AEMI JOURNAL • VOLUME Contents

5 From the Editor 6 Protocol of the AEMI 2013 meeting in Karlstad, Sweden 12 Chairman´s Report 2012 - 2013 AEMIJOURNAL 16 Oscar Alvarez Gila and Benan Oregi Iñurrieta : Mass Migration versus Specialized Migration. Basque Immigrants in China in the Late 19th and Volume 12 • 2014 Early 21st Centuries

12 • 2014 34 Marcin Szerle: How to be a Pole abroad – Initial Impressions from Life in the United States in Immigrants’ Memoirs

48 Marco Eimermann: Ambivalent Dutch Lifestyle Migrants in Rural Sweden

58 Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade: ’Portuguese Migration: Responding to the New Crisis’?

66 Peter Olaus: The Poor People of the Forest: Immigration and Integration in Värmland in the 1670s

72 Nonja Peters: No Place Like ‘Home’: Experiences of the Netherlands East Indies as Real, Virtual and Politically Contested Reality by Indisch Dutch and Indisch Dutch Australians.

81 Richard Magito Brun: The Transnational Identity: Nineteenth Century Semi-Residential Sinti and Indigenous Travellers in Sweden

96 Kirsten Egholk and Susanne Krogh Jensen: Greve Nord – a Changing Multi-Ethnic Public Housing Area

106 Asier Vallejo Itsaso: An Overview of the Basque Government´s Diaspora Strategy

www.aemi.eu Association of European Migration Institutions AEMI JOURNAL

Volume 12 • 2014

Special Issue on

‘Where We Belong - Borders, Ethnicity and Identity’

Editor Hans Storhaug

Association of European Migration Institutions www.aemi.eu Cover picture: The statue of ‘Sola in Karlstad’ - or Eva Lisa Holtz (1739 -1818), is a famous symbol of the city of Karlstad, Sweden. Holtz was a waitress and owner of a tavern, well known for her “sunny” mood. AEMI Journal Editor: Hans Storhaug

Editorial board: Brian Lambkin, Mellon Centre for Migration Studies at Ulster- American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland Maddalena Tirabassi, Centro Altreitalie, Torino, Italy Hans Storhaug, Norwegian Emigration Center, Stavanger, Norway

The Association of European Migration Institutions - AEMI, founded in 1991, is a network of organisations in Europe concerned with the documentation, research and presentation of European migration.

AEMI board 2013 - 2014: Hans Storhaug, Chairman Maddelena Tirabassi, Vice-chair Sarah Clement, Secretary Eva Meyer, Treasurer Mathias Nilsson Marianna Auliciema

Manuscripts and editorial correspondence regarding AEMI Journal should be sent by e-mail to [email protected]. Statements of facts or opinion in AEMI Journal are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by the editors or publisher.

Published in September 2014 © AEMI ISSN 1729-3561 AEMI Secretarit, Génériques, 34 rue de Cîteaux, 75012 Paris, France

www.aemi.eu

Printed in Norway by Omega Trykk, Stavanger Contents

5 From the Editor 6 Protocol of the AEMI 2013 meeting in Karlstad, Sweden 12 Chairman´s Report 2012 - 2013

16 Oscar Alvarez Gila and Benan Oregi Iñurrieta : Mass Migration versus Specialized Migration. Basque Immigrants in China in the Late 19th and Early 21st Centuries

34 Marcin Szerle: How to be a Pole abroad – Initial Impressions from Life in the United States in Immigrants’ Memoirs

48 Marco Eimermann: Ambivalent Dutch Lifestyle Migrants in Rural Sweden

58 Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade: ’Portuguese Migration: Responding to the New Crisis’?

66 Peter Olaus: The Poor People of the Forest: Immigration and Integration in Värmland in the 1670s

72 Nonja Peters: No Place Like ‘Home’: Experiences of the Netherlands East Indies as Real, Virtual and Politically Contested Reality by Indisch Dutch and Indisch Dutch Australians.

81 Richard Magito Brun: The Transnational Identity: Nineteenth Century Semi-Residential Sinti and Indigenous Travellers in Sweden

96 Kirsten Egholk and Susanne Krogh Jensen: Greve Nord – a Changing Multi-Ethnic Public Housing Area

106 Asier Vallejo Itsaso: An Overview of the Basque Government´s Diaspora Strategy From the Editor

The twelfth volume of the AEMI Journal is now at hand for members of the Associ- ation of European Migration Institutions and others interested in migration history research – both past and contemporary. Nine articles are presented, eight from the 2013 annual meeting in Karlstad, Sweden and one left over from the meeting in Krakow, Poland in 2012. The nine articles have a time span from the sixteent cen- tury to the present, and most of them focus on the theme Where We Belong: Borders, Etnicity and Identity.

Both ethnicity and identity are explanatory factors in Kirsten Egholk and Susanne Krogh Jensen´s Greve Nord – A Changing Multi-Ethnic Public Housing Area. Here they explain why the Danish flagship of public housing area Greve Nord in less than two decades changed into a multi- ethnic ghetto haunted by social problems and a high crime rate. The authors also discuss what public initiatives are taken to turn this unfortunate situation around.

In her article No Place Like ‘Home’: Experiences of the Netherlands East Indies as Real, Virtual and Politically Contested Reality by Indisch Dutch and Indisch Dutch Austral- ians Nonja Peters describes how the traumatic experiences of the Japanese occu- pation (1942-1945) and the following Indonesian Revolution for Independence (1945-1949) in different ways influenced the Netherlands East Indies´ perception of ‘ home’, place and belonging.

Richard Magito Brun gives in his article The Transnational Identity: Nineteenth Century Semi-Residential Sinti and Travellers in Sweden, an overview of the origin of the Roma people and Sinti in Sweden exemplified by acrobat and rope-dancer Friederich Eisfeld. Although given permission to perform in all parts of Sweden, and speaking the language, Friedrich Eisfeld never became a Swede, but lived a life determined by his Sinto identity and Roma traditions.

In The Poor People of the Forest: Immigration and Integration in Värmland in the 1670s, Peter Olaus concludes that conflicts between the landless forest Finns (and Norwe- gians) and the Swedish farmers in Fryksdalen, often were not ethnically based, but rather related to issues about hunting, fishing and the use of forests. 6 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Marcin Szerle analyses memoirs about the United States in his article How To Be a Pole Abroad - Initial Impressions from Life in the United States. Not surprisingly he finds that most often Poles emigrated to their families and friends, creating a new life in the New World. However, for many Poles the main goal was to earn money and return to their homeland; consequently many did not even bother to learn the language.

Co-organiser of the AEMI meeting in Lisbon 2003, and a regular contributor to our Journal since then, Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade considers in her article Portu- guese Migration: Responding to the New Crisis the challenges of present-day economic hardship in Portugal to the forefront. Due to lack of alternatives, an increasing number of young Portuguese are leaving the country, particularly graduates and technicians, bringing the country to the top of the ‘brain drain’ league table.

In An Overview of the Basque Government´s Diaspora Strategy Asier Vallejo Itsaso outlines the main framework of the public programs and politics regarding the Basque diaspora as embodied in Law 8/1994. The objective of the law is to promote, support and intensify the relations between the Basque Country and the Basque communities and clubs abroad by introducing activities to dissiminate, stimulate and develop Basque culture and the Basque economy.

In Ambivalent Dutch Lifestyle Migrants in Rural Sweden, Marco Eimermann intro- duces a new concept in migration research to the AEMI Journal: lifestyle migration. It focuses on relatively affluent Dutch families who moved from moderately, strongly, or extremely urbanised municipalities, to Hällefors in rural Sweden, seeking a bet- ter, more fulfilling life for their families, and their ambivalence towards returning.

Eimermann´s article more than anything demonstrates that there are many motives for migration. The Dutch families´ principal motivation is lifestyle and a gradual achievement of a better life, while millions of other Europeans migrate, desperately searching for jobs or seeking shelter and security from war and aggressive rulers.

At the risk of repeating myself, I still believe that the Journal has become a valuable asset to the Association, documenting the research of our members, stimulating existing member institutions to organise future conferences, and recruiting new members.

Hans Storhaug, Editor The Association of European Migration Institutions Protocol of the Annual Meeting

3 - 5 October 2013 Karlstad, Sweden

Members of the Association of European Migration Institutions (AEMI) and other migration researcher met for a three day conference at the Swedish Congress Culture Center in Karlstad, Sweden. The conference was hosted by the Swedish Migration Center located in the court house in the central city square (picture).

Thursday, 3 October 2013 ish Migration Center (until 13 Septem- After a reception at the Swedish Migra- ber 2013 named the Swedish American tion Center, generously hosted by the Center), Kenneth Johansson, Govenor City of Karlstad on Wednesday evening, of Värmland, and AEMI chairman conference members met Thursday Hans Storhaug, marked the official morning at the Swedish Congress opening of the annual conference. In Culture Center. Welcome speeches by his keynote speech Paul Lappalainen, Mathias Nilsson, director of the Swed- Senior Advisor, Swedish Equality Om- 8 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 budsman, talked about structural dis- Peter Olausson: The Poor People of the crimination and institutional racism, Forest: Immigration and Integration in and highlighted equality as the key to Värmland in the 1670s democracy, human rights and inclusion. The rest of the day was devoted to Session 4 Migration Research Institu- papers and discussions related to the tions and Exhibits chaired by Erik Gus- themes of transnationalism, ethnic iden- tavsson. tity, migration theory and integration: Brian Lambkin: Migration Museums in Ireland and Britain: Some Recent De- Session 1 Including diversity: National velopments self-images in a multicultural society, Nina Ray: Dead Bodies Migrate Too: chaired by Marianna Auliciema. An Exploration of the Help Migration Kirsten Egholk and Susanne Krogh Institutions Could Provide to War Mon- Jensen: Integration in Public Hous- ument Sites ing - from the Flagship of Housing in Tifenn Hamonic: How to Build an the Danish Welfare State to Problematic Internet Portal on the History of Immigra- Neighbourhoods tion: the Example of Odysseo. Sverre Mørkhagen: Ethnic Identity and Assimilation Pressure A reception at the Governor´s Mansion Kristin Mikalsen: Long Way Home - followed by dinner at the Swedish Mi- on the Use of Personal Stories in the Mi- gration Center, both hosted by Gover- gration Exhibit ‘Home’ nor Kenneth Johansson, made a perfect end to the first day of the conference. Session 2 and 3: Transnational ethnic groups - national identity, chaired by Friday, 4 October 2013 Adam Walaszek and Eva Meyer Friday opened with some remarks by Nonja Peters: No Place like Home: Ex- Catarina Segersten Larsson, Vice Presi- periences of the Netherlands East Indies as dent, Region Värmland.Then followed real, virtual and politically contested re- session 5 and 6 focusing on theory, ality terminology and methodology used in Marco Eimermann: I Felt Confined- lexicon and practise. The sessions were Narratives of Ambivalence among Dutch chaired by Maddalena Tirabassi and Lifestyle Migrants in Rural Sweden Sarah Clement. Maddalena Tirabassi: Italy´ s Europe, Janja Zitnik Serafin: Some Termino- Europe´s Italy logical Issues in Migration Studies Richard Magito Brun: The Trans- Marijana Ajsa Vizintin: The Coop- national Identity: Nineteenth Century eration of Slovenian Migration Institute Semi-Residental Continental Sinti and with Educational Organizations: Com- Indigenous Travellers in Sweden mon Projects on Developing Intercultural Gur Alroey: Between History of Im- Competance migration and History of Immigrants: the Patrick Fitzgerald: Crossing Borders: Case of Jewish Migration at the Beginning Reflecting Upon New Ways of Exploring of the Twentieth Centuries Human Migration AEMI ANNUAL MEETING 2013 KARLSTAD, SWEDEN 9 Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade: The tion of European Migration institutions Portuguese Migratory Phenomenon: the was called to order Saturday 5 October New Crisis Induced Settings 2013, 9.00 a. m. at the Swedish Mi- Elisa Gosso: Waldensian Migrations gration Center, Karlstad, Sweden by and the Role of the Church: A Historical - Chairman Hans Storhaug. Anthropological Study in Cultural Bound- aries and Reliogious Transnationalism 1 Attendance Register and Apologies Heike Spickermann: Discourses about Hans Storhaug conveyed apologies from the National Self-Image by the Example Ms. Antoinette Reuter, The Centre for of the Exhibition ‘Germany for Beginners’ Documentation of Human Migration (CDMH), Dudelange, Luxembourg. The very last session addressed the theme It was noted that the following repre- Ethnic Identity and Integration, chaired sentatives of 23 member institutions by Brian Lambkin. were present: Dietmar Osses: ‘Two Hearts are Bump- Génériques, Paris, France, repre- ing in My Breast’ : Identity and Feelings sented by Ms. Sarah Clément and Ms. of Belonging of Second Generation Immi- Tiffen Hamonic grants in the Ruhr LWL Industrial Museum Hannover Emilia Garcia Lopez: Second and Colliery – Westphalian State Museum Third Generation Galician Immigrants in of Industrial Heritage and Culture, Bo- Europe Today chum, Germany, represented by Dr. Di- Asier Vallejo: An Overview of the etmar Osses Basque Government´s Diaspora Strategy The Center for Intercultural Stud- ies, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, After a long, but very fruitful day, Mainz, Germany, represented by Ms. former director of the Swedish Migra- Heike Sabri tion Center, Erik Gustavsson welcomed The Centre for Documentation of all conference delegates to a wonderful Human Migration (CDMH), Dude- reception and dinner at the restaurant lange, Luxembourg, represented by ‘Båten’ (the Boat) on the River Klaraäl- Denis Scuto ven. The Directorate for Relations with Basque Communities Abroad, Basque Saturday, 5 October 2013 Country, represented by Mr. Asier The morning was devoted to the AEMI Vallejo and Mr. Benan Oregi business meeting. The Åland Islands Emigrant Institute, Mariehamn, Åland, represented by Ms. The General Assembly of the Eva Meyer Association of European Migration The Norwegian-American Collection, Institutions (AEMI) National Library of Norway, Oslo, rep- resented by Ms. Jana Sverdljuk Bentze Minutes of Meeting The Norwegian Emigration Center, The General Assembly of the Associa- Stavanger, Norway represented by Mr. Hans Storhaug 10 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 The Swedish Migration Center, Karl- Emilia Garcia Lopez stad, Sweden, represented by Mr. Mathias Gdynia Emigration Museum, Gdy- Nilsson and Mr. Erik Gustavson nia, Poland, represented by Marcin Sze- The Slovenian Migration Institute, rle Ljubljana, Slovenia, represented by Ms. Ms. Nina M. Ray, Boise State Univer- Janja Zitnik Serafin and Ms. Marijansa sity, Boise, Idaho, USA Ajsa Vizintin The Center of Migration Studies and The Chairman then moved that Profes- Intercultural Relations, Universidade sor Adam Walaszek be elected Presiding Aberta, Portugal, represented by Prof. Officer of the General Assembly for the Maria Beatriz Rocha -Trindade presentation of reports by members of Altreitalie - Center on Italian Migra- the Board. The motion was agreed and tions, Turin, Italy represented by Prof. Professor Walaszek took the chair. Maddalena Tirabassi The Institute of Diaspora and Eth- 2. Minutes of the General Assembly of nic Studies, Jagiellonian University, AEMI Saturday 29 September 2012 at Krakow, Poland, represented by Prof. the Institute of Diaspora and Ethnic Stud- Adam Walaszek ies, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Po- The Danish Emigration Archives, land Aalborg, Denmark, represented by Mr. Jens Topholm and Sinne Fuglsang Klit- gaard The Minutes of the General Assem- The Danish Immigration Museum, bly of AEMI Saturday 29 September Denmark, represented by Ms. Cathrine 2012 at The Institute of Diaspora and Kyö Hermanssen and and Ms. Susanne Ethnic Studies, Jagiellonian University, Krogh Jensen Krakow, Poland were approved as accu- The Centre for Migration Stud- rate records. ies at The Ulster-American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland, represented 3. Chairman’s Report, 2012-2013 by Dr. Brian Lambkin and Dr. Paddy The chairman gave his report summa- Fitzpatrick rizing key points and referring to the The Migration, Ethnicity, Refugees full text at the AEMI website. Hans and Citizenship Research Unit, Curtin Storhaug thanked Adam Walaszek, Ag- University, Perth, Australia, represented nieszka Stasiewicz and Jan Lencznarow- by Dr. Nonja Peters icz for a great meeting in Krakow. Latvians Abroad Museum and Re- In addition to frequent internet search Centre, Riga, Latvia, represented communication, the board held one by Ms. Marianna Auliciema face-to face meeting in Paris, France 18 North Frisian Institue, Bredstedt, - 20 June 2013. Unfortunately, Adam North Frisia, represented by Mr. Paul- Walaszek and Eva Meyer were prevented Heinz Pauseback from coming. The board discussed the Consello da Cultura Galega, Santiago framework of the upcoming Annual de Compastella, Spain, represented by Conference and who to invite as key- AEMI ANNUAL MEETING 2013 KARLSTAD, SWEDEN 11 note speaker. In that respect, the board members, and had invited Paul Lappa- agreed to make a request to the Global lainen, senior advisor with the Swedish Forum of Migration and Development, Equality Ombudsman and member of the European Fund for Integration, the the advisory board of the Open Society High Commissioner of National Mi- Foundations to the Karlstad conference. norities, and the Open Society Founda- tion. 5. Treasurer´s Report 2012-2013 The Paris meeting coincided with the Treasurer Eva Meyer presented the fi- General Assembly meeting of Generi- nancial report 2012, and addressed the que, and the Board joined them at the question of removing members that dinner buffet closing their meeting. had not paid their subscrition for many The Board also discussed how to make years from the member list. The Board the new website more user friendly and will work out a solution, and contact what it will take to bring the bookpro- the institutions involved. The Presiding ject Making Europe Bottom Up: Euro- Officer thanked the Treasurer for her pean Migratory History to fruition. presentation and moved the adoption The chairman also thanked Mathias of the Treasurer´s Report. The meeting Nilsson and his colleagues for making adopted the motion. their preparations to host us in Karlstad. Finally, Hans Storhaug reminded the 6. Auditor´s Report 2012-2013 assembly that the Board is now entering The Auditor of AEMI, Mr. Erik Gus- the final year of its tree-year term, so po- tavsson, presented AEMI´s financial re- tential new board members should con- port. The Presiding Officer thanked Mr. sider running for the election next year. Gustavsson and moved the adoption The Presiding Officer thanked the of his report. The meeting adopted the Chairman for his presentation and motion. moved the adoption of the report. The assembly adopted the motion. 7. Appointment of Auditor for 2013-2014 The Chairman thanked Mr. Gustavs- 4. Secretary´s Report, 2012-2013 son for serving as auditor in the past AEMI´s Secretary Sarah Clement noted years, and kindly asked him to stay on that she had communicated messages to as Auditor for 2013-2014. The Presid- and from AEMI members, particularly ing Officer moved that Mr. Gustavsson on the development of the AEMI web- continued as Auditor, and the meeting site. The new website offers functions adopted his motion. like Facebook and Twitter, but they are not frequently used. In order to make 8. Treasurer´s Proposed Budget 2014 the website more informative for both Treasurer Eva Meyer proposed a budget members and potential visitors, Secre- for 2014, that was unanimoously sup- tary Clemtent requested more detailed ported by the Assembly. The Presid- information about each member insti- ing Officer moved the adoption of the tution. The Secretary also noted that Treasurer´s Proposed Budget 2014. The she had actively tried to recruit new meeting adopted the motion. 12 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 9. Journal Editor´s Report 2012-2013 Maddalena Tirabassi encouraged the Hans Storhaug, Editor of the AEMI Assembly to contribute to the project Journal, presented volume 11 of the Making Europe Bottom Up: European Journal based on the theme of the Migration History by sending her statis- Krakow conference Shaping Europe´s tics, photos and articles on migration Identity - European Internal Migration. from their own countries. Maddalena The Journal counted nine articles based Tirabassi also urged the Assembly to on papers delivered at the Institute of make a public announcement support- Diaspora and Ethnic Studies, Jagiello- ing the victims of the Lampedusa ca- nian University, Krakow, Poland. The tastrophe. Presiding Officer thanked the Editor for Sarah Clement wanted members to con- his presentation and moved the adop- tribute to the Places of Memory and His- tion of the Editor´s report. The meeting tory concept by sending her information adopted the motion. and pictures of three places connected to migration in their country. 10. Admission of New Members Nina M. Ray, Professor of Business 12. Future venues and Marketing at the Boise State Uni- Representatives from several member versity, Idaho, has frequently attended institutions have expressed their wish the AEMI conferences and submitted to host the AEMI conference in the articles for publication in the AEMI years to come. The 2014 Annual AEMI Journal. Ms. Ray has applied for mem- meeting will take place in Riga, Latvia bership and was accepted as an associ- which that year has the status as Euro- ated member. pean Capital of Culture. Ms. Marianna The Emigration Museum in Gdynia, Auliciema, Poland, represented by Dr. Marcin Sze- representing Latvians Abroad Museum rle was also accepted as member. and Research Centre, announced that the theme for next year will have a spe- 11. Member´s Projects cial focus on refugees. Mathias Nilsson informed the Assembly The venue for 2015 is still to be decided. that the application for EU funding of The actual alternatives are Altreitalie, his project Migraport had not been ac- Center on Italian Migrations, Turin, cepted. Some of the AEMI members al- Italy or The Red Star Line in Antwerp, ready involved in the project would still Belgium. be interested to collaborate with him on In connection with the 400th anniver- this project. Mathias Nilsson will also sary of the first European recorded land- consider a new application for the ICT fall in Western Australia in 2016, Ms. Policy Support Programme (ICP-PSP) Nonja Peters has proposed Perth, Aus- which aims at stimulating innovation tralia as the venue for the Annual AEMI and competitiveness through the wider conference that year. uptake and best use of ICT by citizens, Another alternative might be Santi- governments and businesses. ago de Compastella in Spain. The Association of European Migration Institutions Chairman´s Report 2012 - 2013

Ladies and Gentlemen: In reflecting on the events of the past of Norway and a long time member of year, I would like to begin with recall- AEMI, for attending most of the An- ing our Annual Meeting last year which nual Meetings. took place in beautiful and historical As usual, there has been frequent Krakow, Poland. We again thank Adam communication between members of Walaszek, Agnieszka Stasiewicz and the Board, mainly by e-mail, in prepa- Jan Lencznarowicz at the Institute of ration for the Annual Meeting, and in American Studies and Polish Diaspora, this regard I would like to pay tribute Jagellionian University for their warm in particular to Mathias Nilsson, our welcome and generous hospitality. Both host in Karlstad, Sweden. I will con- conference venues - The Institute and gratulate him on his new position as di- Dom Polonii were conveniently located rector of the Swedish-American Center, at The Rynek Glowny, the heart and soul which just recently changed its name of Krakow, the focal point of everything to Svenska Migrationscenteret (Swed- that happens in the Stare Miasto (Old ish Migration Center). I will also use Town). From the early 13th Century, this opportunity to thank the former this was the site Krakow merchants director for many years, Eric Gustavs- came to sell their goods. It might also be son, whom I have known since the late of interest to know that the Jagellonian 1980s, for his conscientious job as audi- university is the oldest university in Po- tor of AEMI, and for patiently waiting land. Established in 1364 it is also the to host the Annual Meeting. second oldest university in Central Eu- Your Board, for the second year of rope and one of the oldest in the world. this current three-year cycle, has been As ever, we rely on the Annual Meet- Maddalena Tirabassi (Italy) as vice- ing as our most important tool for re- chair, Sarah Clement (France) as Sec- newing old friendships and making new retary, Eva Meyer (Åland/ Finland) as ones, but also to take farewell with peo- Treasurer, Hans Storhaug (Norway) as ple we have known for years. In that re- editor and chairman, Adam Walaszek spect I will particularly thank Ms. Dina (Poland) as representative of last year´s Tolsby, curator of the Norwegian-Amer- host institution, Mathias Nilsson (Swe- ican Collection at the National Library den) representing the host institution of 14 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 2013. The Board held one face-to face the Karlstad meeting: 1) revitalise the meeting this year 18 - 20 June in Paris, European week of migration heritage France, thanks to the hospitality of Sec- by encouraging all members to select retary Sarah Clement. Unfortunately, three places of memories/ histories of both Adam Walaszek and Eva Meyer migrants as a common AEMI project, were prevented from coming. However, 2) modifications of the new website to it turned out to be a good meeting, al- make it more user friendly ( thanks to though Paris welcomed us with heavy our Secretary Sarah Clement, and here rain and thunderstorms. The Paris colleague Claire Tomasella at Generique meeting coincided with the General As- for all there hard work) 3) introduce sembly meeting of Generique, and we editorial guidelines for the Journal for were invited to join them at the dinner future publications and make an iBook buffet closing their meeting. Obviously, publication as replacement or comple- the main reason for our meeting was to mentation, 4) intensify the work on the discuss the framework of the upcoming book project Making Europe Bottom Annual Conference and who to invite Up: European migratory history (1800- as keynote speaker. Mathias suggested 2010). I will come back to this later a representative from the Global Forum on. Mathias Nilsson also reported that of Migration and Development since there will be no conference fee, and that the government of Sweden has assumed all meals (lunches and dinners) will be the chair-in office for 2013 - 2014, provided for by the Swedish Migration represented by Ambassador Eva Åker- Center thanks to generous support by man Börje. Hans mentioned the High the City of Karlstad and the Region of Commissioner of National Minorities Wärmland. Meeting, Knut Vollebæk, who had been As mentioned in last year´s report, I keynote speaker at the opening of the was invited by Virgine Beaufrere, Head digital learning program of migration of Cultural Department of La Cité de history (YAM) developed as part of la Mer, Cherbourg, France to speak at the Stavanger 2008 European Captial the Titanic and Emigration Meeting of Culture program. Sarah mentioned 8-10 November 2012. The conference Klaus Dik Nielsen from the Soros foun- was a follow-up on the opening of the dation, or Patricia Renoul from the new permanent exhibition dedicated to French Ministry of Interior who works the Titanic and the theme of migration for the European Fund for Integration. that had taken place 10 April that year, The Board agreed to address these peo- exactly 100 years after the Titanic´s leg- ple, but realised that the chance for endary stopover in Cherbourg. Aizlinn having a positive respons was relatively Merz, associate director of the German small due to the late request. Emigration Center in Bremerhaven and The Board also suggested to make Ms. Nicla Buonasorte and Dr. Pieran- space for a five minute presentation gelo Campodini representing Museo of each AEMI member at the General Naval del Mare, Genoa, Italy and Ma- Assembly, and to make the following rie-Charlotte Le Bailly, representing proposals for the General Assembly at Red Star Line Museum, Antwerp, Bel- CHAIRMAN´S REPORT 2012-2013 15 gium were among the speakers known was no meeting with Mr. Cazeneuve, to AEMI members. Unfortunately, our but the Board finally met anyway. friend and associate member Diana As the dreams of the Paris meeting Pardu, Chief of the Museum Services were about to fade, they were recently Division, Ellis Island Immigration Mu- brought to life again by an email from seum, New York, USA could not come Virginie Beaufrere stating that the new due to heavy destructions on the mu- French Minister of European Affairs seum buildings caused by the storm (Mr. Repentin) have asked Ms. Lhayani Sandy. The majority of participants (in charge of the relationships with Eu- represented «The Titianic Cities Net- ropean Parliament and the civilian soci- work», - and affilliation of maritime and ety) and Ms. Wernert (in charge of the city museums in Belfast, Southampton, budget, the home market, the Europe Liverpool, Halifax NS, Cobh and New 2020 strategy, the social Europe, the York. Justice and the Internal Affairs) to make This family attraction wastruly an arrangements for receiving me in Paris. outstanding experience, and so was the The key issues to be discussed at the meeting with Bernard Cauvin, Presi- meeting will be the same four as those I dent of La Cité de la Mer and his staff: prepared for the meeting with Mr. Ca- Ms. Sylvie Brieau, Mr. Pierre Conten- zeneuves, and that were discussed at the tin, Ms. Laure-Anne Fortiemarthe and Board meeting in Paris. Three of them Ms. Beatrice Legoupil. During our con- are recurring themes at AEMI meetings: versation we touched upon the ques- the book on European migratory history tion how the Cite de la Mer and our (Making Europe Bottom Up: European Association could cooperate in the most migratory history 1815-2015); the dig- beneficial way, and in that connection ital learning programme on migration the question of EU funding soon be- history, (You and Me) and the European came an issue. As part of the program Migration Heritage Route. was also a visit to the city hall and the The fourth idea is to make an exhibi- mayor of Cherbour - Octeville, Bernard tion on European migration that could Cazeneuve. Mr. Cazeneuve (a friend of tour the major cities of Europe con- Mr. Cauvin) was also Deputy Minister nected to migration. This was discussed for European Affairs at the Ministry of with Mr. Bernard Cauvin and his staff Foreign Affairs, and he expressed a sin- during the Cherbour meeting, and also cere interest in AEMI. He generously at the Board meeting in Paris. The trav- invited us (Mr. Cauvin, his staff and elling exhibiton named From the Con- me) to a meeting in Paris to discuss mat- gress of Vienna to Fortress Europe. 200 ters of common interest. Due to this, I years of European migration 1815 - 2015. suggested that the Board should meet in It will take too long to give an detailed Paris as soon as this meeting was settled. description of all the projects here, but a Unfortunately, before that happened, short version is given below. Mr. Cazeneuve was appointed the new Minister of Finance and replaced by Mr. Thierry Repentin. Consequently, there 16 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Making Europe Bottom Up: Euro- Week’ (1st week in October). In 2009 pean migratory history 1815-2015, was the Council of Europe issued new re- launched by vice-chair Maddalena Tira- quirements for the routes stipulating bassi and presented at the Annual Meet- that each itinerary needs to be legally ing in Krakow 2012. The aim of the founded by statutes and independent project is to write a history of European accounting. This development, exposed migrations from the different countries’ to AEMI members at the Genoa annual perspectives in order meeting meant of course the end of the loose organisation described above. It • to see how different European also made clear that a “cultural route” countries manage contemporary cannot just be a working group within migrations analysing the passage an association. The step had to be made from country of emigration to to create a legally founded association country of immigration with own statutes and budget. A second • to examine the new mobility phe- issue will be to re-launch the “European nomenon, difficult to quantify in a Migration Heritage Week” in October post Schengen era 2014 in order to offer a transnational • to analyse Europe’s internal mi- awareness for migration heritage. grations to show how Europeans people have intermingled over time From the Congress of Vienna to Fortress through migrations Europe. 200 years of European migration 1815 - 2015 You and Me is a digital learning pro- Through a combination of text, audio, gram on migration history that was still images, animation, video and in- launched by your chairman in 2008, teractivitity the travelling multimedia and has been presented to AEMI mem- exhibition From the Congress of Vienna bers at several meetings. The many to Fortress Europe aims to show why em- French teachers that attended the Ti- igrations from Europe to America and tanic conference i Cherbour expressed other parts of the world in the hundred a great interest in the program, and the years after the Napoleonic Wars consti- idea is still to make it available in the tuted the most important global scale European schools - including France. human migrations, and why approxie- Primarily on the initiative of Antoi- mately 210 million people worldwide nette Reuter, a European Migration today live outside the country they were Heritage Route was granted reconnais- born. The exhibition also stimulate de- sance in 2007 by the Council of Europe bate between young people from the under the auspices of the ‘European In- various European cultures and other stitute for Cultural Routes’(EICR). This parts of the world, and in that respect project was promoted by an informal as- contribute to better understanding, sociation, in which some AEMI-mem- openness and tolerance between the na- bers took an active part by helping to tive inhabitants and the immigrants of settle a ‘European Migration Heritage Europe. I believe many of our members will CHAIRMAN´S REPORT 2012-2013 17 be glad to support this idea and pour In closing, I would like to draw your from their rich resources to make the ex- attention to another matter that needs hibition a showcase for their own insti- discussing. Your Board is now entering tutions. A full version of the document the final year of its tree-year term so can be uploaded from our website www. elections are due to be held next year. aemi.eu. That means that you need to think As enlargement and funding of our about who to elect next that have the Association are two of the Board´s main talent and energy to take the organ- targets, I hope that a meeting with the isation a step forward. I would like to French Ministry of European Affairs thank again Adam Walaszek, Agnieszka will open the door(s) to many EU of- Stasiewicz-Bieńkowska and their col- fices and give us the opportunity to leagues for hosting the Annual Meeting make ourselves better known among in Poland in 2012. And we also thank EU delegates and hopefully trigger EU Mathias Nilsson and his colleagues for funding. Until then we have to rely on making their preparations to host us for our internal networking, which this year the first time in Karlstad. has given us one more member - Em- igration Museum in Gdynia, Poland Hans Storhaug and one potential At Home in Europe, Chairman which is part of the Open Society Ini- tiative for Europe, ‘conducting research September 2013 and advocacy to ensure equal rights and social cohesion in a climate of political tension, global recession, and rapidly expanding diversity’. Mass Migration versus Specialized Migration: Basque Immigrants in China in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twenty-First Centuries

