Of the President

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

1986 Activities

\ NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

1986 Activities

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 20546 Contents

Page b3e Summary ...... 1 Environmental Protection Agency ...... 115 Spacescience ...... 3 Monitoring and Assessing the Communications ...... 6 Environment ...... 115 Earth's Atmosphere, Environment and National Science Foundation ...... 119 Resources ...... 7 Astronomical Sciences ...... 119 Space Transportation ...... 9 Atmospheric Sciences ...... 119 Commercial Use of Space ...... 10 Smithsonian Institution ...... 121 Space Tracking and Data Systems ...... 11 Space Sciences ...... 121 Space Station ...... 11 Atmospheric Sciences ...... 121 Aeronautics and Space Research and Space Technology ...... 121 Technology ...... 12 Planetary Sciences ...... 121 National Aeronautics and Space Department of State ...... 123 Administration ...... 17 Activities within the United Nations .... 123 Space Science ...... 17 Communication Satellites ...... 124 Applications ...... 25 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency .... 127 Space Transportation ...... 33 U.S. Space Arms Control Activities ..... 127 Commercial Use of Space ...... 37 Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms Space Station ...... 39 Control ...... 127 Space Tracking and Data Systems ...... 43 Space Policy ...... 127 Space Research and Technology ...... 45 United State Information Agency ...... 129 Aeronautics Research and Technology ... 51 Voice of America ...... 129 Department of Defense ...... 61 Television Service ...... 129 Space Activities ...... 61 Other .USUActivities...... 129 Aeronautical Activities ...... 66 Space and Aeronautics Support ...... 71 Appendixes Relations with NASA ...... 73 Department of Commerce ...... 75 A-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record ...... 131 Space Systems ...... 75 A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful Satellite Data Services ...... 77 in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ...... 131 International Activities ...... 79 A-3 Successful U.S. Launches-1986 ...... 132 Research ...... 80 B-1 US.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1980- Aeronautical Programs ...... 81 1986 ...... 134 Department of Energy ...... 83 B-2 US.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1980- Space Nuclear Power Systems ...... 83 1986 ...... 136 Nuclear Test Detection ...... 85 B-3 US.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1986 .... 137 Department of the Interior ...... 87 C U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961- Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 1986 ...... 138 Processing ...... 87 D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ...... 14.4 Digital Data Processing and E-1 Space Activities of the US. Transmission ...... 88 Government: Remote Sensing Applications ...... 89 Historical Budget Summary- International Activities ...... 95 Budget Authority ...... 145 Department of Agriculture ...... 97 E-2 Space Activities Budget ...... 147 Remote Sensing Research ...... 97 E-3 Aeronautics Budget ...... 147 Federal Communications Commission ...... 101 F-1 Presidential Commission on the Space Communications Satellites ...... 101 Shuttle Challenger Accident-Executive New Satellite Services ...... 103 Order ...... 148 International Conference Activities ..... 104 F-2 Presidential Statement on Fourth Shuttle Department of Transportation ...... 105 Orbiter and Commercial Payloads ...... 149 Aviation Safety ...... 105 Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control . . 110 Ofice of Commercial Space Transportation ...... 112

the target date for resuming Shuttle flights. Summary Based upon a reduced flight rate, a 3-year projected manifest was issued that accommo- During 1986, advances that were made in dated the payload backlog as much as possi- the areas of aeronautics, space science and ble. In addition, the President announced his applications, and space exploration, involv- support of the construction of a vehicle to re- ing several federal agencies, demonstrated place Challenger, and of a new policy on the the Nation’s abiding commitment to improve commercial use of space that emphasized pri- the quality of life on Earth and to extend hu- vate sector launches of commercial satellites, man enterprise beyond Earth. However, the except for those that are uniquely suited to Space Shuttle Challenger accident, and the the Shuttle or have national security or for- subsequent investigation and recovery opera- eign policy implications. tions, were the dominant events of the year, affecting a broad range of national and inter- In 1986, expendable launch vehicles national space plans and policies. (ELV’s) continued to provide launch support to satellite users. Five launches were con- The year’s successful Space Shuttle mission ducted for the Department of Defense (DOD) began with the launch of flight 61-C on Jan- and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric uary 12, using the orbiter Columbia. The 6- Administration (NOAA) using Scout, Delta, day mission carried the Materials Science AtlasEentaur, and Atlas E/F vehicles. In ad- Laboratory; the first Hitchhiker payload-of- dition, NASA initiated studies on the need to opportunity carrier; the Infrared Imaging establish a Mixed Fleet Transportation Sys- Experiment; 13 Getaway Specials; and RCA’s tem that would consist of the Space Shuttle Satcom K-1 communications satellite was and existing or new ELV’s. deployed. One of two payload specialists on the flight was U.S. Representative Bill Nel- In lieu of using the Centaur G prime upper son who participated in a number of experi- stage to launch planetary payloads, the Iner- ments for the National Aeronautics and tial Upper Stage (a launch vehicle that fits Space Administration (NASA). into the Shuttle’s cargo bay) was selected for On January 28, Space Shuttle Challenger the Magellan, Galileo, and Ulysses planetary flight 51-L was launched at 11:38 a.m. missions. Aboard were Francis R. “Dick” Scobee, com- In the area of space exploration, Voyager 2 mander; Michael J. Smith, pilot; Judith A. became the first spacecraft to fly past Resnik, Ellison S. Onizuka, and Ronald E. Uranus, providing prime scientific data on McNair, mission specialists; and payload spe- that planetary body. In an unprecedented, co- cialists Gregory B. Jarvis, Hughes Aircraft ordinated effort, Halley’s Comet was studied Company, and Christa McAuliffe, the first extensively by scientists and astronomers teacher in space. Flight 51-L ended 73 sec- from around the world. Also, in the process of onds later in an explosive burn of hydrogen star formation, astronomers observed the and oxygen propellants that destroyed the stage where the collapsing object is closer to External Tank and exposed the spacecraft to attaining stellar dimensions than anything severe aerodynamic loads that caused com- previously observed; and the fastest known plete structural breakup. All seven crew spinning binary pulsar was discovered. members perished. Subsequently, President Reagan announced the formation of the Pres- The year 1986 marked the 25th anniver- idential Commission on the Space Shuttle sary of the use of Radioisotope Thermoelec- Challenger Accident to determine the proba- tric Generators (RTG’s). Through the years, ble cause and necessary corrective actions. RTG’s delivered by the Department of En- After conducting an extensive investigation, ergy to NASA and the DOD provided safe and the Commission made important recommen- highly reliable electric power sources that dations designed to insure the return to safe contributed to the success of some of the most ambitious and spectacular astronautical flight. NASA’s plan to implement the recommendations of the Commission was submit- events ever undertaken by the United States. ted to President Reagan on July 14. RTG’s aboard spacecraft studying the interplanetary medium, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer After extensive studies of the entire Shut- 11, launched in 1972 and 1973, respectively, tle Transportation System program were con- and the Voyager 1and Voyager 2, launched in ducted, NASA announced February 1988 as 1977, are still operational.

1 Under a White House directive, NASA and ship of a mobile satellite system would be the DOD continued to examine technologies that best way to provide a variety of services to the would improve launch capabilities in the public. In addition, advances in technology post-1995 period. In addition, studies were resulted in new applications of satellite- initiated to examine options for new rocket delivered communications. The FCC granted engines, advanced propulsion recovery sys- approval to a company to construct, launch, tems, and a second-generation Space Shuttle. and operate three satellites that will provide NASA and DOD also initiated the joint Na- radio determination satellite service and an- tional Aero-Space Plane (NASP) research cillary message service. program that could lead to a whole new class In accordance with provisions of the Land of aerospace vehicles. The goal of the pro- Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of gram is to develop hypersonic and transat- 1984, the Earth Observation Satellite Com- mospheric technology for aerospace vehicles pany (EOSAT) has operated the land remote that are powered by airbreathing rather than sensing satellite system (Landsat). The Com- rocket propulsion. NASP is a technology de- pany initiated development of a satellite re- velopment program that will lead to a deci- ceiving center, and an operations and control sion on building and flight testing the X-30 center that will be used for capturing and flight research aircraft. The X-30 would processing data and flight control for the serve as a research vehicle to demonstrate next-generation Landsat 6 and future space- the technologies developed to attain higher craft. The Earth Resources Observation Sys- altitude and Mach numbers, and to validate tem (EROS) Data Center of the U.S. the integration of the technologies into an Geological Survey (USGS) supported the aircraft. The performance goals planned for transition of Landsat operations, and data the vehicle include horizontal takeoff and marketing and sales from NOAA to EOSAT. landing from conventional runways, sus- In 1986, approximately 26,000 film and digi- tained hypersonic cruise in the atmosphere, tal Landsat products were generated and dis- and acceleration to orbit and return. Using tributed to users worldwide. the technology developed for the NASP, a family of future operational vehicles might To encourage U.S. private sector involve- include a next-generation space transporta- ment and investment in commercial space tion system, high-altitude, high-speed mili- ventures, NASA’s Office of Commercial Pro- tary interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft, grams established and funded four additional and hypersonic cruise transport. Centers for the Commercial Development of Space, for a current total of nine. As an alli- Advances in other joint NAWDOD re- ance of industry, academia, and government, search programs, such as the x-29 forward- the Centers will use the space environment swept wing experimental aircraft, the X-wing to stimulate high technology research that research aircraft, the tilt rotor/JVX aircraft, may lead to the development of new products and the mission adaptive wing, increased the and services with commercial potential. The technology base substantially for civilian revised U.S. space launch strategy gives the and military aviation. commercial expendable launch vehicle indus- In 1986, the Federal Communications Com- try a primary role in meeting public and pri- mission (FCC) authorized, conditionally, two vate requirements for launch services. In companies to provide international telecom- response to policy changes, the Office of Com- munications services through satellite sys- mercial Space Transportation, Department of tems separate from the International Transportation, developed regulatory guid- Tblecommunications Satellite Organization ance and interagency relationships designed (INTELSAT). Since the FCC issued its regu- to create a more favorable environment for latory policies on independent satellite sys- the industry. In another development, the De- tems in 1985, a total of seven companies have partment of Transportation’s Federal Avia- been granted conditional authorization to es- tion Administration entered into an tablish these systems. In December 1986, IN- agreement with NASA to develop system re- TELSAT’s Board of Governors approved the quirements for forward-looking aircraft wind U.S. proposal to establish separate systems. shear sensors, such as Doppler radar and In related activity, the FCC allocated 27 MHz Doppler lidar, that will sense wind shear and of spectrum for domestic mobile satellite allow aircraft to be alerted to hazardous ar- services, and determined that joint owner- eas.

2 In the international arena, U.S. representa- The National Commission on Space pre- tives continued to meet with European, Japa- sented its proposed program and goals for the nese, and Canadian representatives to U.S. civil space program for the next 50 negotiate agreements on the detailed design, years. development, operation, and utilization of The remainder of this chapter is a sum- the Space Station. Agreements from the ne- mary by function of U.S. aeronautics and gotiations are expected to commit all interna- space activities in calendar year 1986. The tional partners to hardware investments, succeeding chapters present activities of indi- operational roles, and use of the Space Sta- vidual agencies in greater detail. tion for many years to come. As the agency responsible for representing U.S. foreign policy interests, the Department Space Science of State was actively involved in discussions with nations whose plans for space were adversely affected by the Space Shuttle Chal- Space science programs include observa- lenger accident, and by changes in U.S. tions and studies of the universe and of the commercial space policy. fundamental physical laws important to un- A number of federal agencies participated derstanding the distant universe, exploration in preparations for the International Tele- of the near universe, and efforts to acquire communication Union’s World Administra- more knowledge about Earth‘s planetary fea- tive Radio Conference for Mobile Services tures and environment. Investigations are (Mobile WARC) that will be conducted in Ge- conducted using satellites, space probes, the neva, Switzerland in 1987. In July, a draft of Space Shuttle, suborbital vehicles, and the U.S. technical proposals on mobile serv- ground-based facilities. In 1986, the tempo- ices from terrestrial and satellite communi- rary loss of U.S. space launch capability pre- cations, radio determination and radio cluded what was planned as “A Year for navigation satellite systems was presented to Space Science.” However, scientists and as- 41 countries. In addition, U.S. representa- tronomers maintained full schedules work- tives were involved in plans for the second ing on activities that did not require session of the International Telecommunica- launches. tion Union’s World Administrative Radio Conference on the Use of the Geostationary Satellite Orbit and the Planning of the Space Study of the Universe Services Utilizing It (Space WARC), commonly known as (2) ORB WARC, scheduled Astrophysics programs study the physical for 1988. The objective of the conference is to nature of the universe, from the Sun to the guarantee to all nations equitable access to most distant quasars, to determine the laws the geostationary satellite orbit and to the that govern cosmic phenomena, and to learn frequency bands allocated to space services. the origins of the universe and how it will The Arms Control and Disarmament end. Many observations cannot be made Agency continued to articulate the U.S. posi- through the Earth’s atmosphere, so instru- tion on space arms control in the Defense and ments to conduct studies must be carried Space Negotiating Group, part of the Nuclear above the atmosphere into space. Planning and Space Talks, a bilateral U.S.-Soviet and development continued on the four Great arms control negotiation that began in Observatories; after they are launched into March 1985. space, they will be able to observe objects at The United States Information Agency’s any wavelength in the electromagnetic spec- popular satellite telecast service, Worldnet, trum. broadcast several programs about U.S. activi- Hubble Space Telescope (HST).Originally ties in space, such as Voyager 2’s encounter scheduled for launch in October 1986, the with Uranus, the future Space Station, the current flight manifest calls for launch of the Young Astronauts Program, and the Chal- HST late in 1988 or early 1989. The first of lenger accident. In addition, most of the Voice the four Great Observatories, it will carry of America’s 41 foreign language services five scientific instruments to study the stars, covered a variety of stories about the U.S. planets, and interstellar space, allowing sci- space program. entists and astronomers to see clearly 10 to

3 30 times beyond what can be observed with sensitivity. It will be able to search for plan- existing instruments. ets around the nearest stars; and spectra for planets that might be detected could reveal the chemical composition of their atmospheres and help to determine whether they might sustain life similar to that found on Earth. High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAO’s). Data obtained from the three High Energy Astronomy Observatories contributed significantly to existing knowledge about high energy astrophysical processes. Continued analysis of data from the HEAO-1 and HEAO-8 satellites revealed the presence of dense, x-ray emitting gas in the central regions of some galaxies, indicating a significant annual influx of matter; this discovery led to the unexpected observation of the formation of a galaxy. Analysis of data from the HEAO-3 satellite disclosed that gamma rays come from the plane of the Milky Way Gal- axy. Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). In orbit since 1980, the SMM’s major achievement in 1986 was its observation of Halley’s Comet when the Comet was too close to the Sun to be studied from the ground and by other When placed in orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope will ob- spacecraft. Also, the SMM continued to observe objects in the universe in visible and ultraviolet light tain an unparalleled series of observations of with 10 to 30 times the clarity of existing ground-based ob- the Sun’s corona and sunspot activity. servatories. Spartan. Carrying instruments to observe Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). Final Halley’s Comet, the second Spartan and mis- stages of manufacturing and assembling the sion support systems, designed to release and four scientific instruments of GRO, the sec- recapture Spartan subsatellites, were de- ond of the four Great Observatories, contin- stroyed during the Challenger accident. A ued. When it is placed in orbit in 1990, GRO new spacecraft and supporting systems are will view objects clearly that are at least 10 being built, and should be ready for a flight times fainter than existing capabilities can on the Space Shuttle in 1988. observe, and will improve existing knowledge Astr+l. Scheduled for launch in 1986, the of the origin and location of gamma rays in Astro-1 payload, a Shuttle-borne observatory the universe by a factor of 50 to 100. that will measure ultraviolet radiation from Proposed Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Fa- celestial objects, is now manifested for a cility (AXAF). Proposed as the third of the flight in January 1991. four Great Observatories, AXAF would be 100 times more powerful for detecting x-rays from celestial sources than the highly suc- Solar System Exploration cessful High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO-8) mission. Studies using AXAF Cometary Studies. In 1985 and 1986, the would have a direct bearing on such impor- appearance of Halley’s Comet was the focus tant scientific fields as plasma physics, of unprecedented international scientific atomic and nuclear physics, elementary par- study. Although NASA did not send a probe ticle physics, and cosmology. directly to intercept the Comet, it was stud- Proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility ied extensively by U.S. scientists on the (SIRTF). If placed in orbit, this proposed Fa- ground, and by aircraft, rockets, and existing cility, the last of the four Great Observato- spacecraft that included the Pioneer Venus ries, will span the infrared part of the Orbiter, the Dynamics Explorer, the Solar spectrum with a thousand-fold increase in Maximum Mission, the International Ultra-

4 violet Explorer, and the International Come- Ulysses mission is being considered for tary Explorer. In addition, NASA’s Deep launch in 1989 or 1990. Space Network provided tracking and communications support to international spacecraft observing the Comet.

Images of Uranus taken by Voyager 2 from a distance of 1.3 million miles

Mars Observer: Scheduled for launch in 1990, the Mars Observer will obtain images of the surface and atmosphere of Mars during the four seasons of one Mars year. In 1986, 1986, the spacecraft observed Halley’s Comet from a spacecraft manufacturers and geoscience and distance of 35 million kilometers. climatology experiments were selected for Voyager at Uranus. In January 1986, Voy- the mission. ager 2 became the first spacecraft to fly past Explorers. For the past nine years, the In- Uranus, transmitting over 7,000 images of ternational Ultraviolet Explorer has pro- the planet that revealed two new rings, ten vided ultraviolet spectra for studying comets, new moons, and an abundance of helium in the outer planets and their satellites, the at- its atmosphere comparable to that found on mospheres of stars, the interstellar medium, Jupiter and Saturn. and extragalactic objects. In 1986, it provided Pioneer Venus Orbiter At a time when Hal- images of Halley’s Comet during encounters ley’s Comet was relatively close to Venus, the by spacecraft from Japan, ESA, and the So- Pioneer Venus Orbiter obtained unique im- viet Union. From polar orbit, the Cosmic ages of the Comet, and data on the chemical Background Explorer will map the sky and composition of its atmosphere. Also, instru- measure cosmic background radiation that is ments on the spacecraft made important new the focus of debate on the Big Bang theory of measurements of the solar wind interaction the exploding universe. In 1986, integration with Venus. of the spacecraft began, and its instruments Pioneers 10 and 11. Pioneers 10 and 11 con- were tested at liquid helium temperatures. tinued to measure the properties of the inter- Also, plans continued on developing the Ex- planetary medium in the outer solar system. plorer Platform, a reusable spacecraft bus for The main scientific goal of both spacecraft is Explorer payloads. to search for the heliopause, the interaction boundary between the solar wind and interstellar space. During Voyager 2’s encounter Life Sciences with Uranus, Pioneer ll’sinstruments monitored solar wind conditions. Galileo and Ulysses. The separate Galileo The two major goals of NASA’s Life Sci- and Ulysses missions to Jupiter were sched- ences program are to promote health and pro- uled for launch in 1986. The Galileo mission, ductivity in manned space flight, and to a joint project with the Federal Republic of study biological processes and life in the uni- Germany, will conduct an in-depth study of verse. Jupiter’s atmosphere, magnetic field, and Space Medicine. The crew of Shuttle flight moons; and could be launched from the Space 61-C investigated human responses to the Shuttle in 1989 or 1991, or by an expendable low-gravity environment of space, such as launch vehicle. The Ulysses mission, a joint motion sickness, and changes in body fluids, effort with the European Space Agency, will and were involved in echocardiography, hand- provide the first view of the Sun and the solar eye coordination, and treadmill stress tests. system from above the ecliptic plane. Data A Health Maintenance Facility is being de- obtained is expected to improve understand- veloped for the Space Station that will allow ing of the Sun, and the effects of solar activ- space crews to exercise and have their health ity on the Earth’s weather and climate. The monitored.

