Women have equal rights in respect of their lending by financial institutions. Women’s participation in business, in Albania environment has been identified as a need to promote women’s enterprises and to provide business support. Women’s access to business development services is an an important component of support to businesses. Most of the BDS providers represent joint efforts with private consultative companies and mostly are located in urban areas. BDS are providers to attract and to creating access for general information. These services are, for the most part, gender blind. METE in collaboration with media to promote innovative ideas from women entrepreneurs . That is supporting by AIDA to develop customized programmes that support the growth of female in their owned enterprises. MLSAEO with NES provides women entrepreneurs and social partners working agenda for BDS providers on how to mainstream the gender issues in their services. BoA and MoF - are used to encourage the financial institutions to develop dedicated services and set targets to growth women entrepreneurs in oriented firms.

6. STATUS OF WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP POSITIONS There is a considerable amount of information available on women in political leadership positions, much less is known about the representation of women as decision-makers in other public and private sector institutions. The factors that hinder and facilitate the role of women in leadership at the national and to discuss what is being done at the country level to measure women’s impact in leadership positions.

6.1 The factors that hinder and facilitate the role of women in leadership

Factors that determine the participation of women in leadership and decision-making are different in different countries. Factors are: 1. Promoter 2. inhibitor

1.Promoter factors:

The social activity of women is influenced by; a. Business climate, including taxes, procedures, corruption, employment (World Bank 2007) b. Social base and the level of development; education, health, natural environment. c. Economic factors and the level of development of a country, including income from exports and from services that bring advantage. d. Distribution of technology and infrastructure. (Friedman 2005) e. The political rights and civil liberties that enjoyed by citizens of a country. (Freedom House 2008).

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2.Inhibitor factor

Family and work make the women lose control over the work environment and be involved in conflicts with family .This duplication of tasks (home and at work responsibility) often encourage her to sacrifice their career by giving priority to family. 1) Human -capital 2) social-capital 3) Financial-capital 4) Matters reliability 5) family -Responsibility 6) Gender stereotypes (politics is dominated by men)

Powell & Butterfiefd on 1994 for the first time has explored the phenomenon of the tendency of Glass-Ceiling (G-C) associated with the management and leadership positions.

According to the study there is a close relationship between gender issues and G-C. As much as countries reach levels and equality in gender representation, more women will be faced with the phenomenon G-C.

Referring to examples of social or cultural organizations where women are admitted to be in leadership roles, the effects of G-C can be considered minimal.

Quite the opposite happens in the phenomenon proverbial '' The glass' 'becomes'' steel '. This barrier of iron deprives women elected to leadership positions, even they are not invited to be present there.

CONCLUSION

Women are strong and their character may handle a lot more than is usually thought. Women may be successful and sometimes more than men do. There are a lot of challenges that women entrepreneurs have to face.From year to year things have changed and have been better. Through this paper we have seen the essential role of women in business and the need to encourage gender . It is clear, from our survey and from other studies that women and men have complementary styles of management .

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Women through their abilities such as: The inspirational power, their consistency, empathy, communication skills, and their flexibility remain vital for well-functioning of the daily activities. There is no doubt, that financial performance and the development of a healthy organizational culture depends on the optimal ratio of the men and women. The best solution, not only for the businesses but for all the society would be enhancement of diversity and contribution from both genders. Researches involving the largest international companies confirms that those who employing more women have better financial results.

REFERENCES

Bezhani M. (2001), Women Entrepreneurs in Albania, Series on Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender in Enterprises

Edwards A. D. (2012), Women Entrepreneurs Access to Finance in the Developing World, RIBM Doctoral Symposium.

Hafizi M. (2002), Female Entrepreneurship in Republic of Albania, International Symposium on Learning Management and Technology Development in the Information and Internet , University of Bologna.

INSTAT (2010) Statistical Yearbook 2004-2013, Albanian

National Institute of Statistics. Tirane, Albania.

Case study:Global Factors Affecting Participation of women in Leadership Role, http://www.platformagjinore.al/2013/02/04/studim-faktoret-globale-qe-ndikojne-ne- pjesmarrjen-e-gruas-ne-role-drejtuese/

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CALL FOR PAPERS

8th INTERNATIONAL WOMEN AND BUSINESS CONFERENCE

July 24-28, 2017

MOUNT ALLISON UNIVERSITY, CANADA

http://www.mta.ca/Prospective/Default.aspx

IMPORTANT DEADLINES

Abstract or Fullpaper Submission: April 1st, 2017

Acceptance Notification: May 1st, 2017

Registration: June 15, 2017

CONTACT INFORMATION

[email protected]

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CALL FOR CHAPTER AND BOOK TO PUBLISH IN BOOK SERIES “WOMEN AND SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS”

IN ROUTLEDGE

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

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7th International Women and Business Congress, Nov 9-11, 2016 Prizren Ukshin Hoti University

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