Oscar Alvares Gila and Benan Oregi Inurietta

Abstract: Research on Basque migration abroad has been focused almost exclusively on the study of massive migratory processes that took place since the second half of the 19th century-- mainly to several American countries. The attractiveness of their large numbers has ob- scured the significance of less impressive migrations in which Basques were also involved during this time. The latter, instead of entailing movements, were more modest and were confined to certain professionally specialized sectors of Old-World Basque society. The main goal of this paper is to present food for thought on several issues related to the implementation and continuity of such small-size migratory movements, considering the specific example of both the historical and the present-day migrations from the Basque Country to China

Introduction1 be nothing less than ‘the true conquer- In 2004, a small group of Basque resi- ors of this new century’ (Aldama, 2006), dents in Shanghai, China, following pioneers of a virgin territory for Basques. the lead of other Basque immigrant Furthermore, the annual report for 2004 communities during the last two cen- of the Basque Institute of Public Ad- turies in different countries, decided to ministration on the foreign action of the create their own association in order to Basque Autonomous Government joy- ‘join all the Basque people living in or fully echoed the announcement of the coming to China in a homely environ- inception of the new club by including it ment.’2 The birth of the neweuskal etxea3 within the catalogue of officially-recog- was greeted by the Basque mass media nized Basque institutions of the diaspora as an outcome of the new long-term (Ugalde Zubiri, 2005).4 This recognition trends within Basque migration abroad, served to highlight the recent establish- even though this new destination was ment of new commercial connections ‘unexpected’ or even ‘exotic’ (Douglass, between the Basque Country and Chi- 2012: 27). The members of the growing na. Consequently, anything related to community of Basque professionals and the Basque presence in China seemed to business people living in China would be of fresh and compelling interest. OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 19 However, could anyone state with given that the category ‘Basque’ is not certainty that there is no clear evidence always employed in data collection for of Basque immigration in China prior the international registries of migratory to the first decade of the 21st century? flows, it has been estimated that about Must we consider the Basque presence 200,000 Basque emigrants left Europe in China to be a new phenomenon, as it between 1830 and 1970. This is quite has been treated over the last few years? noteworthy, given that the current pop- ulation of the Basque Country is only Can we endorse the widely accepted as- about 3 million people. sumption that there has been no Basque The attractiveness of studying large emigration to China until the end of the numbers of actors has indeed had 20th century? (García-Tapia Bello, 2009: an influence upon the main lines of 92). Basque migration research. But this has Actually, in light of what has been somehow glossed over other migratory published about Basque migration his- movements in which Basques were also tory, it would seem that we should an- participating during this time - ones that swer all those questions affirmatively. have been ‘less’ but not least. They sim- The scientific research on the history ply seem not to exist. In contrast with the and present-day evolution of the mi- relatively large bibliography available on gratory movements from and into the Basque emigration to, for instance, Ar- Basque Country has mainly, if not ex- gentina or the United States, there has clusively, focused on the study of the been almost no investigation of inter- so-called massive migrations, that is, nal migration of Basques within Spain,5 those that entailed or are involving or from the Basque Country to other significant numbers of people. Even places in Europe.6 It is only just recently though Basques were present from the that we have become even aware of the beginning of the 16th century in remote small Basque migratory currents that places as the Americas or East Asia, usu- emanated in the late 19th century from ally as a result of internal movements the Basque Country to other European of population within the Spanish and countries, usually composed of small French overseas colonial empires, it was groups of skilled workers (for Wales, see not until the third decade of the 19th Llewellyn and Watkins, 2001; Murray, century that the period known as that 2011). The case of Basque migration to of ‘massive emigration’ began in the China must be included among these Basque Country - initially in the north- ‘invisible migrations’. ern, or French, side of the border, and, since the 1840s, also from the southern, The First Contacts: Conquerors or Spanish Basque region. For more than and Missionaries one hundred years, or up to the begin- The first contacts of Basque people with ning of the second half of the 20th cen- tury, several American countries such China came hand in hand with the pro- are Argentina, Cuba, Uruguay, Mexico, cess of exploration, conquest and col- the United States and, finally, Venezuela onization of East Asia by Europeans, received remarkable flows of Basque im- a long-durée process that started in the migrants (Álvarez Gila, 2012). While early 16th century. The first European quantification of them is deficient, colonies in the region, established by 20 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 the Portuguese and Castilian crowns, centuries of the Basque presence in pursued (among other aims) the ob- China, the relationships were always jective of being used as bases for the based on the principles of non-interfer- implementation of commercial, polit- ence (with the strict prohibition of any ical and religious contacts with China. permanent foreign settlement in Chi- At the very beginning there was enor- nese territory) and limited commerce. mous European ignorance about the Contacts were restricted to short-term reality and dimensions of this country. commercial expeditions; and so we can- That explains the erroneous assessment not speak of a real migratory movement made by the Basque governor of Manila, until the 19th century. Diego de Arteaga, in a letter sent to the king of Spain in 1573 stating that ‘he The Second Missionary Effort would only need a couple of hundred The interest of European powers in Chi- good Castilian soldiers to subjugate the na was renewed in the wake of the new Empire of the Chinese’ (García-Tapia wave of colonialism that began in the Bello, 2009: 71). last decades of the 18th century and was Needless to say, that plan was totally directed to all of Asia. By the mid-19th unrealistic, although Spain could take century, China had lost the two Opium control of the island of Taiwan (renamed Wars against a coalition of European na- Fermosa, that is, ‘the Beautiful’) from tions, and was thus obliged to open sev- 1626 to 1642. During this time there eral ports to European trade. Foreigners were Basques, such as Governor Juan were now not only allowed to operate de Alacarazo (1629-1632), acting as businesses and reside in China without members of the governing body of that any restriction, but were also granted ju- territory. Some missionaries also tried risdictional exemptions by means of the to enter China’s mainland in order to so-called ‘unequal treaties’ that accord- spread Christianity among the Chinese, ed the European consular authorities but all their attempts failed.7 At the same extraordinary control over Chinese cus- time, some Basque merchants based in toms, the army and its political stability Manila were more successful, obtain- (Rodao, 1989). ing the right of direct commerce with One of the main consequences of China through the ports of Guangzhou this development was that Christian and Xiamen (Martínez Robles, 2007: churches were also granted the right to 47-48). Those rights were increasingly create missions throughout the coun- activated during the second half of the try. No Chinese authority could there- 18th century when the former members fore prevent or obstruct the activities of of the Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas, Christian priests, who, like the rest of after its dissolution, decided to create a foreigners, were placed under the pro- new one, the Company of the Philippines tection of their nation’s representatives. (1785), to monopolize Spanish trade After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in between East Asia and Spain (Lamikiz, Europe, the Catholic Church renewed 2012). its interest in spreading ‘the knowledge Nonetheless, during the first three of God’ among non-Christian people OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 21 (Corrigan, 1938). This ‘second mis- but preferably to French colonies. The sionary effort’8 led to an increase of the first cohorts of student missionaries proselytizing , not only by the Catholic from this college were sent to China and Church, but of all the Christian denom- Indo-China–both critical to the foreign inations (Álvarez Gila, 1998: 23-24). interests of France. Basque participation European churches became involved in the establishment of these first French in a race to disseminate Christianity to missions was still quantitatively small, the rest of the world. All these processes but relevant. One of the most renowned coincided in time, and were promoted Basque missionaries to China in this pe- by the same common mentality that riod was Father Armand David. Born underpinned colonialism. When ex- in Bayonne, he was sent to proselytize plaining the reasons for the expansion China and Mongolia at the beginning of Catholic missions until the decade of of the 1860s. David lived in China until 1920, Streit and Bernini wrote: 1875, when he was brought back to France (Altonaga, 2001).9 Because of its position in the world The presence of Basques from Spain (the) white race has been assigned a spe- came a short while later. Even though cial role with regard to the rest of races and people… the treaty of 1864 between China and The white race must defend and teach Spain prohibited the Chinese authori- its sisters; this obligation is higher when ties from harassing the activity of Span- colonies and protectorates are acquired. ish priests spreading Catholicism in the But the white race must remember that country, until the end of the 19th cen- its prosperity comes from Christian- tury almost no missionaries went from ity… To bring them a culture without Chris- Spain to China. There were some at- tianity equals to kill their souls. tempts to extend the range of action of the Spanish missionaries from the Phil- (Streit and Bernini, 1928: 45). ippine islands into the nearby region of Viet-Nam; but after the bloody killing Africa and Asia were the first and most of the so-called ‘martyrs of Tonking’ in important targets of this process. In the 1861, whose leader was the Basque Va- case of China, French Catholic priests lentín de Berriotxoa,10 there were no fur- were the first to arrive in the country, ther initiatives. By 1870, only a handful driven by a mixture of both church of priests were registered by the Spanish and state interests, since the latter con- consulate in Shanghai, along with some sidered that the conquest of the souls non-resident merchants living in the (by priests) could be a first step in the country (Martínez Robles, 2007: 87). subsequent conquest of the bodies (by Among the latter was the Biscayan Ma- the army and state officers). As a -re nuel Otaduy, with his ship Bilbaíno. He sult, public funds were granted to the was one of the few Spaniards allowed recently founded Seminaire des Mis- to participate in the opium trade from siones Étrangeres of Paris, whose main India to China-- otherwise under the goal was to prepare missionaries to be protection of British companies (García- sent to any remote place in the world- Tapia Bello, 2009: 80). 22 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 This situation changed abruptly sev- (Apalategui, 1930). Among the male eral decades later. In 1915, when Eu- orders, we can highlight the Basque Jes- rope was struck by the first phase of uits from the ‘province of Castile’,11 that the First World War, Pope Benedict XV were settled in the region of Wuhu;12 issued the encyclical Maximum Illud, the Capuchins from the ‘province of in which he encouraged Catholics all Navarra-Cantabria-Aragón’ at Xinjiang, over the world, and especially those with the seat of the diocese in Pingliang; from neutral nations not involved in and Franciscans from the ‘province of the war, to fill the void left by the mis- Cantabria’ at Shanxi, with their main sionaries from contending nations. The residence in Yunan (Arrilucea, 1918: Pope differentiated political coloniza- 87).13 Among the female orders, we can tion from proselytization. Prior to that highlight the figure of Margarita María moment, it had been the usual practice López de Maturana, who turned her to make these two processes somehow convent of contemplative nuns into an concurrent: the routine was to reserve active congregation for the support of the lands conquered by any European missions: the Missionary Mercedaries of colonizing country for the settlement of Berriz, in 1923.14 ‘It seemed as if a new new missions placed in charge of priests era was opening for us,’ said Margarita and nuns of the same nationality. Some when, three years later, she was able to Catholic nations, such as Spain, by this send the first group of nuns to assist the time without a vast colonial empire, had Basque Jesuits in Wuhu (Unciti, 2012: therefore directed their missionaries to 5-6). Until 1950, China and Japan were other areas like Latin America. Thus the two main destinations of this Basque from 1915 on, the gates of a myriad of religious order. missions in Africa and Asia were opened The entry of missionaries into to the Spanish Catholic Church; includ- China had profound impact within the ing for hundreds of Basque priests. campaign of the Catholic Church in One of the first outcomes was a true the Basque Country (since the decade of penetration of Spanish missionaries the 1890s) to attract economic support in China. Being the Basque Country and personnel for them. Exoticism and one of the most productive reservoirs authenticity were the two main features of religious vocations within Spain, no of the Catholic missions in China; and fewer than three missionary territories thus the image of Chinese people be- were placed in charge of Basque friars came inextricably linked to the concept between 1920 and 1930. In 1929, ac- of missionary activity: cording to a survey ordered by the di- rective of the Spanish Catholic Church The ‘live missions’ were those located for the Big Exhibit on the Progress of the in regions where the Word of Our Lord Jesus Christ was unknown and Missions that was held in Rome, 145 there were only a few baptized [per- Basque priests and 43 nuns had been sons]. There were lots of places like sent to China by that year; and another this! In Africa, in Asia. But above all, 14 friars to the island of Taiwan, at that there was China. China was indeed, time under Japanese administration the highest representation of the ideal OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 23

of mission. And ‘the little Chinese,’ was decide; however, as you want to know the metaphor of all the infidels, men my personal preferences, I inform you and women, of these live missions. that the destination that has always at- This metaphor was so strong that when tracted me and still attracts me is our children were sent to the streets for a Mission in China. Please send me there public call for economic support for as soon as possible. the missions, they stopped you asking I beg you and put my confidence that for ‘alms to help Christianize the little the Holy Spirit and the Virgin, our Chinese...of Africa.’ sweetest Mother, will illuminate you to (Unciti, 2012: 8).15 either reject me, if I am unworthy for this duty, or to choose me, if it is really our Lord who is calling me to go to the How were the people sent to the mis- 17 sions selected? Even the etymology of Missions. the word mission (from the Latin mit- tere, to send) suggests that the decision The content of this letter offers us a quite was not made by the protagonists them- different view of the reasons that usually selves, but rather by those in charge of informed the migration decision. It was directing the whole religious commu- the organization, and not the migrant, nity to which the future missionary be- who had both the interest and the means; longed. Religious orders were extremely and therefore the pace, timing, numbers hierarchical organizations, with a clear and personal features of the successive division between superiors (the heads) groups of missionaries were carefully de- and monks, friars, or nuns--the obedi- cided by their superiors. But on the other ent. It is true that, to a certain extent, hand, we can still discern other socio-cul- some degree of decision- making still tural and psychological elements that are remained in the hands of the mission- usually linked to migrations, like, for in- aries themselves. They had to present‘ a stance, the remembrance of the mother- strong desire to fulfill the will of God land and the painful feelings of abandon- by performing the opera maxima’(the ing one’s native country: ‘biggest task’--that is, to go out to the Francisco Etx- 16 When the young Jesuit [ missions). But, in the end, superiors eberria] was informed about the prize (not the rank and file) always had the he had won and the honor he had been last word, as we can see from this letter given, he had just embarked in Mar- sent by an aspiring missionary when ap- seilles on a ship to China, after having plying to his Capuchin superiors: been invested with the nomination of missionary unto the infidels. He is the prototype of the big-hearted man with Ecce ego, mitte me! My happiness would two main ideals: the love for his own be immense if the Holy Spirit would kin, for his motherland, for his mother like to select me, through you My Rev- tongue; and the love for the universe, erend Superior, to extend the Church because for the salvation of other souls and go to save souls in the missions, I he will abandon his purest and most in- mean true missions, especially in coun- tense devotion: the Basque Country. tries where there are more risks and 18 (Ariztimuño ‘Aitzol’, 1934). more suffering. I unconditionally put myself in your Basque missionaries were still sent to hands to be sent anywhere you would China during times of war. For in- 24 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 stance, in 1940 four siblings of the same of that time offered vivid accounts of family, the Bolumburus from Soraluze, the ‘destruction of the missionary ex- Gipuzkoa (three jesuits and their sister, perience’ due to ‘rising Marxist elo- a mercedary nun) met in the mission quent sectarianism’ (Mateos, 1964).19 of Wuhu to celebrate the final religious By the time of the expulsion, no fewer vows of one of the brothers. But in the than 320 Basque missionaries (counting aftermath of the Second World War, the both male and female religious orders) struggle for turning the whole of China had been destined for Mainland China into a Christian - and, more precisely, (Catálogo provisional, 1943).20 Most of a Catholic - nation was encouraged by them were resettled in other mission- the directing boards of the Catholic ary territories, about three quarters of Church, in order to take advantage of them in nearby countries: the island of the new correlation of powers in East Taiwan and the colonies of Macau and Asia after the defeat of the Japanese em- Hong-Kong,21 in China; and also Japan, pire and the new set of good relation- Korea and the Philippines (España Mi- ships implemented between Nanking’s sionera, 1961; also García-Tapia Bello, Chinese regime of Chiang Kai-shek 2009: 87). and the Western allied powers. In the case of the Basque Country, this coin- Jai Alai. A Basque Sport made into a cided with one of the sweetest moments Gambling Attraction. for the Spanish Catholic Church, in a Jai Alai (in Basque, ‘merry festival’; context of strong ties and support from ‘cesta punta’ in Spanish) is the interna- Franco’s regime that considered Spain tionally recognized name of one of the ‘an officially religious state’ (Álvarez varieties of the sport known as Basque Gila, 1998: 45). Not only was Cathol- pelota. Its birth is closely linked to the icism the only accepted--and compulso- process of mass migration that took so rily coerced--religion for the Spaniards, many Basques to the Americas: the first because of the support granted by the version of this game, whose main fea- Church to Franco during the Civil War- ture is that players use a basket instead -defined as a ‘Crusade’ by the Church of a racket to launch the ball, was in- itself--but also the state became obliged troduced in the decade of the 1880s by to support with all means the action of Melchor Curuchague, a Basque living the Church in Spain and abroad. in Argentina. Basque pelota quickly be- But China’s internal situation abruptly came one of the most popular games in halted the growing presence of Basque the city of Buenos Aires (Abril, 1971; missionaries in China. In 1951, after the Blazy, 1936). new Communist authorities that won By the beginning of the 20th century, the Civil war had promoted the creation Jai Alai had undergone a rapid expan- of a Chinese Patriotic Church for Chi- sion, first among Basque immigrant nese Catholics to rid the country of any colonies (in countries such as Mexico, subjection to foreigners, all non-Chi- Cuba, Uruguay, and Argentina), and af- nese priests were expelled from the terwards because of the close connection country. Basque Catholic mass media between this game and betting, a fact OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 25 that led to its great popularity (Urza, Despite the fact that both the own- 1994). The game arrived in the United ers and the managers of these frontones States via Havana and Tijuana, with were not Basque, all the rest of the crew implementation of frontones (courts for hired for running them, and especially playing Jai Alai) in states like Florida, the pelotaris (players), were Basques, re- Connecticut or Nevada. In Asia, the cruited in Europe. Both frontones hired game was introduced by Basque immi- a renowned former Basque pelotari, Te- grants in Manila at the end of the 19th odoro Jauregui, who was charged with century, when the Philippines were still traveling to Europe to arrange the con- a Spanish colony. From there, some tracts of future players.22 By 1932, the frontones were opened in nearby places fronton of Shanghai had already formed like Jakarta, Macau, and several cities a stable staff of pelotaris that had settled of main-land China. Even though there in the city with their families, as the were four different attempts in the last business was flourishing and the eco- century to include Jai Alai among the nomic returns were greater each year. Olympic sports (in 1900 and 1924 in About 400 employees were hired at the Paris; 1904 in Saint Louis; and 1992 end of 1932, barely two thirds of them in Barcelona), outside of the Basque of Basque origin. Country it is more understood as a wa- The opening of Tientsin’s Forum gering opportunity than a true sporting enlarged the Basque colony in China. activity. Most pelotaris were young and unmar- Apart from Macau, where its Jai Alai ried, but at least forty of them came Casino court was opened in 1974, two from the Basque Country with their other frontones were built in China since families (García-Tapia Bello, 2009: 88). 1929, one of them in Shanghai and The case of José María Iriondo Azpiri the other in Tientsin. The ‘Jai Alai Au- is known. Born in Tientsin in 1936 to ditorium’ of Shanghai was the first to Basque parents, his father José María be put into operation, inaugurated on Iriondo Urquidi being one of the first February 29th, 1929, and promoted by pelotaris hired by Fumagalli, Iriondo the French businessman Felix Bouvier. Azpiri went on to play Jai Alai in the Bouvier was the owner of one of the Basque Country after the return of the most important gambling complexes family to Europe (Sánchez, 2011: 78). of the city, located in the middle of the As in the case of Basque missionar- ‘French Concession.’ Opened in 1928, ies, the small but consolidated colony the complex was composed of a track of Basque pelotaris in China and the Jai for greyhound racing, a boxing ring, and Alai business vanished abruptly after the a dancing club. Five years later, an Ital- end of the Second World War with the ian entrepreneur, V. Fumagalli - closely rise of the Communist regime. The first linked to the Fascist regime’s authorities blow came when the Sino-Japanese War in Italy - built another fronton in Tient- was declared. That seriously affected all sin, in the Italian Concession, called leisure and gambling activities. None- the ‘Italian Forum.’ Both buildings still theless, the frontones remained open exist (Sánchez, 2011: 77-78). until the end of the war (Rodao, 1988) 26 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 but were definitively closed in 1949 470 M €, 15.5 per cent more than in (García-Tapia Bello, 2009: 88). Some 2011. players returned to the Basque Coun- The Chinese economy is highly indus- try, but the majority of them opted to trial; during recent years, construction migrate to the more profitable Jai Alai and services have driven the expansion. courts of Mexico or Cuba. At the pres- The industrial sector represents 49 per ent day, only one Jai Alai court is still cent of Chinese GDP (Gross Domes- open in East Asia: the Jai Alai of Macau. tic Product), and as many as 25 per cent The ManilaJai Alai was closed following of active workers are employed in it. In a game-fixing scandal in 1989 and the 2010, annual growth reached 10.3 per Jai Alai of Jakarta was converted into a cent, surpassing the most ambitious shopping mall in 2009. goals of the Chinese Government and what international institutions had The Economic Rise of China and the foreseen for the country. Investments Profile of the New Basque Migration by the public sector were the engine of At the beginning of this 21st century, such growth. However, the high saving the patterns of Basque migration to Asia rate of Chinese (51 per cent of GDP), are radically different from what it was compared with investment of 43 per a century ago. Today most of this mi- cent, reflects the uncertainty of the cit- gratory current is focused on China, in izenry regarding poor social benefits a growth process that is closely linked they receive in education, health and re- to the economic development of that tirement. As a result, the Chinese Gov- country (Euskadi en Asia, 2009: 6). As a ernment has underscored the need for result of globalization, the center of grav- economic change and recently approved ity of the World economy has moved the XII Four-Year Plan 2011-2015 as eastwards (3 out of 4 BRICs-Russia, the main tool to pursue that goal. India and China - embody the growing Regarding the economic relations be- importance of Asia). tween the Basque Country and China, While we were finishing this paper, in 2010 Basque exports reached 400,174 on September 17, 2012, Basque news- thousands of € (China is the fifteenth papers published several articles about leading country for Basque exports), and a Basque Government Delegation vis- imports climbed to 879,546 € (China is iting the Basque companies already es- the fifth leading supplier of the Basque tablished in China.23 The main goal of Country). The Basque Country repre- the mission was to support the founding sents the second Spanish region regard- of new Basque companies in the Asian ing exports to China, and the fourth giant and to follow up on the develop- regarding imports. Beside those figures, ment agreements signed with the Chi- it is one of the regions making the most nese regional authorities. In fact, the investment in China, being the leader in commercial ties between China and the the period 1993-2007. Basque Country have increased dramat- By 2008, a total of 107 Basque in- ically in the last years. Exports from the dustries or services had entered China, Basque region to China in 2012 reached representing 92 different companies. Of OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 27 that total, 49 per cent are production gration to China, composed mainly of plants that manufacture their products highly specialized workers (both blue- there. and white-collar) and managers for the Most of the Basque companies are lo- newly-opened factories and delegations. cated in one of the three main industrial The Mondragon Kunshan Park in centres of the country: Shanghai is the main location for that • Shanghai and the nearby province Corporation in China, and houses ten of Jiangsu, where the Mondragon different production plants. When this Corporation established its indus- park was under construction, the leaders trial park in Kunshan. of the project planned to build a house • TheNorth of the country (Beijing, to host the management offices and Tianjin) meeting rooms for all ten plants, pat- • The delta of the earlP River (Can- terned after a Basque farmhouse. The ton) idea was for the Basque skilled work- ers and managers that were moving to The case of the Mondragon Corpora- China in the following years to make it tion is perhaps one of the most known their ‘home away from home’. The archi- examples of the expansion of Basque in- tecture of the house, located in the mid- dustrial companies in China. Its found- dle of modern and industrial buildings, ing is closely linked to the activity of differs but slightly from a baserri (farm- the Basque Catholic Church. Almost a house). In a certain way, it can be taken year after the Bolumburu siblings met as the representation of an international in China, a young priest was sent to the Basque Country that hosts all Basques town of Mondragon-Arrasate; by 1959 even when living abroad (in opposition Father Arizmendiarrieta had started to the traditional Basque farm house- Ulgor, the first cooperative factory that holds, with a single designated heir or would later give birth to the Mondrag- heiress to the farm in each generation, on Corporation, under the motto ‘Hu- that expelled the disinherited - many manity at Work’. of whom were obliged to emigrate to The expansion of Mondragon into America. China began in 1996, when it was de- cided to open a trade delegation in Bei- The Basque Club of Shanghai jing, even though some members of the The incorporation of the Basque Club Corporation (such as Fagor) had been of Shanghai in 2004, as we stated at operating there since the mid-80s (Fagor the beginning of this paper, is therefore Electrónica and Fagor Automation). one of the most visible outcomes of this By 2012 the presence of Mondragon new migration. Seventeen young skilled Corporation in China is established in workers gathered to found in mid- the most important industrial and eco- town Shanghai the first Basque Centre nomic poles of the country, in cities like in Asia, Shanghaiko Euskal Etxea. It is Shanghai, Nanjing, Shenzhen or Hong an innovative Basque association - not Kong. This expansion provoked a new, only in terms of the young age of their small but relevant wave of Basque mi- members but also because it is the only 28 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Basque club in the world where Basque son with the most commonly studied companies are special members that pay Basque mass migration. First, the num- extraordinary fees and in return for ac- ber of people involved in the movement cess of all their employees to the facility. is dramatically smaller: instead of thou- The main purpose of the association, sands, we can barely speak of hundreds however, is not far from the traditional of migrants. Second, the migrant group purpose of any other Basque club else- presents a high level of homogeneity in where: to be a gathering point for all its members, regarding their personal at- Basques and a place where they can cook tributes and professional affiliation: mi- their own food and celebrate all kinds of grants respond to a very definite demand Basque festivities. within a specific career niche (mission- The Basque Government includes it aries, Jai Alai players, or highly skilled in the Official Registry of Basque As- employees). Third, decision-making is sociations Abroad. Shanghaiko Euskal not carried out in a horizontal or bot- Etxea, in such an ‘unusual’ location as tom-up fashion, as was the case in the Shanghai, represents a new destination massive migrations, but downwards be- for Basque migration. It is also a new cause the migration is performed within migration form in that it entails highly the framework of a hierarchical organ- skilled workers flying to and from to ization (a religious order of the Catho- China, India or whatever other develop- lic Church, in the earliest cases, or an ing country. entrepreneurial organization in the re- Little could the Bolumburus imagine mainder). The organization determines all these Basques moving back and forth the rhythms, numbers, destinations and some seventy years after their pioneering other aspects directly related to migra- religious adventure as missionaries. tion. The future migrant can choose, at the outset, whether to join the organiza- Conclusions tion or not; but once he/she has become Basque migration to China has never a member, his/her possibilities of decid- been a mass movement. Even today, ing about moving and to where is highly when the number of Basque residents in conditioned by the expectations and the China is growing, it is still a very local- internal balance of powers on high. This ized, modest migration. This is actually, is most evident within religious orders, one of the main features that character- but is also reflected in the way business ize all the three migratory waves that companies operate. have historically departed from the Finally, it is also interesting to point Basque Country to China in the last out that specialized migrations, because two centuries. The other main feature they used to be well structured, are not is the composition of the participants only liable to be better documented in each of the waves. We can speak of than freer, unorganized ones, but on the the existence of successive, small, profes- other hand, at least in the case of the sion-based migrations. Basque Country, they have usually been This specific type of migration pre- overlooked. We need to pay more atten- sents several differences in compari- tion to these aspects if we wish to have OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 29 a comprehensive understanding of the “Euskadi en Asia” (2007), Euskal Etxeak, Vito- ria-Gasteiz, nº 83:6-8. historical evolution and future trends of Fernández Aparicio, Ramón et alii (1985); Sem- Basque migration. blanzas de misioneros, Caleruega (Burgos), Orden de los Predicadores de España. García Abad, Rocío (2001); “El papel de las re- References. des migratorias en las migraciones de corta y Abril, Enrique (1971); Dos siglos de pelota vasca, media distancia”, Scripta Nova. Revista Elec- San Sebastián, Caja de Ahorros Municipal. trónica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales, Barce- Aldama, Zigor (2003); “Vascos en China. lona, nº 94:1-13 Conquistadores del siglo XXI”, Zazpika, García-Sanz Marcotegui, Ángel (1982); “El ori- Bilbao, June 9th, 2006; available at http:// gen geográfico de los inmigrantes y los inicios zigoraldama.wordpress.com/2006/06/09/ de la transición demográfica en el País Vas- vascos-en-china; consulted on July 26th, co (1877-1930). Contribución al estudio de 2012. sus interinfluencias”, Ekonomiaz, Bilbao, nº Altonaga, Kepa (2001); Armand David, pan- 9-10:189-223. daren aita, Donostia-San Sebastian, Elhuyar. García-Tapia Bello; José Luis (2009); “Pres- Álvarez Gila, Óscar (1998); Misiones y mision- encia (y ausencia) española en China hasta eros vascos en Hispanoamérica (1820-1960), 1973”, Boletín Económico del ICE, Madrid, Bilbao, Labayru Ikastegia. (2012); “¿Una nº 2972:69-93. historiografía sobre un vacío? Dos décadas de Lamikiz, Xabier (2012); “Lima entre Asia y estudios sobre el asociacionismo emigrante Europa: comerciantes vasconavarros y es- vasco”, paper presented at the Congreso Inter- trategias mercantiles en los intercambios nacional “El asociacionismo de la emigración transoceánicos de la capital virreinal, 1700- española en el exterior: significación y vincula- 1821”, in Álvarez Gila, Óscar; La Cofradía de ciones”, Zamora (Spain), 15-17 March. Nuestra Señora de Aránzazu y los Vascos. En el Apalategui, S.I. (1930); “Una página de gloria. IV Centenario de la fundación de la Cofradía Distribución misionero-cultural de religosos de Aránzazu en Lima (1612-2012), Lima, vasco-navarros fuera de Europa en 1929”, El Oiga, forthcoming. Siglo de las Misiones, Bilbao, X:384-385. Llewellyn, Carl, and Watkins, Hugh (2001); Ariztimuño “Aitzol”, José (1934); “Estética pe- Los Desconocidos a L’Extranjero: Strangers culiar de la poesía vasca”, Euzkadi, Bilbao, in a Foreign Land, Merthyr Tydfil, Merthyr April 21st, 1934, available online at http:// Tydfil Central Library. kritikak.armiarma.com/?p=3506. Martínez Robles, David (2007); La participación Arrilucea, Mauricio P. de (1918); “Patrona de española en el proceso de penetración occidental Cantabria”, Arantzazu. Homenaje filial a en China: 1840-1870, Ph.D. dissertation, Ntra. Señora de Aránzazu. Celestial Patrona de University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona. Guipúzcoa, Bilbao, Jesús Álvarez, pp. 83-87. Mateos, Fernando (1964); China: Misión de Blazy, Edmond (1936); “Historia de la Pelota dolor, Bilbao, El Siglo de las Misiones. Vasca: la cesta o xistera”, Euskal Erria, Mon- Murray, Stephen (2011); “The Assimilation and tevideo, nº 732:69-71. Acculturation of the Descendants of early Catálogo provisional de las misiones españolas en Twentieth-century Spanish Industrial Immi- América (1943), Madrid, Consejo Superior grants to Wales”, paper presented at the ‘In- de Misiones. ternational Workshop on Migration History, Corrigan, Raymond (1938); The Church in the University of Trier, Germany, 24-26 Novem- Nineteenth Century, Milwaukee, The Bruce ber. Publishing Company. Rodao, Florentino (1989); “La Sublevación Douglass, William A. (2012); “Retrospectiva y Bóxer y la presencia española en Extremo actualidad del Congreso Mundial de Colec- Oriente”, in VILAR, Juan Bautista, ed.; Las tividades Vascas”, Guztion Artean. Kanpoko relaciones internacionales de la España Con- Euskal Gizataldeen V. Mundu Batzarra, Vito- temporánea, Murcia, Universidad de Mur- ria-Gasteiz, Gobierno Vasco:25-28. cia:103-112. España Misionera. Catálogo de los religiosos es- Rodao, Florentino (1995); “Visiones de China: pañoles en el extranjero (1962), Madrid, Con- historia de una relación problemática”, Revis- sejo Superior de Misiones. ta de Occidente, Madrid, nº 172:91-103. 30 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Rodao, Florentino(1998); “Ending the Priori- and Araba), because of the vast impacts upon the ty of Private Links. The Spanish Presence in demographics of the region that have produced East Asia around 1945”, Cuadernos de Histo- changes in the economic, cultural, and political ria, Manila:177-190. balances within it. See, among others, García-Sanz Sánchez, Juan Pablo (2011); Frontones de pelo- Marcotegui (1982); García Abad (2001). ta vasca en China”, Instituto Confucio, Valen- 6 The study of internal migration from the French cia, nº 4:74-78. part of the Basque Country to other regions of Streit, Robert and Bertini, Hugo (1928); Destel- France, and particularly to Paris and its surround- los luminosos de la Misión Católica Mundial. ings, can be considered the only remarkable excep- Estadística y esquemas de la exposición mision- tion. era, Burgos, El Siglo de las Misiones. 7 One of the very first ones was conducted by the Tellechea Idígoras, Ignacio (1989); Martín Ig- Basque priest Martin de Mallea (also known as nacio de Loyola. Viaje alrededor del mundo, Fray Martin Ignacio de Loyola), who headed up a Madrid, Mapfre. team of 20 priests sent to Macao in 1585 with the Ugalde Zubiri, Alexander (2005); Anuario sobre aim of entering China. After two unfruitful trips, la Acción Exterior del Gobierno Vasco, Oñati, Mallea wrote a letter to the king Philip II and re- IVAP-HAEE. turned to Spain (Tellechea Idígoras, 1989). Unciti, Manuel de (2012); “De la vera prehis- 8 This term was coined by Catholic historians in the toria de las misiones diocesanas vascas”, Los decade of the 1960s to denominate the florescent Ríos, Bilbao, nº 240 (supplement):5-11. period of the missions, between the mid-19th cen- Urza, Carmelo (1994); Historia de la pelota vasca tury and the Second Vatican Council (Streit and en las Américas, Donostia. Elkar. Bertini, 1928). 9 Father David is credited by Western science with the discovery of several animal species, among Notes others there was the giant panda and the milou 1 Thisarticle has been created within the framework or deer, named for Father David (Elaphurus da- of the research project “De fraternidad y paisan- vidianus). In 1865, he was told by a Chinese that aje. Las Congregaciones, Hospitales y Cofradías had recently converted to Christianity about the de Originales en la Monarquía hispánica”, No. existence of this “mysterious” animal, whose only HAR2009-09765, funded by the Spanish Minis- living individuals lived in the park of Non Hai- try of Science and Innovation; and the Research Tzu, inside the Prohibited City of the Chinese Group of the Basque Science System: “País Vasco emperors in Beijing. David purchased the remains y América: Vínculos y Relaciones Atlánticas”. of some of these deer that had died. He then We wish to thank our colleagues Ana de Zaballa, sent them to the Museum of Natural History of Alberto Angulo, Jon Ander Ramos and Stephen Paris. There the French zoologist Milne-Edwards Murray for their comments. described the new species in 1866; its scientific 2 See http://www.chinaeuskaletxea.com/en_ name honoring Father David. quienes.asp; consulted on July, 27th, 2012. 10 Fernández Aparicio et alii (1985: 169-174). 3 Literally, “Basque house” in the Basque language. 11 Province is the name usually given to the inter- Recently, this term has been employed widely in nal divisions of government of the Catholic reli- the literature on Basque migration to refer to the gious orders. Each province is composed of all the web of associational institutions created by Basque convents and residences that the same order has immigrants in host countries, along with names opened in a particular region. Although these re- such as “centros vascos” in Spanish or “Basque ligious provinces do not have to coincide with the clubs” in English. On the use of this term, see Al- limits of the political demarcations, in the cases we varez Gila (2012). cite it happens that these provinces almost always 4 See also ”El Anuario sobre la Acción Exterior correspond to the Basque Country. 2005 saluda la creación de nuevos centros vascos 12 The first superior, and afterwards (1930) bishop en China, EEUU y Australia”, at http://www.eu- of the mission of Wuhu, was Father Zenón Aram- skalkultura.com/noticias/el-anuario-sobre-la-ac- buru, a native of Urretxu (Gipuzkoa). By the time cion-exterior-2005; consulted on July 27th, 2012. Aramburu directed this mission, there were about 5 Conversely, Basque historiography has shown 5 million inhabitants in the region, of which only more interest in the research of the incoming mi- 41.000 had been baptized Catholics. grations from other parts of Spain to the Basque 13 Here the Basque Franciscans built a cathedral, of Country, and especially to the current Basque Gothic style, that was named after the image of Autonomous Community (Bizkaia, Gipuzkoa, the Virgin of Begoña, near Bilbao. It is said that OSCAR ALVARES GILA AND BENAN OREGI INURIETTA 31