5 Gravitational Biology. The goal of the Grav- biotechnology, and fluid dynamics and trans- itational Biology program is to understand port phenomena. Although 70 high-quality, how gravity affects life on Earth and the ground-based investigations have been weightlessness of space is used as a tool to funded, new research efforts will require ex- understand life and its processes. Analysis of panded program resources. data on young, developing animals experiencing weightlessness on the 1985 flight of Spacelab 3 indicates a reduction in bone Communications strength, suggesting that gravity loading is essential for normal bone growth. In addition, significant changes in muscle mass The United States has implemented a were observed. multifaceted communications satellite pro- Exobiology The Exobiology program en- gram that will allow it to meet foreign com- deavors to understand the origin, evolution, petition and maintain its preeminent status and distribution of life in the universe. Re- in the global marketplace. cently, precursors of biologically important Advanced Communications Technology Sat- organic molecules were discovered in the in- ellite (ACTS). ACTS technology will contrib- terstellar medium. Studies indicate a direct ute to future domestic and global satellite link between these organic molecules and networks. In 1986, laser technology and a those found in primitive solar system bodies, steerable antenna were added to the items fueling speculation that life exists elsewhere currently planned for ACTS. The antenna in the universe. will extend ACTS coverage to states and ar- Controlled Ecological Life Support System eas outside the contiguous 48 states, such as (CELSS). The goal of the CELSS program is Alaska, Hawaii, and South America. The to develop a spacecraft system that contin- spacecraft is scheduled for a Shuttle launch ually recycles the solid, liquid, and gaseous in late 1990. materials required to sustain human life. Un- Mobile Satellite. Within the next four to six der the CELSS Breadboard Project for biore- years, the joint industry/government mobile generative life support, a chamber was built satellite program will provide two-way that is designed to test techniques for grow- satellite-assisted communication with cars, ing plants in a closed environment. trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft. The FCC has allocated L-band frequencies for the domestic mobile satellite system, and is in the Spacelab Flight Program process of formulating service guidelines. The system is expected to create new U.S. Following the Challenger accident, there hardware markets, business, and service in- was a reassessment of the Spacelab Flight dustries. program to try to accommodate the payloads Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT that were previously scheduled for flights on system, which locates aircraft and vessels in the Shuttle. Payloads that are planned for distress, completed its first year of regular early Spacelab flights include the Materials operation. Since its inception, it is credited Science Laboratory, International Micrograv- with saving more than 675 lives, and is gain- ity Laboratory, Space Life Sciences, and At- ing worldwide acceptance. Research con- mospheric Laboratory for Applications and tinues on techniques to reduce false alarm Science. Negotiations on a reimbursable rates, and improve detection. Spacelab flight with Japan (Space1ab-J) con- Advanced Technology Satellite (ATS-3). tinued. The ATS-3 continued to support the activities of several federal agencies, domestic and international relief organizations. In addi- Microgravity Science tion, satellite voice and data links in science and communication application experiments The Microgravity Science and Applications provided support to areas of North and South program conducts research into the effects of America, most of the Atlantic Ocean, and a reduced gravity on basic physical phenomena large part of the eastern Pacific, including and processes. Research is focused on the ar- Hawaii and Antarctica. eas of combustion, metals and alloys, elec- INTELSAT and INMARSAI: At the end of tronic materials, glasses and ceramics, 1986, INTELSAT maintained 15 satellites in

6 orbit: 1 IV, 1 IVA, and 6 V’s in the Atlantic were granted conditional construction per- Ocean Region; 3 V’s in the Indian Ocean Re- mits for new satellite systems, and three gion; and 2 NA‘s,and 2 v’s in the Pacific other DBS system applications that were Ocean Region. Three of the IVA satellites ex- filed are pending. ceeded estimated maneuver life. Approval Military Communications Satellites. Mili- was granted for construction and application tary Satellite Communications (MILSAT- of 30 new Earth station facilities to access the COM) provide a variety of services worldwide INTELSAT system in the Atlantic and Pacific in several frequency bands. In the Ultra High Ocean Regions for INTELSAT (digital) busi- Frequency band, the Fleet Satellite Com- ness, and television transmission and recep- municat ions (FLTSATC OM) System, assisted tion service. by leased satellites (LEASAT’S), provide low- In its fifth year of maritime satellite com- capacity, command and control services to us- munications service, the 48-member Interna- ers of small, mobile terminals. The Air Force tional Maritime Satellite Organization Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) Sys- (INMARSAT) leases three operational and tem provides global communications between three in-orbit satellites for the Atlantic, Pa- the National Command Authorities and U.S. cific, and Indian Ocean Regions, and serves nuclear forces. In the Super High Frequency over 5,000 vessels. Seventeen coast stations band, the Defense Satellite Communications are operating in 12 countries, and five more System provides high-capacity command and are expected in 1987. Second-generation sat- control, intelligence, and multichannel com- ellites, the first of which is expected to be- munications service to a multitude of strate- come operational in 1989, will have 3 times gic, tactical and non-DOD users. The future the capacity of the current leased satellites. Milstar Satellite Communications System The International Maritime Organization will use the Extremely High Frequency band (IMO) is developing a global maritime dis- to provide jam-resistant, secure communica- tress and safety system that will use ship tions for the President, Joint Chiefs-of-Staff, Earth stations through INMARSAT, and sat- and the Commanders-in-Chief. When com- ellite emergency position-indicating radio pleted, Milstar will provide the Nation’s most beacons (EPIRB’s) operating through survivable wartime communications capabil- COSPAS/SAR,SAT. ity. In 1986, full-scale development of the Domestic Communications Satellites. Cur- space and mission control segments of Mil- rently, there are 27 domestic satellites oper- star continued, and critical design reviews ating in the geostationary orbit located were scheduled for mid-1987 and early 1988. between 69O and 143O west longitude. Dur- Navigation Satellites. Navstar 11, the last ing 1986, no new domestic communications developmental Global Positioning System satellites were authorized for construction (GPS) satellite, was launched in 1985. In and launch. The FCC’s Advisory Committee 1986, two of the seven developmental GPS on 2O Spacing issued several recommenda- satellites demonstrated the effects of age and tions relating to the areas of Earth stations, performed marginally. GPS satellites provide space stations, and coordination. radio position and navigation information to Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS). Three support defense missions worldwide. “first-round” companies, previously granted permits to construct Direct Broadcast Satel- lites (DBS), were in the process of construct- Earth’s Atmosphere, Environment, ing DBS systems that are expected to be and Resources operational by late 1988. These companies will use 200 to 230-watt traveling wave tube In 1986, observations and knowledge of amplifiers (TWTA’s), together with various Earth, its atmosphere, environment, and re- half-CONUS or full-CONUS beam configura- sources, were advanced substantially by spe- tions, to provide service throughout the cial space systems, programs, and United States. One of the “second-round” experiments. DBS companies has been awarded channels, orbital position, and launch authorization, Monitoring and Analysis and operations are expected by mid-1989. This system will use two 16-channel satel- Satellite Operations. The environmental lites equipped with 100-watt TWTA’s to pro- satellites operated by NOAA for the Depart- vide DBS service. In 1986, three companies ment of Commerce include both polar-

7 orbiting and geostationary spacecraft. NOAA sion of the European Communities, and the satellites are used primarily to forecast Federal Republic of Germany. A major con- weather and issue storm or natural disaster clusion of the report was that increased con- warnings. NOAA 6 and NOAA 9 provided the centrations of trace substances such as agency’s polar-orbiting service for most of the chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and carbon di- year. These spacecraft view the Earth in the oxide can perturb ozone distribution in the visible and infrared portions of the electro- atmosphere and harm the global climate sys- magnetic spectrum, using the Advanced Very tem and temperature structure. In related ac- High Resolution Radiometer, and move in tivity, federal and private organizations Sunsynchronous orbits observing every part sponsored a scientific expedition to Antarc- of the Earth at least twice daily, once in day- tica to study the “ozone hole” that has been light, and once at night. NOAA 9 has been discovered there by ground and space-based operational since December 1984; and NOAA instrumentation. Results of the study are ex- 6 was able to fulfill most mission require- pected to determine the cause of this phenom- ments until it was replaced by NOAA 10 in ena, and to ascertain whether the Antarctic November 1986. NOAA H is expected to re- hole serves as a harbinger of atmospheric place NOAA 9 in December 1987. Scientific changes elsewhere on the globe. instruments aboard the NOAA 9 and NOAA In its third year of operation, the Interna- 10 spacecraft, which are associated with the tional Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Earth Radiation Budget Experiment, studied (ISCCP) continued to collect data on the the physical processes that influence climate. global distribution of clouds that was ob- Data obtained from these instruments, and tained from an international array of polar- those aboard the Earth Radiation Budget orbiting and geostationary satellites. Also, Satellite, are expected to help determine the the first field experiment was conducted by role of clouds in the Earth‘s radiation budget. the university-government science team of GOES 6, the only fully operational geosta- the First ISCCP Regional Experiment tionary satellite, continued to provide imag- (FIRE), a multiagency program studying the ing and sounding data throughout the year. effects of cloud systems on climate. Because its rate of movement around the Advanced remote sensing techniques are Earth equals that of the Earth‘s rotation, its being developed for satellite observation of observing position over the Equator remains the Earth’s atmosphere. A preliminary de- fixed, allowing an uninterrupted view of the sign study for placing a coherent Laser Inter- Earth. Included among the instruments it ferometric Detection and Ranging Radar carries is the Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan (LIDAR) wind sensor on the Space Shuttle Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder that pro- was completed. This study provides a positive vides day and night coverage of the Earth indication of the maturity of the technology, and its atmosphere. In 1986, an effort to and allows serious consideration of the use of launch a second geostationary satellite, LIDAR’S in satellite global wind sensors. Re- GOES G, failed. Launch of GOES H, last in cently completed studies indicate that satel- the current series of GOES spacecraft, is lite observations of global wind profiles will scheduled for February 1987. Design and de- dramatically improve understanding of velopment of the next-generation geosta- large-scale atmospheric processes. tionary spacecraft, GOES I-M, began; and achieve a better understanding of micro- launch of the first satellite in this series is bursts, severe thunderstorms and their asso- expected in 1989. ciated downbursts, the Cooperative Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Geologic Re- Huntsville Mesoscale Experiment search. In 1986, a three volume document en- (COHMEX) was conducted. It was supported titled “Atmospheric Ozone 1985: Assessment by GOES and NOAA environmental satel- of Our Understanding of the Processes Con- lites, Doppler radars, NOAA special rawin- trolling its Present Distribution and sonde coverage, the FAA, aircraft flights Change,” was published by the World Mete- sponsored by the National Science Founda- orological Organization. Approximately 150 tion, and special Qnnessee Valley Authority scientists from 11 nations contributed to the rain gauge and surface reports. During the assessment, and publication of the report was experiment, records were made of the most coordinated by NASA, FAA, NOAA, the extensive weather system measurements United Nations Environment Program, ever taken by high-altitude aircraft. World Meteorological Organization, Commis- The FAA determined that false alarms

8 from the six-sensor Low Level Wind Shear experiment with the USGS and the Univer- Alert System (LLWAS) were often caused by sity of Arizona on the use of remotely sensed the location of the System. As a result, the spectral data for large-scale farm manage- FAA formed a team to assess the siting of all ment. LLWAS’s at 110 airports in the United Geodynamics research improves under- States. To help reduce the rate of false standing of the evolution of the Earth, the alarms, new algorithms were developed for interaction between the solid Earth, the incorporation into the Systems as they are oceans and atmosphere, and the nature and relocated during 1987 and 1988. causes of earthquakes. More than 30 nations In oceanography programs, activities fo- participate in U.S. geodynamics research, cused on the Tropical Ocean Global Atmos- and there is intergovernmental cooperation phere and World Ocean Circulation Experi- between NASA, USGS, NSF, NOAA, and ments, and on the Global Ocean Flux Study. DOD. Joint projects and programs included A number of spaceflight missions to study at- measuring tectonic plate motion and the mospheric and oceanic processes are planned Earth’s rotation, using fixed and mobile laser for launch in the early 1990’s. The first of two ranging systems, and a study of earthquake missions in the Physical Oceanographic pro- hazards in the Caribbean Basin. Through gram, NASA’s Scatterometer will fly aboard digital analysis of images recorded in the vis- the Navy’s Remote Ocean Sensing System ible and near-infrared portions of the electro- satellite. The second mission, the Ocean To- magnetic spectrum, USGS scientists made pography Experiment (TOPEX), will be significant advances in identifying minerals jointly conducted with the French Space in rock and soil, and in compiling maps show- Agency’s POSEIDON project. The TOPEX ing their distribution. satellite, with POSEIDON sensors aboard, will be launched by a European Ariane rocket in late 1991. Launched in 1978, the Space Wansportation Nimbus-7 weather satellite has performed well beyond its expected one-year life span. Most of the activity involving NASA’s Processing the satellite’s Coastal Zone Color Space Flight program focused on the investi- Scanner imagery into ocean-basin maps of gation of the Space Shuttle Challenger acci- chlorophyll was initiated, and the first map of dent, examination of the entire Space this type that covered the North Atlantic was Transportation System (STS) program, and a produced. In related activity, NOAA’s Na- return to flight status. One communications tional Ocean Service developed a Pacific satellite was boosted into orbit from the Ocean Route Chart, for use by FAA’s air traf- Space Shuttle Columbia; and five expendable fic controllers, and a Navigational Aid Digi- launch vehicles were used to place military tal Data File that contains the geographic and civilian satellites into space. For the sec- position, type, and unique characteristics of ond time, a public official was flown aboard every navigational aid in the United States, the Space Shuttle, and the first Hispanic- Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. American journeyed into space. The USGS and NOAA signed an agreement to establish the Cooperative Federal Land Re- mote Sensing Research program. The goal is to promote greater operational and research use of remotely sensed data and related technology within federal and state governments, academia, and the private sector. NOAA trained several foreign scientists in applications of remote sensing data that included estimating precipitation from satellite imagery, assessing climate, and forecasting weather and crop productivity. The USGS conducted a workshop for scientists from six nations that covered the use of Landsat data for geologic, hydrolgic, and vegetation analy- On January 12,1986, in the first Space Shuttle launch of the sis. The Department of Agriculture’s Agricul- year, Space Shuttle Columbia rises into the early morning tural Research Service participated in an sky from Kennedy Space Center.

9 Orbiter the Astro 1mission. Development of the configuration for the Spacelab Enhanced Pallet continued; it will be used for missions of the A total Systems Design Review of the orbi- Space Technology Experiment Platform and ter was conducted, and a number of design Tethered Satellite System. modifications to enhance safety were identified. In addition, crew escape studies, hazard Shuttle Flight Operations analyses, and critical items list reviews were conducted to improve safety margins on future flights. For the near-term, approval was ‘Ib improve operations facilities at the John- granted to provide a crew bailout system son Space Center, old data processors in the through the side hatch of the orbiter. Also, Mission Control Center were replaced with the decision was made to procure a replace- four IBM 3083 computers; and plans to up- ment orbiter, which is expected to be deliv- grade the Shuttle Mission Simulator were re- ered in 1991. vised and accelerated. A program was initiated to address key problem areas of the Space Shuttle Main En- !&thered Satellite System gine that were identified following Challeng- er’s accident. Coincidentally, other problems were found, such as new critical turbine The Tethered Satellite System, a coopera- blade cracks and marginal turbopump bear- tive development between NASA and Italy, ing temperature. will be capable of deploying and retrieving a tethered satellite up to 100 kilometers above or below the orbiting Space Shuttle. Critical Design and Manufacturing Reviews were conducted on the satellite; and science investigations were initiated for the first mission, scheduled for October 1990.

Advanced Planning

A prime contractor was selected to build the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, which will perform payload delivery to and retrieval As one of two payload specialists aboard Space Shuttle Columbia, Representative Bill Nelson participates In an ex- from the Shuttle orbiter. Initial studies also periment for NASA’s Space Biomedical Research Institute. were completed on a space-based Orbital Transfer Vehicle, featuring an aerobrake that Seven external tanks were manufactured significantly reduces propellant require- and delivered. However, Challenger’s acci- ments. In addition, research was initiated in dent resulted in significantly reduced produc- areas of key technology that could lead to op- t ion requiremen t s. tions for new rocket engines, advanced recov- The production of solid rocket boosters and ery systems, and a second-generation Space motors was suspended, and activity focused Shuttle. on the failure investigation and on recovery actions for redesigning and recertifying the boosters. Commercial Use of Space Payloads. The design for operating the Spacelab Igloo Pallet configuration’s mixed cargo mode, to support the Astro 1 mission, The Office of Commercial Space Transpor- was completed and reviewed. In this configu- tation of the Department of Transportation ration, using an igloo, two pallets, and the was established to encourage, regulate, and Instrument Pointing System, the Spacelab is promote a commercial expendable launch ve- scheduled to fly in January 1989. “he Pay- hicle industry. One of the major consequences load Operations Control Center at Marshall of the Challenger accident was the Presi- Space Flight Center was completed, and dent’s decision, announced in August 1986, preparations are underway for it to support to preclude use of the Space Shuttle for boosting routine foreign and commercial satellites The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued into space. The decision was later incorpo- to support missions to explore the solar sys- rated into the U.S. Space Launch Strategy, tem, and was key to the success of Voyager 2’s which requires a space transportation system January 1986 encounter with the planet composed of both expendable launch vehicles Uranus. During the international observa- and the Space Shuttle. The revised space tions of Halley’s Comet, the DSN supported launch strategy emphasized that the Space Japan’s effort to track its two spacecraft; pro- Shuttle fleet would be used for missions re- vided backup tracking of the European Space quiring its unique capabilities, and that the Agency’s Giotto spacecraft; tracked the So- commercial expendable launch vehicle indus- viet Vega spacecraft as they approached the try would be a critical element in meeting Comet; and supported other spacecraft, such Government and industry requirements for as the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and the Inter- space. national Cometary Explorer, as they ob- NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs served the Comet. In addition, efforts were was established to encourage U.S. private underway to increase the sensitivity of the sector involvement and investment in com- DSN in preparation for Voyager 2’s encounter mercial space ventures, and to facilitate com- with the planet Neptune in 1989. mercial application and transfer of existing Major projects that became operational in aeronautics and space technology to the pri- the Communications and Data Systems pro- vate sector. In 1986, four additional Centers gram included a Time Division Multiple Ac- for the Commercial Development of Space cess system, providing operational circuits, were established, for a current total of nine. via satellite, that will improve communica- The Centers will use the space environment tions throughout NASA’s facilities; and a Pro- to stimulate high technology research that gram Support Communications Network, may lead to the development of new products providing voice and data services to support and services with commercial potential. the agency’s institutional and programmatic More than 30 agreements have been executed requirements. with U.S. firms interested in conducting space-related research and development in SPAR€CENTRAL1 the areas of pharmaceuticals, semiconductor electronic materials, metals and alloys, and organic polymers. The successful privatization of NASA Tech Brief$ the agency’s primary publication on technology transfer, has enhanced NASA’s interaction with industry. At the end of 1986, the number of industrial and business subscribers exceeded 130,000, which reflects a 70 percent increase in sub- scriptions from the previous two years.

Space lbacklng and Data Systems The future configuration for the Racking and Data Relay Sat- elllte System (TDRSS). The Space Tracking and Data Systems program is responsible for planning, implementing, and operating worldwide tracking, data Space Station handling, and communications facilities and services that support flight programs of NASA and other agencies. Two Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS) that were In 1986, efforts to build the Space Station scheduled for separate launches in 1986 continued as NASA complied with the Presi- would have completed the operational satel- dent’s 1984 directive to establish a perma- lite constellation of three in orbit. The TDRS nently manned presence in space by the aboard Space Shuttle Challenger’s flight 51- mid-1990’s. L was lost. However, two TDRS spacecraft are The Space Station will. be an orbiting scien- scheduled for launch when Shuttle opera- tific laboratory, and a permanent observatory tions resume in 1988. in space. The facility will be used to process

11 materials and manufacture commercial prod- In order to meet the goals for the Nation's ucts; assemble large spacecraft; stage deep- activity in aeronautics research and technol- space missions; and service and deploy ogy that were established by the White satellites, upper stage rockets, and scientific House Office of Science and Technology Pol- instruments. icy, NASA redirected its Aeronautics Re- During 1986, the most significant achieve- search and Technology program toward ment in the Space Station program was the emerging technologies that have potential selection of the dual keel baseline configura- for order-of-magnitude advances in aircraft tion that will be used to guide detailed design performance and capability. These technolo- and development activities. Most of the work gies span the flight spectrum from advanced on the 3-year definition and preliminary de- rotorcraft to hypersonic vehicles for both civil sign phase of the program was completed. and military uses. Wind tunnels, simulators, Changes were made in the Space Station's supercomputers, and experimental flight ve- assembly sequence; technical and manage- hicles are some of the research tools used to ment problems were identified and resolved; design and develop future generations of civil and progress on agreements for hardware de- and military aircraft; and aerodynamics, velopment was made with NASA's interna- structures and materials, propulsion, artifi- tional partners: the European Space Agency, cial intelligence, and advanced computa- Canada, and Japan. By the end of the year, tional simulation are some of the traditional NASA was preparing to release to industry a and newer scientific and engineering disci- Request for Proposals to design and build the plines that are being studied to find new chal- Space Station. lenges and opportunities in technology that could result in aircraft capabilities not yet defined. The success of future national programs to explore and exploit space depends, in large measure, on advances in NASA's Space Re- search and 'hchnology program. The program focuses on long-term, high-payoff research and technology development to provide the capabilities required to meet national goals for space, and to maintain U.S. leadership and security in space. To facilitate the transfer of technology developed, many of the program's activities are conducted jointly with other government agencies, U.S. indus- Artist's conception of the four pressurized modules that are try and universities. part of the baseline configuration of the permanently manned Space Station. Aeronautics

Aeronautlcs and Space Research The Aeronautics Research and Technology and Technology program places emphasis upon the initial steps in the research and development process, recognizes the common civil and military The United States has long been recognized utility of aeronautical technology, and capi- as the world leader in aeronautics research talizes on the synergism between aeronauti- and technology. However, U.S. leadership in cal and space technologies and capabilities. these areas is being challenged by foreign in- Elements in the program include discipli- dustrial competitors and potential military nary research and vehicle-specific research. adversaries. For the United States to pre- Disciplinary Research and Technology. serve its leadership status in civil and mili- NASA's disciplinary research and technology tary aviation, the Nation must pursue those activities are aimed at establishing and opportunities in aeronautics research and maintaining a solid technology base from technology that will enable important ad- which new ideas and concepts can emerge vances in aircraft performance and capabil- that will lead to advanced aeronautical devel- ity. opment. The research activities endeavor to

12 improve understanding of basic physical phe- lers, and in the first stage of the Space Shut- nomena, and to develop new concepts in pri- tle Main Engine fuel turbine. mary aeronautical technical disciplines that NASA and the FAA conducted joint studies include fluid and thermal physics, materials expected to result in increased capacity for and structures, propulsion, controls and guid- the Air Traffic Control system in the United ance, human factors, and information sci- States. Also, these agencies cooperated on ences. programs that addressed problems of lightning, wind shear, icing, and other phenomena affecting aviation safety. Vehicle Technology. Vehicle-specific research relates to technology that has the potential to enhance the capabilities of specific classes of vehicles, such as subsonic transport, rotorcraft, high-performance military aircraft, supersonic, and hypersonic vehicles. The United States (NASA and DOD) and the United Kingdom signed an agreement to collaborate in the development of advanced short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft technologies. Also, NASA and Can- Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) flow field solution for ada agreed to test a full-scale STOVL air- the F-16 aircraft, generated by the Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation (NAS) system at Ames Research Center. craft, designated as the E-7. Wind tunnel tests of the E-? model confirmed the viability New techniques in the discipline of compu- of the design as a high-performance aircraft. tational fluid dynamics were used to calcu- Advances in the turboprop research pro- late the stream trace lines over an F-16 gram included the completion of ground tests high-performance aircraft configuration. Use of both single- and counter-rotation propfans of these techniques will allow the identifica- in preparation for flight tests to verify large- tion and improvement of separated flow re- scale propeller structures, aeroelastics, and gions that might lead to aircraft stall and acoustics. dynamic instability. Reducing rotorcraft noise received special The world's most powerful supercomputer emphasis in a cooperative research program facility, the Numerical Aerodynamic Simula- conducted by NASA, DOD, FAA, and indus- tion (NAS) system, became operational and try. As a result, a new helicopter total system was made available to scientists and engi- noise prediction code called ROTONET was neers throughout the United States. developed and made available to industry. Because they are lighter and stiffer than The National Aerospace Plane program conventional metallic materials used in air- (NASP) is a coordinated effort between NASA craft structures, composite materials are and DOD to develop advanced technologies used increasingly in airframe designs. A for a new generation of aerospace vehicles. breakthrough in composite structures re- These airbreathing vehicles will be capable search occurred with the fabrication of a geo- of operating at hypersonic speeds in the at- desic stiffened compression wall panel that is mosphere or in space as single-stage-to-orbit about 30 percent lighter than a skidstringer spacecraft. The first experimental vehicle, aluminum structure, and 40 percent cheaper. designated as the X-30, will validate a wide Also, a new approach was developed to fabri- range of aerospace technologies and capabili- cate strong, tough, ceramic composite struc- ties. tures that are capable of withstanding high After completing more than 85 test flights, temperatures. the X-29A forward-swept wing aircraft ex- Propulsion research focused on analytical panded its flight envelope to Mach 1.4 at and experimental work in the areas of high- 40,000 feet. Subsequently, a NAWAir Force speed fluid flows, chemically reacting and program was initiated to flight test the sec- mixed fluid flows, turbomachinery internal ond X-29A aircraft. aerodynamics, and high-speed inlet and noz- The NAWArmy X-Wing Rotor Systems zle aerodynamics. An analytical model was Research Aircraft (RSRA) was delivered to used to study flow fields in a high-speed fan NASA's Dryden Flight Research Facility for stator, high-speed, counter-rotating propel- final assembly and integration. Successful

13 flight testing of the X-WingRSRA will lead goal of the program is to provide advanced to a new generation of air vehicles that com- technology options that will allow higher bine the best features of both helicopter and power levels, improved system efficiency, and fixed wing aircraft. increased reliability and lifetime. Considera- ble progress was made in developing thermal management systems, consisting of heat Space pipes, thermal loops, and radiators. New lightweight composite materials of titanium The Space Research and Technology pro- and graphite or tungsten fibers proved feasi- gram provides critical and often unique ele- ble in the fabrication of heat pipes for use at ments of the technology base that allow the looooc. United States to maintain its leadership in Research in the field of aerothermodynam- space activities. The program focuses on de- ics improves understanding of the flow phe- veloping technology to provide more capable, nomena of advanced aerospace vehicles. An less costly space transportation systems, and aerospace vehicle in the concept stage that is large space systems, such as the Space Sta- expected to result in space-based operation is tion; enabling scientific and planetary explo- the Aeroassisted Orbital Transfer Vehicle ration to improve understanding of the Earth (AOTV). Critical wind tunnel tests to assess and solar system; and supporting the com- the effects of flow impingement on various mercial exploitation of space. Among the dis- AOTV concepts were completed. ciplines included in the program are In the areas of materials and structures, propulsion, space energy conversion, aero- significant efforts were focused on developing thermodynamics, advanced materials and advanced thermal protection systems, with structures, controls and guidance, automa- improved durability and high temperature tion and robotics, and space human factors. capability, for use on the Space Shuttle and Earth-to-orbit propulsion research concen- future space transportation systems. Re- trated on high-performance systems and ex- search on erectable and deployable structures tended service life. In this area, a cryogenic resulted in the development of a concept for a engine bearing model was developed to deter- mobile remote manipulator system that will mine cooling, lubrication, and bearing design be used to erect large truss-type structures in characteristics. Another new model predicts space. the life of materials subjected to both low- cycle and high-cycle fatigue. Optical sensors were used to track bearing wear, and to measure turbine blade temperatures and rotor speed. Redesigned turbine blade materials demonstrated the potential to sustain up to 20 times the fatigue life of existing blade materials. Orbit transfer propulsion research focused on developing high-performance, high- pressure, variable-thrust engines that will be stored and fueled in space. For example, technology for space-based liquid oxygenhydro- Impact resistant, durable ceramic thermal protection tile that gen expander cycle engines advanced in the will be used on the Space Shuttle and future space transpor- areas of combustion, heat transfer, materials tation systems. compatibility, high-expansion ratio nozzle performance, and engine level system test- Automation and robotics research focused ing. on developing and demonstrating technology In the area of space energy conversion, pro- applicable to the Space Station, the Orbital gress continued to be made in improving the Maneuvering Vehicle, the Orbital Transfer performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells Vehicle, the Mobile Remote Manipulator sys- and arrays; recent tests resulted in reduced tem, geostationary satellite systems, and output loss which is caused by natural radia- planetary rovers. The preliminary design and tion. Phase I1 of the joint DOD/DOE/NASA development of the Telerobotic Demonstra- Space Nuclear Reactor Power System Devel- tion Facility was completed, and a sequence opment program (SP-100) was initiated. The of demonstrations was defined for 1988.