this building was used as headquarters by the obtain the actual count of Spanish missionaries Communist army leaded by Mao Zedoing after it abroad was not very accurate at the time. More- took control of the region. over, this book is primarily devoted to a census of 14 ‘Bilbao celebra la beatificación de una misionera the number of missionaries that were destined to vasca sin presencia papal’, Diario de León, León Latin America. (Spain), October 23th, 2006. 21 Basque Jesuits from Wuhu, for instance, were sent 15 ‘Por misiones vivas se entendía en aquel entonces to Macau, where they have been running some las que también se denominaban ’tierras de infie- colleges and residences down to the present. In les’. Misiones en puntos del planeta donde todavía 2006, the annual meeting of the Basque club in no había resonado la Palabra del Señor Jesús y los Shanghai honored Father Fernando Larrañaga, bautizados del lugar se contaban con los dedos de born in 1914, that had been living in China from una mano. De esos territorios ¡a punta pala! En 1936, first in Wuhu and after 1951 in Macau (See Africa, en Asia. Pero misiones/misiones, las de ‘La Euskal Etxea se Shanghai, en China, celebra su China. China era, en efecto, la más alta repre- segundo año de vida estrenando su propia página sentación de todas las misiones. Y ’los chinitos’, web’, in http://www.euskalkultura.com, consulted la encarnación viva de todos los hombres y mu- on July 20th, 2012. jeres de todas las misiones vivas. Tanto se avanzó 22 Jauregui was also a member of the Spanish fascist en esta encarnación que los chiquitos que salían a party, Falange Española, that provided the ideo- las calles a pedir para las misiones, te paraban en logical underpinning of the regime of Francisco la acera y te decían’una limosna para los chinitos... Franco after the Spanish Civil War. In 1939 he de África’”. created the Chinese section of this party, in which 16 Álvarez Gila (1998: 200-202). he compulsoraly enrolled the employees of both 17 Letter of Alejandro Labaka to Father Ricardo frontones (García-Tapia Bello, 2009: 88). de Lizaso; December 29th, 1945; published on 23 See, among others: http://www.elcorreo.com/ http://aguarico.vicariato.net/Alejandro_Labaka. vizcaya/20120917/economia/exportaciones-em- html: ‘Ecce ego, mitte me! Mi alegría sería in- presas-vascas-implantadas-201209171218. mensa si el Espíritu Santo se dignase escogerme, html; http://www.diariovasco.com/20120918/ mediante su Reverencia, para extender la Iglesia y economia/euskadi-china-buscan-intercam- salvar las almas en las misiones, que propiamente biar-201209181226.html; http://www. puedan considerarse como tales y, sobre todo, en deia.com/2012/09/14/economia/unda-via- países de más dificultad y donde más haya que su- ja-el-lunes-a-china-para-apoyar-la-implantac- frir. / Me pongo incondicionalmente en sus manos ion-de-empresas-vascas. para ir a donde quiera que disponga enviarme; con todo como desea saber las preferencias personales le comunico que la que más me ha atraído y la que más me atrae en la actualidad es nuestra Misión de China. Dígnese enviarme cuanto antes. / Ruego muy de veras y confío que el Espíritu Santo y la Virgen nuestra dulcísima Madre le iluminarán para rechazar me, si soy indigno, y para escogerme, si verdaderamente es el Señor quien me llama a Misiones’. 18 ‘Cuando al jóven jesuíta se le notificaba que había sido distinguido con el premio de honor, acababa de embarcarse en Marsella hacia tierras de China, revestido con la altísima investidura de misionero de infieles. Es el prototipo del gran corazón en- amorado por dos altísimos ideales: el amor a los suyos, concretado en la patria, por cuya lengua na- cional labora la tregua, y el amor al universo, por cuya salvación abandona a su más puro e intenso cariño: a Euzkadi’. 19 See also the review on this book, in ‘ L i b r o s nuevos’, ABC, Madrid, August 26th, 1964, p. 41. 20 We say ‘no fewer’ because the methodology to Greve Nord – A Changing Multi-Ethnic Public Housing Area

Kirsten Egholk and Susanne Krogh Jensen

Introduction The research project, which is under- During the 1970s a number of public taken by the local museum in Greve and housing areas in Denmark were built – the Danish immigration Museum aims experimenting with new housing forms to determine the development of culture and building materials especially con- and identity in a multiethnic housing crete elements. Originally these areas area from the 1970s until today. Some were seen as the future of housing – solv- of the main questions of the project ing the ever increasing need for a higher are: how has the characteristics of the population density in and around the area changed ?; what has happened to large cities. the image both within and outside the However, in the course of the last 40 area?; and which strategic and spontane- years some of these areas have become ous mechanisms have been affecting the known as socially challenged areas with development? The project is expected to a high share of residents outside the be concluded during the spring of 2014. labour market, and furthermore with The research, which is focusing on the a high percentage of non-Danish res- main public housing areas, is looking at idents. Today some of these areas are four different angles. Firstly, the area has stigmatized both locally and nationally been put in a historical and geographical – known for violent episodes and other context. Secondly, an analysis of some of crimes. Therefore different social pro- the social characteristics of the residents jects have sought to change this devel- addresses the image as multi-ethnic, so- opment during the last 20 years. cially challenged housing areas. Thirdly, This article, which was presented at a number of semi-structured qualita- the yearly meeting of AEMI in Karlstad tive interviews covering three different in Sweden in October of 2013, is based groups of agents – i.e. the authorites, on an on-going research project, which the social project and the residents – explores the development of an area of testify to both the strategies for and the public and private housing called Greve perceptions of the areas, and finally the Nord, which constitutes the Northern image will be described through national part of Greve Municipality, 25 km south policy and the image given by local and of Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. national media. KIRSTEN EGHOLK AND SUSANNE KROGH JENSEN 33 Other than the curiosity about the different dimensions such as functional formation, development and charac- integration and social integration.2 In teristics of multi-ethnic social housing Greve Nord we want to see if and how areas, the project also aim at collecting the formal and functional integration physical knowledge in the form of pho- processes – introduced by the authori- tos and artefacts as well as engaging the ties, by the architectural ideas of the ac- local residents in the common history tual buildings etc, – affect a social and of Greve and of Denmark as a whole. cultural integration. This idea was based on the wish to pre- The role of the national and regional serve a different kind of cultural heritage policy for housing in connection with than the one that normally ends up in the development of a housing area has Danish museum collections – as well as been addressed by Troels Schulz-Larsen on the opening of a new section of the in his Ph.D. thesis from Roskilde Uni- permanent exhibition at Greve Museum versity Centre in 2009.3 He states that called ‘Dreams of Welfare’ - covering the forming and development of socially 20th century history in the local area. challenged housing areas can largely be explained by the national policy of hous- The Multicultural Community ing after World War 2. In Greve Nord Today the area is seen as one area con- the local and national policy will about sisting of a number of public and pri- social housing areas will be considered vate housing area. Therefore the research as well as the architectual ideas that led project uses the ideas of the American to the physical appearance of the main anthropologist, Benedict Anderson, housing areas of Greve Nord. about imagined communities as a start- Finally, we take the significance of ing point1. According to Anderson a cultural difference into account based sense of community is not necessarily on the theories of the Danish ethnol- dependent on fixed physical or social ogist Tina Kallehave, who in working characteristics, but is instead built on a with the integration of Somali refugees common perception of unity. In Greve has stated that the process of integration Nord the project explores, whether a has to be understood on the basis of the community exists, and, if so, how it is original culture of the newcomers.4 Fur- and has been promotes as well as which thermore, the researcher Mark Vacher are the defining characteristics. points to the significance of the diaspora One of the characteristics, that are as a significant determinant for the char- often mentioned, is the multi-ethnic- acteristics in a multi-ethnic area and for ity of the public housing areas in Greve the process of integration.5 These points Nord. Therefore the project applies a will also be considered. number of theoretical approaches to in- At the end of 2013 the final analy- tegration and multiculturalism in order sis on these theoretical points has not to map out the significance of the mul- yet been completed and we can there- ticultural aspect. The Danish sociologist fore not offer any final conclusions – Charlotte Hamburger has advocated although the preliminary conclusions that integration is divided into several show that the collected material offers 34 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 comments on all of the theoretical ap- is today known as Greve Nord, was thus proaches mentioned here. originally known as Hundige – a name which was changed in 2008 in connec- Greve Nord – tion with the definition of the on-go- A Flagship of Public Housing ing social project of the area in order to The buildings of Greve Nord mani- avoid the negative image, Hundige had fest two different approaches to social acquired at that time. housing in Denmark. Within 12 years Greve Nord consists of a number of from 1958 to 1970 more houses were public housing areas plus an area with built in Denmark than in any previous one family houses. It has a total of ap- period – app. 60,000 houses a year i.e. proxiemately 18, 000 inhabitants, con- 30,000 apartments in large multi-storey stituting about 37.5 per cent of the apartment blocks, the majority for rent, inhabitants in Greve Municipality.7 and 30,000 standard one family houses. During the 1970s two large and archi- However, due to an economic boom, it tecturally modern housing areas were became possible even for working class built on either side of a big regional people to buy their own house, soon shopping centre. Gersagerparken with leaving the big social housing areas with its approxiemately 900 apartments was a low status. As a result a new form of finished in 1972, and Askerød with ap- social housing occurred from 1970 proxiemately 700 apartments was built to 1985 - the so called ‘low and dense in 1975. Both areas were characterized housing’. It was characterized by lower by large apartments – up to 130 m2 – buildings often with big terraces and put and they both employed new ways of together so that it resembled one family constructing using concrete elements houses put on top of each other.6 and focusing on large balconies and The housing areas in the area of Greve small gardens for the residents. A third Nord was originally part of a larger housing area – known as Gudernes urban planning project called ‘Køge kvarter – with a total of 437 apartments Bugt Planen’, which was approved in was added from 1988 to 2008. In 1976 1961. The main goal of the plan was to a train station was built east of the two build ten new ‘cities’ consisting of both areas providing public transportation to public housing and one family houses Copenhagen. along the coast south of Copenhagen. Gersagerparken and Askerød were The ten areas should provide housing originally very popular areas populated for a total of 150,000 people – the ma- by young residents and families with jority commuting to work in or closer to children, politically belonging to the left the capital. The structure of transporta- wing. They liked the size of the apart- tion therefore played an important role ments and the surroundings as well as in the planning. the ideas of openness, democracy and The ten areas were placed east of a social integration, which were predom- number of centuries old villages, whose inant during the 1970s and 80s. How- lands were parcelled out to make room ever, the composition of the inhabitants for the new inhabitants. The area, which and the image of the areas changed KIRSTEN EGHOLK AND SUSANNE KROGH JENSEN 35

Fig 1 Greve Nord. This overview from 2009 shows the area of Greve Nord. Askerød is the white buildings in the centre of the photo, while Gersagerparken is the buildings further to the right behind the shopping centre today known as Waves. Photo: Greve Museum. dramatically from the beginning of the idents in the public housing areas in 1990s. Greve Nord has constantly been signif- icantly higher than in the rest of Greve A Multi-Ethnic Neighbourhood Municipality. This is especially true for Based on area-specific data from Statis- Askerød. In 1995 50.4 per cent of the tics Denmark, we have analysed some inhabitants in Askerød were non-Dan- of the social characteristics of the in- ish, and in 2000 this applied to 66.7 per habitants of the public housing areas of cent. In comparison Gersagerparken in Greve Nord. In 1980 only 3 per cent of 1995 had 23.7 per cent non-Danish the Danish population was ethnically residents and 27.6 per cent in 2000. non-Danish. In Gersagerparken this The relative difference between the applied to 2.9 per cent of the residents, percentage of ethnic inhabitants in while 11.2 per cent of the inhabitants the three public housing area and in in Askerød were non-Danish. Although the rest of Greve Municipality un- the number of foreigners in Denmark derlines the image of Greve Nord as has been steadily growing since the the multi-ethnic area in Greve. As the 1980s, the number of non-Danish res- number of ethnic inhabitants grew, 36 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Fig 2 The graph shows the percentage of non-Danish inhabitants in the three public housing areas in Greve Nord, in the rest of Greve Municipality and in Denmark in total from 1980 to 2010. Source: Statistics Denmark. the attitudes apparently also changed. gees, and the same applied although Several of the interviewees mention to a lesser extent to Gersagerparken. a change in attitude in the middle of In 2005 the distributions of countries the 1980s – due to the growing num- in Askerød and in Denmark as a whole ber of non-Danish families in the area.8 were quite similar. In Askerød the five The composition of nationalities in most common countries of origin were the housing areas of Greve Nord can Turkey, Lebanon, Iraq, Bosnia-Hercego- largely be explained by the overall im- vina and Pakistan – reflecting the inflow migration to Denmark. In 1980 the of refugees during the 1990s from Iraq, largest non-Danish national groups Lebanon and Bosnia-Hercegovina. This in Askerød came from Turkey, Chile, corresponds with the distribution of na- Poland, Pakistan and Norway – cor- tionalities in Denmark as a whole – al- responding with the inflow of guest- though Pakistan does not appear among workers from Turkey and Pakistan and the five most common countries – in- refugees from Chile and Poland dur- stead German was the third most com- ing the 1960 and 70s. In Denmark as mon nationality. a whole, however, the five most com- However, the public housing areas of mon nationalities were German, Swed- Greve Nord is not only known as being ish, Turkish, Norwegian and Pakistani. multi-ethnic, but also of containing a Thus Askerød was largely a housing area number of social problems. As shown in for non-western immigrants and refu- the graph, the development since 1985 KIRSTEN EGHOLK AND SUSANNE KROGH JENSEN 37

Fig 3 The graph shows the average income of the three main housing areas, of the rest of Greve Municipal- ity and of Denmark as a whole from 1980 to 2005 in 2005-values. The average income in the public housing areas of Greve Nord has always been significantly lower than the income in the rest of Greve. Source: Statistics Denmark the average income in the three pub- Interviewing ‘the System’ lic housing areas has been lower than in In order to characterize the image of Denmark as a whole, and significantly and policy pertaining to Greve Nord, lower than in the rest of Greve Munici- we have collected a number of qualita- pality from 1980 to 2005. tive interviews representing three differ- This latter difference may provide part ent interest groups in the area. The first of an explanation for the local stigmati- group of interviewees consists of a num- zation of the public housing areas. Since ber of representatives from the official the 1980s the residents has belonged to system – i.e. the municipality, the police the comparatively poor part of the resi- and other formal institutions with an dents in the Municipality. interest in the area as well as the chair- One of our informants in the project men of the boards of Askerød and Ger- explained, that the difference is caused sagerparken. The goal has been to map by the fact that many of the households out the administrative attitude towards in Greve outside the three housing areas the area, the ‘system’s’ influence on the consists of two working adults with development, and the cooperation be- well-paid jobs, while the number of un- tween the different agents in the area. employed and people otherwise publicly From the interviews we learned that supported is high in the public housing Gersagerparken and Askerød originally part of Greve Nord. were built as a means to provide mod- ern housing facilities for newcomers to 38 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Greve Municipality – meaning that the ical and safety concerns during the last complexes were welcomed politically – 20 years. One of the comments has been providing housing for new taxpayers. that the public housing areas are closed However, during the 1980s especially around themselves both architecturally Askerød experienced a period where it and socially – preventing further in- was difficult to rent out the apartments teraction.9 The need for structural and -significantly changing the composition institutional interaction is therefore of the residents. widely expressed. The empty apartments became a way for the municipality to provide housing The Social Project for the people, to whom the administra- In 2008 a large scale social housing pro- tion by law was obliged to help find a ject was organized, financially supported home. Furthermore the availability and by the City Council, Landsbyggefonden rather low coast also attracted renters – (a national foundation) and the hous- both immigrants and Danes looking for ing companies involved, who all have cheap and immediate accommodation. an interest in redefining the identity of This led to an increase in the number the area. In 2012 the four-year project of social and economic problems in the period was prolonged, so that the pres- areas. In order to control the combina- ent project ends in 2016. The present tion of inhabitants, the municipality in project works with five different themes 2000 took over the full right of assign- – i.e. safety, image and culture, health, ment of apartments in Askerød – mak- children and jobs. ing employment and a sound financial The project has assisted unemployed situation a prerequisite for obtaining an residents prepare for the labour mar- apartment in Askerød. Since then this, ket or for starting an education or in a however, has raised debate – not least in trainee positions. Furthermore, it has the media – due to a lack of alternative arranged celebrations of cultural events public housing in the area. like Eid and Christmas, and it has or- Caused by a number of incidents ganized events focusing on the health with arson, gang related episodes and of the inhabitants etc., in order to make other crimes the police also increased people meet across cultural borders. Fi- their focus on the area especially since nally the social project has been focus- the 1990s. Especially during the 1990 ing on publishing positive stories about the police several times refused to enter the areas – especially in the local media. into Askerød without a huge force be- Many of the initiatives have been suc- cause of repeated attacks. Today the po- cessful – especially the ones about health. lice has built up a local force focusing This is explained by the employees of the on the preventive effects of talking to es- project by the fact that it doesn’t take any pecially the young resident and of being cultural prerequisites to have your blood visible and known in the area. pressure measured. One of the goals has The interviews of representatives of been to active resources within the areas, ‘the system’ show that especially the and to make it so attractive to live in public housing areas have caused polit- Greve Nord, that there are waiting lists KIRSTEN EGHOLK AND SUSANNE KROGH JENSEN 39

Fig 4 The social project in Greve Nord has arranged a number of different initiatives to bring the residents closer together. Here a group of residents is gathered in Askerød in the summer of 2012. Photo: Greve Nord Projektet for obtaining the apartments. This has to ments. By promoting a sense of commu- some extent been accomplished today. nity in a larger area and by promoting The social project basically resem- the use of the internal resources the pro- bles other projects known from similar cess of both social and cultural integra- housing areas in Denmark, although the tion would be facilitated making social Greve Nord Project also tries to include projects superfluous in time. However, the private one-family houses in the this requires that all parties involved see area. The goal of the project is to create the value of the participation, which is a common sense of unity. This task is, not always the case. however, proving to be challenging be- cause of the different needs of the resi- The Inhabitants dents in the different areas. Finally we have collected interviews According to the former director of with former and present inhabitants in the social project, one of the challenges the area. Our goal was to talk to people of integration today in public housing covering the most common ethnic and areas is that it is often left to socially national groups in the area, but the pro- disadvantaged residents to integrate cess of getting in contact with inform- newcomers from different cultures, who ants has proved challenging – not least settle in the affordable public apart- because it soon became clear that we 40 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 want to talk to them much more than to move you – but also the low status of they want to talk to us. living in public housing creates a wish At the end of 2013 we have talked to move out. to residents from Denmark, Iraq, Leb- anon, Rumania, Italy, Afghanistan and The Official Ghetto Iran. However, the most common na- National policies undoubtedly play tionality in the area is Turkish, a group a part in the development of specific that we not yet have been successful in housing areas – as well as the media also contacting. The reasons for this have play a crucial part in forming and main- been many – one of which has been cul- taining an image. One of the recent tural difference with respect to making political determinants for the image of appointments. Greve Nord has been the creation of the The inhabitants that we have inter- national list of so called ghettos among viewed have predominantly been re- housing areas with more than 1000 in- sourceful, well-integrated and engaged habitants. In 2010 the Danish govern- in the area or moved away from it. ment defined three criteria for a ghetto. Therefore we have also conducted some The first criterion is that more than participant observation and through the 50 per cent of the inhabitants have a employees of the social project gained non-western background. The second insight into some of the work done with criterion is that more than 40 per cent the not-so resourceful residents – such of the inhabitants between the age of 18 as for instance the husband-supported and 64 are not part of the labour force women, who do not speak Danish. or enrolled in an education. The third From the preliminary analysis of the criteria is that more than 2.7 per cent interviews with the residents, they gen- of the inhabitants have a conviction for erally seem to be satisfied with their violation of the Criminal Code or other apartments. Many are drawing atten- similar legislation. Fulfilment of two out tion to the size and to the balconies, of three criteria put the housing area on playing down the negative aspects of the the official ghetto list meriting that spe- areas by saying that they personally have cial action should be taken an money not seen it as that bad. There are local given in order to resolve the challenges identities connected to the particular of the area.10 The criterion has from the housing areas, but there is no common beginning been highly controversial and identity in Greve Nord. Furthermore, has been subject to continuous debate. there is a clear tendency to move out – In 2013 two additional criteria concern- if given the possibility. The daughter of ing income and education has been pro- one of the informants, a refugee from posed but not yet implemented. Askerød Iraq, explains that even if she has no was placed on the ghetto list in 2010, problems about living in Askerød, she and while the chairman of the board in would still like to move out of the area, Askerød sees the designation as a ghetto because owning a house gives status. It as a way to apply for public funding for is thus not necessarily the bad image of projects, other of the informants in this the areas that makes the residents want project mention the negative effect of KIRSTEN EGHOLK AND SUSANNE KROGH JENSEN 41

Fig 5 Askerød is one of the few housing areas in Den- mark, where some of the buildings were removed in order to obtain a more open area in order to increase the feeling of safety between the buildings. This photo shows the demolition of one of the buildings in 2012. Photo: Greve Nord Projek- tet.

branding the area causing housing prices From 2008 especially the local newspa- to drop and the sense of safety to vanish. per, Sydkysten, has published a growing A preliminary analysis of the articles number of stories about the areas – both in written in a number of local and na- focusing on positive and on negative as- tional newspapers since 1970 also reveals pects. However, according to the com- a growing negative focus on the public munications worker at the social worker housing areas of Greve Nord. During in Greve Nord, the constant mention- the 1970s Askerød was mentioned as ing of Askerød as a former ghetto still the modern dream of housing, while the taint the whole area and is very difficult area – especially since 2000 – has been to change with positive press. A further continuously mentioned in connection analysis of the collected material is still with violence, gangs, arson, theft etc. impending. 42 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Conclusion References The on-going analysis of the collected Anderson,Benedict:Imagined Communities. - Reflections on the Origin and Spread of National- data in Greve is scheduled to be con- ism, London, 1991. cluded in the spring of 2014. However, Hamburger, Charlotte : ‘Etniske minoriteter the preliminary findings testify to the og social integration’, in Lilli Zeuner (ed) : Social integration, SFI 97:9, Copenhagen, complexity of multi-ethnic public hous- 1997:135-168. ing areas as research fields. Historically Johnsen, Michael Sten: ‘Ordinary and social the areas were thought of as the frontier housing in Denmark,’ in: Velfærdssamfundets of modern housing, but over time the bygninger / The buildings on the welfare society, Arkitekturhistorisk Årsskrift ARCHITEC- areas have been challenged both because TURA 2013: 29-85. of political development, because of Kallehave, Tina: ‘Immigration – ud- their architecture and due to a change fordringer til analyse af stat, subjekt og trans- formation’ i Nordisk Udkast, No. 1, 2004. in the demand for housing models over Larsen, Troels Schultz: De forsømte – skitse time. Furthermore, it seems as if the til en socialvidenskabelig analyse af relationerne negative development perhaps has been mellem produktionen af forsømte boligområder, de sociale kampe om det boligsociale integrationsar- neglected for a time. bejde og den boligsociale integration. PhD. thesis Today social projects, like the one in from Roskilde University Centre, Institut for Greve Nord, try to turn the develop- Samfund og Globalisering, 2009. ment around for instance by creating a Larsen, Troels Schultz: ‘Med Bordieu i felten almene boligområders storhed og forsømmelse’ common identity among the residents i John Andersen og Kristine Samson (eds.): in a larger area. However, in some ways Byen i bevægelse : mobilitet - politik – performa- it is difficult because of the difference in tivitet”, Copenhagen, 2013. Vacher, Mark: ‘Flygtninge og indvandrere i needs and expectations of the involved den almene boligsektor – bidrag til forståelse parties. Also the negative image of parts af flygtninge og indvandreres forhold tilderes of Greve Nord and the low status of the bolig.’, Center for Bolig og Velfærd, 2007. public housing areas are challenging for reaching a positive development. As a research field for museums and archives, both public housing from the 1970s as well as multi-cultural housing areas are challenging, upcoming topics, that need to be dealt with both theoret- ically and practically in the work of cul- tural institutions. KIRSTEN EGHOLK AND SUSANNE KROGH JENSEN 43

Interviews and Webpages 6 Johnsen, Michael Sten: ‘Ordinary and social 23 qualitative interviews collected – hereof 18 housing in Denmark,’ in: Velfærdssamfundets collected in 2013, while 5 has been found in bygninger / The buildings on the welfare society, the collection of Greve Museum collected in Arkitekturhistorisk Årsskrift ARCHITECTURA connection with previous research. Archieves 2013: 29-85. of Greve Museum no. 500i0099, 500i103, 7 According to information from Statistics Den- 500i0105, 500i182, 500i186, and 1857B0001 mark, Greve Municipality had 47,980 inhabitants to 1857B0018. during the first quater of 2013. The number of www.grevenord.dk inhabitants in Greve Nord has been estimated by The web-page of the Social Ministry listing the informants both from the social project as well as criteria for being termed a ghetto in 2010. www. from politically active inhabitants in the area. sm.dk/Nyheder/Sider/Vis%20Nyhed.aspx- 8 One of the informants, who came to Denmark ?NewsItem= from Turkey in the middle of the 1980s and started school, describes the difference she expe- rienced between being the only foreigner in the school at the beginning of her school-years and Notes being one of a number og Turkish pupils after 1 Anderson, Benedict: Imagined Communities, 1991 some years. Interview no. 500i186. 2 Hamburger, Charlotte : ‘Etniske minoriteter og 9 This conclusion was expressed by a member of the social integration’, in Lilli Zeuner (ed) : Social in- City Council in Greve. Interview no. 1857B0008 tegration, SFI 97:9, Copenhagen, 1997:135-168. 10 www.sm.dk/Nyheder/Sider/Vis%20Nyhed.aspx- 3 The thesis has been summarized in the article ?NewsItem=516 ‘Med Bordieu i felten – almene boligområders storhed og forsømmelse’, i John Andersen og Kristine Samson (eds.): Byen i bevægelse : mobilitet - politik – performativitet, Copenhagen, 2013. 4 Kallehave, Tina : ‘Immigration – udfordringer til analyse af stat, subjekt og transformation’ i Nord- isk Udkast nr. 1, 2004. 5 Vacher, Mark: ‘Flygtninge og indvandrere i den almene boligsektor – bidrag til forståelse af fly- gtninge og indvandreres forhold tilderes bolig’, Center for Bolig og Velfærd, 2007. No Place Like ‘Home’: Experiences of the Netherlands East Indies as Real, Virtual and Politically Contested Reality by Indisch Dutch and Indisch Dutch Australians Nonja Peters

Introduction present, and in the endeavour answers This paper is about perceptions of the call of the trace.’1 Traces are mark- ‘home’, place, identity and belonging as ers that point to ‘a past that dwells in they are perceived by Dutch Refugees the hollows of the forgotten.’2 Archivist, from the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) Eric Ketelaar calls these traces ‘memory banished from their homeland by polit- texts’. Memory texts can be a map, a ical conflict (The Indonesian Revolution story, a landscape, a building, a monu- 1945-1949). All have a connection to ment, a ritual, a performance or a com- Australia. The NEI Dutch Australians memoration.3 For Ketelaar, ‘memory adults interviewed chose to re-migrate texts’ are also ‘a space’ of contestation, to Australia after repatriation to NL pre- because invariably, “it is a space that dif- ferring to live in a warmer climate closer ferent people have different perceptions to their country of origin. Their experi- of…that they want to focus on different ences are juxtaposed to NEI Dutch who historical truths or myths about.”4 were children evacuated to Australia in Most Netherlands East Indies Dutch 1945 for rehabilitation from internment described their life in pre-WWII Java or and the revolution before being repatri- Sumatra, and their relationship with In- ated to the NL where they stayed. donesians in idyllic terms. The follow- The paper is based on the data gath- ing statement is representative: ered from semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires Those carefree years are still accompa- and life histories. The common feature nied by memories of gentle people, the in these various methodologies is their unforgettable landscape and its exotic emphasis on ‘memory of the past’ both plants, as well as the ever-present air of individual and collective. Memory, ac- spicy aromas. cording to philosopher James Booth ‘is centered on an absence, tries to make it Universally these NEI Dutch also de- NONJA PETERS 45

Fig 1 The good life in Java 1920, then the Netherlands East Indies. Courtesy: N. Peters clare the Japanese Occupation and In- option but to capitulate, which they did donesian Revolution for Independence on 8 March 1942. and especially the very violent months Unlike the German Occupation of the October 1945 to June 1946, known as Netherlands, where life went on as be- the Bersiap period by the Dutch who ex- fore but under Occupation Forces, in the perienced them, as the events that most Netherlands East Indies, former Dutch transformed their lives forever. What military and bureaucratic personnel, in- is it about these happenings that influ- cluding Ambonese and Mendonese, were enced their existence so profoundly? interned at once as Prisoners-Of-War (POWs). In the following six months, The Pacific War 1942-1945 throughout the region Dutch civilians, When war broke out in the Pacific the including women and children, were Allies (American, British, Dutch Aus- also herded into separate camps where tralian (ABDA) Alliance were ill-pre- they were starved and ill-treated. Some pared. On land, they were no match Dutch teenage females were taken to sep- for the Japanese armies, battle hardened arate houses to serve as comfort women since 1931. At sea, they were powerless for the Japanese military. Males from as in the face of the Japanese navy. As a young as 10 years of age were taken from consequence, the Netherlands East In- their mothers and placed in boys camps dies (NEI) Dutch Administration had no and treated like men. 46 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Fig 2 Life in an interment camp. Courtesy: Western Mail

From the onset of the Japanese Occu- the area with barbed wire fences sur- pation, the Dutch language and culture rounded by bamboo cladding. There were no longer visible in the Nether- was little food on offer, sanitation was lands East Indies. Instead an intense poor, overcrowding and acts of violence Japanisation of the population took its were the order of the day. The Japanese place. However, since few Indonesians had specifically set out to humiliate the could speak Japanese most adopted Ba- white man, in full view of the indige- hasa Indonesia as their lingua franca. nous peoples of the region, to make it Also Indonesian lesser bureaucrats were clear that the days of European domina- immediately promoted three or four tion were over.5 ranks higher to run government depart- During the Japanese occupation 1942 ments now without their Dutch heads; – 1945, 42,000 Dutch were placed in and schools were directed to teach pupils forced to labour POW camps; a fur- to be loyal to Japanese symbols and ide- ther 80,000 civilians were interned; and ology. The Japanese were out to extin- 172,000 Dutch of mixed blood stayed guish all European influence in Asia and outside the camps (buiten-kampers). establish a ‘Greater Asia Co-prosperity However, their lives too were severely Sphere’ with Japan as supreme leader. compromised. The majority lost their The Japanese catered for the large job as soon as they had trained an Indig- number of Dutch internees by trans- enous Indonesian to take it on. In fact, forming whole residential districts of most Eurasians were only able to survive Batavia into a vast camp by encircling by selling their furniture, clothes and NONJA PETERS 47

Fig 3 Bowing to the Japanese. Courtesy: Frances Larder jewellery to generate money for food- to summon their members to do bat- stuff.6 tle with an approaching force consid- After Japan capitulated on 15 August ered hostile. This was followed by the 1945, a period of unrest began with nationalist salute “Merdeka” their fero- guerrilla warfare following Sukarno’s cious war cry for freedom, which they declaration of Independence on 17 Au- would shout as their fighters entered a gust 1945. Groups of Indonesian na- street, accompanied by noisy beating tionalists youth freedom fighters armed of iron stakes against fences and light with improvised weapons (like bamboo poles before surrounding the houses of spears and machete’s) but also firearms their victims who they would torture attacked internees and killed many in and murder. Consequently, instead of the most grisly manner. An estimated the freedom they longed for, the Dutch 3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were confronted with extreme unrest, went missing presumed to have befallen guerrilla warfare and macabre killings.8 the same fate. Many mass graves have For many Indisch Dutch, the Indonesian been discovered.7 Revolution changed forever their sense The increasing intensity of fighting of security in the land of their cultural and violence over the months of Oc- heritage, many say more than the Jap- tober and November 1945 became anese Occupation had done. Around known as the Bersiap period, from the 300,000 NEI Dutch were repatriated to warning cry “Bersiap!” (Stand prepared) the NL, some after a short year of re- with which the young nationalists used habilitation in Australia or NZ. Around 48 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Fig 4 Merdaka. Courtesy: Newspaper

10,000 came to Australia from the late the second generation, who were chil- 1950s. dren at the time of their arrival in the Hall has proposed a theorization of new country; and therefore not as firmly identity as ‘a form of representation anchored in one culture as their parents, which is able to constitute us as new formulate their conclusions with refer- kinds of subjects, and thereby enable us ence to both the Dutch and new coun- to discover places from which to speak’.9 tries (Australian) cultural domains. For example, whereas first generation Drawing on the ‘transnational10 per- Dutch most often derive their mean- spective’ of Basch et al. (1994:7), I ings about sense of place, self, identity define the Indisch Dutch diaspora a con- and belonging from the socio-economic tinuous cultural process – not a single conditions and relations of dominance act of relocation - by which migrants in the cultural milieu they left behind, forge and sustain multi-stranded social NONJA PETERS 49 relations that link together their socie- that “the body … in movement, ges- ties of origin and settlement. In which ticulation, walking, taking its pleasure, people, termed trans-migrants ‘take ac- is what indefinitely organises a ‘here’ in tions, make decisions, and develop sub- relation to an abroad, a ‘familiarity’ in jectivities and identities embedded in relation to a ‘foreignness’.”13 networks and relationships that connect them simultaneously to two or more na- The NEI Adults in Australia tion states’. In the late 1980s, NEI Dutch or ‘other Dutch’ (as they call themselves) began Place/Homeland to establish Bambu social clubs not asso- Why research place or ‘homeland’? In ciated with those established by Neth- the wake of the great voyages of ex- erlands Dutch. The quotes from oral ploration, discovery and colonisation - interviews with NEI Dutch Australians ‘homeland’ became a contested reality. below are representative: Over time ‘sense of place’, came to be When I first went to a meeting with conceived of as an organic progressive other people from the Indies I straight- connection between inhabitants to their away felt at home. The people were particular territory. familiar, the accent, everything was fa- John Hughes contends that in Aus- miliar. It feels like we are related. We tralia we do a lot of thinking and talking have the same background, we went to about ‘home’ because... ‘our personal the same schools, we like the same kind of food, tell the same kind of jokes. The heritage and sense of identity includes a first time was a sort of a ‘homecoming’. place and a history not really our own, not really accessible to us. The fact that You know what is so lovely about meet- our sense of self-discovery and self-reali- ing another Indisch person? They know sation takes place in foreign lands is the what I mean when I say pisang, babu or [uniquely] rich and complex ironies of bottle tjebok…We don’t have to explain 11 our past to each other, we share our being Australian.’ past. That is what makes it so special. His views resonate with those of In- disch Dutch Australians. These expressions support Hall’s rea- soning that, ‘... identification is con- Why is it that we become attached to a structed on the back of a recognition of place? Bender (2001:4) argues that we some common or shared characteristics are only capable of understanding the with another person or group, or with world around us, at least initially, from an ideal, and with the natural closure what we have learned, what we have of solidarity and allegiance established been exposed to, and what has been on this foundation’.14 These clubs were passed onto us in the way of narratives, based on and sustained by the shared ex- 12 traditions and beliefs. perience of tempo doeloe - collective nos- Experiencing ‘place’ through the talgic imaginings of ‘the good old times’ body in this way is also the central idea which many researchers may designate of de Certeau’s philosophy. He argues the impact of Colonialism. 50 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

ing steps had fallen…I smelt the Chi- nese bread in the basket and the freshly brewed coffee, and I heard the distant calls of street vendors selling sateh and other delicacies from their mobile stalls. The sweetness of it all was almost too much to bear. How I loved this coun- try – I felt I had come home…I sighed and felt blessed, and asked the [taxi] driver to take me next pass the house I had lived in as a girl and the church where my father had been a minister. They were both still there, although in need of repair.15

The following extract from Andreas Flach´s life story that he wrote for his Dutch Australian children to tell them about the long-term impact of his ear- lier life in the Netherlands East Indies, portrays a deep lasting attachment: Fig 5 Andreas Flach. Courtesy:Flach family. …the brutal Japanese Occupation of the NEI and …’The Bersiap period’ are The long-term impact of tempo doloe is the darkest episodes in my life. A time also evident in the following narrative I like to forget not only because of the many intense and traumatic experiences by Nell van de Graaff’s (1994:120) that I had to go through but also in the light describes her first visit back to the NEI, of the, hard to accept, fact that I, and her birthplace, after 30 years of exile. It with me most of the Indische people, is powerful and representative: have lost forever our country of birth, a country I grew up in, a country and The plane landed in Jakarta at sunset. a people where part of our blood comes It had been raining heavily, the tarmac, from. I had to write this paragraph to was glistening, and the dark clouds let you know my hidden deepest feel- drifted by as the setting sun glowed on ings, may be you understand your fa- ther now when he asks in his will that the western horizon. The warmth and his humidity enveloped me as I emerged his ashes be returned to [Andreas’ emphasis] country of birth, Indonesia, from the aircraft and the sounds and 16 the smells of Indonesia made me feel I my ‘mother country’. was coming home. In a flash I realized how much I had missed all this since I Andreas and Nell’s sentiments, are full had left the country more than twenty of de Certeau’s ‘familiarity’ and how years ago. I felt emotional, close to childhood bonding with the NEI con- tears, and I could suddenly understand the grand gesture of expatriates who, tinues to impact on all their senses de- returning to their homeland, kissed spite their forced abandonment from its the ground on which their first falter- shores. NONJA PETERS 51 However, what is interesting with ref- nections, emotional attachments and erence to Bender as mentioned earlier is meanings that are relevant in regards to how many Indisch Dutch Australians, developing one’s sense of belonging and post-migration, went on to develop feel- identity.20 ings of attachment for aspects of Aus- tralian life as the two following quotes The Children detect: A number of NEI Dutch children evac- uated to Western Australia were taken Gerarda: to Fairbridge Farm School for rehabili- My love for the Australian bush deep- tation before repatriation to the Nether- ened during the many bush walks we did with the children in the Blue lands 1945-1946. These children draw Mountains, where we settled.17 on images from three countries to de- scribe their sense of self, identity and be- longing. The response from Ernst, a boy Ineke: Who had left the NEI fifty years before of eleven-years-old when his family fled notes revisits to both Holland and In- the NEI, is based on his ‘assumptions’ donesia – but now – ‘Australia will al- about what it means to be a ‘real Dutch ways be my home’.18 person’: In my feelings I am a Dutchman from Dutch East Indies origin (Ik voel me In- These comments follow Norberg-Schulz, disch!). How does that appear in daily (1979) ideology. He notes although life? I am less nationalistic as the com- throughout history, humans have been mon Dutchmen. I am feeling myself adapting the natural environment to more as a world-citizen with Dutch nationality. Maybe this originates from suit their needs, that it is the process of having my roots in Dutch East Indies creating the man-made environment and having lived a long time abroad. In - nodes, paths, edges and districts that many situations I recognise the same marks out a sense of place, for it creates habitats in…[others] of the Dutch East an understanding of one’s environment, Indies community in Holland... I have that at least in navigational terms, en- been abroad before the war in Java as a 19 European citizen living in perfect con- genders a “sense of emotional security”. ditions and good relationship with the Therefore, it can be said that the concept native people who partly nursed me. of place is defined more by its ability to That is why I considered the Dutch East serve as a ‘habitat’ for its residents than Indies as my homeland. The Japanese by its physical properties. This lead Nor- invasion destroyed my homeland and I became a foreigner in my homeland berg-Schulz (1979:5) to describe the and had to leave it [behind] what did connection between humans and their seriously hurt. After [my sojourn in] homeland as more spiritual in essence, Australia (11 Months) I came in Hol- as relying more on ephemeral notions, land and felt myself a foreigner in be- such as senses, memories and beliefs! tween the Dutch people, however after Since experiencing places, with all our having lived their for almost two dec- ades Holland became my Homeland senses provides us with an opportunity though I still considered myself as an to bond with a place, to develop con- “Indische jongen”.21 52 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Fig 6 Dutch Children at Fairbridge Farm Orphanage for British children. The school was available because WWII had temporarily stopped British child migration to Australia.

Ernst adds that in disputes with good once was begged to come to a very sick Dutch friends, about wartime, this ‘dif- son of a Radjah - a ride on horseback of three days. He managed to cure the boy. ference‘ still pops up. Ernst’s reference The father was very grateful and offered to his ‘good relationships’ with Indone- him a daughter in marriage! As there sians, especially those that nursed him, were almost no Dutch women ‘availa- is another common theme of interviews ble’ he accepted the offer and married and life histories with NEI Dutch. her in 1831. They had seven children - Winnie de Vries’ deliberations about so that was the start of ‘my’ family told by my old aunt, our ‘walking history the NEI, feature aspects of history, race, book. It is not strange I think, that I class, ethnicity and culture: always felt that the NEI was my home- land (fatherland). I feel very at ease My very first and perhaps most honest with people from that country. Going answer is: my roots are in the Nether- to Australia for about ten months was a land East Indies - Indië to me. The fam- wonderful experience. If circumstances ily history shows it. My father is from a had been less difficult we would have mixed family. I’ll try to tell it in short: gone back from Australia to Indone- In 1829 an ancestor coming from Ger- sia, where we had lived for such a long many went to Holland as a missionary time. My mother was Dutch. Being in and travelled by sailing ship to Indo- Holland now for over 50 years - yes nesia. In Celebes he married a woman this is a good country to live in. Still from high Indonesian birth. (1831). He there are so many things in my daily life NONJA PETERS 53 that remind me of my land of birth. Is Discussion Holland my motherland, Indië my fa- Gupta24 and Ferguson (1992:17) suggest therland? I think so. In fact my roots are in both countries; my life is in fact that: ‘The ability of people to confound bi-cultural.22 the established spatial orders, either through physical movement or through their own conceptual and political acts Wim Plink, another Dutch Fairbridge of re-imagination, means space and child reflects on his family’s attachment place can never be ‘given’ and that the to the NEI, highlighting further com- process of their socio-political construc- plexities of ‘homeland’: tion must be considered’. I have shown, that creating an iden- I am Dutch, my parents are Dutch and tity is an extremely complex process, “... my ancestors so my ‘fatherland’ is the Netherlands. But I am born in Indone- never singular but multiple, constructed sia so Indonesia is my ‘motherland’. So across different, often intersecting and it is not easy to say what is my ‘home- antagonistic, discourses, practices and land’, it is very emotional. I have my positions”.25 Hall claims a strategy of roots in Indonesia …so it is my ‘home- self-empowerment requires a shift in land’ but now I stay in Holland since 1947, so Holland is now my ‘home- emphasis from the unerased traces of land’. For my mother, who was also ‘where you’re from’ to the possibilities born in Indonesia, it was her ‘fatherland and limits offered by ‘where you’re at’. and homeland’. When she got to Hol- This position in the postmodern world land the ‘fatherland became Holland’ calls less upon tradition and ancestry but not in her feelings and emotions. for its validation and more on an indi- For my father born in Utrecht, Holland was his - fatherland, motherland and vidual’s ability to utilise all available re- homeland-. His stay in Indonesia, in sources to renegotiate and reinvent their the army, was a period in his life. It was identity. obvious that he would go back to Hol- land with wife and children eventually. Notes Australia was for me a ‘guest-land’ that 1 W. James Booth, Communities of Memory. On had comforted me well. But it is not a Witness, identity, and Justice (Cornell University ‘homeland’ because in the time we were Press, Ithaca and London 2006) 114. there it was obvious we would stay for 2 W. James Booth, Communities of Memory. On only a short time.”23 Witness, identity, and Justice (Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London 2006, 85. 3 They are what the Polish-French historian The extracts above imply the existence Krzysztof Pomian has called semiophores, carriers of a continuing strong attachment and of meaning. The recognition of the bond between self-conscious identification with the an object and the invisible makes that object into a semiophore. The semiophore gets its meaning by NEI despite banishment from it but si- the definition of the invisible to which the semio- multaneously the capacity to also bond phore refers. with another country or countries in 4 Professor Eric Ketelaar, Mapping for Societal Memory: from Duyfken to Digital, Paper presentated this case NL and Australia. at Customs House, Brisbane to commemorate the ar- rival of the Duyfken, 27 July 2006. 54 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Fig 7 Back to Health at Fairbridge, Courtesy: Western Mail Newspaper NONJA PETERS 55

5 N. Peters, From Tyranny to Freedom: Dutch 15 Graaff van de, Nell. 1994.We Survivied: A Moth- Children from the Netherlands East Indies to er’s Story of Japanese Captivity, UQP Paperbacks, St Fairbridge Farm School 1945-1946 (Perth 2008). Lucia, Queensland. 6 http://www.museon.nl/en/buitenkampers; http:// 16 A. Flach, 2003. Looking Back, Memories – An- www.indischhistorisch.nl/tweede/oorlog-en-ber- ecdotes and Opinions, self-published typewritten siap/world-war-ii-and-bersiap-period-1945-1949- copy, Brisbane. buitenkampers-ignored-and-untold-stories/ 17 N. Peters, 2008, Artist’s visual diary in the appen- http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2709038/ dix. 7 Peters, 2008. 18 ibid 8 William Frederick, The killing of Dutch and Eur- 19 C. Norberg-Schulz, 1979. Genius Loci – Towards asians in Indonesia’s Revolution (1945-1949): A a Phenomenology of Architecture, Rizzoli, New ‘brief genocide” reconsidered, in the Journal of York. Genocide Research 14 (3-4), September-Novem- 20 Norberg-Schulz, 1979. ber, 2012, 359-380, (359). 1. 21 Ernst Kollman, pers.com. the Netherlands, 2006. 9 Hall 1990, pp. 222-37, cited by I. Ang, ‘On not 22 Winnie de Vries, pers.com., the Netherlands, speaking Chinese’, New Formations, no. 24, 2006. 1994, p. 8. 23 Willem Plink, pers.com, the Netherlands, 2006. 10 L. Basch et al 1994, Nations Unbound: Trans- 24 A. Gupta and J. Ferguson, ‘Beyond “Culture”: national Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, Space, Identity and the Politics of Difference’ in and Deterritorialized Nation-States, Gordon and Cultural Anthropology 7(1), (1992) 6-23,19. Breach Publishers, Basel, Switzerland:Definitions 25 Hall 1996:4. of transnationalism vary, but generally centre on exchanges, connections and practices across bor- ders, thus transcending the national space as the primary reference point for activities and identi- ties. These have increased exponentially in concert with the growth of instant global communication systems. The accelerated development of com- munication, transport, trade and information networks through globalization has therefore strengthened the connections of migrants to two or more places. Today, something said in Sydney will reach The Hague quicker than you could fly there, and vice versa. What happens in The Hague feeds back, electronically and physically, immediately into Dutch Australian communities.’ In other words, instead of focusing on just one country or the other, policies with a transnational outlook specifically address the linkages between countries arising from transnational activities and practices by migrants. 11 J. Hughes, 2005. The Idea of Home: Autobio- graphical Essays Giramondo Publishing. Sydney. 12 B. Bender, ‘Introduction’, Contested Landscapes – Movement, Exile & Place, B. Bender and M. Winer (eds) (Berg, Oxford, 2001) 5. 13 Leach, N. 2002, ‘Belonging: Towards a Theory of Identification with Space’, in Habitus; A Sense of Place, eds. J. Hiller and E. Rooksby, Aldershot, Ashgate, Sydney:281-295 (283). 14 S. Hall, ‘Who Needs ‘Identity’? in S. Hall, & Raul du Gay (eds) Question of Identity, London, 1996. p. 2. Ambivalent Dutch Lifestyle Migrants in Rural Sweden

Marco Eimermann

Abstract This paper focuses on Dutch families who moved to Hällefors municipality (rural Swe- den) in the early 21st century. It discusses ambivalent discourses comparing pre-migration to post-migration life. As studied in this text, the direction of the move (north), the des- tination (a deprived municipality) and the structure for the decision process (a munici- pality and an agency deliberately attracting incomers) are novel aspects to existing studies of lifestyle migration. The paper aims to examine the migration process of Dutch lifestyle migrants in Hällefors and their ambivalent attitudes towards returning. The main ques- tion addressed enhances our understanding of the motivations for a possible move away from Hällefors. This question is addressed through a qualitative study, conducted in 2011. The findings suggest that spontaneous movers are more ambivalent than long-term planning migrants. This leads to the conclusion that the permanent-temporary binary of movement is less valuable for conceptualising this group of migrants.