14 Space human factors research concentrated on optimizing the allocation of functions between humans and computers during space missions. A new concept in computer terminals, the “Virtual Workstation,” was developed that will allow scientists and engineers working from a ground base to conduct experiments and manage equipment in space by remote control.

The “Vlrtual Workstation,’’ a new concept in computer terml- nals that will allow ground-based scientists to conduct experiments In space by remote control.

1s National Aeronautics and Space Administration

The National Aeronautics and Space Ad- Sun to the most distant quasars, to determine ministration (NASA), established in 1958, is the laws that govern cosmic phenomena, to un- responsible for planning, conducting, and derstand the Sun as a star, and to learn the managing civilian research and development origins of the universe and how it will end. activities in aeronautics and space. Other Many observations cannot be made through federal agencies, state, local, and foreign gov- the Earth%atmosphere, so instruments for the ernments, as well as educational institutions investigations must be carried above the atmo- and private industry, also share in NASA's sphere into space. The goal of the program is to programs. place in orbit four observatories, with signifi- NASA's mission continues to reflect the in- cantly improved sensitivity, to observe objects tent of Congress in creating the agency; that at any wavelength in the entire electromag- is, to explore space for peaceful purposes, netic spectrum. The Great Observatories are with international cooperation, for the bene- the Hubble Space Telescope 0,the Gamma fit of all humankind. %chnological advances Ray Observatory (GRO), the Advanced X-ray have resulted in significant economic and so- Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), and the Space cial benefits for the United States and other Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF). Unlike nations, and remain the catalyst for national HST and GRO, AXAF and SIRTF have not yet pride, progress and achievement. The contin- been approved as formal programs and are un- ued success of NASA's programs will allow dergoing preliminary study for a potential fu- the U.S. to maintain its leadership status in ture proposal. aeronautics and space. Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The first of the four Great Observatories, the HST is expected to be launched into space late in 1988 Space Sclence and Applications or early 1989. Serviced by the Shuttle and the Space Station, it will be a long-term, ma- During 1986, NASA's space science and ap- jor observatory that will extend our vision of plications research continued to focus on the the universe by allowing scientists to see origin, evolution and structure of the uni- clearly 10 to 30 times beyond what can be verse, and on the fundamental laws that gov- seen with existing instruments. Observing ern it. Research activities involve the solar system, HST will provide the first observation of the distant universe, explora- images of the surfaces of Pluto and its moon, tion of the near universe, and the characteri- Charon; and at the edge of the universe, will zation of the Earth and its environment. determine whether a galaxy is a featureless Space science programs include astrophysics, ellipse or a beautiful spiral. planetary exploration, life sciences, and microgravity science and applications. Applica- tions efforts include Earth science, communications, and information systems.

Space Sclence

In 1986, studies of the nature of the universe and solar system continued. Voyager 2's encounter with Uranus was a major scientific event of the year.

Study of the Universe Four scientific instruments aboard the Gamma Ray Observa- tory will study the full range of gamma ray phenomena in the NASA's Astrophysics program investigates univem, observing sources at least 10 times fainter than the physical nature of the universe, from the any previous capability allowed.

17 Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). Final tion. More than 1,000 U.S. astronomers have stages of manufacturing and assembling the used this orbiting facility to observe objects four scientific instruments of GRO, the sec- from inside the solar system extending to the ond of the four Great Observatories, contin- edge of the universe. For several years IUE ued. When it is launched into space in 1990, was used to observe Halley’s Comet at ultra- GRO will observe objects at least 10 times violet wavelengths; in 1986,IUE provided ad- fainter than any previous capability allowed, ditional space-based observations of the and will improve our knowledge of the origin Comet and tail during the Japanese, Euro- and location of gamma rays in the universe pean, and Soviet missions to its nucleus. by a factor of 50 to 100. Infiared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). Dis- Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). Origi- coveries continue to abound from analysis of nally launched in 1980, the SMM remains data taken by IRAS in the first survey of the about 75 percent operational. A major sky at infrared wavelengths. Scientists from achievement of SMM during 1986 was its ob- around the world conduct their research ei- servation of Halley ’s Comet, accomplished by ther at the Infrared Processing and Analysis carefully pointing the telescope away from Center at the California Institute of Bchnol- the Sun. Using the CoronagrapWolarimeter, ogy or from the IRAS catalog that summa- the Comet was observed when it was too close rizes, in four infrared bands, the intensity of to the Sun to be investigated from the ground more than 250,000 objects. Copies of this cat- and from space. Currently, the observations alog can be obtained from the National Space are part of the data base being analyzed by Science Data Center at NASA’s Goddard scientists through the International Halley Space Flight Center. Watch. In addition, as the current cycle of Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). The solar activity ends and the next one begins, COBE mission will investigate the earliest SMM continues to obtain an unparalleled se- structure of the universe, as revealed by cos- ries of observations of the Sun’s corona and mic background microwave radiation, sunspot activity. Such a long sequence of ob- thought to originate a million years after the servations has never been possible from Big Bang marked the creation of the unispace, and is certain to become a major re- verse. From polar orbit, COBE will use in- source used to test future models of the sun- struments, cooled to within a few degrees of spot cycle. Also, selection of SMM Guest absolute zero, that will measure the spec- Investigators was announced, the fourth in trum of radiation. Early in 1986, COBE’s in- this series. To date, more than 100 scientists struments finished testing at liquid helium from over a dozen countries have participated temperatures and integration of the space- as Guest Investigators in the analysis of craft began. In the wake of the Challenger SMM data. accident, extensive replanning took place, High Energy Astronomy Observatories and, by the end of 1986, designs were pre- (HEAO’s). Data from the three HEAO’s con- pared for modifications that would allow tinued to provide significant contributions to launch of COBE using a Delta launch vehicle our understanding of the universe. Analysis rather than the Shuttle. of the HEAO-2 data on clusters of galaxies Explorer Platfirm. A reusable spacecraft revealed the presence of x-ray emission that bus for Explorer payloads, known as the Ex- indicates a large annual influx of matter; plorer Platform, was started based on the this discovery led to the unexpected observa- multi-mission modular spacecraft used for tion of the formation of a galaxy. Analysis of the Solar Maximum Mission and the Landsat data from the HEAO-3 satellite revealed missions, This spacecraft bus will be compati- that gamma rays come from the plane of the ble with both the Shuttle and Delta launch Milky Way Galaxy. This is due to the nuclear vehicles. The first payload, the Extreme U1- decay of approximately three solar masses of traviolet Explorer (EUVE), is under develop- a radioactive isotope of aluminum, and is di- ment at the University of California at rect evidence of the continuing synthesis of Berkeley. It will be launched on an 18-month heavy elements in the Galaxy. The Guest In- mission scheduled for late 1991,and will con- vestigator program continues to involve the duct the first high-sensitivity survey of the astronomical community in the analysis of sky at wavelengths between ultraviolet light HEAO data. and x-rays. Upon completion of the EWE Explorers. The International Ultraviolet mission, the Shuttle will rendezvous with the Explorer (IUE) is in its ninth year of opera- Explorer Platform and replace the EWE payload with the X-ray Timing Explorer (XTE). The XTE mission will monitor changes in the x-ray luminosity of black holes, quasars, and x- ray pulsars; and will investigate physical processes under extreme conditions, as revealed by variations in time-scales as short as microsec- onds and as long as years. SOLARA. Planned by a joint Japanese/ U.S. team, the SOLARA mission will study solar activity using a payload containing two critically important experiments. One will be built by the Japanese, and the other, a sofi x-ray telescope, will be built by a joint Japanese/U.S. team. Through an Announce- ment of Opportunity released by NASA in the spring, U.S. participants were chosen in the fall of 1986. The mission will be launched in 1992 from the Kagoshima Space Center, and will be operated by joint JapaneseN.S. science teams from a control center in Japan. Advanced Technology Development, Ad- vanced technology development continued for the remaining two space-based Great Obser- The proposed Space Infrared Rleacope Faclllty would ob- vatories, the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics serve lnfrarsd radlatlon from a varlety of sources in the unl- Facility (AXAF) and the Space Infrared Tele- vem, wlth a thousand-fold Increase In sensltlvlty. scope Facility (SIRTF). These preliminary sion support systems, designed to release and recapture Spartan subsatellites, were destroyed during the Challenger accident. In addition to rebuilding the Spartan and supporting systems, the program is developing payloads for future Shuttle flights. The next Spartan spacecraft and supporting systems will be ready for flight in early 1988. Gravio Probe-B (GP-B). Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity predicts the effects of gravitation manifested at relativistic veloci- ties. Although his theory is essential to understand phenomena, such as the large-scale structure of the universe, very few quantita- The proposed Advanced X-Ry Astrophyaicr Faclllty would tive tests of it have been conducted. By ob- be 100 tlmea more powerful than the HEAO-2 mlulon for detecting X-rays from celestial objects, and would provlde serving gyroscopes in Earth orbit, GP-B will Imager almost 10 tlmes sharper. provide new, highly precise tests of the theory. According to the theory, a small drift will studies will contribute to our knowledge of the be induced in the gyroscopes due to the rota- development requirements of these potential tion of the Earth’s gravitational field as the future projects. AXAF will examine x-rays Earth rotates. A phased approach to the tech- hmcelestial sources with a high-resolution, nically challenging mission is being imple- x-ray telescope comprised of nested grazing-in- mented that stresses ground-testing of the cidence mirrors. SIRTF will allow astronomers sytem design for GP-B; ultimately, the test- to make the most sensitive observations of in- ing will lead to flight-testing on the Space frared radiation from stars, planets, and other Shuttle. infrared sources in the universe. Both facilities Roentgensatellite (ROSAT). ROSAT, a coop- will help answer fundamental questions in as- erative x-ray astronomy project of the Federal trophysics and astronomy. Republic of Germany and the United States, Spartun Carrying instruments to observe is scheduled for inclusion on a Space Shuttle Comet Halley, the second Spartan and mis- mission in 1994. Concurrently, efforts are un-

19 derway to launch the spacecraft on an ex- Targeting a spacecraft to the Comet’s nu- pendable launch vehicle by 1989 or 1990. The cleus is a major problem because the nucleus U.S. instrument, the High Resolution Im- is hidden by gas and dust in the coma. The ager, has been produced, and will be shipped position of the nucleus of Halley’s Comet was to Germany early in 1987. Development of obtained from Earth-based IHW observations the ROSAT Science Data Center continues at with an accuracy of about 500 kilometers. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. The reduction of this uncertainty, essential for Giotto’s precise targeting, was achieved by the Pathfinder project, an historic example of Solar System Exploration international collaboration. The project involved two Soviet Vega spacecraft that en- Cometary Studies. During 1985 and 1986, countered Halley’s Comet, and provided the appearance of Halley’s Comet was the fo- ESA’s Giotto’s spacecraft with a more accu- cus of unparalleled global scientific study rate location of the Comet’s nucleus on its from the ground, Earth orbit, Venus orbit, in- subsequent encounter. NASA’s Deep Space terplanetary space, and from within the Network supported the effort by tracking the Comet itself. Vega spacecraft using precise L-band Very- The various activities in space were coordi- Long-Baseline Interferometry navigation nated by the four space agencies, ESA, Inter- techniques that allowed a flyby distance of cosmos, ISAS, and NASA, through the 600 kilometers, with an uncertainty of only Inter-Agency Consultative Group (IACG). Co- 40 kilometers. ordination of activities of ground-based ob- The probes sent by ESA, Intercosmos and servers was provided by the International ISAS provided detailed “snapshots” of the Halley Watch (IHW). Comet. Concurrently, NASA’s ground-and The single goal of the IHW and IACG was space-based programs gave an overview of the to maximize the scientific results of all mis- global properties of the Comet and its long- sion efforts to explore Halley’s Comet from term evolution. The combination of these two ground and space. The obvious success of this approaches should result in the most compre- unique endeavor should serve as an example hensive Comet study possible at this time. for future cooperative scientific programs. Although NASA did not send a probe directly to intercept Halley’s Comet, it was studied intensively by U.S. scientists on the ground, and by aircraft, rockets, and existing NASA spacecraft. Also, U.S. scientists were involved in missions of ESA’s Giotto, Intercos- mos’ Vega I and 11, and Japan’s Suisei and Sakigake that tracked the Comet. The International Cometary Explorer (ICE) performed the most complicated orbital ma- neuvers ever conducted by a spacecraft when it encountered Giacobini-Zinner on Septem- ber 11,1985; also, in March 1986, it observed Halley’s Comet from a distance of 35 million kilometers. The International Halley Watch (IHW) selected scientists and organized worldwide networks of over 1,000 professional astrono- Uranus’ moon, Miranda, taken from Voyager 2 spacecraft on mers in 51 different countries that assured January 24,1986. continuous international monitoring of the Comet by every possible technique, and at all Voyager at Uranus. In January 1986, Voy- wavelengths, accessible from the ground. As ager 2 became the first spacecraft to fly past observation of Halley’s Comet continues, the Uranus, transmitting planetary data and data acquired is being reduced and prepared over 7,000 images of that planet, its rings, for inclusion in the general Comet Halley Ar- and moons. In August 1989, the spacecraft chives that will contain all calibrated ground will reach Neptune, its final planetary desti- and space data from the 1986 apparition. nation, and examine its large moon, Triton.

20 Voyager 2 discovered 10 new moons sur- an auroral region surrounds the magnetic rounding Uranus, bringing the total of iden- pole on the dark side of the planet. Voyager 2 tified satellites to 15 that range from 40 to measured the planet’s rotation rate at 1,610 kilometers in diameter. Of the five larg- slightly more than 17 hours. est moons, Oberon and Umbriel appear to Due to low levels of light, the long distance have the oldest surfaces. The moons have nu- that communications signals traveled, and merous large impact craters and little evi- problems aboard the eight-year-old Voyager dence of surface changes in their recent spacecraft, the Uranus flyby was an engi- geological past. Titania has a number of neering challenge. Many modifications were small craters and an extensive series of fault made to the spacecraft in flight, as well as to scarps. Ariel appears to have the youngest data processing systems on the ground that surface, with faults and possible evidence of included NASA’s deep space communications ice flows. Miranda, the smallest of the large stations in California, Spain, and Australia. satellites, has the most amazing topography, The Australian station was situated to re- with undulating cratered plains and canyons ceive most of the data from the time of the 10 to 15 kilometers deep and slopes 20 kilo- spacecraft’s closest approach to Uranus, and meters long. was supplemented by the Parkes radio as- Voyager 2 discovered two new rings of tronomy antenna. Uranus, for a total of 11 known dark, narrow Pioneer Venus. Early in 1986, the Pioneer rings. Although fine dust occurs in the rings, Venus Orbiter spacecraft, now in its seventh most of the ring particles are several centi- year of operation, obtained unique images of Comet Halley when the Comet was “behind” the sun and unobservable from Earth. At that time, the planet Venus was relatively close to the Comet. By reorienting the spacecraft’s Ultraviolet Spectrometer instrument, it was able to make daily observations of the Comet’s behavior over a five week period. Data on the chemical composition of the Comet’s atmosphere and rate of water evaporation from its nucleus were obtained, and the huge cloud of hydrogen gas which com- prises the outer layer of the Cometary coma was mapped. Measuring approximately 20 million miles in diameter, the cloud is 15 times larger than the Sun; and observed changes in its brightness and shape indicate variations in solar radiation pressure. As the spacecraft orbit continued to evolve, other instruments on the Pioneer Venus Or- biter made important new measurements of the solar wind interaction with Venus. The data gathered are particularly important because this was a period of minimum solar activity. Due to the absence of a planetary 7kro slices of Uranus’ epsilon ring are shown in a computer- magnetic field, the interaction of the solar constructed image created horn data obtained by Voyager- wind with Venus was found to be comet-like. 2’s photopolarimeter. The disparity In the size of the two One consequence is that plasma “tail” struc- slices illustrates the accordion-like nature of the ring, which seems to expand and contract as it orbits the planet. tures extend outward from the nighttime ionosphere of Venus, appearing much like meters in diameter. Also, the spacecraft re- cometary tail rays. vealed that the helium abundance in the at- The Interplanetary Medium. Pioneers 10 mosphere is similar to that on Jupiter and and 11 and Voyagers 1 and 2, continued to Saturn. It was confirmed that Uranus has an measure the properties of the interplanetary intrinsic magnetic field that is offset by 60 medium in the outer solar system. Pioneer 10 degrees from the planet’s rotational axis; and is now 38 astronomical units from the Sun. It

21 is well outside the orbit of Neptune and the stand how Venus has evolved compared to outer boundary of the solar system. Pioneer other bodies of the inner solar system. The 11, traveling in the opposite direction from Challenger accident resulted in delaying the Pioneer 10, is now 22 astronomical units launch date of Magellan from 1988 to 1989. from the Sun, between the orbits of Uranus Designs for the spacecraft and radar instru- and Neptune. Because of declining power lev- ment were completed, and significant pro- els available from thermoelectric generators gress was made in fabricating the flight aboard the Spacecraft, power-sharing among hardware. the Pioneer instruments was initiated. The Current plans call for the Magellan space- primary scientific goal of Pioneers 10 and 11 craft to be launched in April 1989 by the is the search for the heliopause, the interac- Shuttle/IUS, and its encounter with Venus is tion boundary between the solar wind and expected in August 1989. Nearly the entire interstellar space, surface of the planet will be mapped in high- Pioneer 11 played an important supporting resolution radar imagery from August 1989 role in Voyager 2’s encounter with Uranus. to May 1990. The images obtained will be an The spacecraft used its instruments to moni- improvement, by a factor of 10, over those ob- tor solar wind conditions throughout the en- tained by the Soviet Venera 15 and 16 mis- counter period. At this time, Pioneer 11 was sions in 1983 and 1984 that covered less than crossing the orbit of Uranus six astronomical 20 percent of the planet. units beyond Voyager 2’s encounter point. Galilea In May 1986, Galileo’s mission to Jupiter was scheduled for launch; however, as a result of the Challenger accident, the launch will not occur before late 1989. Also, since the Centaur upper stage program was cancelled due to Shuttle safety concerns, a reevaluation of Galileo’s launch and trajectory profiles has taken place. Currently, no upper stage capable of placing Galileo on a direct trajectory to Jupiter is available. Present plans call for a Shuttlehertial Up per Stage (IUS) launch of the spacecraft on an initial trajectory to Jupiter, followed by two Schuduled for launch In 1990, the Man Observer rprcocnlt wlll rtudy the atmosphere, wrhce gwchemlatry, Interlor, passes around the Earth that will allow suf- and climate of Man on a global rcale. ficient energy to reach Jupiter. Ulysses. Ulysses was scheduled for a May Mars Observer The Mars Observer space- 1986 launch on the ShuttleKentaur. Like craft manufacturer, RCA, and the contractor Galileo, the combination of the Challenger for the upper stage, the Orbital Science Cor- accident and ShuttleKentaur cancellation poration, were chosen. Also, the geoscience has forced a reevaluation of the mission. and climatology experiments were selected, However, unlike Galileo, and because of u1- along with the group of scientists who will ysses’ smaller mass, a plan was developed monitor instrument development and prep- that maintains the same transit time to the arations for the data analysis phase. To higher latitudes of the Sun as the planned achieve scientific objectives, and to provide 1986 mission. Uylsses will be launched in high resolution images for any future ad- September 1989 or in October 1990 using the vanced missions to Mars, a camera will be ShuttleDUS system, with an energy augmen- added to the payload. Scheduled for launch in tation derived from a Payload Assist Module. August 1990, the mission will last one Mars This additional energy will allow use of the year (687 Earth days) during which surface massive Jovian gravity to reach higher lati- and atmospheric changes will be observed tudes of the Sun. over all four seasons. Magellan. Active development continued on Flight Missions Suppork In 1986, Ground the Magellan mission to Venus that will use Data Systems tests to support Voyager’s en- a polar orbiting, radar-equipped spacecraft to counter with Uranus, and the planned map the cloud-shrouded surface of the planet. launches of the Ulysses and Galileo space- The objectives of the mission are to deter- craft were completed. Although the launches mine the geology of the surface, and to under- were postponed, Voyager’s encounter with