Introduction: Hällefors and Although located rather centrally in Placement Sweden (Figure 1), the municipality is In the contemporary era of globalisation part of a rural area known as Bergslagen. and time-space compression (Janelle, This area, including county Dalarna, is 1991), European rural areas have ex- traditionally characterised by forestry as perienced urban-to-rural migration well as iron and steel industry (Braun- (Buller and Hoggart, 1994; Hoggart erhielm, 2006; Heldt Cassell, 2008). and Buller, 1995; Benson, 2011a; Hed- Over the centuries, the area has at- berg and Do Carmo, 2011). In Sweden, tracted labour migrants from Belgium, the county of Värmland is renowned for Germany, Finland, and other countries its large Dutch population (Andersen (Borgegård et al., 1998; Åkesson, 1998). and Engström, 2005; Eriksson Robert- During the past decades however, the son, 2010). However, this has not previ- municipality has suffered from popula- ously been related to ambivalent lifestyle tion decline and economic stagnation. migrants in rural Sweden. The number of inhabitants decreased On the one hand, Hällefors is a typ- from 11,723 in 1968 to 6,973 in 2012 ical Swedish small industrial town. (Statistics Sweden, 2013). Traditional MARCO EIMERMANN 57 On the other hand, Hällefors is a trend-setter in rural Sweden. In 2003, in an attempt to turn the tide of depopula- tion, the municipality’s executive board formulated three policy profiles: culinary arts, technology, and design (Braun- erhielm, 2006: 116-7). This resulted in, among other things, collaboration with a privately owned migration con- sultancy agency based in Norway called Placement. According to its director, the aim of Placement is to attract Dutch and other families ideally consisting of adults aged 35-45 and children under the age of 10. Furthermore, minimising the risk of remigration, Placement looks for families with pre-existing ties to the destination countries. Between 2004 and 2007, Hällefors participated in an international rural place marketing campaign, with the purpose of attracting new residents from the Netherlands and elsewhere (Eimer- mann, 2013). Partly as a result of these rural place marketing efforts, about 50 Dutch families settled in Hällefors in the early 21st century. In 2011 however, around 50 per cent of these families had left the municipality. Some of them returned to the Netherlands, others moved to another country, while still others moved to neighbouring munici- palities. This paper describes and analyses the motives of this group of migrants Fig 1 Hällefors is a small industrial town in central Sweden, part of a rural area known as Bergslagen. in Hällefors municipality. It links the above developments to issues of ambiv- alence in studies of lifestyle migration. patriarchal social values in Hällefors It contributes to lifestyle migration re- (Hedfeldt, 2008) may hamper its ad- search in three ways: introducing a novel aptation to post-industrial conditions direction (northwards, to a renowned (Boyle and Halfacree, 1998; Heldt Cas- welfare state), a novel destination type sel, 2008, 106-7). (a deprived area) and a structure for 58 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

494 491 572 592 698 651 826 659 648 809 901 1194 1189 1280 1018 1197 1377 1384 Sweden 378 436 450 502 392 422 455 511 492 629 822 884 987 671 746 803 918 1046 Norway

244 233 264 248 281 334 343 299 292 313 319 363 343 319 335 399 542 579 Finland

628 525 620 608 559 633 489 540 430 507 467 599 657 562 613 550 631 732 Denmark Nordic countries 2243 2281 2357 2564 2813 2867 2846 3150 3365 3616 4131 4418 3966 4021 3512 3532 4362 4216 Spain

587 631 651 573 609 664 674 710 666 694 851 982 880 940 1030 1188 1189 1137 Portugal

2640 2610 2726 2830 2903 3154 3163 3431 3373 3442 3957 3842 3701 3617 3369 3541 4054 3873 France Lifestyle mig. destinations

USA 5125 5200 5241 5398 5343 5356 4990 4672 4071 4218 4516 4994 5147 4711 4471 4836 5815 5640

1181 1336 1263 1280 1299 1333 1236 1342 1181 1260 1549 1606 1482 1457 1312 1302 1610 1423 Canada

1591 1397 1358 1275 1552 1458 1466 1408 1525 1607 2173 2614 2455 2454 1977 2011 2296 2321 Australia Classical destinations Classical

Germany 7956 8424 7403 6892 7132 7654 9013 10822 9822 9552 10245 11006 11513 11754 10402 10632 12526 12968

Neighbouring countries Neighbouring Belgium 7493 8684 7049 7115 6953 8006 8588 9270 9284 9467 10603 12008 11968 11629 9564 9320 9843 9683

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Years Table 1 Destination countries for emigrants from the Netherlands, 1995-2012 Table Table 1: Destination countries for emigrants from the Netherlands, 1995–2012 Source: Statistics Netherlands, 2013 MARCO EIMERMANN 59 the decision process (a local authority addressed through narratives of Dutch deliberately attracting new residents migrant families, gathered during field- from abroad). As illustrated in Table 1, work in 2011. this migration flow has been increasing The structure of the paper is as follows. steadily from 1995 onwards, disrupted After this introduction, the conceptual temporarily during the economic reces- framework is presented, and the research sion of 2009 and 2010. design is outlined. Subsequently, a de- Furthermore, Table 1 compares mi- scription and analysis of the fieldwork is gration from the Netherlands to Sweden presented, giving special attention to the with migration to neighbouring coun- families’ ambivalent attitudes towards tries, classical migration destinations returning. In the concluding discussion, and lifestyle migration destinations the findings indicating ambivalence are (Benson and O’Reilly, 2009). Relative related to the permanent-temporary to the numbers in 1995, migration to binary of movement, discussed by Bell Sweden increased most. Sweden at- and Ward (2000). tracts more Dutch movers than Den- mark, Norway or Finland. Moreover, Ambivalent Lifestyle Migrants the total number of Dutch moving to Studies of lifestyle migration offer apt in- these four Nordic countries (3,613) ap- sights into post-migration everyday life proaches the amount moving to France (O’Reilly and Benson, 2009). Recently, (3,873) in 2012. According to the a number of studies were collected in a Swedish National Rural Development book called Lifestyle Migration – expec- Agency (2008, 47), the distribution of tations, aspirations and experiences (Ben- the Dutch population in Sweden dif- son and O’Reilly, 2009b). These studies fers from that of most other migrants. represent stories ranging from Western- The Dutch prefer rural and sparsely ers searching for spiritual elucidation in populated areas over urban areas. More India to second-home owners moving detailed information is presented in frequently between two or more homes. Eimermann et al. (2012). Lifestyle migration is distinct from other Against this background, this paper forms of migration in its principal mo- focuses in particular on Dutch mi- tivation: lifestyle and a gradual achieve- grants in the rural Swedish municipal- ment of a better way of life. ity of Hällefors. The aim is to examine As there is no clear definition of ‘life- the migration process of Dutch lifestyle style’, it is a subjective term. Essentially, migrants in Hällefors and their ambiv- it refers to three aspects: a drive towards alent attitudes towards returning, and a better way of life, the potential for thereby to give voice to the hope, pain, self-realisation embedded within the nostalgia, and triumph of lives lived in notion of spatial mobility, and meaning- other places (King et al., 1995). Con- fulness and values ascribed to particular sequently, the empirical question is as places (Benson and O’Reilly, 2009b). In follows: after migrating to Hällefors, this paper, the act of migration is com- what influences the Dutch families’ atti- prehended as one step within a wider tude towards returning? This question is lifestyle trajectory. 60 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Lifestyle migration assembles render- However, although some migrants ings of amenity migration, residential realise their dreams of an alternative tourism, retirement migration and (in- way of life with relative ease, others ternational) counterurbanisation into a are forced to invest more time and ef- single theoretical framework. An initial fort in achieving their aspirations (Ben- working definition of lifestyle migrants is son, 2010). This is why the search for offered by Benson and O’Reilly (2009a, authenticity and a better way of live is 621): ‘relatively affluent individuals, portrayed as an ongoing quest, stretch- moving either part-time or full-time, ing into post-migration life (Benson, permanently or temporarily, to places 2011b). Pre-migration romantic and which, for various reasons, signify for the nostalgic imaginings of a rural idyll and migrants something loosely defined as authenticities of everyday life are pivotal quality of life’. The current study offers pull factors constructing an expected new empirical data that suggest amend- better way of life after migration. How- ments to be made to this definition of ever, the actual rurality experienced in lifestyle migration. the migrants’ post-migration lives may Studying lifestyle migration, Benson contradict these expectations (O’Reilly and O’Reilly (2009b) refer to concepts and Benson, 2009; Halfacree and Ri- such as modernity, self-identity (Gid- vera, 2012). dens, 1991) and the new mobilities para- This tension between reality and digm (Sheller and Urry, 2006). Moreover, imagination is termed ambivalence, Benson (2013) compares the migrants’ implying an everyday mismatch of claims to the authentic with the politics post-migration experiences with pre- of connoisseurship and negotiating social vious hopes and dreams (O’Reilly and distinction and social capital (Bourdieu, Benson, 2009, 9). Some migrants rather 1984). Each of these concepts suggests reproduce than solve pre-migration increasing opportunities for affluent -in concerns, which become important for dividuals to create their own preferences their post-migration trajectories (Ben- in a context of diminishing social and son, 2010). Therefore, ambivalence is practical constraints. In other words, af- related to the migrants’ attitude towards fluent individuals’ increased mobility has returning (or moving elsewhere), after created opportunities for them both to moving to Hällefors. Ambivalence may explore places and to move to a particular be a particular issue for this type of mi- place with which they identify. gration, perceived as voluntary (Bær- In a Dutch context, Van Dalen and enholdt and Granås, 2008, 8). Dutch Henkens (2007, 56, original capitals) lifestyle migrants have the possibility suggest that affluent migrants leaving the to return at any time to their country Netherlands seek to escape urban areas, of origin, or to move elsewhere. Para- longing for ‘the Good Life: nature, space, doxically, this complicates the decision and less populated surroundings’. This whether or not to stay. search is especially motivated since gen- In other words, post-migration am- uine rural areas in the Netherlands are bivalence can give rise to a new decision scarce (Haartsen et al., 2003). process considering returning or a move MARCO EIMERMANN 61 elsewhere. In a beneficial scenario, the stasis, structure and social order. He migrants would gain more nuanced, advocates a new mobilities paradigm, complex and dynamic understandings implying that almost all places in the of their destination (Benson, 2013). developed world are connected through In a detrimental scenario, the migrants networks and that «nowhere can be an would wish to return but are not able to island» (Sheller and Urry, 2006: 209). find employment or affordable housing This paradigm cautiously navigates be- in the Netherlands (Huete et al., 2013). tween notions of sedentarism (assuming As Benson (2013) argues, this ambiva- human lives to be place-bound) and no- lence possibly derives from the unclear madism (the opposite of sedentarism) boundary between tourism and migra- at various scales, aiming to transcend tion. theoretical contrasts between place and This is related to temporal dimen- movement (Sheller and Urry, 2006). sions of geographical movement. Bell However, McIntyre et al. (2006) claim and Ward (2000) compare different that mobility raises place-consciousness types of movement using spatio-tempo- as it enables people to compare different ral boundaries, resulting in a typology places and their qualities. Over the life of movement. The authors point at the course, people may develop feelings of arbitrary nature of defining migration simultaneously being at home in differ- roughly as a move across an adminis- ent places. The authors discuss the con- trative boundary, exceeding one year cept of multiple dwelling, understood (ibid.). as a process rather than an object. As This results in a multitude of mobili- such, multiple dwelling is an effort to ties, at times referred to as a tourism-mi- negotiate meaningful links with family, gration nexus (Hall and Williams, national traditions and nature in an in- 2002). Rather than drawing a temporal creasingly complex world. line between different types of mobil- Hence, the conceptual framework ity, this nexus indicates how tourism, for this paper is derived from issues of migration and other forms of mobility post-migration ambivalence in studies are interconnected. A causal relation of lifestyle migration. This is then con- may exist, where people first visit a place nected to issues of temporality of geo- several times for holidays, subsequently graphical movement. purchase a holiday home there and even- tually move more or less permanently to Research Design and Data the destination (Müller and Marjavaara, The migrants’ unique experiences are 2012). Moreover, after migration, these central to this research. Hence, data migrants invite friends and relatives and are mainly gathered through qualitative may induce a subsequent cohort of mi- methods. Visiting members of Dutch grants. households at their homes or work en- Consequently in the current era of vironments in Hällefors and conducting mobilities, Urry (2000) argues that con- in-depth interviews with them results in cepts of mobility contribute more to our insights that are not possible to achieve understanding of societies than ideas of using quantitative research methods. 62 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 As King et al. (1995, x, original italics) moving, as well as an attempt to capture argue, aggregative approaches often «fail what triggered the decision to migrate. to capture the essence of what it is like The second part considers everyday to be a migrant; and be, or not be, part experiences in Hällefors and the work of a community, a nation, a society – environment. Moreover, questions on cut off from history and from a sense frequency, duration and purpose of vis- of place». The fieldwork for this paper its to the Netherlands as well as friends emphasises migrants and the «realities» and relatives visiting in Hällefors are in- of their situation in Hällefors (Halfacree cluded. The final part of the interview and Boyle, 1993). guide includes the migrants’ attitudes Each family is visited once. The inter- towards the near and distant future views are about three hours in length, (resp. less or more than three years after usually with both parents in the family the interview) considering their place of simultaneously. Children are usually not residence, work environment, mobility present during the interviews, except for and everyday life. the part of the visits that is combined In 2011, out of the original 50 Dutch with a family gathering around the din- families, approximately 25 remain in ner table. This less formal setting facili- Hällefors. Most studies of lifestyle mi- tates an interactive-relational approach, gration focus on retired migrants. In in which our encounters are fuelled by contrast, this paper focuses on econom- qualities in the interaction and relation- ically active migrants. Thus, of the re- ship that emerges (Chirban, 1996, xiv). maining 25 Dutch families in Hällefors, Both before and after the interviews, 15 economically active families are se- contact is maintained in order to re- lected for this study. Two of these fami- ceive additional information from the lies declined participation, which means respondents. that this study draws on data gathered The interviews are tape-recorded and from thirteen families. transcribed verbatim, after which labels The composition and age structure of are added manually in a word processing the households included in this study programme (Baarda et al., 2000: 176- are presented in Table 2 (the numbers in 188). They are then sorted and analysed. the first column indicate a chronological The quotations in the subsequent em- order of moving). These households can pirical section are used as illustrations be analysed socio-demographically. The for the line of reasoning in this paper. adult family members are mainly born In short, the interview guide con- in the late 1950s or the 1960s. They sists of two parts: one considering the are aged 31 to 52 when they move. The migrants’ aspirations and expectations children are born in the 1990s and early prior to moving, and the other focusing 2000s and are between one and fifteen on their experiences after moving. Apart years old when they move. In two fami- from general socio-demographic char- lies, a child is born in Sweden (after the acteristics of the family members, the move). Including demographic figures first part includes frequency, duration for the two families that are not part and purpose of visits to Sweden prior to of the interview study, six out of fifteen MARCO EIMERMANN 63 families have three children or more, six Empirical Findings have two children, one has one child, The other day we met some of our one has none, and family 3 leaves one Dutch connections who live here in child behind, from an earlier marriage. Hällefors. They asked us how we were The households are thus similar regard- doing and we said “so-so”. Their situa- ing composition and age structure. tion was similar. We chatted for a while In general, all households arrive be- and concluded that most of us Dutch tween 2004 and 2011. A distinction can here pretend to live a good life, but that be made between ‘planners’ and rather it simply is not true. We all miss things spontaneous movers. Three of the fam- we used to do and have in the Nether- ilies first visit Sweden 15 years or more lands. (Interview 1, 2011) before actually moving there, whereas The above citation illustrates Dutch three other families visit Sweden one lifestyle migrants in Hällefors experi- year or less before their move. All the encing social difficulties after migration. families have thought about returning The analysis of the Dutch families’ at- to the Netherlands or moving elsewhere. titudes towards returning is structured However, two families are highlighted in along three social-scientific perspectives this study, as they express their ambiva- on migration; 1) characteristics of the lent attitudes towards returning most migrants, 2) the nature of the places of explicitly: one family stay in Hällefors, origin and destination, and 3) the un- the other move. derlying forces and structures that con- dition movement (White, 1995). In the

Table 2: Household composition and age structure

Family nr and First visit Adults Children migration year 1. 2005 2005 ♂1958, ♀1961 1999, 2000 2. 2005 2002 ♂1964, ♀1964 1997, 1999 3. 2005 1994 ♂1962, ♀1973 - 4. 2005 ± 1970 ♂1957, ♀1958 1990, 1994 5. 2006 2001 ♂1954, ♀1974 2002, 2005, 2008 6. 2006 1987 ♂1962, ♀1966 1995 7. 2007 2004 ♂1965, ♀1967 1997, 2000 8. 2007 2006 ♂1970, ♀1971 1996, 1997, 2006, 2009 9. 2007 ± 1976 ♂1960, ♀1963 1994, 1996, 1999 10. 2007 ± 1990 ♂1970, ♀1969 1998, 2002 11. 2008 1996 ♂1968, ♀1967 1997, 1999 12. 2008 2007 ♂1957, ♀1959 - 13. 2010 2005 ♂1971, ♀1979 1999, 2001, 2006

Source: the author, fieldwork 2011. 64 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 remainder of this section, push-, pull-, of urbanisation in time and space, plays and keep-factors are used intermittently a significant role in the decision to mi- in order to frame the migration deci- grate. In other words, many migrants sions. have grown up in rather small Dutch vil- The first perspective concerns the lages that urbanise during the migrants’ characteristics of the migrants. Table 2 early adolescence. Related to this, nos- presents the composition and age struc- talgic sentiments and discontent are ex- ture of the Dutch households in this pressed in the following citations: study. This is complemented in Table 3 with an overview of the places of resi- When we were children, H. was a vil- dence prior to moving and the migrants’ lage. We lived among farmers, and I could hear the cows in the barn. Of occupations prior to and post migration. course, these surroundings have all Statistics Netherlands (2012) defines been urbanised, swallowed by the large five degrees of urbanisation, depending Dutch agglomeration, the Randstad. on surrounding address density. As all (Interview 12, 2011) five categories are inhabited by approx- imately a quintile of the Dutch popula- I lived on the edge of the village of V. tion, they are comparable in size. During my youth, V.-West was de- veloped. For us, that was heaven on Table 3 shows that six households earth as we could play and build our move from moderately, strongly, or own hide-outs there. It was fantastic, extremely urbanised municipalities, but after a while a new neighbourhood whereas three households move from was built, and another one, and an- non-urbanised areas and two from other one. Soon, the population of V. had increased from 25,000 to 65,000. hardly urbanised places. However, even The municipality grew fast, resulting in the hardly and non-urbanised areas in crime, among other things. And traffic the small and densely populated country congestion. We lived 10 km from our of the Netherlands can have an urban workplace; it took 1½ hours to com- character, as they are all situated close to mute. Everyday! (Interview 11, 2011) urban centres. Family 13 illustrates this as follows: ‘where we lived in the Neth- The nostalgic sentiments above relate erlands, you could call that rural. But to growing up in a perceived rural idyll there, on an average day 20,000 vehicles that no longer exists. The expressed dis- passed by on the main road. Here, on content is due to social and physical dis- the same kind of road, it is about 1,400 advantages of urbanisation and densely a day’. This reinforces the thesis that populated areas, such as criminality and for people living in the Netherlands, traffic congestion. moving to a ‘real’ rural area requires The second perspective compares the emigration (Eimermann et al., 2012). nature of the place of destination with Moreover, the above quote reveals both the nature of the place of origin within physical and social characteristics of a social and physical contexts. These con- perceived rural idyll. texts (e.g. property, nature, landscape, The age of the migrating adults, as and less populated surroundings) may well as social and physical consequences develop into keep-factors after mi- MARCO EIMERMANN 65

Table 3: Place of residence prior to moving and occupations of the migrants

Family Place of residenceª Pre-migration occupation Post-migration occupation 1. Strongly urbanised ♂ Producer* ♂ Producer* ♀ Artist ♀ Project leader * 2. Hardly urbanised ♂ Road construction ♂ Road constr., self-employed ♀ Designer ♀ Owner of shop 3. Extremely urbanised ♂Truck driver ♂ Restaurant-owner* ♀Transport planner ♀ Restaurant-owner* 4. Moderately urbanised ♂ Entrepreneur (safety)* ♂ Entrepreneur (safety)* ♀ Entrepreneur (safety)* ♀ Entrepreneur (safety)* 5. Extremely urbanised ♂ Freelance illustrator ♂ Freelance illustrator ♀ Teacher (prim. school) ♀ Teacher, self-employed seller 6. A rural area outside ♂ Employed at holiday ♂ Manager of a hostel* the Netherlands resort ♀ Manager of a hostel* ♀ Employed at holiday resort 7. Hardly urbanised ♂ Truck driver ♂ Truck driver ♀ Owner of restaurant ♀ Nurse 8. Strongly urbanised ♂ Manager* ♂ Carpenter ♀ Manager (day-care ♀ Nurse, owner of shop* centre) 9. Not urbanised ♂ Civil servant ♂ Self-employed, forestry ♀ Teacher (sec. school) ♀ Manager, food company* 10. Not urbanised ♂ Industrial designer ♂ Entrepreneur* ♀ Employed at florist ♀ Employed at emp. agency shop 11. Strongly urbanised ♂ Teacher (sec. school) ♂ Teacher (sec. school) ♀ Employed as electrician ♀ Nurse 12. Strongly urbanised ♂ Editor, Motion design- ♂ Editor, Motion designer* er* ♀ Director, post-production* ♀ Director, post-produc- tion* 13. Not urbanised ♂ Emp. (insurance com- ♂ Employed at a factory pany) ♀ Unemployed ♀ Employed at cleaning firm

Source: the author, fieldwork 2011, * = running an own enterprise ª degrees of urbanisation are based on Statistics Netherlands, 2012. gration. On the other hand, friends, This can partly explain the ambiv- relatives, and cultural aspects in the alent attitude towards returning. To Netherlands - the migrants’ social capi- begin with, property prices in Dutch tal - are pull-factors for a possible return urban areas are much higher than in the to the Netherlands. sparsely populated Swedish rural areas. 66 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 One of the families lives in a former when you go picking berries there on a church. Their sense of triumph is ex- Sunday afternoon, there are 200 people pressed thus: on a single square kilometre. Here, you don’t run into anyone, and that is so One reason for moving to Hällefors was brilliant! (Interview 11, 2011) that we can own something here that you could never own in the Netherlands We’ve visited Norway, but I wouldn’t - a larger house. One of our sons has want to live there. The landscape is too always wanted to live in ‘a house you rugged, and people live packed together can walk around’ [i.e. a detached home, in the valleys. The Swedish landscape instead of a row house or semi-detached has more gentle slopes. And lakes. home]. Even when we didn’t have any Everywhere, there is wilderness. You plans to migrate at all… And when we can encounter rare birds and wolves in had decided to migrate, we told the the woods. (Interview 9, 2011) children that we would be living in a house that you can walk around. This house feels like a palace! The above quotes illustrate both social (Interview 8, 2011) and physical perceptions of the rural idyll in and around Hällefors. These per- This sense of living in a palace is com- ceptions function as pull-factors for the bined with notions of the good life and move and as keep-factors after the move. the rural idyll, as vividly described dur- However, the migrants in this study also ing the interviews. Some of the follow- reflect on a number of pull-factors for a ing quotes illustrate how impressed the possible return. In other words: migrants in this study are by social and physical aspects of the Swedish land- We all miss Dutch-style out-door ter- races at pubs, happy faces, and people scape and nature: greeting each other merrily (Interview 1, 2011). We used to go on holiday to France, and then some friends recommended that we visit Sweden; so we decided to The third perspective studies underly- give it a try. And when we got here, we ing forces and structures conditioning thought “wow, this is actually what we a possible move away from Hällefors. have been looking for in France” – the In addition to sentiments and memo- same abundance of wilderness, but with ries of their own childhood, some adult the right of public access. In France, everything is gated. And here, you have migrants see the discourse of the ‘rural access and can enjoy the forests and the childhood idyll’ as promising safety, lakes. We were sold instantly! So tran- health, and closeness to nature for their quil and beautiful. children (Baylina and Berg, 2010, 287). (Interview 8, 2011) During the interviews, this discourse was both affirmed and denied. One fam- The first years we took our holidays in ily considers activities for children such Sweden, we were particularly impressed as music classes, various kinds of clubs, by the tranquillity of the Swedish out- and theatre, for example, to be ‘afforda- doors. Where we lived in the Nether- ble and accessible, certainly compared lands, there were forests as well. But MARCO EIMERMANN 67 to the Netherlands’ (Interview 9, 2011). house and we bought this property to On the other hand, because of a per- open a shop. The property is inhabited ceived lack of education opportunities by two more tenants and the rent they pay to us seemed to cover our costs. for children aged sixteen years and over That way, I could run this shop without and lack of adequate public transport in the pressure of making a profit. Just run this part of Sweden, children are forced a shop because I like it. to move to larger towns such as Örebro It went quite well until winter came. and find an apartment there at a rela- Heating expenses were too high and owning both a house and this property tively young age. This is contrasted to became too costly. We decided to sell the situation in the Netherlands, and it the house and move to this property. plays a significant role in the migrants’ But as we were in the process of pack- attitude towards moving from Hälle- ing, a couple from Stockholm showed fors. One family explains: an interest in the shop. We told our- selves “now that we’re packing anyway, We’ve had our moments of hesitation, we might as well return to the Nether- but our original plan for moving here lands.” was that we would evaluate the situ- These questions come up regularly ation after three years. Now that we’ve anyway: do we like it enough here? lived here for three years, we’ve decided Don’t we miss our relatives too much? to move to southern Sweden. In the vil- Coming over to drink a cup of coffee lage we’re moving to, there are good ed- together. A chat with other parents ucational facilities up to and including at the schoolyard. Social contacts are secondary school. And afterwards it’s up much easier to establish in the Nether- to the children to decide, of course, but lands, and we keep missing that. there are good possibilities for studying We could live in my parents’ house in not far away from where we will be liv- the Netherlands and we started looking ing. We moved to Sweden partly to be for jobs there. But due to the financial able to spend more time with our family, crisis, it proved very hard to find a job not to see the children moving far away or even return to the jobs we had be- at the age of sixteen-seventeen. fore we moved. Then we decided not to (Interview 1, 2011) take the risk of giving up everything we have here in Hällefors - which we can only dream of in the Netherlands - for As illustrated in Table 2, the adults in so much uncertainty. So two weeks ago family 8 are born about ten years earlier we really decided to stay and live here. than the adults in family 1. Compared (Interview 8, 2011) to family 8, the children in family 1 are closer to secondary school age, which Ambivalent attitudes towards returning contributes to their decision to move are illustrated in the above citation. It ex- to a place with more possibilities. The emplifies complex post-migration iden- mother in family 8 talks about the de- tities that are related to social capital in cision process and the attitude towards the places of origin and destination, as returning: well as diminishing employment oppor- tunities in Sweden and the Netherlands We moved to Hällefors four years ago, due to the economic crisis. Family re- but we only actually decided to stay two lationships are also considered, both in weeks ago. Initially, we lived in another 68 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 the above citation (about the parents of ture and household composition. The the mother in family 8) and in the pre- nature of the places of origin and des- vious one (about the children in family tination is essential to take into account 1). The ambivalence is best described when studying the forces and structures as a sense of being in-between, as the that condition moving. The rural child- mother in family 8 analyses: hood idyll is important in two ways. It plays a role in the adult migrants’ nostal- I woke up this morning, screaming “I gic sentiments and sense of discontent want to go back, I want to go back”! related to rapid urbanisation of the rural Well, I did not really scream; I dreamed that I was screaming. I was in a con- areas of their childhood. Related to this, crete box, floating on water, surrounded it creates the adults’ aspirations to find by hundreds of thousands of similar an idyll for their own children to grow concrete boxes. There was almost no up in. space between the boxes. This is how Social and physical aspects of nature, my mind pictured the Netherlands in space, and less populated surroundings my dream. I felt confined. I wanted to go back, back to Sweden! (Interview 8, initially stimulate the Dutch migrants 2011) to move from their urbanised areas of origin to Hällefors. After the move, the migrants’ experiences of this perceived Concluding Discussion good life are contradictory. Ultimately, This paper examines the migrants’ am- some migrants may long back to the bivalence regarding a possible move conditions they so eagerly left behind away from Hällefors in relation to the in the Netherlands. As lifestyle migra- migrants’ characteristics, the nature of tion is voluntary, the migrants’ attitude the places of origin and destination, and towards returning is paradoxically more the forces and structures that condition ambivalent than they expected. These moving away (White, 1995). The sen- are prominent forces and structures that timent of longing back to things in the condition a possible move away from country of origin, expressed by family 8 Hällefors. and family 1 above, are the clearest ex- As such, this paper investigates pressions of their ambivalence. post-migration lives in the context of As far as the characteristics of the mi- aspirations before moving (Benson grants are concerned, this study suggests & O’Reilly, 2009b) and the perma- that the degree of preparation before the nent-temporary binary of movement move can be decisive for the households (Bell & Ward, 2000). What is more im- in this study. Spontaneous movers show portant in the quotidian; attachment to more ambivalence than long-term plan- place, a mobile life or a combination of ners. This may be related to their per- both? Whereas Urry (2000) and Cohen sonal traits (e.g. taking quick migration et al. (2013) clearly opt for mobility as decisions), their occupations (facilitat- the pivotal fabric of today’s industrial- ing easy movement) and other factors. ised societies, this paper rather stresses Moreover, the migrants’ attitude to- people’s continued desire to connect wards returning is related to age struc- with places. MARCO EIMERMANN 69 During the interviews with Dutch attitudes towards future moves. Such families in Hällefors I have encoun- flexibility is related to transitions in tered a tendency to connect with more the life course such as child birth, chil- than one place. Most of the respond- dren growing up and attending distant ents regard their current place of resi- schools. dence in rather flexible ways. Although Although unintended by Placement, they express flexible attitudes towards Hällefors and other municipalities en- movement, the majority of their daily gaging in Holland projects, many at- mobility patterns do not resemble those tracted families are prepared to move on of the privileged persons studied in in the event of changes in the work or Cohen et al. (2013). Rather, the per- family life. Hence, the studied migrants manent-temporary binary of movement consciously choose to live somewhere becomes less valuable for conceptualis- for a period of time and then are open ing this group of migrants. As a move for opportunities elsewhere. from the sending area does not neces- As a family’s first and second homes sarily weaken social ties, migration no may exchange status over time, a form longer carries significant risks of clos- of multiple dwelling (McIntyre et al., ing future employment there (Bruillon, 2006) emerges that does not occur si- 2007). multaneously in space, but rather in a Such developments suggest diversi- conscious chronological order. Future fication and transience within lifestyle studies may relate lifestyle migration migration research, where changing and the ongoing quest for a better way preferences over the life course intersect of life (Benson, 2011) to multiple un- with lifestyle relocation. Most of my re- derstandings of homeward and onward spondents maintain realistic and flexible migration. 70 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 References Bruillon, Michel, 2007, «A peculiarly British spirit of Andersen, U. and H.-P. Engström, 2005, A Dutch adventure? 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Richard Magito Brun

Culture is change. Tradition is the period Why this population left India is not between moments of crucial changes. known with certainty, but most schol- Tradition itself is never static. Below the ars suppose that internal military and surface of tradition tensions and innova- political strife, or external pressure, tions prepare for greater changes. caused the migration. The generations A century or two after the fall of the descended from these emigrants became Gupta Empire in northern India a cul- the Gypsies of Europe, or more precisely turally very important migration started. the peoples of Roma and Sinti (Brun Roughly in the period from 500 AD to 2013; Hancock 2006). about 800 AD a population segment The migrants followed by horse and left their Indian homeland and moved carriage the age-old Silk Road through westwards. Today there is a predominant Afghanistan and Iran into Armenia. This opinion that the emigrants belonged to journey did not last for more than a few the warrior caste. A hundred years of lin- centuries. On the way their language guistic discussion, in combination with picked up a lot of words from Ordu, Per- recent genetic research, indicates fairly sian and Armenian - but nothing from convincingly, that the area from where Turkish or Arabic. We have to presume this exodus emanated included the re- that during these centuries many of the gions of Rajastahn, Punjab, and probably men intermarried with women from the also Sindh, in north-western present-day surrounding peoples. At this point in India, and in Pakistan east of the river their history this population must still Indus. (Mendizabal 2012; Matras 2006; be considered Indian, not Roma. In Ar- Turner 1926; Hancock 2000) menia things changed a lot. In this coun- Everyone in this migrating popula- try the Hindus met a fully developed tion must have been a Hindu, in man- Christian society. We are now in the 9th ners and faith. Their language was some or 10th century. The migrants seem to of the north-western medieval Indian have developed important metallurgical languages based on ancient Sanskrit. skills in Armenia. The later languages of RICHARD MAGITO BRUN 73 Romany, the varieties of Romani Chib, even Egypt (Rosenqvist 2005; Gregoras still preserve a number of metallurgical 1979). terms borrowed from the Armenian lan- Modern linguistics and historical re- guage. But must important was the start search show us that the Indo-Graecian of a syncretistic amalgamation of Hindu ethnic group now splits into two main faith with the concepts of Christianity. branches in Europe. One group ex- Much evidence shows us that the art of plored the Balkans, and did not move acrobatics and rope-dancing followed much further. A great deal of this group the migrants from India on their way to was forced to be slaves in Romania until the West. the 1850’s (Hancock 1988). Their stay in Armenia must have This eastern branch soon became the lasted for more than a century. Why the Arli, Kalderash, and Lovara speaking now Indo-Armenians left the country is eastern Roma. The other branch turned not clear, but one possible reason may to Western Europe. We know them as be the Muslim conquest of Armenia at the Sinti or Manouche people, now liv- the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. ing in Germany, France, the British Isles To the west lay the still flourishing and Scandinavia (Opfermann 2007; Byzantine Empire, and along the Black Opfermann 1997; Minken 2009). Sea coast a band of prosperous Greek All these west European gypsies can cities, from Trapezunt (Trabzon or Tre- rightly be called the Travellers People of bizond) in the east to Constantinople in Europe. In Germany the Romany of the the west. Inner Anatolia was domain of Sinti absorbed a lot of German words. the Turkish Seljuks. The new migration The 15th century written sources from followed the Greek path. Now language Germany, verify the presence of Sinti changed again. Some centuries within with documents of imperial recogni- the Byzantine borders had a profound tion, permitting them freely to travel. impact on the language of the former In 1512 the first documented company Indians. With all the new Greek words, in Sweden of these Travellers arrived at a proto-Romany developed. We now Stockholm. They were called Tartars or have to begin to speak about an Ortho- Tatere, and were 30 families headed by dox Christian Indo-Graecian people in their leader Antonius. They were well re- Byzantium. ceived in the Swedish capital. From about 1320 we have an eye-wit- In Germany things turned worse. In nesses report from Constantinople. The the chaos following the devastation and Byzantine official Nicephorus Gregoras extreme poverty of the German lands, describes carefully and in great detail a after the 17th century’s Thirty Years’ War, horse-show, combined with an extraor- gangs of Jewish and Sinti brigands and dinary circus performance, in the city. robbers lived their lawless lives in forests He tells us about the artists, including and on the road. This situation contin- the rope-dancers and the acrobats. He ued well into the early 19th century. Rob- also reports what the company told him bery became one of the trades among about themselves. They had travelled poor Sinti families. One of these Gypsy through Persia, Georgia, Armenia, and robbers was Friedrich Eisfeld from Ell- 74 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 rich – a small town in the southern Eisfeld, was present as a witness. Time, Harz province Nordhausen. He was also space, name and social circumstances known as ”Black Frederick”. He was a make it highly probable that the wit- member of Theodor Unger’s band, and ness was the robber Friedrich Eisfeld later of the Kramer gang (Küther 1976 from the same small town. He had [1987]; Heinemann 1910; Borchardt shortly before been released from his s.d.; Lehrmann 2004). prison. In 1810 he had been sentenced However, at about the same time, in to death for being a member of Theodor the late 18th century, some Sinti fam- Unger’s legendary gang. The court had ilies earned their living as travelling however shortly thereafter changed Ei- performers, especially as rope-dancers sfeld’s death sentence to only two years and acrobats. In the mountain region hard labor. Theodor Unger had been ex- known as Harz, on the border between ecuted for being the gang leader. Very Thuringia and Saxony, such a company short time after his death Unger appears was described in detail by Johann Wolf- as a romantic hero in a popular novel gang von Goethe in his novel ”Wilhelm dedicated to his fate (Lehmann 1809 Meister”. Goethe was very fascinated by [1990-94]). the romantic scenery of the mountain- Some years later Johann Wolfgang ous landscape in Harz. But he was also von Goethe, who was obsessed by acro- very keen to get in touch with its inter- batics and young men, hired a certain esting inhabitants. He seems to have Johann Eisfeld from the nearby Thurin- encountered the acrobats right south gian town Langensalza, as his personal of the great forest, perhaps not far from butler and travel companion. Eisfeld, Ellrich, the home-town of Black Freder- completely unskilled for the job, was ick Eisfeld. Ellrich was however not only employed by Goethe for several years. the home of the brigand Eisfeld, but also If Goethe’s Eisfeld had a family relation the town where the rope-dancer Ernst to the rope-dancer Eisfeld is not clear Valentin Eisfeld lived with his family at (Schleif 1965). the turn of the century (Goethe 1931; The pater familias Ernst Valentin Eis- Goethe 1957). feld died in Ellrich in 1852. He became Ernst Valentin and his wife Johanna legendary in the town, and in the 1880’s Catharine married in the Ellrich par- his memory was still living to such an ish in 1813, when the city was still extent that he became a central charac- under control by the French Napole- ter in a novel written by a high-school onic troops. None of them could read teacher who had grown up in Ellrich or write. They lived in a suburban area, (Petermann 1887 [1924; c.1998]). which in many respects was the town’s The brothers Friedrich and Friedrich, Jewish ghetto. Soon after their marriage born 1813 and 1815, got the family’s a son was born, and two years later an- traditional education to acrobats and other son. Both of them were given the rope-dancers. When these brothers left name Friedrich. At the baptism in Ell- their country of origin is not known, rich 1813 of one of the two, an other- but in the 1830’s one of them, Friedrich, wise unknown relative, called Friedrich turned up in Denmark. In 1837 at the RICHARD MAGITO BRUN 75 age of 23 or 21 he tries to perform his plication, and somewhat later the issue acrobatic art, in the small town Maribo was on the agenda for royal decision in in Denmark, without the correct per- the Palace. The decision was signed by mission. The local police interrupted his the king. The rope-dancer was granted performance, after only one hour. In a the right to show his art in the capital, following report to the royal Ministry of and also after each provincial governor’s Justice in Copenhagen we can read that approval, in all parts of the Kingdom. the young man was so poor that it could Eisfeld never became a citizen, he was al- be seen at far distance. ways a foreigner, a Prussian subject. The Friedrich and his Danish wife Con- poor, unwanted and homeless Gypsy in cordia Kunigunda Kunst continued Denmark had turned into a kind of ce- with their illegal performances in many lebrity in Sweden. His productions and Danish towns, in cooperation with an- family affairs appear frequently in the other acrobat, Friedrich Wilhelm Hoff- papers (Hirn 2002). mann, originating from a Czech family As far as we know he had no perma- in Brno. Friedrich Eisfeld’s exploration nent home anywhere. A few years later of Denmark was not very succesful, he he joined with his brother, now called was a poor and barely tolerated Gypsy Heinrich Friedrich, and so they toured (Enevig 1981-82). extensively in the then Russian Fin- The next year, 1838, Friedrich took land for some years. For about 10 years the decision to leave Denmark for Swe- the Eisfeld family company performed den. He came to the city Malmoe, as a abroad, including the Russian Baltic member of a more established Danish states Latvia and Estonia. They also per- company (Marwig’s company). He had formed in Saint Petersburg, before they no legal rights, but performed on the returned to Sweden about 1855. rope so well that a newspaper in Mal- A number of children were born in moe published a short, but very enthusi- the Baltic countries, in the Russian cap- astic article. Friedrich soon left Marwig’s ital, and in Finland. The brothers sepa- Danish company and started his own rated and Heinrich Eisfeld returned to completely illegal tour. He performed in German Prussia, performed on the rope many places on his way to Stockholm. in Berlin 1848, went back to Ellrich, In that city he offered great perfor- killed his wife and committed suicide mances the following year middle in the the same day in his old home-town. city, only with a temporary permit. Even Friedrich Eisfeld was never a Swede, here the leading newspaper Aftonbladet nor really a German. He spoke Swedish, was enthusiastic and impressed. A lot of Russian and German. He was living a people enjoyed the performances. life patterned by his Sinto identity – and At the end of the year time was ripe a product of the 1000 years of tradi- for Eisfeld to write to the king. Some- tional Roma trades (Eisfeldt 2014). one assisted the illiterate Eisfeld in In the late 18th century, and in the writing his application to the Royal early half of the 19th century a rather Council. The Governor of Stockholm great number of German Sinti families commented positively on Eisfeld’s ap- crossed the German-Danish border and 76 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 moved into the Danish southern prov- In Denmark the mentioned families, inces Schleswig and Holstein. Many of and other German Sinto families like them came from the area around the Kunst, Benneweis, Mundeling, Brun German city Hamburg. Especially dur- and Miehe, have almost completely ing and after the Napoleonic wars, at the dominated the circus community and beginning of the 19th century, the pres- business since then to this day. sure northwards increased. In Danish It is hard to avoid the conclusion that records many families are registered as a great deal of the immigration of Sinto coming from this north-German area. families to Denmark and Sweden before These men may have served as soldiers, the middle of the 19th century origi- but performed now traditional Gypsy nated from an area centered around the trades as grinders or itinerant salesmen. German states Thuringia and Saxony. Soon many of them also demonstrate This territory is culturally and politically their skills in acrobatics and other forms closely connected to the neighboring of show-business (Enevig 2004). Czech and Austrian territories. The fact that they are said to have ear- The process of name change seems to lier been living around Hamburg, or in have been going on from the mid-18th the Kingdom of Hannover, may how- century, when the conformity policies ever be misleading. An interesting new were issued by decrees from Empress observation is that many of these fam- Maria Theresia of Austria, to similar po- ilies had adopted family names which litical actions when French universal law point to a much more southern and east- was imposed on Napoleonic Europe, ern part of the German territory. Some early in the 19th century. of these new Danish Travellers belong The process of name change is well to families with names like Altenburg, documented and studied in the case Herzberg, Stücken and Sambleben. All of Jews, but not so well when it comes of these family names correspond to the to the Sinto field. Anyway, traditional names of small towns in the German names were gradually replaced by fam- principalities or independent states Sax- ily names without an ethnic flavor. Both ony, Anhalt, Thuringia and southern for Jews and Sinti new names based on Brandenburg. These towns are in fact geography became common. The ethnic situated in the vicinity of the Harz re- and cultural self-identity for both these gion. Even the family name Eisfeld cor- groups was not much affected by the responds to a town in Thuringia. changes. All of these Traveller families in Den- Another factor of interest is religion. mark of Sinto ethnicity turned to circus Most Roma and Sinti in Europe, except and acrobatic trades, when they became for Orthodox and Muslim Roma in the established in Denmark. Some of their Balkans, are Roman Catholics. This is members moved further into Sweden. also true for the part of Germany where Except for Eisfeld were among these im- the majority population is Lutheran. migrants to Sweden the Hertzbergs and But for Sinti religion is not only an issue the Altenburgs (Enevig 1981-82; Wåhl- of faith, but also a practical one. Some berg 1992; Hirn 1982). of the Sinto immigrants to Scandinavia RICHARD MAGITO BRUN 77 were Catholics, and stayed Catholics for Bibliography a long time. Eisfeld was not a Catholic Arbetsmarknadsdepartementet, Den mörka och okända historien: vitbok om övergrepp och kränknin- family, but in the second generation it gar av romer under 1900-talet, Stockholm, Fritze, more or less turned to become one, in 2014 the late 19th century. Series: Ds : departementsserien, 0284-6012 ; 2014:8 Religion was flexible, and the na- Digital resource: http://www.regeringen.se/sb/ d/18375/a/237061 tional identity as a German, a Dane, or Borchardt, Heiko, Unger, Heinrich Theodor Friedrich a Swede was very weak, and an identifi- (genannt Großer Karl), Magdeburg, Otto von cation as a Gypsy or Tattare (“Traveller”) Guericke Universität Magdeburg, s.d., digital pub. Digital resource: http://www.uni-magdeburg.de/ only a heavy burden. But the links to mbl/Biografien/0554.htm Sinto culture in general, including the Brun, Richard Magito, ”Hästen, hjulet och vägen: traditional professions and artistic her- symboler och minnen hos resandefolket”, in Viveka Overland (ed.), Bohuslän: årsbok. 2013, itage, were very strong. Some families Hästen och Bohuslän, Uddevalla, Bohusläns settled somewhere, but still the feeling hembygdsförbund, 2013 of being very different lived on, some- Eisfeldt, Sonny, Nilsson Eisfeldt, Ann-Charlotte, times demonstrated in an arrogant way. Brun, Richard Magito, Eisfeldt: en surrealistisk familj, Uddevalla, Bohusläns museums förlag, In some cases this attitude expressed it- 2014 (in press) self in a proud cosmopolitanism. Enevig, Anders, Cirkus i Danmark, København, We have to wait until the 20th century Dansk historisk håndbogsforlag, 1981-82 Enevig, Anders, Cirkus- og gøglerslægter miljø og for a massive destruction of the Travel- stamtavler, [Odder], Wisby & Wilkens, 2004 lers’s culture and of their self-confidence Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Skrifter i urval. 3-4, (Arbetsmarknadsdepartementet 2014). Wilhelm Meisters läroår, 1-2, Stockholm, Bonnier, 1931 In many ways the Travellers in Scan- Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Werke Goethes. Wil- dinavia adopted urban and bourgeois helm Meister, Bd 1, Wilhelm Meisters Theatralische attributes. They often dressed in an ex- Sendung, Berlin, Akademie-Verlag, 1957 travagant way. They looked like noble Gregoras, Nikeforos (Jan Louis van Dieten, ed.), Rhomäische Geschichte: Historia Rhomaïke, vol. 2, city people, but walked in the mud at Stuttgart, Hiersemann, 1979 the road-side. If they had money, and Series: Bibliothek der griechischen Literatur, 0340- many had, they let elegant looking fam- 7853 Hancock, Ian, The pariah syndrome: an account of ily portraits be made for them at the Gypsy slavery and persecution, 2. rev. ed., Ann photographer’s studio. Arbor, Karoma Publishers, 1988 In the second generation the Sinto Hancock, Ian, ”The emergence of Romani as akoïné outside of India”, in Thomas Acton (ed.), Scholar- families of German origin intermarried ship and the gypsy struggle: commitment in Romani with existing indigenous Traveller fami- studies : a collection of papers and poems to celebrate lies in Sweden. Some of the new circus Donald Kenrick’s seventieth year, Hatfield, Univer- families became safe hubs by means of sity of Hertfordshire Press, 2000 their officially granted rights to travel Hancock, Ian, ”On Romani origins and identity: everywhere for the more humble com- questions for discussion”, in Adrian Marsh, Elin Strand (eds.), Gypsies and the problem of identi- mercial activities, which were central for ties: contextual, constructed and contested, Istanbul, most of the Travellers in Sweden. Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2006 Series: Transactions, Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 1100-0333; 17 78 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Heinemann, Otto, “Räuberwesen im Herzogtume Minken, Anne, Tatere i Norden før 1850: sosio-økono- Magdeburg während der Fremdherrschaft”, miske og etniske fortolkningsmodeller, Tromsö, Uni- Geschichtblätter für Stadt und Land Magdeburg, versitetet i Tromsö UIT, 2009 Magdeburg, 45, 1910 Digital resource: http://munin.uit.no/bitstream/han- Series: Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte und dle/10037/3399/thesis.pdf?sequence=1 Altertumskunde des Herzogtums und Erzstifts Opfermann, Ulrich, “Dass sie den Zigeuner-Habit Magdeburg, 1910 ablegen”: die Geschichte der “Zigeuner-Kolonien” Hirn, Sven, Sirkus kiertää Suomea 1800-1914, Hel- zwischen Wittgenstein und Westerwald, 2nd ed., sinki, SKS, 1982 Frankfurt am Main, Lang, 1997 Series: Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seuran toimituk- Opfermann, Ulrich Friedrich, “Seye kein Ziegeuner, sia, 0355-1768; 384 sondern kayserlicher Cornet”: Sinti im 17. und 18. Hirn, Sven, Den gastronomiska hästen: gamla nordiska Jahrhundert: eine Untersuchung anhand archivalis- artistaffischer, Helsingfors, Svenska litteratursäll- cher Quellen, Berlin, Metropol, 2007 skapet i Finland, 2002 Petermann, Fritz [pseud. Fritz Peter(s)], DerNacht- Küther, Carsten, Räuber und Gauner in Deutschland: wachter von Ellrich: kleinstadtisches Charakterbild das organisierte Bandenwesen im 18. und frühen 19. aus vergangenen Tagen, Dresden, Meinhold, 1887; Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Rupre- 1924. Reprint (1924): Berlin, Ellrich & Verbum cht, 1976; 1987 Druck- und Verlagsgesellschaft, c.1998 (ISBN Series: Kritische Studien zur Geschichtswissenschaft, 3-928918-63-X) 99-0101261-9; 20 Rosenqvist, Jan Olof (ed.), Bysantinsk antologi: texter Lehmann, Heinrich Ludwig, Romantische Biographie från tusen år i svensk översättning, Skellefteå, Artos des Rauberhauptmanns und Lustgartners Theodor & Norma, 2005 Unger, genannt der große Karl, s.n., 1809. Micro- Schleif, Walter, Goethes Diener., Berlin, Nationale fiche:Bibliothek der deutschen Literatur: nr 14876, Forschungs- und Gedenkstätten der klassischen Munchen, Saur, 1990-94 deutschen Literatur in Weimar (NFG), 1965 Lehrmann, Joachim, Räuberbanden zwischen Harz Series: Beiträge zur deutschen Klassik, 0522-6333; 17 und Weser: Braunschweig, Hannover, Hildesheim... Turner, Ralph L., ”The position of Romani in In- : ein historischer Rückblick, Lehrte, Lehrmann-Ver- do-Aryan”, Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Edin- lag, 2004 burgh, 5, 1926: 145-89 Matras, Yaron, ”Romani”, in Keith Brown (ed.), En- Wåhlberg, Per Arne, Cirkus i Sverige: bidrag till vårt cyclopedia of language & linguistics, Amsterdam, lands kulturhistoria, Stockholm, Carlsson, 1992 Elsevier, 2006 Mendizabal. Isabel et al., ”Reconstructing the Pop- ulation History of European Romani from Ge- nome-wide Data”, Current biology, London, 22, 2012: 2342-49 The Poor People of the Forest: Immigration and Integration in Värmland in the 1670s

Peter Olausson

In the beginning of the 1670s conflicts ests all over Sweden, all since the first arose in Fryksdalen in the Swedish prov- Finnish settlers arrived during the late ince of Värmland, a valley with old farm- 1500s. The tradition has pin-pointed land surrounded by vast forests, where ethnic difference as the most important families from other parts of Sweden, and part of the conflict. As we shall see, the of Scandinavia, had settled and formed actual situation was somewhat different. new small villages. Farmers in the neigh- bourhood were concerned by the Finn- Control over the Population ish newcomers burn-beat technique In this case in Fryksdalen, the provin- and, primarly, about the many younger cial governor ordered that the reasons men needed to handle the burning of behind the conflict should be thour- the woodlands. These men were drift- oughly investigated. The result of the ers, moving from one place to another. investigation is preserved in the archive The local member of the Swedish par- of the regional authority (Länsstyrelsen liament complained about the situation för Örebro län) and is a unique source and about the forest Finns in the area, for how ordinary, landless people in a people that he accused of being thieves peripheral part of the country lived their and rogues; animals like moose had lives. In this period, Sweden was one of been hunted without permit by them the great powers of Europe and had de- and other bad things had happened, he veloped into a military and bureaucratic pointed out. Local farmers of Finnish state with an eagerness to control not descent reacted to this description and only the national borders, but also the complained to the regional authorities social, economic, religious and cultural about the negative attitude towards the aspects of life in every part of the coun- Finnish population in the area. try. A lot of civil servants were educated This was not the first time that a com- and enrolled and the priests in the ortho- plaint like this was taken to court, and dox Lutheran church had become more it was not the last. In tradition, much and more of important informants for has been said about Swedes and Finns regional and central representatives of struggling against each other in the for- the government about the local level in 80 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 society. With the new law for the church group of people, who by this time in from 1686, priests were required to reg- many aspects are invisible in other types ister all inhabitants in their parishes in of archives – this was before the begin- different church books, thereby forming ning of the church record system and what was to become the most thorough only about 10 % of the landless popu- system for national registration of peo- lation are mentioned in tax records for ple in Europe. this period. The landless formed a group Keeping this in mind, it is not a sur- of about 12 % of the whole population prise that the investigation about the of Fryksdalen at this time. conflict in Fryksdalen come to be han- dled by the local vicar together with Ethnicity, Gender, Age and the county sheriff. They had help from Migration county constables and other men of high In a report from Karlstad University, I status in the area. Their job was ended in and my colleague Gabriel Bladh – as- September 1674 and resulted in a list of sistant professor in cultural geography 134 households in the Fryksdalen area, – have presented some results of a de- that were considered as landless – and mographic analyzis, based upon this thereby including those younger men, survey from 1674. Here we have looked that the member of parliament had into issues like age and gender distribu- complained about. The list is on eleven tion, geographic origin, movements etc. pages and is said to contain all people I will make some remarks about what – Finns, Swedes and Norwegians alike – we have found out in this study. that had moved into the area. • Ethnicity is of importance in the list. The investigators have listed The Landless People of Fryksdalen people by ethnicity in about The information that the investigators half of the total cases. Finns are collected is summarized in entries for most common here and people each household, structured by village are considered to be Finns even and parish. The entries include name of if only ten people are said to ac- the head of the household, marital sta- tually have been born in Finland. tus, ethnic affiliation, age (young, mid- People who are called Swedes or dle-aged, elderly), place of birth, how Norwegian can live in areas con- long the individuals had lived in Fryks- sidered to be on the Finn Forest dalen, their place of origin, whether the and Finns can live in the Swedish person had a passport or not and, lastly, parts of Fryksdalen. This oddity what kind of reputation the individuals may primarily reflect the use of had in the district. For some of them, language at the time. the information in the entries are sparse, • The gender distribution was very for others we get to know quite a lot equal. This does not fit in to the about their individual life stories. general view of Swedish histori- By analyzing the list, it is possible to ans that women were in majority get quite a lot of information about a during the Swedish 1600s, due to PETER OLAUSSON 81 the loss of many men in the wars persons that are said to have committed (and in illnesses triggered by war- manslaughter before arriving to Fryks- fare). A fact is also that there are dalen, or for deserters from the Dan- households in Fryksdalen in 1674 ish-Norwegian army. If a man had lived run by women, and not only as his life peacefully in his new homeland, widows. In three cases women that was the main thing. The whole live alone with their children, a list mentions only one person, that the fact noted without any moral ob- county sheriff wanted to examine more jections in the list. thouroughly – a woman, accused of • Is was a rather young population, have lived together with a married man in a general view, being in a pro- and of a lot of other things. The impres- ductive age. The landless of 1674 sion is that the list must have been a are closer in status to the croft- good tool for those who wanted to make ers of later periods than any other peace in Frykdalen by integrating new- segment of defined poor people, comers from all directions to a new life dependent on social welfare. up in the forests – a life in poverty, but • Many of the landless had moved still a life without further disturbances. around a lot before coming to We don´t know for sure how much Fryksdalen. They had been in, for impact this investigation had. People example, the mining district of continued to move around, also over Bergslagen or from other regions the Swedish-Norwegian border nearby, all around in the middle part of and conflicts arose from time to time. Sweden. Ten of them came from The general impression from the analy- Norway. One person, an old man, sis of the list of 1674 is that the conflicts is said to have been over to the often where not ethnic, but dealt with West Indies – here understood as issues about hunting, fishing and the the Swedish colony of Delaware. use of forests. Conflicts could arise be- Another man was left behind in tween Finns as well as between Swedes, Fryksdalen as a child when his or between Swedish and Finnish farmers parents and older brothers and as well. The main thing concern of the sisters emigrated. authorities in the Fryksdalen valley of the 1670s was with behaviour as good Social Reputation neighbours, rather than with ethnic or- The investigation was, as we have seen, igins. initiated by the conflicts that had arisen in the area. It is therefore quite stunning Conclusion to read the list and the remarks about Through the vast existing archives of social reputation, an important aspect Sweden, it is possible to get information that the vicar and the county sheriff doc- about migrants and their life also in the ument for many households. In most of periphery, and several centuries back in these cases, the reputations are said to time. The survey for Fryksdalen of 1674 be good or sufficient. This goes also for is a good example of the research possi- 82 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 bilities in this regard. In our study, we References have combined the information in the A complete list of references are pre- survey with other sources from the time sented in our research report “Vandrat period, as taxation records and protocols hit som andra finnar att söka sin föda. from the local court. It would also be Om en rannsakningslängd over inhyses- possible to trace some of the individuals folket I Fryksdalen 1674. (Kalstad Uni- back and forth in time, getting an even versity Studies 2004:38) more complete picture of them as part of an early migration movement in Eu- rope and Scandinavia during a century of unrest. How to be a Pole Abroad – Initial Impressions from Life in the United States

Marcin Szerle

Among the elements of oral history there When Dziennik Chicagowski announced is a written account, created thanks to a collection of letters from Polish fami- an historian’s initiative. It can be a com- lies, its author sold about 30 letters to plementary material in respect to official Znaniecki, and after some time received sources, particularly when it comes to a proposition of being hired to write everyday life, if it is not sufficiently doc- down a more comprehensive account umented (Topolski, 1983: 274-75). The (Wiśniewski, 1982: 177-79). Therefore, starting point of my research, the result the memoirs in question were in some of which I shall present in the article, are way sponsored. printed memoirs. The parties responsi- Under the direction of Ludwik Krzy- ble for their publication were usually wicki, the Institute of Social Economy social researchers, and the incentive was (the leading in social studies during the provided by contests – with prizes, even interwar period) took up the idea of financial ones. organizing a memoir competitions, the In 1921, in Poznań, Poland, a comp- result of which were, among others, The tetition for a worker’s life story was Memoirs of the Unemployed (Pamiętniki organized and from that point on the bezrobotnych, 1933) and The Memoirs formula began to gain popularity. In of Peasants (Krzywicki, 1935), as well as opinion of Józef Chałasiński, people material for describing the emigrants’ were making up for the times of parti- lot in France, South America, the USA tions, when their voices were being si- and Canada (Pamiętniki Emigrantów. lenced (Chałasiński, 1982: 9, 26). The Ameryka Południowa, 1939: XI). For promotion of memoir writing of this instance, the volume of The Memoirs of kind is connected with Polish Institute Emigrants dealing with France consisted of Sociology and Florian Znaniecki of writings from three different compe- and his research interests (Andrzejew- titions from the 1930s, including the ski, 1977: 7). Between 1918 and 1920 one organized by the Institute. The goal he and William I. Thomas published a was to show emigrants’ life as faithfully five-volume work The Polish Peasant in as possible, including problems they Europe and America. Volume three is a had to deal with during the voyage and massive memoir of just one emigrant. shortly after their arrival, their relations 84 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 with the locals, the attitude of authori- periods – memoirs from after 1945 ties and help of Polish social organiza- are rare – I decided to use problem ap- tions (Pamiętniki Emigrantów. Francja, proach, not the chronological one. 1939: XXIII, XXVII-XXIX). Two vol- Huge (in European scale) areas to umes of material were printed shortly reclaim and develop and emergent in- before the outbreak of World War II, dustry made the United States the most the rest had to wait until the 1970s. attractive destination for European emi- After 1945, it was advisable in Poland grants since the second half of the nine- to depict the new reality in contrast to teenth century. By the time of World prewar and capitalist daily life. Thus War I, on average 400,000 people went the texts used very often negatively por- there annually, and starting with the trayed the conditions beyond Poland’s last decade of the nineteenth century borders. The first layer of manipulation large groups of those people came from was the text selection itself, without Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. doubt awarding extra points to ideolog- Land reforms in Poland made a large ically correct accounts. Then there was percentage of Polish citizens rely on the censorship office. Apparently the small farms only or even deprived them pre-war material was left as it was origi- of farmland altogether. This led to many nally written, although some of the texts tragic events and caused waves of emi- were shortened. The cuts in all probabil- gration. Almost a half of three and a half ity did not include any issues of interest. million emigrants from the years 1871- The topics discussed – first impressions 1913 decided to move to the United of the new reality, the reception of other States. During World War I the regular Poles, looking for the first job – did not emigration from Europe was affected really stray into dangerous areas and it negatively, but it resumed with doubled was difficult to take them out of con- strength afterwards. The decision of the text or misinterpret them. Some of the United States Congress from May 26, issues, however, such as attitude towards 1924 about the quotas of immigration the Catholic Church or relations with – calculated on the basis of immigrants’ other nations, could potentially be af- origin – affected mainly the countries fected by manipulation in the Polish of Eastern-Central Europe, including People’s Republic. It was then when the Poland, since people of Polish descent material was collected – another impor- constituted only a minor part of the US tant initiative was a contest of emigrant population (Kołodziej, 1982: 19-27, memoirs, which was advertised in 1957 64, 144, 174, 213). It is estimated that in magazine 7 Dni (7 Days). Its effect by the year 1900 those so-called new was the publication of Pamiętniki Em- immigrants arriving after 1870 made up igrantów 1878-1958 (The Memoirs of about 22 per cent of all arrivals. They Emigrants 1878-1958) printed in 1960. were not dominant until the first two This article is concerned with the analy- decades of the twentieth century, when sis of memoirs dealing with the United the ratio of those emigrants to the ones States. Because of the voluminous scope from the North-Western Europe became of material, diversified by the specific 44 per cent to 41per cent. It should also MARCIN SZERLE 85 be mentioned that it was in this period when the immigration was the highest in absolute numbers (Walaszek, 2007: 235-36). Despite the quotas, interest in the United States did not decline, and emigration was limited only by cir- cumstances. By 1939, a few thousand people left for the States each year. Additionally, some people tried to get there through the neighboring coun- tries – Cuba, Mexico and Canada, or even illegally. False passports, for exam- ple German ones, were manufactured and so were American documents and certificates; false invitations from fami- lies in the States were forged (Janowska, 1981: 211-13). After World War II, the first wave of emigrants heading for the United States were so-called displaced persons, including the soldiers of Polish Army in the West. The number of Poles Fig 1 Brochure, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 1921. Emigration Museum in Gdynia who arrived until 1972 is estimated to Collections be around 300,000 people (Pilch, Zgór- niak, 1984: 511). A relatively large wave (Modejska) mentioned that the image of immigrants came to the USA after of approaching New York was ‘amazing, the martial law introduction in Poland magical in its ethereal beauty (…) Un- and repressive measures against mem- fortunately, as we were coming closer, bers and sympathizers of Solidarity. the beauty gradually disappeared, until, The departure restrictions instituted by by the time we closed in on the docks, Polish authorities were abolished after it vanished completely.’ (Grzeloński, 1989. Nowadays, Poles heading to the 1975:199). Contact with the living city USA need to obtain a visa. was a difficult experience for many peo- More than a century ago, in 1910, ple. Some fresh-off the boat immigrants when a rural seventeen-year-old immi- became victims of swindlers and con grant saw New York he described it as artists. follows: ‘shining above the harbor water, A worker who arrived in 1903 was like an enchanted palace woven from accosted moments after he went ashore. shivering lights.’ (Mierzwa, 1982: 161- Led to an eating establishment, he began 62). Similar impressions from ship decks spending his money there; afterwards, were common for numerous travelers he met another man looking for com- from many parts of world. A famous pany, who convinced him to grab a beer Polish actress Helena Modrzejewska together. In the process, he cheated the 86 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 worker on the ticket price, which only cuffs were commonplace (Kantor, 1960: added to the problems he was experi- 605-07). The image created on the basis encing after having difficulties with re- of the available accounts confirms the claiming his luggage from the food place sad truth about how unlike each other (Pamiętnik nr 35, 1977: 258-59). In an- the societies of the old country devel- other memoir we read that in a train, oped under each rule, and how strongly just before departure, a man “from ours” the politics of the partitioners affected was giving away apples and oranges, the Polish mentality. The author of one only to demand payment for the bit- of the memoirs describes his fellow Poles ten ones a few minutes later (Pamiętnik who took him in during the first days of nr 38, 1977: 319). A similar situation his immigration in rather strong words: happened to passengers presented with “they themselves have only just immi- jewelry in another carriage, who like- grated, could barely even speak English, wise had to unexpectedly pay for it. The and still they mocked a new arrival” lack of language skills to communicate (Pamiętnik nr 38, 1977: 319). Further- with the salesman only made the matter more, they were highly suspicious of more difficult (Kantor, 1960: 605-07). others, especially when they were out A worker who departed in 1902 stressed of jobs themselves. This was described in his account how much dishonesty he by a 1913 emigrant, who tried to find had encountered in people he had met. his fortune in Erie. Left by his brother- At a train station in New Jersey he was in-law without any help, he was look- swindled by a cab driver, the address ing for job, in vain. He managed to get he had received turned out to be out through the worst of times by writing of date, and a distant relative used his letters for illiterate fellow immigrants money to rent a place for himself. Bul- who wanted to contact their wives or lied in his first job by fellow Poles, he girlfriends. Sitting in bars, he sustained decided to leave it after a few weeks (Pa- himself on appetizers served with beer miętnik nr 34, 1977: 234-35). (Kazimierowski, 1960: 721-24). The immigrant who described the Another described person came to the episode with jewelry managed to get to USA in 1907 during the time of crisis Chicago. There he found accommoda- and instantly joined the unemployed tion with the former employees of his masses. This man travelled looking for parents, who wanted to show gratitude job without tickets and stole food. Due for kindness experienced in the old to his family’s intervention and a bribe country. They taught him the basics of he got his first job in a factory after a English. He was also introduced into year, but the physical demands of it were the community where the fundamental too much for him (Zaklikiewicz, 1965: division was not status, employment or 61-62). Another immigrant from 1912 religion, but the borders of countries was invited to the USA by his school occupying the Polish territory in the friend and his first and second job were nineteenth century. Among the Poles quickly found thanks to fellow Poles. who had been the subjects of different Then he became self-sufficient, which emperors, arguments, quarrels and fisti- was made possible by half a year of MARCIN SZERLE 87 learning the language (Pamiętnik nr 40, settling in the new land. He became 1977: 385). The author of a voluminous one of many Poles looking for employ- memoir printed by Florian Znaniecki ment in industry in Illinois. They built enjoyed the magnanimous hospitality shantytowns near the factories and stuck of his sister, at least for the first week of together, which was helpful considering his stay. The prolonged searched for job their unfamiliarity with the language. made him indebted with his own sister, Living in bad conditions he found em- who suddenly demanded payment for ployment in a factory, learning the nec- food and lodging. According to the au- essary words from his more experienced thor, a scheming neighbor was to blame Polish superiors. However, that was for this turn of events. Similar problems the extent of the help they offered him came when his girlfriend moved in with (Chłop Polski z Chicago, 1982: 306- him, since the family of the girl strictly 10). forbade her to work (Wiśniewski, 1976: A Polish veterinarian, a soldier from 289-92). All of that happened on the World War II, who stayed in Italy after brink of World War I in Europe. the end of it, decided to move to the In 1905 a thirteen-year-old boy came States in 1951. What was helpful was to America; the money he collected in an invitation from a Polish woman, a his village was only enough for journey stranger who believed that by sending to New York. There he was stopped by it she was fulfilling her patriotic duty the US Emigration Office and had to and did not expect anything in return. wait for money from his family to be on When he arrived, he had no connec- his way. Along with some other Poles he tions, but the stranger arranged for him worked hard physically in Connecticut. to get a job at a factory. For the first Their lives were simple; they ate plain three months, he and his wife lived with food and read neither newspapers nor another Polish family. For the first three books. They did not take the effort of years, he remained a displaced person, learning the language, despite the fact which made it more difficult for him to that holy masses, so important in their find a suitable job (Krzan, 2011: 63-66). previous lives, were celebrated in Eng- Another soldier, who had lived in Great lish. Their only goal was to earn money Britain after the war, came to the States and return to their homeland. The au- in 1957; he, his sister and her friend ar- thor of the account wanted something rived to Delaware, where – thanks to the more – he enrolled in an English class, latter – he got his first steady job after where he studied with Italians, Germans only two days. The first offer he had to and Greeks, not another Pole in sight. reject on account of having no car to A promotion at his workplace made the commute to another town. They lived nastiness on the part of his close ones at his sister’s for an entire year (Skielnik, bearable (Albrycht, 1965: 15-19). An- 2008: 51-52). other person – a son from a large farm- The accounts of women are few and ing family – came to the States in 1906 far between. A fourteen-year-old girl after his brother. He left his wife in the who in 1913 arrived to Wisconsin and country, planning to take her in after stayed with her aunt got a job as a seam- 88 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