22 Uranus was an extraordinary success. Acqui- Biology, .Global Biology (Biospherics), Ex- sition and processing of significant amounts obiology, and Controlled Ecological Life Sup- of rare data from the encounter, both in real- port Systems. During 1986, substantial time and batch processing modes, by the Mis- progress was made in each of these areas of sion Control and Computing Center (MCCC), research. were accomplished without difficulty. Images Space Medicine. Through basic and applied produced by the new Multi-mission Image research, clinical studies, and flight pro- Processing Laboratory taken from observa- grams, NASA is investigating the nature and tions of the planet, its rings, and its moons mechanisms of adaptation, deconditioning, were spectacular and are of unique scientific and inherent risks resulting from exposure to value. Also, the MCCC supported the Giotto space flight. In turn, this knowledge helps encounter and Pioneer Venus Orbiter obser- scientists to develop protective measures and vations of Halley’s Comet. Pioneer Venus pro- safety procedures needed to ensure the duced the only data obtained when the health and productivity of crews during long- Comet was most active, closest to, and behind term missions. The program will develop pro- the Sun. Significant design advances were tective measures for repeated exposures to made in the new Space Flight Operations the space environment. Center to produce multi-mission Ground In the area of Space Medicine, clinical char- Data Systems that will be more cost efficient acterization and the time course of motion and scientifically productive. sickness have been described. Working with Advanced Programs and Planning. The the Space Biomedical Research Institute at planetary “Core Program” recommended by Johnson Space Center, NASA expects to expe- the Solar System Exploration Committee in dite processes that investigate countermea- 1983 included two new classes of spacecraft: sures to space sickness and identify Planetary Observers for near-Earth missions susceptible individuals. and Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft to explore Including Congressman Bill Nelson in the the outer solar system. Planning continued crew of STS 61-C gave NASA’s Life Sciences for a future start of the first Mariner Mark I1 Program an opportunity to expand the scope mission, the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid and depth of medical experiments. This mis- Flyby (CRAF) mission. CRAF will make a sion investigated operationally important is- close flyby of an asteroid and then rendezvous sues related to human capabilities in space, with a comet for extended observation and such as space motion sickness, echocardio- study. During 1986, proposals for scientific graphy, inflight treadmill stress tests, investigations and instruments for the CRAF changes in total body water during space mission were evaluated, and a tentative flight, and eye-hand coordination. flight payload was selected. A second poten- A Health Maintenance Facility (HMF) is tial Mariner Mark I1 mission, Cassini, would being developed for the Space Station that consist of a Saturn orbiter mated with an will incorporate state-of-the-art technology ESA-developed Titan entry probe. During and inflight medical care, and will also en- 1986, science teams from ESA and NASA able adequate exercise and health monitor- conducted joint studies of this possible mis- ing for space crews. Also, tests of physical sion. exercise protocols for the HMF are underway. In the area of human factors and man- machine interface, a sophisticated computer Lifk Sciences modeling system is under development that is based on anthropometric measurements made in space flight and on the ground. This The Life Sciences program is involved in all system will accelerate design of work sta- major aspects of NASA’s activities in space tions, assess work conditions, and determine exploration. The program has two major appropriate workloads for space crews. goals, derived from NASA’s charter: to pro- Gravitational Biology. The goal of the Grav- mote health and productivity in manned itational Biology program is to understand space flight, and to study biological processes how gravity affects and shapes life on Earth. and life in the universe. The Life Sciences This program uses weightlessness as a tool to program extends from basic research to ap- understand life and its processes; by under- plied clinical practice. Major areas of re- standing how the space environment affects search include Space Medicine, Gravitational plant and animal species, the human ability

23 to use and explore space can be greatly en- tant implications for the future of the terres- hanced. Both flight- and ground-based re- trial ecosystem. search in the gravitational biology area Exobiology. The Exobiology program seeks provide significant information on the biolog- to understand the origin, evolution, and dis- ical significance of gravity. Also, the role of tribution of life in the universe, focusing on calcium as a gravity-sensing element in both six major areas: cosmic evolution of biogenic plants and animals has been significant. compounds, prebiotic chemistry, early evolu- Animal research has emphasized modeling tion of life, evolution of advanced life, solar the gravity-sensing systems of animals, un- system exploration, and the search for extra- derstanding mechanisms that control bone terrestrial intelligence. The prime focus of formation and loss, and identifying mecha- exobiology research is on investigating the nisms that lead to normal muscle develop- characteristics and life-promoting or life- ment and atrophy when gravitational threatening events that dominate important loading is removed. Analysis of otoconia evolutionary stages. This research elucidates (crystals that form the sensory mass in the the role of the biogenic elements, the main inner ear) in rats flown on Spacelab 3 indi- constituents of living matter, and the bio- cate that crystal formation is affected by genic compounds in solar system formation, gravity and that, under near-weightless con- planetary development, and the emergence ditions, a number of small, potentially imma- and impact of life. ture crystals were formed. The significance of Recent accomplishments within the pro- this finding has yet to be determined. This gram include the discovery of precursors of flight also showed that bone strength is re- biologically important organic molecules in duced in growing animals which suggests the interstellar medium. Analysis has shown that gravity loading is essential to the devel- a direct link between organics in the inter- opment of normal bone. Also, significant stellar medium and those found in primitive changes in muscle were observed. Rodents solar system bodies. These results add to the flown in space lost up to 40 percent of mass in available evidence that life might exist else- leg muscles which are normally used to op- where in the universe. It also indicates that pose gravity. life may be an integral part of the origin and Biospherics. The goal of the Biospherics Re- evolution of the stars and planets. Concur- search program is to understand how biologi- rently, planetary exploration and ground- cal and planetary processes interact. This is based planetary environment simulations done in conjunction with the environmental are adding to our awareness of conditions re- effects of human activity, and how these proc- quired for the origin and evolution of life. esses affect the long-term habitability of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System Earth. Currently, efforts are concentrated in (CELSS). A spacecraft system that contin- specific research projects that include wet- ually recycles the solid, liquid, and gaseous lands, along the eastern part of the United materials essential for human life is the goal States; temperate forests, represented by Se- of the CELSS Program. The main focus of quoia National Park; tropical forests, repre- CELSS research has been on techniques for sented by the Amazon forest; and global growing higher plants and algae, processes studies that concentrate on biogeochemical for recycling solid and liquid wastes, and sys- models. In addition, a new effort that applies tem interactions in biological life support sys- remote sensing technology to the solution of tems. global health problems will be developed. Laboratory results show that desired speci- This research program is using existing data fications can probably be met or exceeded. In banks, remote sensing techniques, and field terms of usable dietary calories divided by research to create mathematical models that the photosynthetically active light energy predict biospheric behavior under a given set needed to produce them, energy conversion of perturbations. These models are inte- efficiencies in the 7 to 9 percent range were grated with mathematical models of plane- obtained for wheat, potatoes, and soybeans; tary behavior, and they are continually eficiencies approximately twice as high were evaluated for accuracy and modified when measured for two kinds of algae. Under the necessary. By ensuring that undesirable con- CELSS Breadboard Project for bioregenera- sequences of biospheric change do not ad- tive life support, a chamber designed to test versely affect the habitability of the Earth, techniques for growing plants in a “closed” the Biospherics Research program has impor- environment was completed.

24 Applications lite-assisted communication with cars, trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft within the Communications next four to six years. Such a system, offering nationwide voice and data communications, NASA has implemented a multifaceted is especially important for mobile users in communications satellite program to meet rural and remote areas of the United States. foreign competition and maintain U.S. pre- This system would also complement existing eminence in the global marketplace. One ele- and planned urban terrestrial service, en- ment in the development of this program is ergy, mineral, and forestry operations; busi- the Advanced Communications Bchnology ness and commercial endeavors; emergency Satellite (ACTS) Project, scheduled for and disaster communications; and wide-area launch in 1990. ACTS technology will con- law enforcement. By mid-1985, the FCC had tribute to future domestic and global satellite received 12 applications to build a mobile sat- networks. Another major thrust in NASA's ellite service. In mid-1986, the FCC allocated communications program is the partnership L-band frequencies to domestic mobile satel- with industry in a mobile national satellite lite service, removing a major barrier to im- service. Recently, a significant milestone was plementation. Currently, the FCC is in the reached with the allocation of domestic fre- process of formulating service guidelines and quencies by the Federal Communications selecting a system. Commission (FCC). This first generation NASA is developing and testing the power, commercial system will provide communica- spectrum, and orbit-efficient technologies tions to and from trucks, boats, and air- critical to the success of high-capacity, future planes. It will create a totally new service mobile satellite systems. In direct response to and hardware industry, and improve the pro- the President's policy on the commercial use ductivity of many U.S. communications in- of space, the system will create new hardware dustries. Launch of the first spacecraft for markets, business and service industries in this system is expected in 1990 or 1991. The the United States, and counter growing for- Search and Rescue system, which locates air- eign competition, such as the Japanese craft and vessels in distress, is gaining world- launch of an experimental mobile satellite wide acceptance. It is credited with saving scheduled for 1987. more than 675 lives since its inception. Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT NASA continues to develop technologies system completed its first year of regular op- needed to use the geosynchronous arc and eration. Its success has stimulated participat- spectral frequencies effectively. ing governments to draft a new agreement Advanced Communications Technology Sa& which reflects a strong and continuing com- ellite (ACTS). In 1986, the ACTS project mitment to the program. World-wide interest moved closer toward its goal of a spacecraft in this rescue system began with the endorse- launch from the Shuttle by late 1990. ment of the 406 MHz frequency as the pri- In 1986, a steerable antenna was added to mary frequency for the Emergency Position extend the ACTS coverage to states and areas Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB) that will be outside the contiguous 48 states, such as used for the future Global Maritime Distress Alaska, Hawaii, and South America. The cost and Safety System. There is continual devel- of the augmentation has been assumed by opment of world-wide standards for Emer- RCA, the prime contractor on the ACTS. In gency Locator Transmitters (ELT's) operating addition, a joint NASA/Air Force effort was in the same frequency band. In addition, re- initiated to develop an optical payload that search and development is continuing on will demonstrate laser intersatellite com- techniques and technologies to reduce false munications technology. This optical payload alarm rates, improve location accuracy and will allow laser communications between the provide near instantaneous detection. ACTS and ground terminals, low Earth orbit- Advanced Planning. In close coordination ing vehicles, such as the Space Shuttle and with industry and advisory groups, NASA is the Space Station, and other satellites in developing plans to address future space com- geosynchronous orbit, such as the Tracking munications needs, and the ever increasing and Data Relay Satellite. demand for communication bandwidths. Cur- Mobile Satellite. The joint mobile satellite rently, there is little distinction between the program with U.S. industry and other gov- communications technology requirements of ernment agencies will provide two-way satel- NASA's future planetary missions and Space

25 Station operations and those of the U.S. in- chemical composition of the upper atmo- dustrial space community as a whole. Tech- sphere. Chemical species, predicted to be nologies being investigated for possible present in the atmosphere but never before future development and application include observed, were measured quantitatively. optical communications for holographic im- In collaboration with NOAA and the Chem- age transmission in space robotics; communi- ical Manufacturers Association, NASA co- cations links to support space travel, and sponsored a scientific workshop to design a lunar and planetary exploration bases; and network of ground-based remote sensing in- large, multibeam antennas with frequency struments to monitor long-term changes in reuse factors of 5 to 20 or more. This will the chemical composition and physical struc- conserve spectrum and allow growth of future of the stratosphere. Currently, aspects of ture mobile satellite systems. Also, technolo- the plan are being implemented. gies that could implement an on-orbit NASA, NOAA, NSF, and the Chemical antenna array are being studied. They could Manufacturers Association co-sponsored a be used within the Space Station complex to group of scientists that conducted research at test and calibrate large antennas in a near McMurdo Station in Antarctica. While in res- zero-gravity space environment. idence, the group used remote sensing tech- ATS-3. ATS-3 (Advanced Technology Satel- niques and balloon-borne instrumentation to lite) continued to support the National Sci- study the so-called ozone hole that has been ence Foundation, National Oceanic observed by both ground and satellite instru- Atmospheric Administration, Department of mentation. The results of this expedition will Defense, Department of Interior, Drug En- help to identify the cause of the ozone hole. It forcement Administration, several universi- will also determine if the Antarctic hole is a ties, state and local governments, and a precursor of changes elsewhere on the globe. number of domestic and international disas- Work continued on the observatory and ter relief organizations. Through satellite ground data handling segments of the Upper voice and data links in science and communi- Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS)pro- cation application experiments, support is gram. Remote sensing instruments on the provided to North and South America, most satellite will perform measurements of the of the Atlantic Ocean, and a large part of the energy input, chemical composition, and dy- eastern Pacific, including Hawaii and Ant- namics of the stratosphere and mesosphere. arctica. UARS is a critical component of NASA’s efforts to understand the upper atmosphere Environmental Observations well enough to assess its susceptibility to chemical change. The UARS is scheduled for launch in 1991. The Environmental Observations program In 1985, NASA completed the second continues to provide more information about Global Tropospheric ExperimentKhemical the terrestrial atmosphere and environment Instrumentation Test Evaluation (GTE/ which, in turn, increases our understanding CITE-2) project, an aircraft-based effort to of the processes that affect them. validate sensitive instruments required to Upper Atmosphere. During 1986, NASA study global tropospheric chemistry. The ob- completed its portion of a comprehensive re- jectives of the GTE are to assess the role of port assessing the current state of knowledge tropospheric chemistry in biogeochemical cy- of the processes that control the distribution cles; the troposhere’s role as the ultimate of atmospheric ozone and its susceptibility to source for chemical species in the strato- change caused by natural and anthropogenic sphere; and the contribution of tropospheric perturbations. The assessment was co- ozone compared to total ozone content in the sponsored by NASA, FAA, NOAA, the World atmosphere. Meteorological Organization, the United Na- Interdisciplinary Research. NASA contin- tions Environment Program, the Commis- ued its Interdisciplinary Research program sion of the European Communities, and the in Earth Science to investigate and under- Federal Republic of Germany. stand long-term physical, chemical, and bio- The infrared data collected by the ATMOS logical changes in the Earth’s environment. instrument, which flew on Spacelab 3, was Based upon their importance to science, ar- analyzed and archived. This is the most com- eas that have been selected for new investiga- prehensive set of data ever collected on the tion include research to understand the

26 origins and consequences of increases in at- back to 135 degrees west longitude to provide mospheric concentrations of methane; to un- west coast coverage. derstand the extent to which changes are In September 1986, the NOAA-10 satellite taking place in climatologically important was launched into a polar orbit from Vanden- properties of land surfaces; and to develop a berg Air Force Base. It will replace the better Understanding of the magnitude and NOAA-6 satellite and provide early morning variability of oceanic carbon fluxes on a basin global coverage. It is anticipated that to global scale. Under existing programs, NOAA-H will replace NOAA-9 in December complementary investigations are being con- 1987. ducted in the areas of atmospheric dynamics The current series of NOAA satellites are and radiation, oceanic processes, global biol- launched on Air Force Atlas-E expendable ogy, tropospheric chemistry, climate, and rockets. In 1986, plans were initiated to land processes. launch these satellites on Air Force Titan-I1 Geodynamics. Geodynamics involves the vehicles beginning with the NOAA-K satel- study of the solid Earth, its global gravity lite, and possibly with the NOAA-I satellite. and magnetic fields, the movement and defor- Climate Research. The primary focus of the mation of its crust, and its rotational dy- Climate Research program is to understand namics. This research contributes to our the physical processes that influence climate. During 1986, the Earth Radiation Budget understanding of earthquakes, the evolution of the Earth, and the interaction between the Experiment (ERBE) received and processed solid Earth, the oceans and atmosphere. Over data from the Earth Radiation Budget Satel- lite, launched in October 1984, and the 30 countries participate in NASA's geody- ERBE instruments aboard the NOAA-9 and namics research, and there is intergovern- NOAA-10 operational meteorological satel- mental cooperation between NSF, USGS, lites, launched in December 1984 and Octo- NOAA, and DOD. The Crustal Dynamics pro- ber 1986, respectively. Thus far, the ject involved 20 investigators from Australia, international science team has devoted most Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, the Federal Re- of its efforts to validation of the global ERBE public of Germany, France, Italy, Mexico, the data products. It is expected that ERBE will Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Spain, Swe- help establish the role of clouds in the Earth's den, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and radiation budget, particularly in response to Venezuela. In 1986, joint projects and pro- increasing concentrations of trace gases such grams included measuring tectonic plate mo- as carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. tion and Earth rotation, using fixed and Uncertainties about the geographical and mobile laser ranging systems, with Italy, temporal distributions of clouds are recog- France, Israel, and Mexico; using techniques nized as major impediments to improved cli- of Very Long Baseline Interferometry, with mate prediction. In 1986, the International Japan and Italy; lunar and satellite laser Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) ranging operations, with Australia; data ex- continued its third year of operation, collect- changes, with China; and a study of earth- ing and processing data on the global distri- quake hazards in the Caribbean Basin, with several nations. bution of cloudiness. The data was obtained from an international array of operational Operational Meteor0 logical Satel 1ites. Due polar-orbiting and geostationary meteorolog- to a premature shutdown of the Delta launch ical satellites. NASA plays a central role in vehicle's main engine, the GOES-G launch the ISCCP through its support of the Global attempt on May 3, 1986 ended in failure. To Processing Center that serves as the hub of complete the operatima1 complement of two international climatology operations. geostationary satellites, the GOES-G satel- Final planning was completed and imple- lite was expected to join the GOES-6 satellite mentation is underway for Project FIRE in orbit. The GOES-6 satellite will continue (First ISCCP Regional Experiment), a mul- to operate in a mid-country geosynchronous tiagency research program located at NASA's orbit until GOES-H, the last of the current Langley Research Center. The program seeks generation of geostationary satellites, is a better understanding of the roles played by launched in February 1987. The GOES-H physical processes in controlling life cycles of satellite will be stationed at 75 degrees west climatically important cloud systems. Also, it longitude, providing coverage for the eastern attempts to improve the parameterization of United States, and GOES-6 will be moved clouds in climate models, and to contribute to

27 the validation, on a regional basis, of the several scientific meetings and reported in ISCCl? In October 1986, the first field experi- the Journal of Science in 1986 show the util- ment was conducted by the university- ity of the experiment in identifying and government FIRE science team. It focused on studying a large variety of atmospheric mo- cirrus cloud systems that, along with marine tion regimes in rotating planets and stars. stratocumulus cloud systems, are believed to The success of GFFC and the large number of be particularly important to the Earth’s radi- cases that could be studied interactively, with ation budget climate. minor modification to the Spacelab-3 hard- Global Scale Atmospheric Processes. Ad- ware, have encouraged consideration of this vanced remote sensing techniques, both ac- experiment for future Spacelab missions. tive and passive, are being developed for Mesoscale Atmospheric Research. In 1986, satellite observations of the Earth’s atmo- extensive field research was undertaken, sphere. The active remote sensing techniques such as the study of the East Coast winter apply to both Laser Interferometric Detec- storm sudden-intensification phenomenon, tion and Ranging (LIDAR’S) radars and to and the study of several storm characteristics sensing atmospheric parameters. Emphasis and interactions off the shore of the south- is placed on the application of laser tech- eastern United States. In the former case, niques, tested on aircraft platforms during NASA participated in the Genesis of Atlantic 1986, that remotely observed atmospheric Lows Experiment (GALE) and, in the latter, temperature, pressure, and moisture profiles. supported both the Microburst and Severe A logical progression of development of LI- Thunderstorm (MIST) and Satellite Precipi- DAR instruments starts from testing on air- tation and Cloud Experiment (SPACE). These craft platforms, and Shuttle pallets, to using experiments were two of the three elements on low or high inclination Space Station po- of the Cooperative Huntsville Mesoscale Ex- lar platforms. Development of additional la- periment (COHMEX). ser techniques, using coherent LIDAR’S to During the COHMEX experiments, con- observe wind profiles, continues. In 1986, a ducted in the Tennessee Valley near Hunts- preliminary design study for placing a coher- ville, Alabama, the most extensive set of high ent LIDAR wind sensor on the Shuttle was altitude aircraft measurments of weather completed. This study provided a positive in- systems ever taken was recorded. Numerous dication of the maturity of the technology, experiments to measure the storms’ visible, and allowed serious consideration of its use infrared, microwave, and lightning-produced in a satellite global wind sensor. emissions were measured. This was done si- In concert with the capabilities of computa- multaneously to allow future interpretation tional hardware, mathematical techniques to of storm intensification, rainfall rates, dam- model physical processes in the Earth’s atmo- aging high winds and hail, dynamic interac- sphere have improved. Studies of modeling tion between storms, and development of techniques to improve use of satellite obser- storms from moist, unstable environments. vations for large-scale atmospheric processes, During 1986, both the Bangladesh Agro- completed and reported in 1985 and 1986, Climatic/Environmental Monitoring Project demonstrated that satellite observations of and the Fiji Storm detection and Warning global wind profiles will dramatically im- System Project for the South Pacific were prove our understanding of large-scale atmo- completed. Subsequently, the systems began spheric processes. The improved capability to routine observations. observe atmospheric motions and atmo- Oceanic Processes. Spaceflight activities in spheric moisture will increase our under- the oceanography program focused on the standing of a portion of the hydrological Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere and cycle. World Ocean Circulation Experiments, and The Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC). the Global Ocean Flux Study; a number of The Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell, an experi- spaceflight missions in the program are ment to model fundamental fluid dynamical planned for launch in the early 1990’s. The processes representative of stellar and plane- first of two oceanic missions in the Physical tary atmospheres, was flown as part of the Oceanography program, the NASA Scattero- Spacelab-3 payload launched in 1985. The ex- meter (NSCAT) is scheduled for launch periment exceeded its objectives and provided aboard the Navy’s NROSS mission. The Sci- a wealth of data to be analyzed over the next ence Working Team, comprised of successful several years. Early analyses presented at respondents to the NSCAT Announcement of

28 Opportunity (AO) was selected and the scien- for the program was done with the Japanese tists are actively involved in pre-launch re- Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences search efforts. The second mission, the Ocean (ISAS) and the European Space Agency Topography Experiment (TOPEX), will be (ESA). ISAS is developing the Geotail space- jointly conducted with the French Space craft designed to explore the geomagnetic Agency’s POSEIDON project. The TOPEX tail of the Earth. ESA continues to develop satellite with POSEIDON sensors aboard the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory will be launched by a French Ariane rocket (SOHO),a. solar-pointed spacecraft to mea- in late 1991. In response to the recently is- sure basic physical processes of the Sun, and sued “Request for Proposal” for the single Cluster, a set of four spacecraft to study basic satellite contractor, proposals from U.S. in- plasma phenomena that will employ multi- dustry were received; and selection is antici- point measurements to resolve space and pated within the next few months. Also, the time variations near magnetospheric bound- A0 has been issued to initiate the process for aries. A Cooperative Solar Terrestrial Re- selection of the TOPEXPOSEIDON Science search effort has begun, in which NASA will Working Team. provide support for U.S. investigators on the In the Ocean Productivity Program, proc- Geotail, SOHO,and Cluster missions. essing Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner Operational Explorers. Perhaps the most (CZCS) imagery into ocean-basin maps of cost-effective spacecraft ever launched by chlorophyll is well underway; and the first NASA is the 13 year old Interplanetary Mon- such map covering the North Atlantic has itoring Platform (IMP-8) satellite, the work- been produced. Launched in 1978, Nimbus-7 horse of Explorers. It continues to function has performed well beyond its one-year de- well as the only existing monitor of solar sign lifetime. wind interactions with the Earth’s magneto- Space Plasma Physics. Plasmas exist sphere, and provides a crucial baseline for throughout the universe and occupy more missions to the other planets. than 99 percent of its volume. Space plasma The International Cometary Explorer (ICE) physics involve the systematic study of (the retargeted Sun-Earth Explorer-3), plasma environments that can be directly launched in 1977, continues to operate; from sampled by balloons, rockets and spacecraft the large amount of data it generates, over from just above the Earth’s atmosphere, 100 scientific papers per year are published. through the Earth’s magnetosphere and the The papers cover the full range of space interplanetary medium to the solar atmo- plasma phenomena, from collisionless shock sphere, and into the atmospheres and magne- and boundary layers to wave-particle interac- tospheres of other planets. Due to its effect on tions and currents along auroral field lines. communications, power transmission, energy In September 1985, ICE intercepted Comet production, transport, and weather, the solar- Giacobini-Zinner. The research analyses con- terrestrial plasma environment is especially ducted on the ICE data were a critical com- relevant to modern, technologically oriented plement to the Comet Halley encounter in society. Research in space plasma physics fo- March 1986. In particular, the ion tail model cuses on using the plasma environment as a of dual lobes of opposite polarity, separated laboratory, especially through active experi- by a neutral sheet, was validated; and dust ments to simulate plasma phenomena and in levels were found to be several orders of mag- situ measurements of natural plasma envi- nitude less than the predicted rate. Also, ICE ronments. detected waves and energetic particles mil- International Solar-Terrestrial Physics pro- lions of kilometers upstream from the Comet. gram (ISTP). The National Academy of Sci- The Dynamics Explorer (DE) spacecraft ences has completed a study entitled “An continued to provide new, unique data on ion- Implementation Plan for Priorities in Solar- osphere-magnetosphere interactions and au- System Space Physics’’ (National Academy roral morphology, as well as on global Press, 1985) which proposes a systematic airglow’ and ozone measurements. A special plan of solar and space plasma physics re- campaign of ground-based, rocket, balloon, search until 1995. It gives the ISTP program and satellite observations was implemented the highest priority and support efforts to de- between April and June 1986 in which DE fine U.S.contributions through the use of sat- was a key player. Also, Global auroral imag- ellites, instruments, data handling and ing of the southern pole was conducted by modeling. During 1986, significant planning DE. Similar imaging of the northern pole was

29 conducted by the Swedish Viking polor orbi- Radar (SIR) series, SIR-A and SIR-B, the ter, launched in January 1986. This cam- Airborne Imaging Spectrometer, the Ad- paign, called PROMIS (Polar Region and vanced Solid State Array Spectrometer, the Outer Magnetosphere International Study) Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner, and demonstrated the utility of making carefully the L-Band Pushbroom Microwave Radiome- coordinated measurements in the geospace ter. The L-IC-band synthetic aperture radar, environment, the core theme of the ISTP pro- which was destroyed in the crash of the gram. NASA CV-990 aircraft in 1985, is being re- During 1986, the Active Magnetosphere placed. "racer Explorer (AMPTE) began its extended As a result of several interrelated studies, mission phase that involved passive measure- use of visible and near infrared radiances to ments of the inner magnetosphere. Contin- monitor the productivity of natural biological ued analysis of observations made during the systems improved. A simple function of se- active phase provided important tests of com- lected satellite bands proved to be directly etary models, and information on plasma- related to photosynthetic capacity and the field interactions in the outer transpiration of water vapor. This method magnetosphere. Ion composition measure- was applied to measurements of the North ments from AMPTE are especially valuable American Continent during the growing sea- because they have demonstrated the impor- son of 1982, and the results were compared to tant role of the ionosphere as a source of ions published values of ecosystem productivity. for the magnetosphere. Previous studies only concentrated on the rel- Sounding Rockets and Balloons. During atively simple system of the grasslands. This 1986,14 space plasma physics sounding rock- study extended application of the method ets and two balloons were launched to study over ecosystems as diverse as tundra, highly properties of the middle atmosphere and the productive, temperate agricultural regions, auroral regions. In May 1986, a rocket was and deserts. In a further test of this model, launched with two payloads that separated in global ecosystem dynamics over a 31-month flight. Forty-two different, but major ele- period were compared to interannual varia- ments of the mission operated flawlessly. tions in atmospheric carbon dioxide. In the This very successful mission provided impor- future, more rigorous physical modeling of di- tant evidence to support the Critical Ioniza- verse ecosystems will be needed. tion Velocity effect which has implications for Data on the Northern Hemisphere from Cosmological and Astrophysical systems and 1979 to 1983, obtained by the Nimbus-7 for basic plasma physics. Scanning Multispectral Microwave Radiome- Land Processes. The Land Processes Pro- ter (SMMR), were used to produce assess- gram consists of four interrelated elements: ments of the extent and magnitude of studies of terrestrial ecosystems, hydrologic seasonal snow cover. Measurements from the cycle, continental geology, and remote sens- 18-GHz and 37-GHz frequencies were used ing science. The first three represent the to evaluate equivalent snow depth. These space-based components of classical science measurements were based on results from disciplines. The last element is the study of field studies and theoretical modeling of mi- the physics and biology of the land surface as crowave emissions from snow packs. In gen- it relates to the interaction of electromag- eral, microwave emissions decrease with netic radiation. The major focus is to conduct increasing snow cover. The two-frequency ap- research in the Earth Sciences that concen- proach is used to account for the effects of trates on developing methodologies, rather surface temperature variations which dis- than instruments and techniques for scien- rupt the snow depth and microwave emission tific or applied use. relationship. Monthly assessments (the mean Extensive use is made of data from operat- of 5 days) of Northern Hemisphere snow ing satellite sensors, such as the Landsat fields were produced for four years and the Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) and results compare favorably with the standard Thematic Mapper (TM), the Advanced Very NOAA snow extent maps. In addition, the High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on results are of significantly greater value be- NOAA polar orbiting satellites, and sensors cause they are not subject to the errors inher- aboard the French SPOT satellite. Equally ent in the NOAA visual interpretation of important are data from experiments on AVHRR solar reflectance data, such as sub- Shuttle flights such as the Shuttle Imaging jectivity and inability to distinguish between

30 snow cover and clouds; and, the SMMR data A new technique for using polarized radar can evaluate snow depth, a capability that signals to conduct detailed studies of differ- was not previously available from satellite ent landforms has been perfected. By using observations. Considerable interannual vari- the variable echo strength at different angles ability in seasonal snow cover is observed in of polarization in a single radar image, scien- these measurements that is attributable to tists can construct a matrix that compares the dynamics of Northern Hemisphere the rads data to theoretical models of sur- weather patterns during winter. Knowledge face reflectivity. This determines such attrib- of this variability is of great importance to utes as surface roughness (at a scale of understanding the hydrology and climatol- centimeters to decameters), electrical proper- ogy of the Earth. It is now known that snow ties of soils and rocks, and physical character- fields contain a significant portion of the istics of a tree canopy. The technique is likely planetary water, and the albedo of snow is to have many applications, not only in geol- much greater than that of other land materi- ogy, but also in fields such as ecology and als. In addition, snow requires a considerable hydrology. A single polarized radar image amount of heat to melt; therefore, the can be manipulated by the scientist so that amount of snow accumulated in the winter the maximum degree of contrast between two determines, at least in part, the time re- targets of interest can be obtained, a process quired to heat up the Northern Hemisphere that allows comparison of the different prop- in the spring. erties of the two surfaces. Analysis of the Earth’s magnetic field, from data obtained by the Magsat spacecraft, continued to offer new insights into the structure Micrograviiy Science and Applications of the Earth’s crust and mantle. This information provides a better picture of the man- ner in which continents were assembled by The Microgravity Science and Applications the movement of tectonic plates that make up program conducts research into the effects of the crust of the Earth. A particularly inter- reduced gravity on basic physical phenomena esting discovery was the detection of remnant and processes. The program is structured into magnetization in the Kursk Anomaly, USSR. six primary scientific disciplines: combus- Previously, it was believed that only the tion, metals and alloys, electronic materials, present-day magnetic field of the Earth could glasses and ceramics, biotechnology, and be detected from space. fluid dynamics and transport phenomena. The Landsat Thematic Mapper program, The goal of the program is to quantify the established to promote the scientific use of effects imposed by gravity on physical phe- sensors, led to some spectacular discoveries. nomena and processes and, subsequently, to Volcanic eruptions, most notably in the apply results obtained to specific ground- and South American Andes mountains, have pro- space-based processes and products. Ad- duced massive volcanic landslides that were vances in research and analysis have ex- 10 to 15 times larger than the Mount St. He- panded to 70 the number of high-quality lens lateral-blast deposits that occurred in ground-based investigations that are funded. the State of Washington in 1980. Analysis of Also, there are a large number of high-qual- this phenomena clearly shows that the ity proposals that have been submitted in the Mount St. Helens style of eruption is much six discipline areas; however, new research more common than was previously believed. efforts in the Microgravity program will re- In fact, this information resulted in a reas- quire growth in program resources. sessment of unusual deposits around Mount SpaceBased Research. During Space Shut- Lassen in northern California. In addition, tle flight 61-C, in January 1986, experi- some Andean volcanoes are not as inactive as ments were conducted in the areas of metals believed. Measurements made by Landsat’s and alloys, biotechnology, and fluid dynamics Thematic Mapper show that the temperature and transport phenomena. Three of the ex- of some lakes in the summit craters of the periments were flown aboard the Materials volcanoes are as much as 13 degrees centi- Science Laboratory, a cargo bay carrier, and grade warmer than they should be. This indi- two were performed middeck. Results of these cates that mild warming by heat generated experiments are under evaluation, and will internally is occurring, and may mark the be published in the appropriate scientific beginning of more vigorous activity. journals.

31 Development of new experimental appa- The Astronomical Observations payload ratus to perform reduced gravity scientific re- (ASTRO) was completely integrated and search in space continued. Among the areas ready for a 1986 flight. However, due to that the new apparatus will support are exchanges in the manifest, it must now wait for periments in physics and chemistry; combus- a 1991 launch. ASTRO’s three independent tion science; metals and alloys; and, ultraviolet telescopes that operate on the In- electronic materials. However, the Chal- strument Pointing System (IPS) will conduct lenger accident has necessitated a complete independent but complementary measure- reassessment of flight activity for the micro- ments of ultraviolet data. gravity program. One consequence of the Science and applications payloads planned Challenger accident is the reduction of flight for early Spacelab flights include the Materi- opportunities for microgravity science. This als Science Laboratory, International Micro- adversely affects development of the reduced gravity Laboratory, Space Life Sciences, and gravity scientific data base that is required Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications by the scientific and commercial communi- and Science. Work that will continue over the ties to prepare for future activity aboard the next several years is geared toward preserv- Space Station. ing a limited number of Spacelab missions. Detailed analysis of data from the three flights of Spacelab in 1985 began to emerge Information Systems in technical and scientific media. Negotiations continued with Japan over a The Information Systems Office (IS01man- reimbursable Spacelab Shuttle Flight (Space- ages a data systems program to serve the lab-J). Using original launch schedules, Ja- data management and information process- pan is proceeding with development of the ing needs of the Office of Space Science and hardware; and the science working groups, Applications. In 1986, ISO’s computer net- consisting of participants from Japan and the works allowed real time science analysis dur- U.S., are proceeding with hopes of an earlier ing Voyager 2’s encounter with Uranus, and flight date. its advanced processing systems and data bases supported modeling and analyses for the Space Station oceans, planetary, and climate programs. IS0 programs complement the data systems capabilities developed by OSSA flight The Office of Space Science and Applica- projects. Systems and technologies developed tions (OSSA)plans to be a major user of the by IS0 are transferred to the host discipline resources offered by both the space and programs for subsequent operational use, be- ground elements of the Space Station pro- coming part of the data systems in new flight gram. The Office visualizes the Space Station projects. In general, through improved access as a NASA institutional laboratory in space to and use and management of space- that will work with established ground labo- acquired data, the IS0 organization provides ratories, such as the Goddard Space Flight the technologies, tools, and techniques that Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In are essential for productive scientific re- 1986, a Space Station integration function search. was established to help consolidate OSSA plans and provide technical support for the Spacelab Flight Program conduct and management of multi-discipline studies related to use of the Station. A Sci- ence Operations ‘hsk Team was established Following the Challenger accident, there to develop a science operations concept and was a reassessment of the Spacelab Flight plan. Use of the Space Station will allow reprogram. This was required in order to maxi- searchers to conduct experiments in space mize limited opportunities to accommodate from their own laboratories through a capa- the payloads that were previously manifested bility called “telescience,” a concept devel- on the Shuttle. Many outstanding investiga- oped by the advisory %sk Force on Scientific tions, representing a wide variety of institu- Use of the Space Station (TFSUSS). tions and organizations that are at critical During 1986, important technical studies stages of their evolution, will experience that were undertaken include defining launch delays of 3 to 5 years. sources of contamination that arise from or

32 affect the operation of scientific payloads on commitments. The President’s Economic Pol- the Space Station; cataloging potential waste icy Council selected 20 payloads that met the products, and providing alternatives for their criteria for flight, and they were reflected in management and disposal; using the pressur- the published manifest. ized volume effectively on the Space Station; In addition to the President’s new commer- and defining an approach to logistics and re- cial policy, a change in priorities for flying on supply concepts. Conducting these studies the Shuttle was instituted in the following helps to define parameters of payloads and order: national security payloads, major sci- experiments, and to understand how they entific and interplanetary payloads, and will be affected by the Space Station environ- other science and foreign and commercial ment. In addition, Congress urged that the payloads. Space Station program be organized as early as possible to provide useful scientific research during the flight operations phase. Launch and Landing Operations The focus will be on identifying how the experimental facilities will be equipped, so that In January 1986, two Shuttle vehicles were useful scientific research can be conducted processed and launched. The first was the before completion of the entire assembly se- seventh Columbia mission, which was also quence. the 24th successful Shuttle mission. The second launched the tenth Challenger mission that, unfortunately, led to the tragic acci- Space Wansportation dent, and loss of the spacecraft and her crew. Subsequently, launch and landing operations supported the accident investigation with Customer Services salvage operations, vehicle assembly and disassembly activities, and facilities and processing evaluations. Addilional effort was On January 12, 1986, flight 61-C was devoted to reevaluating, improving, and re- launched on Space Shuttle Columbia carry- certifying Shuttle processing facilities and ing a communications satellite (RCA Satcom procedures. This effort included additional KU-11, a Materials Science Laboratory, and assembly and disassembly of solid rocket several small experiments. It was the last boosters, and moving a complete Shuttle ve- flight before the ill-fated 51-L Challenger mission. hicle to Launch Pad B for revalidations. The Launch Pad B and the Payload Hazardous Subsequently, most of the year’s activity Servicing Facility were completed in 1986. centered around analysis of Challenger’s ac- Construction of an Orbiter Maintenance and cident, the Space Transportation System Refurbishment Facility, and a Thermal Pro- (STS)program, and a return to flight status. tection System Facility should be completed After a thorough analysis of the entire STS program, a reduced flight rate was estab- early in 1987. lished, particularly for the years immedi- ately following resumption of Shuttle Flight Operations operations. Based on the revised flight rate, a new manifest was published, and several major changes were incorporated into it. One of The Space Transportation System’s flight the most significant was the President’s new operations include mission planning and con- policy on the commercialization of space in trol, crew training, and flight software pro- which he announced that NASA would no duction. As a result of the accident, a longer launch commercial satellites, except substantid effort to audit critical items is un- for those that are unique to the Shuttle or derway to assure that there are no latent have national security or foreign policy impli- flight safety problems. The hiatus in flight cations. With NASA no longer competing in activities has allowed changes to be made in the business of launching commercial satel- operations hardware and software. A signifi- lites, the new policy allows private industry cant number of these changes is now judged to play an increasingly important role in to be mandatory for the next flight. In addi- space. At the time of Challenger’s accident, tion, proficiency training of crews and flight NASA had 44 commercial and foreign launch controllers is continuing.

33 Improvements to operations facilities at the External lbnk Johnson Space Center continued, with emphasis placed on the Shuttle Mission Simula- tor and the Mission Control Center. The external tank flown on flight 61-C per- Replacement of old data processors in the formed as expected. Seven tanks were manu- Mission Control Center was completed with factured and delivered on or ahead of schedule. However, as a result of Challenger’s the installation of four IBM 3083 computers. This relieves a serious limit on capacity, is accident, production requirements were re- expected to lower maintenance expense, and duced significantly and resulted in a major significantly reduces unscheduled downtime. reduction-in-force of contractor personnel at In the aftermath of the accident, plans to up- the Michoud Assembly Facility. Also, The 5th grade the Shuttle Mission Simulator were re- Production Buy Contract, negotiated in late vised and accelerated. Due to capacity 1985, was held in abeyance, and is expected limitations, mandatory critical systems to be settled in 1987. changes cannot be accommodated on the present mainframes. Accordingly, immediate Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) procurement requests were made for higher capacity machines. On flight 61-C the SRB’s performed satis- The Space Transportation System opera- factorily. As a result of Challenger’s failure, tions contract at Johnson Space Center com- production of boosters and motors stopped, pleted its transition to consolidation of 22 and agency and contractor efforts concen- support contracts involving 16 firms. Due to trated on the failure investigation and recov- the flight operations changes resulting from ery actions necessary to redesign and Challenger’s accident, renegotiation of the recertify the boosters. A complete reassess- contract is underway. ment of the program was initiated, including recertification of all SRB hardware, and reassessment of the Failure Mode and Effects Orbiter Analysis and Critical Items List. Redesign of the critical seals on the Solid Rocket Motor was initiated; a baseline design, and return During 1986, concentration of effort was on to flight program schedule was established; returning the orbiter to flight status. A total construction of the SRB Assembly and Refur- Systems Design Review (SDR) of the orbiter bishment Facility was completed; and instal- was conducted, and resulted in the identifica- lation of support equipment was initiated. tion of a number of design modifications to Since the Air Force decided that the first enhance safety. The SDR activities will con- Space Shuttle will not be launched before tinue in 1987. In addition, crew escape stud- 1992 from Vandenberg Air Force Base, the ies, hazard analyses, and critical items list Filament Wound Case (FWC) production pro- reviews were conducted to improve safety gram was “mothballed.” However, in order to margins. Near-term and long-term crew es- resume production effectively when required, cape systems are being studied. For the near- the FWC development program will be com- term, approval has been given to provide for pleted. crew bailout through the orbiter side hatch Also, a thorough investigation and evalua- during controlled gliding flight. The decision tion of other possible suppliers and alternate on which flight to incorporate such a system Solid Rocket Motor design concepts were un- is pending. Previous initiatives to improve dertaken. the general purpose computer, inertial measuring unit, auxiliary power unit, fuel cells, and brakes are continuing. Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) Approval was granted to procure a replacement orbiter. Production of this vehicle will A program was initiated to address key begin in August 1987, with activity in late problem areas of the SSME that were identi- 1986 limited to retaining approximately 15 fied following Challenger’s accident, along critical subcontractors and initiation of pro- with coincidental findings of new critical tu- duction planning. Delivery of the vehicle is bine blade cracks and marginal turbopump expected in 1991. bearing temperature. These issues will be re-