day they teach her the names and pro- nunciation of things’ (Pamiętnik nr 15, 1977: 429). Still, other accounts suggest that the new arrivals could enjoy some support from their compatriots. Despite the abovementioned situa- tions, the cases of maliciousness, spite- fulness or simple lack of help were not all that widespread. Analysis of the mem- oirs suggests that indifference or hos- tility were experience mainly by people with no family ties or those who had no neighbors who moved with them from the old country. Most often, Poles em- igrated to their relatives or friends, and after settling down they invited their younger siblings, family left behind or perhaps their parents. The ties with the place of origin were so strong that even people of different nationalities helped each other. When a shoemaker was looking for job in Boston in 1914, he was helped by a Russian as soon as he learned that they had lived in the same city in Poland. However, it should be pointed out that some Poles unknown to the shoemaker got involved as well. Finally, he got a job fitting his specialty thanks to a suggestion from a Jew, who sent him to a good American (Pamiętnik nr 1, 1977: 116-17). Favorable coinci- dences, as it turns out, happened.

Fig 2 Leaflet, 1950s., Emigration Museum in Gdynia An interwar period researcher noticed Collections. that even in the new reality the social and familial ties from the old country stress two weeks later (Pamiętnik nr 44, were recreated. Relatives and acquaint- 1977: 441). According to the insights of ances were being invited, people were another Polish female immigrant, Poles helping them to find jobs and the all cel- did not support each other as other na- ebrated holidays together (Duda-Dziew- tions did, and she gave an example of ierz, 1938: 55-57). As we can read in a Italians and Jews – ‘when a new one Polish schoolbook printed in Chicago comes from their country they immedi- in the beginning of the twentieth cen- ately find her a job and for the whole tury, “Poles, coming to this country and MARCIN SZERLE 89 finding employment here, usually try to create communities in cities they live in, and when they feel strong enough, they begin looking for a priest, with the help of whom they first build a church, and then near it a Polish parish school” (Dzieje…, 1906: 484). The role of a parish in the creation of a local com- munity is a subject of separate analysis, yet it should be noted how strong the influence of Catholic clergy was on em- igrants. Their parish not only organized their religious life, but the national and social one as well, on the levels of both neighborhood and the whole commu- nity. An excessive dependence on the parish could be a negative influence as well, since it made an individual’s in- tegration into American society more difficult. As it was written in the 1930s, ‘a parish is for an immigrant worker, a part of the old country. A part of that with what they feel connected with their whole personality. That part has to re- place everything they had left behind, it Fig 3 Parish book, Chicago 1897, becomes a symbol of everything which Emigration Museum in Gdynia collections. had been theirs, but which they had to walk away from.’ (Chałasiński, 1935: similar sentiment was bluntly put into 13-15). words by a worker who got to Massa- But even Poles, a nation considered chusetts in 1909. Not thrilled about religious and, historically, predomi- making donations, he preferred to move nantly tied to Catholic tradition, were out from his sister’s apartment in order not always ready to make sacrifices for to avoid getting pressured, since – as he the good of the Church. A fourteen- himself wrote – “he came to America year-old who arrived to his older sib- for money earnin’ and back home get- lings in Massachusetts in 1909 started tin’, not church buildin’” (Pamiętnik nr his work in a factory after three weeks. 4, 1977: 205). When reading the immi- His earnings and the prospect of return- grant accounts one notices how com- ing to the old country were so impor- monplace were misunderstandings and tant to him that he refused to donate to quarrels connected with the participa- the building of a church. That caused a tion in the life of a parish. On the other split between him and his sister, with hand, another immigrant, who arrived whom he lived (Lach, 1982: 172-73). A on 1906, had a definitely positive expe- 90 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 apparently effective. From the account of an immigrant from 1913 we learn that he moved into the apartment of the sister of his brother-in-law and he preferred Polish company from the beginning. Living with a family of Polish emigrants who rented out rooms, he noticed that the same beds were used by even four peo- ple working different shifts. It was eas- ier to live in group when one did not know the language; when the emigrant in question went by train to Ohio, he could not even ask about the address on a piece of paper given to him. He had money for food, but he did not know the English names of it. One could eat only if one ‘asked not with his tongue, but with his fingers.’ (Siedlecki, 1977: 52-54). It was common even among those who had some previous experi- ence of living in the States. A son of emigrants, born in 1905 in the USA (and who spent the first seven years of Fig 4 A funeral note, Buffalo, 1956, his life there), who returned as a twen- Emigration Museum in Gdynia collections. ty-two year old, was not able to ask for food in a hotel restaurant and had to rience with the Church: after a long and communicate with a waiter by pointing exhausting voyage he was welcomed in towards whatever he wanted (Pamięt- St. Joseph’s shelter with fresh bedding nik nr 10, 1977: 316, 333). As we can and a meal. However, later on we learn see, despite the time spent in States as from his account that one had to pay for a child, constant contact with family admittance to the Sunday mass (Pamięt- and his interest in American matters nik nr 45, 1977: 458-59). The rules of this well-read – as he describes himself some parishes included a compulsory – young man did not feel the need to monthly donation for the maintenance learn the language. As long as one lived of the church (Duda-Dziewierz, 1938: in a Polish community, among family, 56). The existence of a parish depended worked with Poles and bought in Pol- on the generosity of its members. One ish shops (and was not too enterpris- of the immigrants pointed out that rent- ing or career-oriented), linguistic skills ing a room was more expensive for those were not a must. In yet another case, who did not go to church (Siedlecki, during the initial period of his immi- 1977: 57). Such forms of extortion were gration to New Jersey one of the Polish MARCIN SZERLE 91 workers found himself in need of help periods emigrants were given the possi- from his family. His sister bought him bility ofbuying cheaply some brochures, clothes and his uncle was looking for phrasebooks or dictionaries. a job for him. Despite living in a city Another proof of the importance of where he was born – his parents were linguistic skills is a story of an immi- re-emigrants – his lacked the mastery of grant who, when arriving, did not know language, which made finding a job a a single word of English. An immigra- chore (Szelążek, 1960: 748-49). tion official led him to a train to Massa- A farmer’s son who emigrated in 1911 chusetts. He was met with kindness and was more prudent. Before the voyage he received help everywhere he went. He had already been learning English for quickly found a job in a factory, so to a few months using a previously pur- communicate with his coworkers and – chased self-study book. His knowledge in the future – receive a promotion and enabled him to get to Chicago, but it a pay rise, he enrolled in evening Eng- still did not save him from losing his lish class (Mierzwa, 1982: 163). Sources possessions to two Poles who had made suggest that many other Poles did so it their profession to prey on their coun- as well, and as a result they had more trymen (Pamiętnik nr 34, 1977: 234- possibilities of personal development, 35). Another example of an emigrant better career goals and also could func- who purchased a dictionary before his tion beyond the confines of their Polish voyage was a peasant’s son from Lesser community, parish or neighborhood. Poland. Although he had time to study Therefore they became more conscious, on the ship, it turned out that he could open and involved members of Ameri- not understand even food vendors on a can society. train to Chicago. However, the diction- The formula of competition for writ- ary was in use. Some small talk with a ten memoirs and their following publi- fellow traveler turned out to be helpful cation is still used. One of the examples in finding a place to stay. As he points of such a process is a collection They flew out in his account, those emigrants who out of their nest. New emigration about had arrived earlier could not help him themselves (Wyfrunęli..., 2011), which to find a job since they barely knew the deals with current wave of emigration language themselves. When he finally caused by opening of job market in the found it himself, he was hazed by other European Union in 2005. New means Poles working there as ‘the new one’, of communication, such as websites, dis- which in turn led to his resignation (Pa- cussion forums, blogs and social media miętnik nr 2, 1977: 138-40). Another cause the majority of such accounts to emigrant wrote his account believing remain unredacted and dispersed in the that it could be of use to those read- virtual world. Emigrant’s Archive, a pro- ers who plan to move themselves, and ject carried out by Emigration Museum suggested that everyone ought to carry in Gdynia which deals with collecting a dictionary as one of the most crucial memoirs, audio-video recordings and items (Pamiętnik nr 13, 1977: 406). It conducting interviews, uses a web form should be pointed out that in certain as one of the means of acquiring new 92 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 accounts. In its description it is men- airport and at home. As it turned out, tioned what kind of content is most they had not been informed about the sought after by the Museum; auxiliary visit, since the telegrams had got lost. questions are asked as well, and a mes- Still, they exhibited commendable in- sage saying that the texts sent will not be volvement and they very quickly found changed beyond correcting some pos- the woman a job of a caretaker (Stasin- sible linguistic issues is provided. The ska, 2014). Help required by those in collection of texts is carried out con- need was still being provided. Other tinuously and the project is not a con- immigrants of that time usually began test – these are the crucial differences in cleaning companies, bars or other between it and the preceding initiatives. blue-collar jobs. Just as those who had Despite the short period of its activity, arrived a century ago, they took the the Museum can boast many interest- posts of lowest pay and prestige. How- ing memoirs which are constantly being ever, there are examples confirming that updated on their website (Emigrant’s sto- it was possible to have one’s diplomas ries, 2014). Some of them have already recognized, obtain new qualifications been translated into English. Emigrant’s and return to one’s acquired profession, Archive is one of the key program initia- or develop in new directions and pursue tives of the Museum. careers there. In the texts which have already been When we come into contact with collected, in majority dealing with last memoirs, we should remember that the thirty years, one can find numerous sim- creation of the majority of the accounts ilarities to the accounts from over a cen- was initiated by competitions which tury ago. They can be auxiliary material had specific guidelines. The narration for historians and sociologists who are of the authors may have been written interested in the position of Polish immi- for a specific reader in mind. It is also grants in communities they joined and important to note that memoirs are au- their image in the eyes of other nations; tobiographical or biographical sources, who research dominant stereotypes or where personal involvement of authors the ways of organizing and cooperation and their presence are extremely visi- of Polish Diaspora and its contact with ble. Additionally, memoirs are written homeland. As we can read, an arrival from a time perspective, which creates of a female Solidarity member in 1987 the narration (Szymański, 2006: 47). was accompanied by disorientation and Texts analyzed for this article were usu- uncertainty. The conditions provided ally created about twenty five years after by the refugee center did not fill her the moment of their authors’ arrival, with optimism. It was compounded by thus the course of events and their per- her lack of knowledge of English and ception may differ from the one which meager perspectives of finding a suita- could be reconstructed from diaries or ble employment (Potrykus, 2014). The letters written at the time of the events. text describing other departure in 1989 At least one account used was written is filled with disappointment with lack on the basis of a previously kept diary. It of proper reception by her friends at the is confirmed that the authors of autobi- MARCIN SZERLE 93

Historical Marine Station in Gdynia – at present Emigration Museum in Gdynia, after 1933, Emigration Museum in Gdynia Collections. ographies may be influenced by patterns The accounts repeatedly mention characteristic for the times of their lives, the issue of language barrier, which hin- as well as by identification with a given dered the attempts of finding or keeping group and their voice. Additionally, a job, let alone receiving a promotion. they aim to present themselves and their Poles who had no earlier contact with roles as positively as possible (Dym- English were in a losing position when kowski, 2000: 128). Did they do so compared to the Irish, the English or while writing their memoirs from voy- Germans. What proved useful for some ages and travels? It is possible, especially Poles was their familiarity with German, if we consider the issues of family feuds which was often used – because of their and quarrels with neighbors or cowork- descent – by foremen and site managers. ers. We find little critical self-analysis, The only course of action was to learn we do not read about both sides being and develop one’s skills, however it was to blame, the wronged party is always not an easy task, and therefore not a clearly defined – the author. Consider- popular one. Most often, Poles stuck to- ing the hard and dangerous jobs, low gether, building communities and later pay, lack of stability and harsh living neighborhoods whose lives were con- conditions it is not surprising that there centrated around work places, parishes was a lot of tension. Still, the family was and taverns. 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Emigrantów. Stany Zjednoczone, part II, Warszawa, Książka i Wiedza, 1977. Skienik, Stefan W., Stolen Youth, Author’s print, 2008. Stasinska, Bernadetta, Muzeum Emigracji w Gdyni, accessed May 1, 2014, https://muzeumemigracji. pl/archiwum-emigranta/historie-emigrantow/sta- sinska-bernadetta-usa/ Szelążek, Stanisław, «Moje nędzne życie» in Pamięt- niki Emigrantów 1878-1958, Warszawa, Spółdziel- nia Wydawnicza Czytelnik, 1960. Szymański, Józef, Nauki pomocnicze historii, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2006. Topolski, Jerzy, Teoria wiedzy historycznej, Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1983. Walaszek, Adam, Migracje Europejczyków 1650-1914, Kraków, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońsk- iego, 2007. Wiśniewski, Władysław, «Tak poprawiłem sobie dolę w Ameryce» in Pamiętniki Polaków 1918-1978, Warszawa, Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1982. Wiśniewski, Władysław, «Pamiętnik imigranta» in Thomas, William I., Znaniecki Florian (eds), Chłop polski w Europie i Ameryce, part 3, Warszawa, Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976. Wyfrunęli. Nowa emigracja o sobie, Łomża, Oficyna Wydawnicza Stopka, 2011. Zaklikiewicz, Stanisław Anzelm, «Pracownik pióra» in Koźniewski K. (ed.), Pamiętniki emigrantów, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo «Polonia», 196 Portuguese Migration: Responding to the New Crisis?

Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade

Abstract Population mobility that has always characterized the Portuguese society, and still exists, acquires a new expression: new settings due to the changes caused by the economic crisis that the country is currently facing. The outflow of the national citizens, which had slowed down in recent years, suffers an explosive increase, reflecting the start of a new cycle with its own distinct characteristics. Those who entered in Portugal after the April Revolution (1974) and were enlarging the groups of immigrants of various nationalities and whose establishment was expected to be long-lasting, failed in many cases to meet this expectation. Not only the number of entries steadied, but also a significant number of these immigrants re-emigrates or returns to its country of origin. Portugal, formerly considered a country of emigration, which happened to have also be- come a country of immigration, resumes its first calling. Different experiences, including situations in which the relationship between residents takes forms of cosmopolitan inter- action, coexist in the same territorial area. Similarly, the links on a transnational level provide the basis for reciprocal cultural influences.

It is well-known that Portugal is a coun- The change that started in Portugal try noted for an ever-present mobility because of the installation of a demo- that has taken different forms in the cratic regime and, above all, the joining past 500 years. Consulting my bibliog- of the European Economic Community, raphy published by the AEMI Journal signed in Lisbon June 12th, 1985, mak- on the subject would demonstrate this ing the country an effective member of idea.1 To understand the current envi- the EEC January 1st 1986. These are ronment, it is necessary to understand dates that are very important references the shape that migration has taken since to assess the present from changes oper- the revolution that planted democracy ated in the economy and, consequently, in Portugal, ending a nearly 50-year old in the reorganization of the social fabric. dictatorship (1926-1974), known as the Despite variations in political, eco- 25th of April Revolution or the “Car- nomic and social developments in Eu- nation Revolution”2.The country has rope, none of the countries in the region changed along with the mentality and has escaped the effects of the crises that the way people live day to day. have been manifested: the worst, due to MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHA-TRINDADE 97 the Great Depression in the 1930s and ures that may counteract this worrying the one from the past decade whose neg- situation, although it has been late to ative effects are still felt today. launch a program that allows for con- The development that occurred in sistency and feasibility to achieve the Portugal until 2007/2008 was followed desired ends. by the period of crisis whose severity has In summary, the inversion of the de- had very visible consequences, intro- mographic triangle due to the decline ducing major constraints that alter the of births and the advanced age at which everyday life of the resident population. people are dying is worsened by the in- Since the early twentieth century the crease of net migration which occurs for ­statistics of demography have indicated the third straight year. that the Portuguese births exceeded Although emigration has been de- deaths3 - however, the trend of negative creasing gradually, reducing the number natural balance has returned since then of those who were part of the outflow, and the difference had never been so the influx of many foreigners entering high.4 In 2013 deaths surpassed births the country increased continuously, by 24,000. changing its internal composition and The shrinking number of births and origin. the increasingly aged population, result- The large outflows went out around ing from better living conditions and a the world but especially to Europe, with better health care, has been the subject great intensity in the second half of last of ongoing debate, being one of the se- century, followed by a progressive de- rious problems that the country faces. crease without, however, interrupting The decline in population and the lack the chain. The current context of eco- of short-term prospects for growth have nomic hardship, particularly in Europe, led the Government to envisage meas- had a pronounced reflex in Portugal.

Fig 1 Portugal - Births and Deaths

Source: INE 98 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Facing once more a lack of alternatives, The chart below allows you to visual- leaving the country presents itself as a ize the extent of the phenomenon. solution to overcome current difficulties. In 2010 the Emigration Observato- Emigration flow resumed its strength ry’s calculations - Ministry of Foreign and reached very high values exceeding Affairs (Observatório de Emigração - even those recorded in the ‘60s and ‘70s. Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros) The movements of migrants classified - pointed to about 400 trips per day - an as “permanent” (residence abroad for a amazing number if we take into account period exceeding one year) decreased by the size of the resident population: the end of the twentieth century; the 10,636,979 that year. outputs of those in the group classified In the subsequent decade, more as “temporary” (calculated stay between than two hundred thousand Portu- 3 months and 1 year) increased signifi- guese (222,396) left the country be- cantly until the turn of the century. In tween 2011 and 2012 (INE statistics), 2002 almost 9,000 individuals perma- although there are differing estimates nently emigrated and more than dou- of the number of outputs. Estimates of ble of those were temporary, about 19 temporary emigration for 2011 indicate thousand. In 2009 the permanent emi- that 56,980 people left the country with gration doubled, reaching up to 17,000 the intention of staying abroad for less individuals. than one year. In 2012 the figure was

Fig 2 Portuguese Emigration 1974 - 2012

Source: INE. Last updated 14.06.2014 MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHA-TRINDADE 99 69,460 people. Thus, in the last two who intend to emigrate. The area where years the number of temporary migrants relatives, acquaintances and country- was again higher than permanent emi- men have settled, exerts a recognized at- gration, 43,998 and 51,958 respectively traction for potential emigrants and the in 2011 and 2012. accounts given by those who are already To understand the current situation there can often create expectations for and the changes occurring in the field of ease of installation in early times (hous- migration, it becomes necessary to recall ing, employment), a situation leading to the features of the previous cycle (desig- a more progressive and easier integra- nated as “European cycle”) and compare tion. them with the features that characterize Those who first left, less qualified the current cycle of emigration. Tenta- overall, are replaced in the current wave tively, in a synthetic form that allows for by elements with diverse professional comparisons between them through a qualifications that include both the less quick read, this chart was outlined. well prepared and those with a higher These changes are commented on as preparation. follows. The bylaws relating to gender have The sites selected by those who first been undergoing a significant change left define, in a way, the fate of those for a given legal recognition (Article 13,

Fig 3 Characteristics of Emigration Flows

60s and 70s Wave Current Wave

Men and Women leave Men - the first to leave simultaneously Diversely qualified( with high Unskilled (General) representative percentage) Arriving, as a rule, speaking more Arriving speaking only Portuguese than one language „Europeanized” - easier Difficult integration process integration Performers Creators „Necessary evil” for the economic Well accepted and desired reconstruction Project life - seeking fulfillment and Project life - return as possible goal career advancement Savings and transfer of remittances to Use of disposable income to the origin improve living standards 100 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Constitution of the Portuguese Repub- wide trend that has existed since the lic, 1976)5 which enshrines equal rights end of last century. International stud- and boosts female independence. Access ies , among which stands out the one to more diverse jobs and greater aca- carried out by the OECD (2007) show demic training provide new opportuni- that Portugal has one of the highest rates ties and facilitate different options both in the designated “brain drain”, adding personally and professionally. Departure that 20 per cent of graduates leave the abroad, which then almost nearly always country - a trend that has been increas- followed the departure of the family ing significantly since the 1990 rate cor- men, has changed since the Portuguese responding outputs them was around women have left themselves, out of 14 per cent. their own initiative, and in some cases, Among us the inquiry conducted by even predating the family emigration. the National Statistics Institute (INE) This new migration, younger and more reported a significant loss of the active qualified, failed to reflect the traditional population, aged situated between 25 family composition instead fitting into a and 34 years. Between 2011 and 2012 professional context.6 there was a difference of 106,475 in the Education, information flow, diversi- elements that make up this age group in fication of media and contacts between 2013 and a further reduction in the same the country and abroad (through not group of around 87,368 is expected. only acquaintances but also through The youth unemployment rate con- touristic contacts) have provided the ac- tinues to worsen and arrived in the first quisition of new languages that stream- quarter of 2013 the percentage was 42.5 line the interaction and are conditions per cent, affecting a total of 165,500 that facilitate the path to living abroad. people between 15 and 24 years. Also While previously work did not re- according to INE data the unemploy- quire any specific education or thor- ment rate in Portugal rose to the highest ough preparation, since the tasks offered level ever, reaching 17.5 per cent in the did not require specialized training in first quarter of 2013, in which the num- general and in many cases were rejected ber of unemployed exceeded 926,800. by the natives of the countries of des- The Institute of Employment and Vo- tination, the acceptance of new foreign cational Training (Instituto de Emprego workers is now based on availability of e Formação Profissional - IEFP) reveals work and filled in accordance with their that the number of unemployed who qualifications . The breadth and diver- annulled the registration at employ- sification of labor offers open new jobs ment centers taking the option to em- and does not accept only those who igrate between January and September “perform” but also to “create”. The com- of 2012 soared to 45.4 per cent over the position of migration proves itself to be corresponding time period in the year different in its composition. before. Portugal is the European country Each cycle of emigration mostly in- most affected by the output of graduates cludes countries of destination to take and technicians7, following the world- higher percentage values for all. Al- MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHA-TRINDADE 101 though still many who took on too In Switzerland, the Portuguese are many other important result of the cy- still the largest single source of immi- clical joints were missing. grants: between January and November The new situation, which has made 2012 the Federal Agency for Migration many Portuguese leave the country, led of Switzerland reported a total of 17,270 to its referral to spaces of interest. The compared to 2009 which represents an diversity of situations requires consid- increase of 26 per cent. ering which international political ties About 80 per cent of the Portuguese between Portugal and each of the coun- who want to legally emigrate out of Eu- tries which are now the destinations of rope go to Angola and 15 per cent move emigration. to Mozambique. One of the greatest Europe was the main destination of innovations of today was the establish- Portuguese emigration between 1962 ment of Angola as a destination for im- and 1975. About 1.1 million people migration. With an established peace were sent there in the space of 13 years. and increased economic development Currently the EU area to which we be- well underway, the country needs com- long, remains the main destination of petent professionals to fill the existing the Portuguese, despite the widespread gaps locally.8 economic downturn and markedly re- Brazil, where there are many job op- duced number of jobs. The free move- portunities, although difficult accessi- ment of persons and the difficulty of bility, continues to exercise a powerful access to knowledge of labor flows does attraction on Portugal’s qualified youth, not allow access to reliable statistics but not just because of the common lan- will no doubt recognize that countries guage but also due to their tradition as like France, Luxembourg and the UK host to Portuguese immigration. In 2012 have been and remain the main destina- - are 414,610 immigrants in Portugal, tions of this new wave. Although we see according to the Report on Immigration a very large reduction in absolute num- and Asylum Borders, published by the bers, it is difficult to properly assess how Department of Foreigners and Borders many people leave and in what circum- (Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras – stances they do so. SEF). For many years there has been a In the last decade the UK was among continued rise in entries, although the the countries of election, with about relative value of its growth varies. The 21,000 Portuguese emigrating in 2012 years 2001 and 2002 recorded higher and 30,000 in 2013, according to data values: in the first there was an increase from the Social Security that country. A of 69.04 per cent and 17.84 per cent in chain that includes individuals not only the second. In 2005 he recorded the first highly skilled but also less skilled indi- decline (down 7.27 per cent) and there- viduals (who work, for example in ho- after the loss has progressed variably. tels, restaurants, and service stations). It The diversity of the resident’s back- is estimated that about 350,000 residing grounds (about 186 nationalities are there, higher than the number provided registered SEF) which also offers a large by the official registration. number of variability means that it had 102 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 considered only the structure of the ten ification of the concepts involved to its major groups of foreign population. name: “emigrant” that led to consider The table below shows that only China the output of country referring to those shows a small increase, while all other who left or “immigrant” which referred countries show have decreased.9 to those already settled on the destina- This decrease results from the ongo- tion, whatever the route taken, have ing economic crisis, which has reduced been replaced by the concepts of “mi- the variety of job offerings. Apart from grant” and “migrations”. situations that cause opportunities to re- Its scope includes the two largest turn, as exemplified by Brazil, including movements and considers either of them the development 6 caused by the recent from a global perspective, providing a World Cup preparations that created complete insight to the phenomenon, a large number of jobs in construction an approach suited to this day. (stadiums, airports, roads, hotels). On The geographical and social mobility the other hand, many citizens of the that exists in the world today produces East have been seeking new destina- exchanges between people and cultures tions, even within Europe. in a way that fewer people belong to a The intensification of mobility seen single group, one country or speak a in our day has different settings that single language. The links are no longer result from multiple changes that take univocal. Culture is constantly rebuild- place at all levels. ing itself, integrating various elements, What follows is an operational mod- whose expression is manifested both in

Table 1 Major Nationalities – Stock

Country 2011 2012 Brazil 111,445 105,622 Ukraine 48,022 44,074 Cape Verde 43,920 42,857 Romania 39,312 35,216 Angola 21,563 20,366 Guinea-Bissau 18,487 17,759 China 16,785 17,447 UK 17,675 16,649 Moldova 13,586 11,503 Sao Tome and Principe 10,518 10,376