34 solved prior to the resumption of flight in early 1988, Improvements at the SSME manufacturer’s plant were significant. Robotic welding process development was accomplished on 22 welds; and the turbopump Fabrication/ Overhaul Center that will streamline and improve turbopump supply, and the engine overhaul facility were fully activated. The alternate source for high pressure tur- bopumps was selected. The pumps will be designed for greater reliability, safety margin, lower operational costs, and potential incorporation into the flight program in the early 1990’s. Artlat’a deplctlon of the 3anafer Orblt Stage, the upper atage that will be used for the Man Obaerver planetary mlc The Technology Test Bed program was initi- don. ated, and will provide an independent means to evaluate technical advances arising from 38 missions launched by expendable launch the development program, work on alternate vehicles and the Shuttle. Orbital Sciences pumps, and the technology program of the Corporation is developing two upper stages. Ofice of Aeronautics and Space Technology. One, the Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS), will have greater capability than the PAM stages Upper Stages and, in 1986, was selected by a Source Selec- tion Board as the upper stage for the Mars Observer planetary mission. The other is the Following Challenger’s accident, an exten- Apogee Maneuvering Stage, whose capabil- sive safety assessment of the cryogen-fueled ity, when used as a second stage with TOS, STSKentaur G prime upper stage was con- will exceed that of the IUS. ducted that identified numerous modifications to enhance its safety; however, it was concluded that even with these changes, the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle degree 03 safety necessary for Shuttle flight could not be assured. Therefore, the Centaur G prime upper stage program was termi- In 1986, TRW was selected as the prime nated. The Centaur G prime stages for the contractor for the Orbital Maneuvering Vehi- Galileo and Ulysses spacecraft were returned cle (OW).The OWwill perform payload to the contractor plants for storage. The de- delivery to and retrieval from the Shuttle or- sign of the Centaur G prime is expected to be biter. It will be available for flight late in used as one of the upper stages for the De- fense Department’s Titan IV launch vehicle. Aboard flight 51-L was an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), and a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS). Developed by the Air Force, the IUS is used to boost TDRS spacecraft into geosynchronous orbit, and to boost spacecraft into planetary trajectories. In lieu of the STS/ Centaur, the IUS was selected in late 1986 as the upper stage for the Magellan, Galileo, and Ulysses planetary missions. Due to mission requirements, the Ulysses mission will require a modified Payload Assist Module 0in addition to the IUS. Commercially developed upper stages play a significant role in the Nation’s space activities. Since the and PAM-DII 1980, PAM-D Attachment polnts of the Orbltal Maneuvering Whlclo that Payload Assist Modules, developed by Mc- wlll peltorm payload dellwry to and mtrltrlsval from the Space Donne11 Douglas, performed successfully on Shuttle. 1991, and its first primary mission is ex- An agreement was negotiated with the pected to be an orbital reboost of the Hubble Strategic Defense Initiative Office to provide Space Telescope. A second OMV may be ac- integration, operations, training, and associ- quired for the Space Station. ated launch support for a Spacelab mission scheduled for 1989. In June, the Spacelab Tethered Satellite System program initiated the Spacelab Recertifica- tion program as part of the efforts to resume flight operations. The %thered Satellite System is a cooperative development between NASA and Italy to provide a capability for conducting experi- Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV ments in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere. It will be capable of deploying and NASA’s ELV’s were used to fulfill commit- retrieving a tethered satellite up to 100 kilo- ments to launch space application missions meters below or above the Space Shuttle for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric which will serve as the orbiting base. Administration, and the Department of De- In 1986, Critical Design and Manufactur- fense. In 1986, a total of five launches was ing Reviews were conducted on the satellite conducted, consisting of a Scout, an Atlad and the deployer, supplied by Italy and Centaur, an Atlas-Em, and two Delta vehi- NASA, respectively. Deployable boom qualifi- cles. One of the Delta vehicles failed during cation was nearly completed, and delivery of launch and was destroyed before boosting a the tether is expected in January 1987. In NOMGOES-G satellite into transfer orbit. late 1986, science investigations were initi- An investigation concluded that the failure ated for the first mission, scheduled for Octo- was caused by an electrical short in the vehi- ber 1990. cle wiring. Wiring modifications were incorporated into all remaining Delta vehicles; in Spacelab September, a Delta vehicle successfully launched a DOD mission. In 1985, there were three successful flights As a result of the Challenger tragedy, using the module and igloo pallets. After NASA initiated studies on the need to estab- Challenger’s accident, Spacelab 2’s flight lish a Mixed Fleet Transportation System hardware, consisting of the igloo, three pal- consisting of the Space Shuttle and existing lets, and the Instrument Pointing System or new ELV’s. The studies should be com- (IPS), was disassembled and placed in storage pleted early in 1987. awaiting resumption of Space Shuttle operations. The design for operating the Spacelab Igloo Pallet configuration’s mixed cargo Advanced Planning mode, to support the Astro 1 mission, was completed and reviewed. In this configura- Under a White House directive to define tion, using an igloo, two pallets, and the IPS, technology that would subtantially lower the the Spacelab is scheduled to fly in January costs of launch capability in the post-1995 1989. Development of the configuration for period, examination of future launch vehicles the Spacelab Enhanced Pallet continued; it is continuing. ‘Ib fulfill these objectives, will be used for missions of the Space Tech- NASA and DOD are managing contracts to nology Experiment Platform and Tethered study systems architecture. Concurrently, Satellite System. studies were initiated by NASA in areas of The development of Goddard Space Flight key technology, such as those related to devel- Center’s “Hitchhiker” was completed. The oping new rocket engines and advanced first Hitchhiker, a Shuttle Payload of Oppor- recovery systems, and defining a second- tunity carrier, was flown on flight 61-C. Also, generation Shuttle with advanced technol- this flight carried a Materials Science Labo- ogy. ratory using the Multi-Purpose Experiment The National Commission on Space out- Support Structure provided by the Spacelab. lined a program and goals for the U.S. civil- The new Payload Operations Control Center ian space program for the next few decades. was completed at Marshall Space Flight Cen- Initial studies were completed of a space- ter, and preparations are underway for it to based Orbital Transfer Vehicle with an aero- support the Astro 1 mission. brake that cuts propellant requirements in

36 half. An aerobrake flight experiment was de- Centers fir the Commercial Development of fined as a possible new start in 1988. Space Development continues on a series of flight demonstrations that include a plasma motor/ In 1986, OCP established and funded four generator, an internal Shuttle communica- additional Centers for the Commercial Devel- tions system, using infrared light waves to opment of Space (CCDS), for a current total of replace wiring, a laser docking sensor to im- nine. As an alliance of industry, academia, prove efficiency of the Shuttle during rendez- and government, the CCDS's will use the vous and docking with a target, and a voice space environment to stimulate high technol- command system to control equipment and ogy research that may lead to the develop reduce current hands-on requirements. A ment of new products and services with flight unit of the standard hydrazine fluid commercial potential. If certain performance coupling was delivered to TRW for use on the criteria are met, the Centers will be funded Gamma Ray Observatory. The coupling will up to five years, after which each Center will be installed in the spacecraft during assem- be self-supporting. bly to allow on-orbit servicing after launch. Three parallel Phase B studies have been completed on a tanker to refuel satellites on- Federal Research Facilities orbit. Planning will proceed in 1987 for the possible development of an operational In 1986, OCP began designing and fabricat- tanker to support refueling the Gamma Ray ing space experimentation hardware, facili- Observatory. ties, and programs to assist private sector The problem of orbital debris resulting commercial researchers in the area of materi- from man-made structures and operations in als processing. They include an advanced au- space continued to be examined, from both tomated directional solidification furnace, a technical and policy standpoints, by an Or- multiple experiment processing facility, a bital Debris Working Group. The group con- chemical vapor deposition facility, an organic tinued to examine options for ground- and protein crystal growth system, and a sounu- space-based tests and observations, NASA ing rocket flight program. When completed, policy implementation, and provided techni- they will be available, at no charge to U.S. cal support for the development of national industry, to support space-related research and international debris policies. and development programs. A study and laboratory program to define More than 30 agreements have been exe- and evaluate several highly promising appli- cuted with U.S. firms interested in conduct- cations of tethers in space continued in 1986. ing space-related research and development The focus of these efforts has been directed in the areas of pharmaceuticals, semiconduc- toward defining and implementing flight ex- tor electronic materials, metals and alloys, periments and demonstrations. Applications and organic polymers. Under additional being investigated include power generation, agreements, U.S. firms will develop, with pri- orbital altitude changes without the use of vate funds, a man-tended industrial space fa- propellants, artificial gravity, and space plat- cility, available for lease or purchase, and an forms. interactive radio determination satellite system that will provide real time, satellite- based position information and digital Commercial Use of Space message service. Technology Utilization Program The focal point for NASA's program to encourage commercial space activities is the Of- Cooperation with industry is the corner- fice of Commercial Programs (OCP). The stone of a successful technology transfer pro- major objectives of OCP are to encourage U.S. gram. Over the years, NASA's Technology private sector involvement and investment in Utilization program created an extraordi- commercial space ventures, and to facilitate nary base of cooperation with broad sectors of commercial application and transfer of exist- U.S. industry. It accomplished this through ing aeronautics and space technology to the its nationwide network of Industrial Applica- private sector. tions Centers (IAC's), the dissemination of

37 publications and computer software, conferences and seminars on the subject of technology transfer, and technology applications projects. In 1986, NASA continued these efforts, strengthening the outreach activities to develop increased industrial interest and participation in the commercial uses of space. In addition, the non-aerospace industrial community will have more opportunity to participate in activities with NASA in the areas of technology transfer, and the commercial uses of space. The successful privatization of NASA Zkch Brie)%, the agency’s primary publication on technology transfer, has enhanced and sup- Based on technology developed for space systems, the Plo- ported NASA’s interaction with industry. grnmmable Implantable Medlcetlon System wlll be used to By deliver placlw doses of medlcatlon to control dlabetes and the end of 1986,the number of industrial and other dlmses. business subscribers exceeded 130,000, re- flecting a 70 percent increase over the pre- undergoing clinical evaluation. They include vious two years. Other signs of continued a Programmable Implantable Medication expansion are the linkages that were estab- System, a burn diagnostic system, and a blad, lished between the NASA IAC’s and state- der dystension system for the handicapped. funded organizations involved in industrial In addition, NASA entered into a joint project and economic growth. Currently, the IAC’s with the Veterans’ Administration, the Na- have formal relationships established with tional Institutes of Health’s National Insti- industries in nearly 20 states that provide tute of Aging, and the Administration on computerized information access to NASA, Aging to develop a device to alleviate the and other technical data bases. These efforts problems of wandering in the elderly. Also, have created a nationwide technology trans- this group has initiated an applications pro- fer network, allowing U.S. industry direct ac- ject to help the elderly with low vision prob- cess to useful technology through scientific lems. Currently, NASA and the U.S. steel and technical information. In addition, under industry are exploring the use of aerospace the Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986, technology to resolve problems of abrasion NASA entered into an agreement with the and material fatigue associated with the Federal Laboratory Consortium that links steel casting process. IAC’s with federal laboratories, and their personnel, engaged in research and development activities that may have specific appli- Small Business Innovation Research cation to private sector needs. In 1986, an experimental program in technology transfer was initiated at NASA’s Jet During 1986, OCP continued to manage Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Administered NASA’s Small Business Innovation Research by the Research Institute for the Manage- (SBIR)Program. The program’s objective is to ment of ‘hchnology, this program allows com- achieve greater participation by small, inno- panies to use JPL‘s extensive technical vative businesses in NASA’s research and de- resources and, thereby, accelerate the trans- velopment activities, providing mutual fer of NASA developed technology to the com- benefits to the agency and small businesses, mercial sector. Currently, eight companies in and to the Nation’s economy as a whole. As Southern California are active in the pro- specified by law, program funding for the gram; a total of 20 are expected to participate year was 1.25 percent of NASA’s extramural by the summer of 1987. research and development budget. The year’s In an attempt to solve industrial and public annual program solicitation was open be- sector problems of national significance, tween May l and June 30. It yielded 1,628 NASA, other federal agencies, and the pri- research proposals from which 172 were se- vate sector use existing aerospace technology. lected for award of Phase I SBIR contracts. In 1986, several prototypes from biomedical Phase I SBIR contracts are intended to ex- applications projects were completed, and are plore the feasibility of research innovations,

30 and are awarded for 6-month periods, averag- assure free world leadership in space ing approximately $50,000 each. Phase 11 during the 1990’s and beyond SBIR contracts continue development of the stimulate technological advances most promising Phase I projects, lasting as promote international cooperation long as two years, with funding to $500,000 each. During 1986, 71 Phase I1 contracts enhance capabilities for space science were let for selections that were made in late and applications 1985 as extensions of Phase I contracts. At develop the commercial potential of the end of 1986, 49 additional Phase I1 pro- space jects were selected to continue promising contribute to American pride and pres- Phase I contracts that were completed in tige 1986. It is anticipated that early in 1987, 30 stimulate interest in science and engi- additional proposals will be selected for neering education Phase I1 awards. As in the past, the year’s SBIR Program The Space Station will consist of a manned solicitation and awards included every area base, with pressurized modules, and an inte- of research and technology in which NASA is grating truss structure, inclined at 28.5 de- involved. However, the proposals that were grees. The base will consist of a servicing received reflected increased interest in poten- structure, habitat, logistics and laboratory tial commericial uses of space. Fifty-five of the research proposals for Phase I contracts mlARPLATFORMISI involved materials processing in microgravity, and commercial applications of space; eight of the proposals were selected for Phase I awards.

Space Statlon SPACE SHUTTLE

During 1986, NASA’s efforts continued on the Space Station program. The agency’s goal is to fulfill President Reagan’s 1984 directive to establish a permanently manned presence Inltlal Space Statlon Complex. in space in the mid-1990’s. Most of the work modules; berthing and assembly fixtures; on the definition and preliminary design por- power generating solar arrays; and an ad- tion of the schedule was completed. Changes vanced mobile remote manipulator system. were made to the assembly sequence and For near polar orbits, two or more platforms management structure; technical and man- will be developed and serviced by the Space agement issues were identified and resolved; Shuttle; and all elements will be ferried to and U.S. Government and NASA’s negotia- orbit by this spacecraft. tors made progress on agreements for hard- Adhering to some of NASA’s earlier archi- ware development with its international tectural concepts, the Space Station will be partners: the European Space Agency, Can- an orbiting scientific laboratory, and a per- ada, and Japan. At the end of 1986, NASA manent observatory in space. The facility was developing for industry a Request for could be used to process materials, manufac- Proposals to design and build the Space Sta- ture commercial products, and service satel- tion. lites; and, with enhancements, could assemble large spacecraft; stage deep-space hgram Goals and System Description missions; and service and deploy satellites and upper stage rockets. Above all, the Space Station is planned as The Space Station is unlike any previous an evolutionary facility that will allow NASA undertaking. As a multi-purpose facil- growth and technological innovations. Al- ity, it will satisfy the goals of many users. though it is difficult to incorporate specific The program’s goals are to: design provisions for all potential endeavors,

39 Space Station planners will consider care- PHOTOVOLTAIC 1 SOLAR DVN4MIC fully the implications of evolutionary changes in their design of the Space Station complex. The Space Station is a civil program, and the Department of Defense (DOD) has not as yet identified any requirements. However, the United States reserves its option to use the U.S. provided elements and Space Station infrastructure for peaceful purposes, consistent with international obligations.

Program Status Space Station Program Solar Power Options. create a facility that is user friendly. Poten- In 1986, the most significant event in the tial users from the scientific and commercial Space Station program was the selection of a communities continued to update their contributions to the Mission Requirements Data Base (MRDB). In 1986, over 300 proposed missions of various sizes were identified and included in the data base. Each entry describes the mission and its objective, physical characteristics of equipment, and requirements of Space Station resources such as power, thermal dissipation, crew assistance, and data handling. There can be as many as 200 parameters to define a particular mission. The information provided in the MRDB was used to evaluate potential designs of the Space Station and associated platforms. In 1986, the reliability of the data base increased significantly. Space Station "dual keel" configuration. Because the dual keel baseline design involved a large number of technical and pro- baseline configuration for detailed design grammatic considerations, Space Station and development activities. Six contractors at four NASA "work package" Centers were involved, and studies on possible hardware contributions were conducted by NASA's international partners. Through trade studies and analyses, NASA and industry teams examined the merits of various design options. As a result of the Sys- tem Requirements Review, a recommended baseline configuration for the Space Station emerged. The original "power tower" concept evolved into the "dual keel" configuration. In addition, a hybrid power-generation arrange- ment was defined, consisting of both photovoltaic and solar dynamic components; 400 kilometers was chosen as the operating or- Artist's rendition of Space Station Solar Dynamic System in bital altitude; and an assembly sequence was lower right. selected. User requirements were a prime consider- contractors, international partners, and po- ation in defining capabilities and designing tential users assisted NASA's Critical Evalu- the Space Station. The objective remains to ation %sk Force (CETF) in conducting a

40 comprehensive review of the dual keel de- opment Programs that focused on high- sign. Also, options and assembly scenarios leverage technologies for specific Space Sta- were identified that addressed the issues of tion applications. Evaluation and testing transportation capability, constraints on ex- were conducted in areas such as attitude con- travehicular activity (EVA), resource alloca- trol and stabilization, data management, tion, safety, and cost. In September, the communication and tracking, environmental CETF’s recommendations were presented to control and life support systems, extravehicu- the Administrator, and further analyses were lar activity, fluids, manned systems, materi- requested. By year’s end, the studies were als, mechanisms, power, propulsion, completed; the CETF configuration reflected structures, and thermal control. The aim is to key changes to the assembly sequence, sub- develop these technologies so that they can be system hardware locations, and expanded use tested on the ground or in the Space Shuttle. of resource nodes. An Operations Management Concept was A revised flight sequence was adopted to formulated that outlines the philosophy and accompany CETF’s recommendations. A to- management approaches to Space Station op- tal of 32 Space Shuttle flights were identified erations. Using the Concept as a point of de- to assemble, service, and resupply all ele- parture, an Operations Task Force was ments of the Space Station. The facility will established to perform a functional analysis attain a man-tended capability in six flights, of future Space Station operations. Expected and will meet the target for a permanently in early 1987, the %sk Force report will pro- manned station by flight eleven. vide an operations concept that examines all During the last four months of 1986, a functions, and integrates them into require- Space Station Cost Commitment Review ments for implementation. The %sk Force (CCR) was undertaken to establish a detailed will provide a separate document offering de- cost estimate as the program evolves from the sign and development recommendations for definition and preliminary design phase to Space Station hardware contracts. actual design and development. Emphasis The Space Station Information System was placed upon obtaining more accurate de- (SSIS) will allow the acquisition, transmis- velopment costs for flight hardware and soft- sion, recording, processing, accounting, and ware. To this end, CETF’s recommendations storage of information generated by orbital were converted into guidelines for work re- and ground systems. In 1986, an architecture quired at each of the work package centers. A definition was developed for the total inte- final report is expected in early 1987 that grated system. The Qchnical Management will contain a revised program, and associ- and Information System (TMIS) is part of the ated costs and schedule. SSIS that will support the flow of technical Progress was made in laying the ground- and program management information; in work for U.S. industry to benefit from space July, the Request for Proposals (RFP) for the in the future. The internal Commercial Advo- TMIS was released. Responses from industry cacy Group conducted workshops to identify were received in October, and a contract and encourage potential commercial users of award is expected early in 1987. The Soft- the Space Station. The Group supported ac- ware Support Environment (SSE) is the soft- tivities to foster private sector interest in us- ware, training materials, and other required ing the Space Station for materials documentation that will provide the “envi- processing, Earth and ocean remote sensing, ronment” for the life cycle management of all communications satellite delivery, and indus- program software. Responses to the RFP’s for trial services. In August 1986, “Guidelines the SSE were received in November, and are for United States Commercial Enterprises for currently under review. Space Station Development and Operations” were established. They are intended to encourage U.S. private sector investment and Oversight Activity involvement in the development and operations of Space Station systems and services. Advanced Development Programs played a Planning for the Space Station involved a major role in decisions to incorporate new number of scientific advisory groups such as technologies into the Space Station prelimi- the askForce on Scientific Uses of the Space nary design. In October and November of Station (TFSUSS), created under the auspi- 1986, a review was made of Advanced Devel- ces of the NASA Advisory Council. Chaired

41 by Dr. Peter Banks of the Space, Telecommu- mentation Plan for the Space Station Defini- nications and Radioscience Laboratory at tion and Preliminary Design Phase.” The Stanford University, TFSUSS consists of 20 goal is to facilitate the integration and use of U.S. scientists and several international ob- future automation and robotics technologies servers. The TFSUSS recommended that the as the Space Station evolves. Principal areas Station’s manned base and platforms provide of interest for automation and robotics in- important new capabilities for the conduct of clude: system management and crew activ- scientific research in space. In 1986, NASA ity; data base management; power system reported to Congress on the TFSUSS recom- control and management; monitoring and mendations that it intends to implement. fault detection for life support systems; Space At the request of Congress, NASA prepared Station assembly, inspection and repair; and a technical study of an approach that phases payload servicing and docking. The Flight in the permanently manned features of the Telerobotic Servicer Program was man- Space Station. Completed in May 1986, the dated by Congress, and is a direct outgrowth study demonstrated that a man-tended Sta- of the automation and robotics initiative. The tion, one visited occasionally by astronauts, FTS is a highly automated telerobotic device, could be developed and would provide some capable of precise manipulations in space, useful capabilities. There would be a single, that will be used with the Mobile Servicing multi-purpose laboratory module equipped Center and the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle with a partial environmental control system. to assist in assembly and servicing operations. Late in 1986, a preliminary program plan for the FTS was submitted to Congress. In 1986, a Space Station Engineering and Operations Safety Oversight Panel was established that examined the implications of the Challenger accident for the Space Station program. It addressed the question of whether the Space Station requires a Crew Emergency Return Vehicle. The issue is still under review.

Program Management

In order to distribute work more equitably, Artist’s conception of Space Station crew at work in a pres- enhance accountability, and capitalize upon wrized module. the expertise available at NASA’s Centers, it became appropriate to alter the Space Sta- The power capability of 37.5 kilowatts would tion’s management structure. be one-half the power planned for the final In May 1986, NASA enlisted the aid of configuration, and consist of solar cells only. former Apollo Program Manager, General Sa- A cost analysis revealed that a cost deferral, muel Phillips, to review the program’s man- by delaying fabrication of facilities that agement structure. His goal was to would allow continuous crew presence, would recommend a management structure that be offset by both the cost of operating the Sta- would secure accountability, efficiency and tion in the man-tended mode and maintain- economy in the design, development, test, ing the industrial base during the delay and integration of the Space Station. He period. The man-tended mode remains a via- formed a committee of experienced managers ble option in the drive to achieve a fully pro- from the aerospace industry to assist him. ductive and useful manned Space Station. Among the Committee recommendations ‘Ib ensure that the Space Station program were the establishment of a Program Man- fosters automation and robotics technologies agement Office at NASA Headquarters, in the United States, Congress requested the headed by a Program Director, and supported formation of an Advanced Technology Advi- by a contractor with expertise in system engi- sory Committee (ATAC). In response to neering and analysis; and line direction from ATAC’s recommendations, NASA continued the Headquarters Program Office to Center to refine its “Automation and Robotics Imple- project managers. Based upon the Phillips recommendations, and out. Also, Japan is continuing to define NASA's senior management delegated re- and design an experiment logistics module to sponsibilities for development to: Marshall resupply its facilities. Space Flight Center-laboratory module, Bilateral negotiations began between habitation module, logistics module, and re- NASA, Canada, ESA, and Japan on the pro- source node structure; Johnson Space Cen- grammatidtechnical parameters of the pro- ter-external truss, distributed subsystems, gram, and on legal issues, such as liability EVA systems, airlock and node outfitting; and patent law. Agreements from the negoti- Goddard Space Flight Center-platforms, at- ations are expected to commit all partners to tached payloads, and Flight Blerobotic Ser- hardware investments, operational roles, and vicer; and Lewis Research Center-power use of the Space Station for many years. system. The Space Station program stayed on schedule during the definition phase. The varied challenges to the technical configuration, and to the program's management structure were met. The result is a preliminary design, and an organizational structure better able to satisfy the needs of Space Sta- tion users, and a program that will be the focus of NASA planning activities for many years to come.

International Cooperation

Significant progress has been made since Model of Japanese Experiment Module. the Spring of 1985, when Memoranda of Un- derstanding for Phase B cooperation were signed between NASA and the space agencies of Canada, Europe, and Japan. Canada proceeded with the definition and Space Tlracklng and Data System8 design of a Mobile Servicing Center (MSC) that includes remotely controlled manipulator arms and a maintenance facility. The The Space Tracking and Data Systems pro- MSC will be used in orbit to assist in assem- gram is responsible for planning, implement bling and maintaining the manned base; ing, and operating worldwide tracking, data service external payloads attached to the handling and communications facilities and truss structure; and provide transportation services that support flight programs of and EVA support. NASA will provide a car- NASA and other agencies. During 1986, the rier platform for moving the servicing system program continued to provide support for to different locations on the base. planetary spacecraft, Earth orbiting satel- The European Space Agency (ESA)contin- lites, Shuttle missions, sounding rockets and ued definition and design studies of a perma- balloons, and aeronautics test vehicles. nently attached pressurized laboratory module. Design efforts continued on an un- The Space and Ground Networks continued manned polar-orbiting platform for Earth ob- to provide vital tracking, command, teleme- servations. Jointly, ESA and NASA are try, and data acquisition support to meet the studying a proposed man-tended, free-flying requirements of NASA's flight programs. facility that would provide a very low gravity Two Tracking and Data Relay Satellites environment for extended periods of time. (TDRS) that were scheduled for their respec- Japan proceeded with definition and design tive launches in January and July 1986 studies of a pressurized laboratory module to would have completed the operational satel- conduct general science and technology re- lite constellation of three in orbit. The TDRS search. It features both an external deck to aboard Space Shuttle 51-L, launched on Jan- mount experiments requiring exposure to uary 28, 1986, was lost. However, the two space, and an airlock to move experiments in TDRS spacecraft are scheduled for launch and third spacecraft are located in the east and west service positions in geosynchronous orbit. The first TDRS has been moved to the central service position as the on-orbit spare, and that spacecraft, and the ground terminal, have completed their individual and systems tests. Approximately three to four months after launch of the third spacecraft, full operational status is expected. In 1986, the TDRSS program initiated plans for a second ground terminal, and released a Request for Proposals on competitive Tracking and Data Acquisition Functions. design studies. In the event of a catastrophic failure of the existing station, this ground when Shuttle operations resume in 1988. terminal will provide a backup. In addition, it Ground based tracking operations that sup- could provide expanded capabilities in the port spacecraft in low Earth orbit were ex- mid-1990's when mission requirements may tended to provide coverage until the TDRS exceed current TDRSS system capacities. system becomes operational. The second terminal will be located near the The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued first to reduce costs, and simplify operations to support missions to explore the solar sys- and maintenance. Also, procurement of a tem. A modification of the DSN was key to spacecraft to replace the TDRS that was lost the impressive success of Voyager 2's Janu- in the Challenger accident was initiated. ary 1986 encounter with Uranus, and its rings and moons. Also, in 1986, the DSN sup- Ground Network ported the Interagency Consultative Group (IACG) during the international observation of Halley's Comet. The Ground Network continued to provide The Communications and Data Systems tracking and data support for NASA's mis- program continued its support of NASA missions. It consists of the Spaceflight Tracking sions. The International Ultraviolet Explorer and Data Network (STDN), the Deep Space (IUE) telescope was restored to service after Network (DSN), and ground tracking and an equipment failure. In 1986, reprogram- data acquisition facilities that support aero- ming the computer on the International nautics, balloon, and sounding rocket pro- Cometary Explorer (ICE) spacecraft from the grams. In order to provide coverage, phasing control center extended the spacecraft's com- out most of the existing STDN will be delayed munications capability as it travels farther until the TDRSS becomes operational. from Earth on its twenty-year orbit.

Space Network

The Space Network is comprised of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), and NASA ground elements that include a Network Control Center, Ground lkrminal, Flight Dynamics Facility, and Sim- ulation Operations Center. Logistics, mission planning, and documentation support are Arraying of Deep Space Network antennas in Australla to provided to maintain operations. support Voyager 2's encounter with Uranus. The one TDRS spacecraft operating in space continued to support Landsat, Solar Its flawless support of Voyager 2's encoun- Mesopheric Explorer, and Earth Radiation ter with Uranus in January was the high Budget Satellite missions. The Tracking and point of the year for the Deep Space Network. Data Relay Satellite System will be consid- This support relied on a new method of array- ered fully operational when the second ing large antennas, and combining NASA's

44 own signals with those from a large antenna lite, that can be used by NASA's facilities, as in Australia. Also, during the international workloads require. Second, a Program Sup- observations of Halley's Comet in March and port Communications Network (PSCN), han- April, the DSN supported Japanese efforts to dles the non-operational communications track their two spacecraft; provided backup needs of NASA's Centers. The services pro- tracking of the European Space Agency's vided include voice, management and admin- @SA) Giotto spacecraft; and tracked the So- istrative traffic, and technical data viet Vega spacecraft as they approached the interchange. Comet. Data from the Vega orbit, supplied by In 1986, major accomplishments included the Soviets, was used to refine the trajectory operational control of nine orbiting space- of the Comet, which allowed ESA to retarget craft; the development of facilities in prepara- Giotto to achieve a closer encounter. This ex- tion for launches of future spacecraft that emplified international cooperation at its include the Hubble Space Telescope, Cosmic best, providing greater scientific return than Background Explorer, Gamma Ray Observa- would have been possible from individual ef- tory, and Upper Atmosphere Research Satel- forts. In addition, the DSN supported other lite; and plans were initiated to develop spacecraft that observed the Comet, namely facilities for platform control, communica- NASA's Pioneer-Venus and International tions, and data capture for use by the Space Cometary Explorer (ICE). Station.

Space Research and Technology

The goal of the Space Research and 'lkchnology program is to conduct effective, productive, and critical research that contributes materially to U.S. leadership and security in space. Achieving this goal re- Arrayed and non-arreyed images of Uranus obtained by My- quires a strong commitment to advancing the ager. technology base; maintaining technical In 1986, efforts were underway to increase strength in the scientific and engineering the sensitivity of the DSN in preparation for disciplines; developing more capable, less Voyager 2's encounter with Neptune in 1989. costly space transportation systems, and At that time, signals received on Earth will large space systems with growth potential; be less than one-half as strong as they were promoting scientific and planetary explora- from Uranus. Improved efficiency will be action to improve understanding of Earth and complished by increasing the large DSN an- the solar system; and supporting the com- tennas from 64 to 70 meters, and, during the mercial exploitation of space. Disciplines in- encounter, by simultaneously combining sig- cluded in the program are propulsion, space nals received by DSN antennas with those energy conversion, aerothermodynamics, ad- received by antennas at non-NASA facilities. vanced materials and structures, controls and guidance, automation and robotics, space human factors, computer science, sensors, Communications and Data Systems and data, communications and space flight systems. All NASA Centers are involved in The basic elements of the Communications the Space Research and 'lkchnology program, and Data Systems program form the vital along with signikant participation by indus- link between data acquisition stations and try and universities. users, and include communications, mission Propulsion. Research in this area has im- control, and data processing. proved the technology base by contributing In 1986,two major projects in NASA's Com- considerable data on all types of chemical munications program that became opera- and electrical propulsion systems. Earth-to- tional used advanced technologies developed orbit propulsion research emphasizes high- by the communications industry. First, a performance and extended service life. In Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) sys- this critical area, a cryogenic engine bearing tem, provides operational circuits, via satel- model was developed to determine cooling, lu-

45 brication, and bearing design characteristics. scientific payloads. In addition, the perform- Another new model predicts the life of mate- ance during tests of hydrogedoxygen thrust- rials subjected to both low-cycle and high- ers was so impressive that they were accepted cycle fatigue. Optical sensors were demon- as the baseline design for the Space Station's strated for tracking bearing wear, and mea- major maneuvering system. suring turbine blade temperatures and rotor In electrical propulsion, advances were speed. Redesign of turbine blade materials made from research on resistojets, arcjets, ion demonstrated the potential to sustain up to and magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrust- 20 times the fatigue life of existing blade ma- ers. Electric propulsion devices are most use- terials. Computational Fluid Dynamics ful to planetary missions requiring (CFD) codes for rocket engine hot gas flows high-specific impulses. They are also used for were used to optimize minimum pressure satellite altitude control, orbit changing, drop in flow passages. In addition, the com- power, and guidance and control of large bustion characteristics of turbine drive gas structures. A new platinum-alloy resistojet generators, operating with LOWpropane, heater was selected as the drag-neutralizing were determined. Application of this technol- thruster for the Space Station, an action that ogy to Space Shuttle Main Engines, and to is considered significant because a resistojet other propulsion systems, is expected to im- can operate on waste gases from the Space prove the ability to predict the life expectancy Station to compensate for drag forces. Small of reusable propulsion systems. arcjets operating on less than one kilowatt of Orbit transfer propulsion research focused power demonstrated smooth starting and op- on developing high-performance, high- erating characteristics at performance levels pressure, variable-thrust engines that will be stored and fueled in space. For example, technology for space-based LOXhydrogen expander cycle engines advanced in the areas of combustion, heat transfer, materials compatibility, high-expansion ratio nozzle performance, and engine level system testing. The test firing of an expander cycle engine verified that high-pressure operation for high- performance can be achieved. In 1986, the technology for small chemical thrusters in low-thrust propulsion advanced

Flnal adjustments to a test stand befom vacuum chamber testing of msistoJet. of up to 700 seconds of impulse. This assures their application to future satellite systems because existing systems develop only 300 seconds of impulse. By tripling power thrust levels, and initiating a two-thruster, computer-controlled simulated stage to investigate component interactions, ion thrusters became more acceptable. Compared to chemical systems, the MPD thruster proposed for Hydmgenloxygen thruster deslgn tor the Space Station's advanced propulsion systems has the poten- maneuvering system. tial to provide a two to fourfold reduction in significantly. Successful test firings of stor- propellant mass. New testing, at low-power able bipropellants that allow higher burning levels, resulted in a better understanding of efficiency and deliver 10 percent more energy MPD component life. are of particular significance to future plane- Space Energy Conversion. This research tary missions. Areas in spacecraft previously provides the design base for high-perform- reserved for propellants can now be used for ance, long-life power systems for space applications that include solar power, nuclear matrix composites were fabricated and tested power, batteries, and thermal systems. Pro- to a StrengtWdensity ratio of more than three gress continues to be made in improving the times that of the current baseline SP-100 performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells material. Research efforts in the areas of and arrays; recent success in testing includes structures and materials can pay handsome the reduction of output lost due to natural dividends for the high-temperature, weight- radiation. In geosynchronous orbit, a conven- critical SP-100 power system. tional silicon PV system can lose up to 25 Advanced solar dynamic power systems for percent of its output during a seven-year life; small and larger power needs of up to 300 and in the radiation belts, the loss can be as kilowatts were explored in subscale tests in the critical technology area of concentrators such as Fresnel lenses, microsheet materials, heat receivers and related thermal energy storage materials. From the standpoint of performance, longevity, and power systems integration, use of the free-piston Stirling engine cycle looks very promising. For the high-power and high-voltage that will be required in future space applications, tests confirmed that the bi-polar nickel hydrogen battery is an attractive alternative

Photovoltaic minitassegranlan lenses. high as 80 percent. Approaches taken to improve this problem include use of a PV con- centrator array, with mini-cassegranian lenses and concentrated sunlight, to deliver 100 watts per kilogram of weight. In this case, the lenses blocked all damaging radiation. In another approach, materials such as gallium arsenide (GaAs) that are less susceptible to radiation were used; of these materials, GaAs is the best because it degrades less than half as much as silicon. In 1986, a small Cell stack of nickel-hydrogen batteries. GaAs cell was exposed to a 100-to-1solar concentration, resulting in the highest output to the individual pressure vessel nickel- ever produced by a space PV cell. A new ma- hydrogen battery; and results of designs terial, indium phosphide (InP), showed prom- tested indicated an improved weight and vol- ise of degrading even less than GaAs. A flight ume energy density of about 20 percent. experiment with InP cells was developed and Component improvements will also enhance will be space-tested for radiation resistance. battery life for use in low-Earth and geosyn- In 1986, Phase I1 of the joint DOD/DOE/ chronous orbits. NASA Space Nuclear Reactor Power System In 1986, significant progress was made in Development Program (SP-100) began. The developing thermal management systems goal is to provide advanced technology op- which consist of heat pipes, thermal loops, tions to achieve higher power levels, im- and radiators. To avoid excessive and damag- proved system efficiency, and increased ing temperatures, excess heat from electric reliability and lifetime, while reducing mass energy must be removed. High-temperature and volume. In the area of thermal power, heat pipes are very efficient, although heavy validation testing of the 25-kilowatt free- and limited in use to about 700OC. New light- piston Stirling engine, the largest of its kind weight composite materials proved feasible in the world, was conducted. In the area of in the fabrication of heat pipes for use at materials, tungsten fiber-reinforced niobium looooc.

47 Thermal loops are used to transfer heat payloads. Results confirmed the need to ap- from a point of generation to a distant radia- ply advanced codes to analyze further the tor. A very efficient heat loop system was de- base flow that is scaled to flight conditions. veloped in which the circulating fluid is Materials and Structures. During 1986, a pumped by capillary action, eliminating me- significant effort was focused on the develop- chanical pumps and increasing reliability. ment of advanced thermal protection systems Key components of this system were flown on (TPS), with improved durability and high- a Space Shuttle experiment in January 1986, temperature capability, for use in space and the system is a prime candidate for use transportation systems. In particular, a on the Space Station. chemical vapor deposition approach showed Liquid droplet radiator components were great promise for producing high-perform- tested in drop towers simulating near-zero ance ceramic composite TPS. In addition, gravity for about 5 seconds. The tests proved new methodology was developed to better that a uniform stream of properly directed predict the thermostructural loading and droplets could be formed. The significance of response of TPS and space structures, in liquid droplets is that they lose heat while general. moving through space to a thermal collector. In 1986, research on erectable and deploya- The cooled liquid is pumped back to the heat ble structures resulted in the development of source and the process is repeated. a concept for a mobile remote manipulator Aerothermodynamics. Research in this field system that will be used to erect large truss- improves understanding of the flow phenom- type structures in space. This highly flexible ena of advanced aerospace vehicles. The de- device is expected to reduce workloads signif- velopment of advanced aerospace vehicle icantly and allow efficient space operations. systems requires well chosen, ground-based Controls and Guidance. This research fo- experiments and use of the most advanced cused on control of large, flexible space sys- computational codes. One aerospace vehicle tems, large antennas, and large, segmented in the concept stage that is expected to result astrophysics telescopes. During 1986, al- in space-based operation is the Aeroassisted gorithm evaluations continued for later vali- Orbital Transfer Vehicle (AOTV). In 1986, dation in the planned Control of Flexible critical wind tunnel tests were completed to Structures flight experiment. The submilli- assess the effects of the flow impingement meter ranging capability of the Spatial, High problems of various AOTV concepts. The Accuracy, Position-Encoding Sensor advanced from one to eight positions in determining three-dimensional positioning of large space structures. The Spacecraft Control Labora- tory Experiment, which resembles a large offset antenna attached to a model of the Shuttle, continued to validate several unique and innovative control-technique approaches. Passive integrated optical chip elements for a highly accurate guidance sensor called the Fiber Optic Rotation Sensor were developed. When operational, this sensor will be more accurate and more stable than existing sensors. Also completed were the hardware and software for a proof-of-concept model of a fault- tolerant control system called the Advanced Information Processing System. This system Wind tunnel test for oil flow patterns for aeroassist flight will provide onboard central control for the experiment. Space Station and advanced transportation systems. tests, conducted at Mach 10, confirmed the Automation and Robotics. The goals of the presence of flow impingement on the base re- Automation and Robotics program are to region of an aeroassist flight experiment. The duce costs, improve performance of future impingement was of sufficient severity to af- missions, and provide safer, more efficient fect pitching and would affect the mounted methods for accomplishing mission objectives

48 through the use of autonomous control and Achievements in corresponding research robotic systems. The program is developing programs include the development of an ex- and demonstrating technology applicable to pert system with the capability to learn by the Space Station, the Orbital Maneuvering example, and a prototype spaceborne sym- Vehicle, the Orbital Transfer Vehicle, the Mo- bolic and numeric processor. The combined bile Remote Manipulator System, geosta- processor uses reconfigurable, fault-tolerant tionary satellite systems, and planetary multiprocessor architecture, and is capable of rovers. It will also address the automation 10 million instructions per second. It will needs of ancillary systems such as prelaunch support the COMMON LISP, ADA, PRO- and mission operations and related ground LOG, and C software environments. systems. Space Human Factors. This research opti- The program’s two foci are Blerobotics, mizes the allocation of functions to humans which will develop and demonstrate technol- and computers during space missions. High- ogy to evolve teleoperation through supervi- pressure space suits will allow astronauts to sory control of in-orbit robots, and Systems perform immediate, routine extravehicular Autonomy, which will develop technology to activity without wasting hours breathing ox- reduce the need for ground control crews and ygen beforehand to purge nitrogen. ?Lvo dem- automate onboard subsystems through the onstrator suits were tested and evaluated, use of artificial intelligence and expert sys- and will lead to production of the first hard tems. Both the “blerobotics and Systems Au- suits in NASA’s history. tonomy parts of the program are involved in a A new concept in computer terminals, the series of demonstrations to validate evolving “Virtual Workstation,” was developed to al- technological capabilities. They also share a low scientists and engineers, working from a core technology research program that is di- ground base, to control, remotely, experi- vided into the areas of sensing and percep- ments and equipment in space. Other devel- tion, planning and reasoning, control opments showed that advanced concepts in execution, operator interface, and system ar- displays and controls will significantly im- chitecture and integration. prove productivity and astronaut safety, both In 1986, the preliminary design and devel- in training and in time-critical situations. opment of the Telerobotic Demonstration Fa- Measurements of human strength in weight- cility was completed, and a sequence of less conditions were taken aboard a Boeing demonstrations for 1988 was defined. Also, KC-135. This work was performed in order to significant progress was made in establish- establish baseline data for extravehicular ac- ing sophisticated hierarchical computer ar- tivity and tool design. chitecture to control a robot. Computer Science. NASA has experienced In the core research program, a prototype of explosive growth in the volume of space sci- the Programmable Image Feature Extractor ence data, and computer science is one of the was demonstrated which will provide the ex- information sciences which advances the tensive visual capabilities needed for autono- management and use of space-derived infor- mous robots. Two stand-alone expert systems mation. Strained information processing sys- were integrated; one predicts behavior, and tems have limited the ability to analyze but a the other is an error diagnostician. This is small fraction of the archived data. The sys- the first time two separate expert systems tems are further complicated by space scien- have cooperated with each other using a tists’ increasing practice of integrating common or shared knowledge base. Other sensor measurements and sensor control. To noteworthy accomplishments included rudi- find a solution, research is underway to im- mentary learning by the expert system plan- plement a new, low-cost satellite network us- ner, DEVISER, and a telerobotic operation ing the concepts of telescience for the remote involving fuel transfer and node coupling. control of and access to data on space experi- In the Systems Autonomy Program, a pro- ments. A new scientific data base system will totype knowledge base for the Space Station permit uniform remote access to archived Thermal Control System was demonstrated space data from dissimilar data base man- on a Symbolics 3640 computer using artifi- agement systems. This concept will be ap- cial intelligence advanced software tools. The plied first to the Space Telescope project. thermal control system is one of the primary NASA has been involved in the develop- subsystems being developed for a future Sys- ment of large, complex software systems. A tems Autonomy demonstration project. major focus of computer science research has

49 been to develop and implement software management techniques to improve the reliability of software systems and reduce life- cycle costs. NASA developed a prototype of an expert system-based software management aid which includes a memory of past experi- ences and a feature on lessons learned. Sensors. Major advances in sensors research resulted in the selection of titanium- doped sapphire as a candidate laser material for use in active remote sensing of terrestrial and planetary atmospheres. It was discovered that the anomalous self-absorption losses observed in these crystals are caused by impuri- ties in the material, and subsequent crystal growth was tailored to rectify this problem. In the detector device area, a silicon array was tested in the wavelength region for space astronomical sensing applications. For detection in the far infrared portion of the spectrum, a mercury-cadmium-telluride alloy frequency mixer was built. In the area of sensor materials research, a new artificial material, an indium arsenide/indium- gallium-arsenide strained layer superlattice shows promise as a new candidate material for sensing. It was grown for the first time by 60 GHz traveling wave tube for intersateillte communica- molecular beam epitaxy. tions. Data Systems. Research on data systems advances the processing, storage, and use of materials research led to a technique that ap- space-derived information. In 1986, the plies a pyrolytic graphite coating to copper ground-based Advanced Digital Synthetic electrodes in a depressed collector. This tech- Aperture Radar Processor engineering model nique has improved the efficiency of traveling was completed. This system uses over 28,000 wave tubes by providing a surface with ex- integrated circuits, and is tailored to process tremely low electron emission properties. A space synthetic aperture radar data in real digital filter processor integrated on a silicon time. It performs at a speed four times the chip was developed which replaces the cum- original goal, and will be used to support the bersome and unreliable loop capacitators Magellan and SIR-C flight projects. found in past transponders. The new proces- NASA is extending DOD-developed very sor will provide, on command, numerical os- high-speed integrated circuit technology to cillator control. It is hardened to radiation support civil spaceborne applications. During and is a generic technology that can perform 1986, computer simulations and hardware other functions, such as automatic signal ac- verifications were completed, and future quisition and ranging. plans include the evaluation of circuit tech- An algorithm was developed to calculate nology for ultra-low power consumption and deformations in large, Earth-orbiting anten- radiation hardness. nas caused by repeated cycling through the Communications. Research in this field Sun’s shadow. In addition, mathematical so- seeks to develop microwave and optical com- lutions provided information to correct physi- munications devices. Fundamental materials cal distortions in antenna reflectors, research resulted in the development of new allowing less active control of large anten- reservoir cathodes with longer lifetimes, nas. A 30-GHz integrated gallium arsenide high-emission current densities, and reduced receiver module was fabricated that provides operating temperatures. These cathodes will basic receiver functions such as low noise am- have applications in high-frequencyhigh- plification, phase shifting, down conversion, power tubes for space and planetary com- intermediate frequency amplification, and munications and remote sensing. Other output power control.