Source: SEF, ”Relatório de Imigração, Fronteiras e Asilo, 2012”. MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHA-TRINDADE 103 private and public spaces. Transnational References relations are not limited to crossing in- Carvalho, José Luís, Portugueses em Andorra. Uma dividualized elements as before, having Visão Global. Principado de Andorra: Andbanc, 2007:159. streamlined the creation and re-creation Dayton-Johnson, Jeff; Katseli, Louka T.; Maniatis, processes leading to the emergence of Gregory; MÜNZ, Rainer; Papademetriou, Deme- new social spaces. To those interested in trios, Gaining from Migration: Towards a New Mo- the issue of mobility, the cultural tokens bility System. [S.l.]: OECD Development Centre, 2007:89. show how the emotional links reinforce Nogueira, António de Vasconcelos, Os Portugueses no the sense of belonging to two home- Luxemburgo. Contribuição para a História das Mi- lands. grações. Lisboa: [s.n.], 2011:314. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz, “Le Portugal: Pays The combination of international d’Émigration et Aussi d’Immigration”, in Lieux de studies, which developed a macroscopic Vie et Circulations des Portugais de France, VARINE, view and more detailed analysis at the Béatrice de, ed. lit. Paris: Éditions W, 1997:19-31. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz, “Portugal: Une Di- micro level, allows us to know almost versité qui s’Affirme”, inLe Portugal Entre Émigra- immediately the evolution of interna- tion et Immigration, Migrance – 15. Paris, Éditions tional situations complemented by the Mémoire, Génériques, 1999:94-99. analysis of specific situations. However, Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz, “Perspectiva das ac- tuais migrações em Portugal” in Movilidad Interna given the rapid pace of change that the y Migraciones Intraeuropeas en la Península Ibérica world is facing and the diversity that = Mobilidade Interna e Migrações Intraeuropeias na characterizes the socio-political spaces Península Ibérica: Actas del Coloquio Europeo, San- tiago de Compostela, 8-9 de noviembre de 2011/ that constitute all medium and long- [promovido pelo] Vicerrectorado de Comuni- term forecasts requires a careful evalu- cación e Proxección Exterior, Cátedra Unesco 226 ation of the results available, as they do sobre Migracións; ROEL, Antonio Eiras, (coord.); LOPO, Domingo L. González (coord.). Santiago not offer the desired reliability. de Compostela: Universidade, Serviço de Publi- The articulation of economic and po- cações e Intercâmbio Científico, 2002, 147-170. litical circumstances resulted in the crea- Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz, “A Imigração em Por- tion every season of rapidly erected new tugal: Contribuição Externa para o Desenvolvi- mento Interno” in Cadernos Sociedade e Trabalho, social structures. II: Imigração e Mercado de Trabalho, NEVES, António Oliveira das, (coord.). Lisboa: Ministério da Segurança Social e do Trabalho. Departamento de Estudos, Prospectiva e Planeamento, 2002:145- 160. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz; Neves, Miguel San- tos; Bongarft, Annette, A Comunidade de Negócios Chinesa em Portugal. Catalizadores da Integração da China na Economia Global. Oeiras: Instituto Na- cional de Administração, 2006:177. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz, “L’EÉmigration Portu- gaise vers l’Europe et la France”, in La Communauté Silencieuse, Manuel Vaz Dias (dir.). Bordeaux: Ely- tis, 2014:47-67. Pires, Rui Pena (coord.); Machado, Fernando Luís; Peixoto, João; Vaz, Maria João, Portugal: Atlas das Migrações Internacionais. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Tinta-da-China, 2010:118. 104 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras, Relatório de Imi- killed thousands of people. gração, Fronteiras e Asilo, 2012. Oeiras: SEF/ 4 This eary 103,512 people died, while the number Gabinete de Estudos, Planeamento e Formação, of births was not beyond 102,492, which makes a 2013:70. difference of over a thousand people. In 2008 the Amaral, Susana; Marques, Ana Paula, Emigração Por- trend reversed, with 104,594 births and 102,492 tuguesa de Profissionais Altamente Qualificados: Uma deaths. The following year the natural balance Proposta de Leitura a Partir do Discurso Jornalístico again became negative and have remained ever e das Perspectivas de Atores Envolvidos, XI Congreso since. Español de Sociologia, http://www.fes-web.org/up- 5 The ortugueseP Constitution (1976) states that loads/files/modules/congress/11/papers/2211.pdf all citizens have equal social dignity and are equal (19-04-2014). before the law (Article No. 13). The fundamen- Países de Destino da Emigração Portuguesa, http://www. tal task of the Government to promote equality observatorioemigracao.pt/ (19-04-2014). between men and women - expresses equality in reconciling work and family life (Article No. 59, paragraph 1) and political participation (Article No. 109). Notes 6 It should be recalled that after the Revolution of 1 See the articles published by the AEMI Journal: 25th April Portugal entered into negotiations with “Migrations in Portugal” (2004); “Portugal: Des- the French Government and got migrants the right tination Countries for Emigrants: Immigrants to family reunification, including spouses and Countries of Origin” (2005); “Literature, Cinema children under 18 years old. It should be noted and Television. Productions in Migration Muse- the fact that an entry in these conditions should ums” e “Cultural Issues in Portuguese Migrations: not be aimed at seeking employment which, in Tokens of Identity” (2006, 2007); “Integration a sense, limited access to the world of work. The Policies for Immigrants in Portugal” (2008, 2009); changes from 1977 to explicit will of the French “Migrations Museums: Permanent and Temporary government to encourage this. Thus, minor chil- Exhibitions” (2010); “Emigration Observatory dren (under 18 years for men and below 21 years and Immigration Observatory – The Use of ICT for girls) would be covered by the legislation of for a Better Knowledge of Portuguese Migrations” the receiving country. The results of the study (2011); “Brazil and France: An Historical Over- ‘Emigrants to New France’ conducted by soci- view of the Two Main Flows in the Portuguese Di- ologist João Teixeira Lopes (University of Porto) aspora” (2012). and commissioned by the Secretary of State for 2 Thered carnation became the symbol of the Rev- Communities, pay particular attention to young olution of 25th of April 1974, which became graduates emigrants who for various reasons are known as the Carnation Revolution. The owner of considered ‘invisible’ before the institutions and a restaurant located in Braancamp Street in Lisbon diplomacy (because they are not considered mi- had bought carnations to celebrate the restaurant’s grants, they have no data in the Schengen space first anniversary. As the restaurant was closed that and are not recorded by the institutions). This new day due to the current political situation, he in- wave of skilled emigration to France and 74.3 per stead gave the carnations to his employees. One of cent women and 25.7 per cent which reflects its them, Celeste Caeiro, as the homecoming passed feminization and shows this amendment. Chiado (one of the focal points of the uprising) 7 For information provide the indications given by approached one of the parked tanks and asked the respective Orders over professionals that the what was happening. The soldier asked her for a country lost in greater numbers in 2012: 1,040 cigarette but as she did not smoke, she offered him dentists, 2,303 nurses, 453 engineers, architects something to eat. Since the shops were closed, she 415 and 267 pharmacists. offered the only thing she had to give - bundles of 8 Through the information provided by the Consu- carnations - saying. “Take it if you want it. Carna- late General of Angola in Portugal are met daily tions are for everyone” The soldier agreed and put by hundreds of people who go to 12 shops located a flower in the barrel of his rifle. Celeste was hand- there. ing out carnations to soldiers and putting them on 9 It is not new the Chinese presence in Portugal, their rifles. however, the periods that integrate characterized 3 As an exception occurred in 1918 when the pneu- differently. Its recent growth is due to the launch of monic influenza (also known as “Spanish Flu”) a special system of designated residence ‘residence MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHA-TRINDADE 105

permit for investment activity’ (Law No. 29/2012 of 09 August). Known as ‘Golden Visas’, they requires the minimum non-cumulative require- ments : acquisition of a property value exceeding €500,000; capital transfer an amount equal to or greater than €1 million to apply any type of business, company or bank; create at least 10 jobs. According to figures released in November 2013 by the Portuguese government from the beginning of the year 327 gold to citizens of 21 countries, of which 278 visas to Chinese citizens were granted, giving them a prominent position. 10 Remember that as Brazil became one of the four major developing economies on the global stage (BRIC: consisting of Brazil, Russia, India and China) it became more attractive for Brazilian na- tionals to eturn to their home country. An Overview of the Basque Government´s Diaspora Strategy

Asier Vallejo Itsaso

Introduction page of history which does not bear a Basques have been dispersed around the Basque presence, a physical but above World for centuries. There are many all spiritual presence with their customs reasons for this phenomenon, among and ideas of liberty and democracy which are a spirit of adventure or the par- which emerge from our history and tra- ticular system of statutory inheritance dition. with its right of primogeniture, leading The creation of associative organizations younger siblings to look for other means by Basques who left the Basque Country of earning a living; on other occasions with a view to maintaining bonds with the motives have been social or political, the latter, separated in distance but not stemming now from situations of neces- in sentiment, is a constant characteristic sity or economic penury, now from the of the Basque migratory phenomenon. consequences of war or exile. This phenomenon was clearest through- Evacuees of the Spanish Civil War out the nineteenth century, reaching were the subject of special consideration its apogee in the period 1870-1910. So under Law 8/1994, which regulates rela- that it was on December 25th, 1876 that tions with Basque Communities Abroad, the first Basque Club in America was with the idea of making amends for the constituted, in Montevideo, Uruguay. human and material consequences they The descendants of the original went through in forced exile. Basque founders of these organizations It is a fact - as it was stated in the have taken over from them. And al- preliminaries of Law 8/1994 - that at though the vast majority has never seen the Bancroft Library of the Berkeley the Basque Country, they have actively University, California, manuscripts maintained, in these communities, the can be found written in Basque dating resolution not to lose the link with the from 1791 to 1803. In Latin American land of origin, they have kept the per- countries, a preferred destination as re- manent desire to know about the evo- gards Basque emigration and in which lution of its socio-cultural life, and they the work of Basques has been in evi- maintain clear ideas about their identity. dence from the beginning, there is no Notwithstanding the heterogeneity ASIER VALLEJO ITSASO 107 of their infrastructures, the number of ing for the first time (Karlstad, Sweden members, their internal activities and 2013). With his presence, Mr. Vallejo their capacity for external operations, wanted to stress the importance for a the benefit to the Basque Country re- Regional Government with a relatively sulting from the efforts of these organ- large diaspora to be present in an Asso- izations is undeniable. Their tenacity, ciation such as AEMI where they have steadfastness, and hard-working nature, the opportunity to learn about what is in addition to the generous financial going on and what other countries are contribution that supported the Basque working on regarding diaspora matters. Government while in exile for forty His presentation brought to the au- years are factors whose positive conse- dience a general overview of the current quences cannot be contradicted. The Basque Government´s Diaspora Strat- Basque Government has collaborated egy, focusing on the case of the United with them via a policy of subsidies, ba- States, where the Basque Diaspora is very sically giving help towards their internal vibrant and is playing a key role in the operating costs, the cultural activities conformation of an American-Basque organized in or from the Basque Clubs, identity amongst the second and third to defray infrastructure costs, and lastly generation communities that are located for activities directed towards their so- mostly on the West Coast. cial and economic environment. Besides financial subsidies, each organization A Current Picture of the Basque has been sent bibliographic and audio- Diaspora Worldwide visual material. It is undoubtedly very After the unanimously voted Law little support in comparison with the 8/1994 was passed at the Basque Par- valuable work undertaken by Basques in liament twenty years ago, the coverage other countries. and support that the Basque institutions It is for this reason that the existence offer to the Basque Clubs or associations of these associations and the persistent and federations settled mostly in both will they have shown calls for new chan- South and North America increased nels to be defined; these channels would, dramatically. via a suitable set of rules and guidelines, Since 1994, a myriad of new pro- introduce formulas to encourage collab- grams were created and the financial oration and participation in the associa- support offered to those officially reg- tions, and foster their integration within istered associations grew. The historical the framework of action undertaken by presence of the Basques in countries various agents of contemporary Basque such as Argentina, Uruguay, Venezuela, society on behalf of the promotion, de- Chile, Mexico or the United States, that velopment and diffusion of the Basque had been instrumental historically for reality. the survival of the Basque Government The newly appointed Director for in Exile during the Franco years and be- the Basque Community Abroad of the yond was being recognized and honored Basque Government, Mr. Asier Vallejo, through the new regulations. was present at the AEMI annual meet- 108 AEMI JOURNAL 2014

As a result, more and more Basque • 187 Basque associations and Clubs and associations were created federations in 25 countries since 1994 beyond the historical ones, • 5 federations of Basque institutions in not only in the assumed traditional des- Argentina, USA, Uruguay, Spain and tinations of the Basque mass migrations Venezuela processes, the last waves dating the for- • 30,000 members Worldwide ties and fifties of the twentieth century, but also in new destinations as a con- Basque Government´s Approach In sequence of the European Union reg- Dealing With Basque Diaspora ulations that permitted the circulation The objective of Law 8/1994 is to pro- of workers within the newly established mote, support and intensify relations European borders, on the one hand, and between the Basque Country, its society the new phenomenon of relocation of and institutions on the one hand, and European companies to the BRIC coun- Basque communities and Clubs out- tries, that offer lower labour costs. side the Autonomous Community of In 2013, the picture of the Basque the Basque Country, on the other. Law organized presence in the World (even 8/1994 is intended to: though people of Basque origin have been spotted in more than one hundred a) Contribute to the strengthening of countries), is as follows: Basque communities and Clubs and ASIER VALLEJO ITSASO 109 favor their internal cohesion and the The new system allowed the Basque efficacy of their associative actions. communities abroad to have a direct b) Preserve and reinforce links between contact with the Delegations of the Basque communities and Clubs on Basque Country established in Argen- the one hand, and the Basque Coun- tina (serving all Mercosur); Chile (serv- try on the other hand. ing also Peru and Colombia); Mexico; c) Project the knowledge of the reality United States (serving also Canada); of the Basque Country in the places and Brussels (serving Europe). where Basque communities are set- In fact, one of the main goals of those tled, promoting activities to dissem- Delegations is to maintain fluid rela- inate, stimulate and develop Basque tions with the Basque communities in culture and the Basque economy. their scope areas. d) Favor relations, especially social, cul- Apart from the Basque Govern- tural and economic, with the differ- ment offices (either in the administra- ent peoples accommodating Basque tive capital of the Basque Country in communities, and with their institu- Vitoria-Gasteiz, or in the Delegations tions and various social agents. abroad), Law 8/1994 created two dif- e) Make possible, within the legal ferent institutions, as official bodies for framework and budgetary resources, relations with Basque communities out- help, assistance and protection for side the Autonomous Community of those Basques living outside the the Basque Country: Basque Autonomous Community. f) In general, facilitate the establish- • The Advisory Council for Relations ment of channels of communication with Basque Communities, and between Basques residents outside • The World Congress of Basque Com- the Basque Autonomous Commu- munities nity, and the public authorities of the latter. The functions of the Advisory Council are: In order to pursue all those general • To propose to the institutions of the goals, an Office for the Basque Com- Basque Autonomous Community, munity Abroad was created within the the promulgation or modification of General Secretariat of Foreign Affairs at provisions relating the Basque com- the Presidency of the Basque Autono- munities. mous Government. Even though before • To prepare a four-year plan which Law 8/1994 was passed those programs takes in the proposals for action dur- oriented to the diaspora had been man- ing the said period, in fulfillment of aged from the Department of Culture, the objectives set down in this law. A the new panorama altered the frame- copy of the plan referred will be given work of the Basque administration in to the appropriate institutions. the sense that diaspora affairs would di- • To evaluate the execution of the four- rectly be assigned to the Foreign Affairs year plan and other forecasts con- Department. tained in this law. 110 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 • Any other functions that may be at- all around the year and also there is a tributed to it by legal order. small part of the total amount (that var- ies every year) with which they can re- Regarding the World Congress of model their facilities. Basque Communities, that takes place The second program regarding the every four years, it is attended by the budgetary effort would be the economic members of the Advisory Council for aid for families that are living in situ- Relations with Basque Communities; ations of great need: thanks to these former Presidents of the Basque Gov- funds of 200,000 €/year, an average ernment; one member from each of the of 65 families, mostly from Argentina, parliamentary groups with representa- Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela, get a tion in the Basque Parliament; three very much needed help. Most of them representatives from each of the feder- are elderly people with no access to any ations; and three representatives from other income, who live alone and have Basque Clubs in each country where trouble even to access minimum health there is no federation. care in their countries. A document of conclusions is pre- Then, the most vibrant program is fo- pared from deliberations of the Con- cused on youth. Gaztemundu (or Young gress, of which a copy is given to the World) is a program through which Advisory Council for the purpose of more than 700 youngsters from all over their consideration when drawing up the World have visited the land of their the four-year plan. parents, grandparents or ancestors since The 5th World Congress of Basque it was first established in 1996. For most Communities was held in Donostia-San of the participants in this program this Sebastian in November, 2011, and the is their first visit to their roots, to the four-year plan that takes all the measures core of the culture in which they have and programs that is currently in force been brought up. Participants show for the period 2012-2015, was proposed themselves anxious to find their herit- by the delegates to the Congress. age, ancestry, tradition, and the kind of The four-year plan refers to the pro- values that are difficult to find on the grams that the Basque Government web and that make them feel different deals with in order to pursue the main to other ethnic groups in this globalized goals stated in Law 8/1994. Four of era in which they were born. those programs are the most instrumen- In many cases, the idealized rural tal and best valued by their recipients: country of which they heard so much The first one would be the annual at home and in their Clubs has not grants for the Basque Clubs and federa- much to do with a modern country tions: through this financial aid of 1.23 that is willing to offer them a picture M/€, an average of 70 Basque Clubs are of innovation and leadership, being granted yearly. With these Basque pub- for example the Guggenheim museum lic monies, the Clubs and federations an icon of modernism. This contradic- that do not count on enough resources tory phenomenon has been called the are able to maintain a cultural program Basque schizophrenia, as those young ASIER VALLEJO ITSASO 111 people from abroad are looking for the In the last two years, four interns oldest side of their culture, while their have been trained in diaspora matters homeland institutions are willing to with the Basque Government: two of show them how far they have gone in them were settled in the headquarters the industrialization process and how of the Presidency of the Basque Govern- different the country is nowadays from ment in Vitoria-Gasteiz, while another the country that their emigrant relatives one was working from the Delegation were compelled to leave. in Buenos Aires and the forth one was During their stay in the Basque establishd in Boise, Idaho, the Unites Country these youngsters have the op- States, under the supervision of the Del- portunity to visit as tourists, but also to egation in New York City. The part of meet with other young people and have the budget that covers this educational a direct contact with public and private program is 80,000 €/year. cultural institutions. Every year, there is Regarding the visibility of the pro- a theme for the stay and they are edu- grams on the web, there are two main cated in different fields of interest. The web pages that offer information about selection of those fields in which educate these programs: the participants is part of the four-year plan (Basque language, native musical www.euskadi.net/euskaldunak instruments, Basque traditional dances Institutional website for the Basque and a specific training for leaders of cul- Government’s Office for the Basque tural associations are the subjects for the Community Abroad, it offers detailed period 2012-2015). However, Gaztemu- information about the staff, all the pro- ndu is not the only progam focused on grams and regulations, so that when the the new generations. Basque communities want to solve any There is also the possibility for young kind of legal or procedural task, they can people to specialize on diaspora matters easily reach the right person to contact. through the training that is offered in Law 8/1994 and all the legal devel- the headquarters of the Foreign Affairs opment of its terms can also be found Department of the Basque Government on that institutional page, in three lan- on issues related with Basques abroad. guages (Basque, Spanish and English). In fact, since these internships were first established in 2003, nearly 20 people www.euskaletxeak.net with a University degree in Humani- This other site was funded by the Basque ties, History, Economics, Psychology or Government and offered to the Basque Law, among others, have been trained Clubs and federations as a site to share on the public policies that a regional among them. It is also a repository of government as the Basque can offer to the memory of the Basque emigration, their diaspora communities. This field is and offers to any researcher materials ed- so broad, has so many angles, that an- ited all around the World by the Basque yone, regardless their university degree, communities (more than 180,000 pages can have the opportunity to access the of publications beginning late nine- internships. teenth century) and pictures (more than 112 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 20,000). It is also a place where each 1. A North American regional community includes information about meeting was organized in Elko, their social life and agendas as well as Nevada, in July 2013, and it gath- the official and updated list of Basque ered the Basque Clubs of Canada Clubs in the World. This historical and the United States chronicle, in which pages anyone can 2. A South American regional meet- find the triumphs and difficulties that ing was organized in Villa Maria, the emigrants had to face, is a priceless Argentina, in November 2013, deposit of news, where the historian can and representatives of the Basque go to search the data he or she needs to Clubs of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, weave a memoir that will conform an el- Colombia, El Salvador, Paraguay, oquent lesson for those that are to come. Peru and Uruguay attended. 3. A European, Asian and Australian Challenges in the Process of regional meeting was organized in Increasing the Level of Engagement Barcelona, Spain, in March 2014, of the Basque Diaspora with the in which delegates of the Basque Basque Country Clubs of Australia, Belgium, The main framework of the public pro- China, France, Germany, Italy, grams and politics regarding the Basque Spain and United Kingdom par- diaspora is established, as aforemen- ticipated. tioned, during the celebration of every World Congress of Basque Communi- Regional meetings have been crucial to ties, which takes place every four years, evaluate the programs after two years of since Law 8 was approved in 1994. experience, and there is still time before The deliberations of the Congress are the next World Congress (to be held in compiled in a document that is taken 2015) to make some corrections in the into account by the Advisory Council regulations of the programs included in to propose a four-year plan to the au- the four-year plan. thorities, in this case, the Office for the In autumn 2012, new elections took Basque Community Abroad. place for the Basque Parliament. As a re- The current four-year plan (2012- sult, a new President was elected, who 2015) was passed by the delegations of belonged to a different party. In fact, the the 25 countries that attended the last Basque National Party, that had been Congress that was celebrated in Donos- ruling the country since the establish- tia-San Sebastian in November, 2011. ment of the democracy in the eighties, One of the new requests by the delegates is ruling again after a four year term in which had been included in that plan, which the socialist party got the Presi- was the possibility to gather every two dency. years in a regional basis, between Con- When the political change came in gresses. The idea was put in practice and 2012, a new Cabinet was conformed from August 2013 to March 2014, three and new directors and advisors occupied regional meetings have been organized: their posts in the administration. As the legal framework (World Con- ASIER VALLEJO ITSASO 113 gresses and four-year plans) do not coin- usually guided by Basque sailors, and cide with the elections, the newly elected that the Basques not only were present party has to fulfill what was included in in every discovery either by sea or by the four-year plan. Nonetheless, instead land, but also leaded many institutions of limiting the action to what had been in the colonial era. As an example of the approved, the new Government has Basque presence in the history of Cali- come to office with new ideas. In fact, fornia, the governor and the head of the the experience of so many years dealing missions of Baja California at one point with the Basque diaspora and the com- of the XVII century happened to be two plicity they find abroad, make things Basques: Diego de Borica and Fermín smoother for the current Basque Gov- de Lasuen, both from Vitoria-Gasteiz, ernment. nowadays capital city of the Basque Au- Besides the four-year plan, the new tonomous Community. Government has recently approved a After the colonial era, there were Strategic Plan of Foreign Action 2014- also prominent Basques among the for- 2016 (which covers the current four- ty-niners during the gold rush (1849), year term), that includes a series of and other pioneers. The first Basque measures, indicators and evaluations. settlements in California brought as a The Strategic Plan includes as one of result the settlement of Basque hotels the Strategic Goals for the Basque Gov- and businesses to Los Angeles. After the ernment to promote, guard and inten- men came the women and they were sify the relations of the Basque Country in charge of the hostels and found hus- with the Basque Community Abroad. bands and were mothers for all their To accomplish that general goal, some guests. At that time, all the Basque ho- actions have been identified. Among the tels were established in the same area new initiatives, one could be mentioned of Los Angeles. Those hotels were very here: the establishment and organization productive and helpful. As a remarkable of the Global Basque Network. Through historical fact, the first two newspapers that network, at least more than 25,000 ever published in the Basque language people of Basque origin or that have an were founded in Los Angeles in the late affinity with the Basque Country are XIX century (Californiako eskualdunak going to be identified and included in and Eskualdunon Gazeta). the network. Even before the gold rush vanished, the Basques were transferred naturally The Case of The Basque Diaspora to the sheep industry. They settled not in The United States Of America only in California, but also moved east- The Basque presence in the history of wards to other counties and villages all the United States of America has been around the Western States. As a result, much more important than what an- Nevada, Idaho, Wyoming, Oregon, yone could even imagine. It has been Utah… were soon inhabited by Basques. proved by historians that the first gal- They were hard workers, and ready to leons in the discovery of America were get involved in the hardest jobs. Most of them had never herded sheep in the 114 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 Basque Country, but still, they became province of Navarre) and from Idaho good sheepherders. Differences between (most of them from Bizkaia) joined for sheepherders and cattle ranchers arouse the first time in a major event of the during some years, until the Taylor Basque culture. Around 5,000 people Grazing Act (1934) put an end to the gathered to celebrate their cultural her- quarrels for the use of public lands by itage. Both the Spanish and the French sheep and cattle. ambassadors to the U.S. were invited. A huge number of Basques, as many For the first time, the barrier that split other Europeans, entered the United in two the North and the South parts of States via Ellis Island. Many stayed in the Basque Country (the first belonging New York City, after having traveled so to France and the second in Spain) in long. But for most of them a longer jour- the homeland was overlapped by their ney was waiting. A Basque gentleman common culture and the joy to be part named Valentin Aguirre owned a hotel of the same country. and travel agency on Cherry Street, near The celebration in Sparks was a solid the port in East Manhattan. He used to soil in which the seed to build a federa- send his children and employees to ask tion of all the Basque communities was among the newly arrived: “Euskaldunik landed. Thus, in 1973, the North Amer- hemen bada?” (Are there any Basques on ican Basque Organizations, Inc. was board?), even before they had jumped created, the federation of all the Basque ship. There were hundreds of them who Clubs in the U.S. and Canada, that spent their first night in America at Agu- nowadays is more alive than ever before. irre’s hotel. In a few days, they could be It was not until 1987 that another put into a train that would take them to huge event, “Jaialdi” (“Festival” in the West, a trip that could last for days. Basque) was organized in Boise, Idaho. Many changed trains in Ogden (Utah) This festival takes place every five years and from there they could be travelling since 1990, and has become the major to Boise or elsewhere, where the Basque cultural event in the Basque Diaspora. sheep owners were waiting for them. More than 35,000 people are attending Most of the Basque hotels were built the celebration, a number that is in- within a stone´s throw from the train creasing each time. station, which helped the emigrant find The total of Basque associations that what would be their new Home away the federation of Basque institutions, from Home. Valentin Aguirre became a N.A.B.O., takes into its umbrella is of key person in the establishment of that 38 Basque Clubs, including two in Can- network of chain migration, were the ada and 4 in the East Coast (Miami, travel and the job among Basques was New England, New York and Wash- guaranteed. ington, D.C.). New York was in fact In 1959 the Western Basque Festival the first association to be established in was organized in Sparks, Nevada, on the 1913, when the Western Basques still outskirts of Reno. Basques from Cali- gathered in the Basque hotels. fornia (most of them from the French The Delegation of the Basque Gov- side of the Basque Country and the ernment to the United States is right ASIER VALLEJO ITSASO 115 now located in New York City, near the Sebastian. Since then, more than 6,000 headquarters of the United Nations. students have stayed in the Basque This office had its origin in the Dele- Country as part of their education pro- gation that the Basque Government in gram, both in Donostia-San Sebastian exile opened in Manhattan 75 years ago, and in Bilbao. On a different level, an when the first Basque President, Mr. agreement between the State of Idaho José Antonio Aguirre, fled with part of and the Basque Autonomous Commu- his government to the United States es- nity was signed in February 2012 to caping from Europe during the Spanish strengthen ties between the two regions, Civil War and the Second World War. in the cultural, educational, and eco- It was in New York City where the nomic fields. As a result, an office of the first Basque Club in the United States Basque Government has been operating was established in 1913. The Basques in Boise, Idaho, to prospect the oppor- had settled themselves mostly in the tunities of further exchange between the Western States of the country, and they two regions that have so much in com- had their places to gather: the Basque mon. hotels played the role in those places where there were not associations yet. Conclusion But as time passed, more and more as- The new Basque Government partici- sociations were established. The hotels pated last year in Dublin in the Global had come to an end, as their inhabitants Diaspora Forum, which was organized had formed families and settled for not by the U.S. Department of State, as the returning to their homelands any more. European branch of the main event in As stated before, even though the in- Washington, D.C. During the Forum, stitutional presence of the Basque Gov- the Basque Delegation learned about ernment in the U.S. is focused in New the last venues in diaspora politics that York City, the academic presence of the are now on the agendas of all European Basque culture is spreading. From Reno and Worldwide Governments. in Nevada, where a Program for Basque It is not sheer coincidence that the Studies (now Center for Basque Studies) Basque Government is taking the was established in the late seventies, the Basque Diaspora in the United States as Basque presence in American univer- a productive soil where to first seed its sities has grown to quite a few. Boise new programs and ideas, before they are State University has also a Department taken to the rest of the Basque commu- of Basque Studies and there are Basque nities abroad. chairs and fellowships in Santa Barbara, Success stories such as the exhibit at Chicago or CUNY in NYC. Ellis Island about the Basques, “Hid- It was also in Reno, Nevada, where den in Plain Sight”, of 2010; the Agree- USAC (University Studies Abroad Con- ment between the State of Idaho and sortium) was created by a Basque gen- the Basque Government in 2012, that tleman, Carmelo Urza, in 1983. The has yet to give its best fruits; the newly first destination that was offered to the signed - February 2014 - agreement to American students was Donostia-San establish a Jon Bilbao Fellowship at the 116 AEMI JOURNAL 2014 University of Nevada in Reno, to foster with its organized diaspora and be very the research about the Basque Diaspora, respectful of what they are working on, and the program to gather oral testimo- also about the way they live their hy- nies of Basque emigrants all around the bridized identity in their host countries, United States and Canada that will be where they are well rooted. the first result of the agreement; the pro- Then, willing to foster their programs ject of a new exhibit about the impor- and projects, the institutions from the tance of the Basques in the History of homeland should work in collaboration the State of California, that the Califor- with those communities, not to control nia Historical Society proposed to the what they do, but rather to help them Basque communities in California and go further (most of the diaspora associ- the Basque authorities on which we are ations are conformed by volunteers and currently working. All those are recent this approach could contribute to pro- projects that have a wonderful prospect fessionalize their cultural production, of success due to the presence of a well while offering an international perspec- rooted Basque-American community tive in their approach to their local au- that shapes a unique framework for new thorities). collaborations. As the Irish Worldwide expert on The Basques in the United States diaspora matters, Mr. Kingsley Aikins, succeed in uniting themselves through stated during the Global Diaspora a federation since 1973. Before, the Forum in Dublin, the key factor in former French-Basques of California this case would be to collaborate with and the Spanish-Basques of Idaho lived members of the diaspora who show not separately. That union was made possi- only an interest but a real engagement ble before the Basque Government was with the homeland. Regarding the local reestablished in the late seventies of the authorities of the homeland, it is more twentieth century. than clear that the departments involved The work of the Basque Government in diaspora issues do have to “diasporize” towards the Basque diaspora is grow- their government decision makers, let- ing in interest and programs; but there ting them know about the opportunities is still a long way to go. What a pub- that the best organized diasporas are of- lic institution of the homeland can do fering to their homelands. best, as we see it, is to establish contact