...... Space Flight Systems. Space Flight systems development that will provide opportunities allow flight verification and evaluation of ad- for significant advances in civil and military vanced technologies for future space trans- aviation by the turn of the century. Focusing portation systems. The Shuttle accident, in on those opportunities, NASA has redirected January 1986, curtailed flight operations its research efforts toward emerging technol- and several scheduled technology experi- ogies that have potential for order-of-magni- ments. However, the Shuttle Entry Air Data tude advances in aircraft capability and System (SEADS) and the Capillary Pump performance. The agency’s goal is to conduct Loop experiments, conducted prior to the ac- an effective and productive aeronautics re- cident, provided important data to the tech- search and development program that con- nology community. tributes materially to civil and military The SEADS experiment provided accurate aviation. measurement of air data across the entry NASA’s Ofice of Aeronautics and Space speed range from an altitude of approxi- Technology conducts an Aeronautics Re- mately 300,000 feet to landing. The results of search and Technology program in disci- this experiment, along with data obtained plines that have been traditionally important from five future flights, will be used in the to aviation, such as aerodynamics, structures Orbiter postflight aerodynamic performance and materials, and propulsion. Also, the Of- analysis and data base validation. In addi- fice made considerable progress in applying tion, the information will help to determine newer disciplines to aeronautics, such as arti- the suitability of the air data system for ad- ficial intelligence and advanced computa- vanced entry and upper atmospheric flight tional simulation. NASA’s aeronautics systems. This important technology advance- research facilities at Ames Research Center, ment and system concept demonstration will Langley Research Center, and Lewis Re- influence the design of future entry and search Center are considered the most com- flight systems. prehensive in the world. These facilities are In January 1986,the Capillary Pump Loop essential national resources and provide experiment was flown on the Shuttle, provid- many unique test capabilities for aeronautics ing systems and component research data im- research and development. The focus of portant to the development of two-phase, NASA’s Aeronautics Research and Technol- heat-pipe systems that will transport large ogy program is on providing technology heat loads on the Space Station and other results well in advance of specific application future spacecraft. needs, and on conducting long-term, independent research that is not driven by the development and operational pressures often Aeronautlcs Research encountered by the Department of Defense and Technology and industry. Both fundamental disciplinary research and vehicle-specific research are conducted at Beginning with the Wright Brothers’ his- NASA. Disciplinary research may be generi- toric flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, cally applicable to all classes of vehicles, or the United States has been a world leader in may be enabling for entirely new capabilities aeronautics research and technology. Since that are not yet defined. Vehicle-specific re- World War 11, innovative research and devel- search relates to technology that has the po- opment in aeronautics have been the driving tential for enhancing the capabilities of forces behind U.S. economic growth and mili- specific classes of vehicles, such as subsonic tary power. lbday, however, the United States transport, rotorcraft, high-performance mili- is facing unprecedented challenges from for- tary aircraft, and supersonic and hypersonic eign industrial competitors and potential vehicles. military adversaries. It is important and essential to preserve U.S. aeronautical super- Disciplinary Research and Tkchnology iority in the world marketplace and to enhance global security through the excel- lence of American aircraft. NASA’s disciplinary aeronautics research In 1985, the White House Office of Science activities provide the technological base for and Technology Policy outlined goals for the new and innovative ideas necessary for fu- Nation’s activity in aeronautics research and ture advances. The research seeks to improve

81 understanding of basic physical phenomena namics. In 1986, an analytical model, devel- and to develop new concepts in fluid and ther- oped to simulate internal aerodynamic flows mal physics, materials and structures, pro- in multistage turbomachinery, was used to pulsion, controls and guidance, human analyze flow fields in a high-speed fan stator, factors, and information sciences. high-speed counter-rotating propellers, and The increased availability of super- in the first stage of the Space Shuttle Main computers has allowed the discipline of com- Engine fuel turbine. In related research on putational fluid dynamics (CFD) to provide internal combustion engines, 160 horsepower powerful analytical, simulation, and predic- was obtained from a 40 cubic inch, single ro- tive tools to address the basic physics of aero- tor, stratified-charged rotary engine, the dynamic flow fields. New CFD tools are used highest power density ever achieved in this to advance understanding of the complex type of engine. flow environment of advanced aircraft config Because they are lighter and stiffer than urations, and to permit aerodynamic optimi- conventional metallic aircraft structural ma- zation of new aircraft designs. In 1986, new terials, composite materials are used increas- CFD techniques were used at Ames Research ingly in airframe designs. In 1986, a Center to calculate the stream trace lines breakthrough in composite structures re- over an F-16 high-performance aircraft con- search occurred with the fabrication of a geo- figuration. Use of these techniques resulted desic stiffened compression wall panel that is in the first complete flow field solution for about 30 percent lighter than a skidstringer three-dimensional flows around an actual aluminum structure, and 40 percent cheaper. aircraft configuration. Also in 1986, the Also, considerable progress was made in ce- world’s most powerful supercomputer facility, ramic composite technology. Ceramics are at- the Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation tractive structural materials because of their WAS) system, located at Ames Research Cen- strength, low-density, and ability to resist enter, became operational and was made availa- vironmental influences, but their brittle nat- ble to scientists and engineers throughout ure, makes them sensitive to minute flaws the United States. Currently, the NAS sys- and defects. To remedy this problem, Lewis tem uses a Cray-2 supercomputer that can Research Center developed an approach to perform 250 million computations a second, fabricating strong, tough, ceramic compos- and has a 256-million word memory, the larg- ites that are able to withstand high-tempera- est yet available. tures, eliminating the possibility of In a related activity, use of the Program catastrophic fractures. Support Communications Network (PSCN), a The avoidance or control of unstable aero- high-speed data communications network, elastic phenomena known as divergence and began in 1986. The PSCN enables real-time flutter are critical to the successful flight of access to NASA’s supercomputers by govern- advanced aircraft. An innovative approach to ment, industry, and universities at locations controlling aeroelastic response involves de- throughout the United States. It is designed forming the wing shape elastically instead of to improve the effectiveness and productivity moving control surfaces. The approach has of large mainframe computers that support the potential of saving several thousand the Aeronautics Research and Technology pounds of structural weight in high-perform- program. ance aircraft. In 1986, a model of an “active In 1986, use of the National Transonic Fa- flexible wing” was tested in the Transonic cility (NTF) at Langley Research Center im- Dynamics Tunnel (TDT) at Langley Research proved the ability to validate new CFD Center, and the predicted advantages of the computer codes, and several were validated concept were validated. To support the devel- in the NTF during an experiment with a opment of a complete control system for aero- laminar flow glove; subsequently, these codes elastic tailoring, additional testing will be were used to predict aircraft stability during conducted in the TDT. flight testing of the laminar flow glove on an In cooperation with the Federal Aviation F-14 aircraft. Administration (FAA), NASA is conducting Current propulsion research focuses on an- research to increase the capacity of the Air alytical and experimental work in high-speed Traffic Control (ATC) system in the United fluid flows, turbomachinery internal aerody- States. In 1986, a time-based, terminal-area namics, chemically reacting and mixed fluid flow control concept was developed for use in flows, and high-speed inlet and nozzle aerody- the ATC simulation system at Ames Re-

52 search Center. The simulation system’s al- ists that would be useful for engineering gorithm will investigate new ways to use run- analyses, NASA’s Aircraft Icing Research way capacity, improve fleet operational program develops analytical and experimen- efficiency, and enhance operational safety tal methods to determine changes in aircraft within the National Airspace System. performance due to icing. In 1986, using arti- In 1986,research on human factors and au- ficial ice shapes attached to the horizontal tomation explored the possibility of using tail of a Twin Otter aircraft, air flight tests computer systems for artificial intelligence were conducted at Lewis Research Center to (AD and radically different methods of con- ’ measure changes in the static stability mar- trol to allow humans and automated ma- gin of the aircraft. The “double-horned” ice chines to work together. An example of shapes, characteristic of glaze ice, caused the man-machine integration is the ArmyNASA greatest reduction in static stability margin, Aircraft Aircrew Integration (ASI)program, while the surface roughness produced by at Ames Research Center, that focuses on the rime (granular) ice shapes showed a negligi- development of predictive methodology for ble deviation from the baseline. helicopter cockpit system design. In 1986, an Significant progress was made in using the initial version of the A31 workstation was de- power of new aerodynamic computational veloped that generates predictive methodolo- methods to analyze low-altitude wind shear. gies for systems design based on mission Characterized by rapid changes in wind mag requirements and pilot training levels. nitude and direction, this atmospheric phe- Studies on natural phenomena as they af- nomenon is a potential hazard to all aircraft fect operational flight systems are considered during takeoff and landing. During 1986, a vital to improving flight safety. Current re- wind shear computer model was applied to search on storm hazards concentrates on several wind shear accidents to improve un- lightning and rain effects, and NASA’s Air- derstanding of the phenomenon and to de- craft Icing Program focuses on problems velop a data base for future investigations. caused by ice. Heavy rain can modify airfoil The wind patterns derived from these compu- shapes, change the airflow, and cause the loss tations also proved valuable in developing of airplane performance to such an extent forecast and wind shear models for simula- that safety is affected. In 1986, using a wing tors used in aircraft detection systems and pilot training.

Vehicle Technology

Vehicle-specific research identifies and concentrates on emerging technologies with potential for major advances in aircraft capability and performance. The key or enabling technological developments are described in the specific classes of aircraft, such as transport, rotorcraft, high-performance, supersonic, and hypersonic. Transport. To advance technology and insure that the United States maintains its Wlnd tunnel test of effects of heavy rain on wing sectlon preeminent position in the world market for model. subsonic transport aircraft, NASA conducts research with manufacturers, airlines, and section model, tests were conducted in the the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Langley Research Center’s 4 by 7 meter wind The immediate goals of the joint research tunnel on the effects of rain on airplane aero- are to establish the technology readiness dynamics. The data revealed that during per- and designs that will double the fuel effi- iods of very heavy rainfall, maximum lift ciency of today’s best transport aircraft, while capacity was reduced by 20 percent. Further substantially increasing productivity and af- tests will be conducted on a larger wing sec- fordability. tion mounted on an outdoor moving carriage In 1986, as part of the Advanced Turboprop facility. Because little quantitative data ex- Program, ground testing and flight demon-

53 strations of a full-scale propfan propulsion system were conducted by NASA and industry. Ground testing of a large-scale (9-foot diameter) propfan was completed in preparation for its flight test on a Gulfstream I1 twin- jet aircraft. Wind tunnel data from a scale model of the propfan validated the theoretical design and analysis methods used to predict the nacelle and slipstream flow, defined the potential affects on aerodynamic performance for a complete aircraft configuration, and provided safety-of-flight information for the future flight test. Cessna 210 with natural lamlnar flow (NLF) wing undogoing Significant progress was made in the joint wlnd tunnel Wing. NAWGeneral Electric Unducted Fan (UDF) program that incorporates two unducted, counter-rotating fans with eight highly-swept achieved with careful airfoil design, applica- blades on each fan. This configuration has ble to small airplanes; active laminar flow control (LFC), achieved by suction through tiny slots or perforations in the surface, applicable to large transports; and hybrid laminar flow (HLF) using both active and passive technology, applicable to medium transports. Wind tunnel and flight testing of a full-size, proof-of-concept NLF wing on a Cessna 210 aircraft was conducted. These tests confirmed that the new airfoil achieves natural laminar flow over 70 percent of the upper and lower surfaces over a broad range of operating conditions. A contoured NLF glove, installed on the wing of a Boeing 757 aircraft, in the region of intense acoustic radiation from the turbofan engine, was also flight tested; this activity confirmed that the laminar flow can Flight teat of NASAlGeneral Electrlc Unducted Fan on modl- be maintained in close proximity to engine fled Booing 727 aircraft. noise. In 1986, an important milestone in LFC technology was reached when flight promise because it reduces the wake swirl evaluations verified the effectiveness and common to single-rotation designs and in- practicality of using two system concepts to creases the propulsive efficiency. The UDF maintain laminar flow over the critical lead- system was successfully ground tested, and ing edge of the wing, while operating under the first flight tests on a modified Boeing 727 typical commercial aircraft conditions. Re- were completed in August 1986. In conjunc- search on viscous drag reduction, conducted tion with McDonnell Douglas, General Elec- during 1986, set the stage for the next phase tric is preparing for additional flight of research that will concentrate on hybrid evaluations on a modified McDonnell laminar flow-combining the best features of Douglas MD-80 aircraft. active laminar flow control and natural During the cruise phase of subsonic trans- laminar flow design-to achieve substantial ports, approximately one-half of the total drag reduction. drag is caused by skin friction. The magni- Rotorcraft. The Nation’s continued leader- tude of friction drag is dependent upon ship in military and civil rotary wing tech- whether the airflow over the aircraft surface nology depends on a strong and broad-based is laminar (smooth) or turbulent. By main- research program. In cooperation with other taining laminar flow, friction drag is reduced. government agencies and industry, NASA Three concepts being investigated for main- conducts a rotorcraft research program in the taining laminar flow over aircraft surfaces areas of aerodynamics, structural dynamics, include passive natural laminar flow (NLF), acoustics, guidance, stability and control, propulsion and drive, and human factors. In 1986, there were a number of significant accomplishments in the areas of noise reduction, improved rotor performance, and high-speed performance. Reducing rotorcraft noise is essential to obtain community acceptance and to reduce military detectability. In 1986, a new helicopter noise prediction code called ROTONET became available to industry. Also, a major rotor system noise experiment, conducted in a GermadDutch wind tunnel, measured rotor broadband noise, systematically, over a range of conditions in a controlled environment. Results of the noise test are being included in ROTONET. In addition, comprehensive blade-vortex interaction (BVI) data were obtained that will allow the development of a semi-empirical BVI noise methodology. A tool that will significantly reduce the internal noise caused by helicopter transmis- mons was developed in the form of a computer program. It will be used for gear tooth contact analysis and determination of gear- XV-15 Tilt Rotor Aircraft. cutting machine parameters that will allow production of spiral bevel gears with zero Tilt Rotor research through an experiment kinematic error. Transmission gears pro- that applied circulation control to the trail- duced as a result of using this software will ing edge of a Tilt Rotor wing, which is en- operate quieter and with less vibration, lead- meshed in the downward flow of its rotors. ing to mrall internal noise reduction in heli- The results verified analytical calculations COpt0l-S. that the downward force on the wing can be In 1986, a major rotor system improvement reduced by 25 percent, demonstrating poten- was demonstrated when advanced-design ro- tial for even more efficient and productive tor blades were flown on a scale model UH- Tilt Rotor aircraft. 60 helicopter. The model blades utilized In August 1986, an important rotorcraft advanced airfoils, a unique planform shape, milestone was reached with the fabrication and a high degree of twist and aeroelastic and assembly of the Rotor Systems Research tailoring to increase rotor performance and Aircraft RSRA/X-Wing research vehicle. The reduce vibrations. Wind tunnel tests showed X-Wing rotor consists of a four blade, ex- such a significant performance improvement, tremely stiff rotor system that utilizes circu- especially at high altitudes, that the Army is lation control aerodynamics for lift and considering the initiation of a product im- control. In hover and low-speed flight, the ro- provement program for the UH-GOA Black tor system rotates as a conventional helicop- Hawk helicopter that incorporates this blade ter rotor. For high-speed forward flight the design. rotor is stopped, converting into a fixed, X- Technology that is used to increase forward Wing configuration. This joint DODNASA flight speed can lead to new and innovative program is a continuing effort to advance the configurations, such as the Tilt Rotor and the state of technology in high-speed rotorcraft X-Wing aircraft. By converting from a stand- flight and several other key technology areas. ard helicopter mode to a wing-lift mode, it is The X-Wing rotor is a fully composite rotor/ possible to double or even triple cruise speeds wing that consists of extremely thick, load- of rotorcraft and vastly improve their produc- bearing composite structures. In addition, tivity. Other benefits of this technology in- the advanced, all-digital, quadruply redun- clude reduced noise and vibration, and dant flight control system contains over 60 enhanced military effectiveness. control effectors that regulate complex pneu- A significant advancement was made in modynamics and circulation control aerody-

.-. maneuverability, at an 80-degree nose- up angle-of-attack. The wind tunnel model and simulation investigations were complemented by experimental and computational analyses of forebody flows and vortex flows to study the aerodynamics of high-alpha flight. Water tunnel model tests of the F-18 configuration, conducted at the Dryden Flight Re- search Facility, confirmed that flow injections in the airstream near the nose of the aircraft can alter vortex flow over the ve- Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA)X-Wing research vehicle, allowing favorable aerodynamic hicle. changes and overall drag reduction. Cur- rently, preparations are underway to conduct namics. In 1986, the RSRA/X-Wing vehicle a full-scale flight research program utilizing was shipped to Dryden Flight Research Facil- a modified Navy F-18 aircraft. ity to prepare for flight tests. Developments in propulsion system thrust- High-Perfbrmance. Through close coordina- to-weight ratios, propulsive lift control, and tion with the DOD, NASA's high-perform- understanding low-speed aerodynamics allow ance aircraft research program is structured new opportunities for state-of-the-art ad- to support the development of superior mili- vances in vertical and short takeoff and land- tary aircraft. The technology spinoffs from ing (V/STOL)and short takeoff and vertical such research have consistently advanced the landing aircraft (STOVL) technology. In state of civil aviation. 1986, the United States and the United King- Work on the Highly Integrated Digital dom signed a joint research agreement to fos- Electronic Control (HIDEC) program re- ter collaboration in the development of sulted in the first fully integrated propulsion advanced STOVL technologies and to reduce and flight control system. "ksted on a NASA the risk associated with developing this type F-15 airplane, the HIDEC system demon- of aircraft. Also, NASA and Canada agreed to strated that, in addition to very low recurring test a full-scale STOVL model designated as costs and no weight penalty, significant per- the E-7. Configured as a transonic aircraft, formance improvements are achievable. the model utilizes vectored thrust and thrust augmentation systems for low-speed operations. Wind tunnel tests of the E-7 model conducted at Ames Research Center confirmed the viability of the design as a high- performance fighter aircraft. In 1986, the successful integration of advanced technologies that include a composite, supercritical variable camber, aeroelastically tailored wing, canards, and straked flaps were demonstrated in flight tests of the X-29A Forward-Swept Wing aircraft. This aircraft also incorporates an advanced fly-by-wire digital flight control system that integrates active control of fla- perons and canard surfaces. Areas of research emphasis include agility, maneuverability, High angleof-attack wind tunnel testing. high angle-of-attack stability and control, low-speed control, and transonic aerody- In 1986, work on high angle-of-attack (high- namic efficiency. The X-29A flight envelope alpha) flight technology for high-perform- was expanded to Mach 1.4 at 40,000 feet, and ance aircraft was accelerated. Tests in a follow-on NAWAir Force flight research Langley Research Center's 30 by 60 foot wind program was initiated. tunnel, using an F-18 model with propulsive Frequently, NASA's personnel and facilities flight control, confirmed the ability to are used to solve technical problems and im- achieve highly stable performance, and full prove the operation of military aircraft. In

56 the outlook for improved supersonic transportation appears bright. The key enabling technologies for an economically viable supersonic transport include: variable cycle propulsion providing noise levels acceptable to the community and with substantial reduction in fuel consumption and extended- life at high sustained operating temperatures; reduction in airframe structures weight fraction; and increasing cruise lifehag through improved aerodynamics, including supersonic laminar flow. In 1986, NASA launched the High-speed Civil Transport Study to identify the most promising concepts for vehicle and propulsion systems for future long-term, high-speed X-29A Forward-Swept Wing aircraft. 1986, at the request of the Navy, NASA developed and tested aerodynamic modifications to the EA-6B aircraft, and completed wind tunnel studies of the aircraft's configuration at the National Transonic Facility, Langley Research Center. As a result of these tests, recommendations were made for configuration modifications in an airfoil leading and trailing edge, the addition of a small vertical tail extension, and the addition of a wing roothody strake. These changes will improve Artist's conception of high-speed civil transport.

civil transports (Mach 2.0 to hypersonic), and to guide U.S. technology development and production planning. The study will consider market needs and opportunities, economics, airplane concepts, technology projections, and national issues such as safety and environment. Hypersonic. Establishing the technology foundation for hypersonic vehicles is a major goal of NASA's Aeronautics Research and Technology program. The program focuses on vehicle configuration studies, propulsion, and materials and structures. In addition to earlier progress in hypersonic research, re- EA-BB aircraft model in National Transonic Facility cryo- cent accomplishments in these areas have genic wind tunnel. contributed to the state of readiness for the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program the EA-6B lift at low speed, increase the di- that is funded jointly by NASA and the De- rectional control at high angles-of-attack, partment of Defense. The NASP program and reduce staluspin tendencies. Currently, will develop a hypersonic flight research ve- the Navy is initiating an EA-6B in-flight test hicle that will be used to validate and demon- program to evaluate the recommended modi- strate the successful merging of aeronautics fications prior to incorporating them into the and space technologies. NASA maintains a aircraft fleet. strong aeronautics research and technology Supersonic Achieving supersonic air trans- base to support development of the NASP and portation that is economical has eluded the to advance new technologies for future pro- technical community for some time. However, gress in hypersonic flight.

57 During 1986, testing in the Langley Re- 1990’s for single-stage-to-orbit vehicles using search Center’s hypersonic propulsion wind airbreathing propulsion as an option for the tunnels demonstrated that measured thrust next-generation manned vehicle. Using the levels agreed with theoretical predictions for technology developed for the National Aero- airframe-integrated, supersonic combustion Space Plane, a family of vehicles could in- ramjet (scramjet) engines. Significant pro- clude a next-generation space transportation gress on variable geometry scramjet configu- system, high-altitude, high-speed military in- rations was made with the successful testing terceptor and reconnaissance aircraft, and of the variable geometry inlet configuration hypersonic cruise transport. at Mach 4, and with a Navier-Stokes flow Currently, the NASP program focus is on analysis for the transition area of the engine accelerating the ground-based development combustion section. These accomplishments of key enabling technologies in propulsion, are significant steps toward achieving a hy- materials and structures, and aerodynamics; personic propulsion system that can be oper- evaluating various vehicle configuration con- ated over a broad range of speed-altitude cepts; and designing and testing propulsion combinations. In related structures research, using a complex brazing process, an advanced technology fuel injection side strut was fabricated for the scramjet engine; and two shortened versions of a full-size, flight-weight article were assembled. This effort demonstrated the feasibility of using this design approach; and preparations are underway to test the strut assembly, using burning fuel, in Langley Re- search Center’s test facilities. Accomplish- ments in hypersonic structures also included fabricating load-carrying honeycomb panels of high-temperature superalloys. In 1986, a panel array of superalloy honeycomb material was tested successfully, at extremely hot Artist’s depiction of the National AeroSpce Plane In the temperatures, under hypersonic flow condi- vlcinlty of the Space Statlon. tions. system modules and airframe components. NASA’s Numerical Aerodynamic Simula- tion (NAS) facility lent vital support to the This technology development phase should be completed in the late and will be technology development program by calculat- 1980’s, followed by a technology readiness aseew- ing the pressure contours on a baseline ment and a decision to proceed to the next NASP configuration. The ability of the NAS phase-the development and flight testing of to provide such an analytical solution for the the research aircraft. NASP codiguration at high Mach numbers X-30 permits the analysis and prediction of vehicle The X-30 will serve as a research vehicle to aerodynamic loadings and aerothermody- demonstrate the technologies developed to at- namic interactions at Mach numbers that are tain higher altitudes and Mach numbers, and beyond the current capability of other ground to validate the integration of the technologies test facilities. into an aircraft. The performance goals for the X-30 vehicle include horizontal takeoff and landing from conventional runways, sus- National AereSpace Plane Program tained hypersonic cruise in the atmosphere, and acceleration to orbit and return, with re- In 1986, NASA and the DOD initiated the usable systems. National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program. The unique feature that distinguishes an The goal of the NASP program is to develop aerospace plane from a rocket vehicle is the hypersonic and transatmospheric technology airbreathing propulsion system. The flight for a new class of aerospace vehicles that are corridor for an airbreathing aerospace plane powered by airbreathing rather than rocket is substantially lower in altitude over most of propulsion. The program is structured to pro- the trajectory because of the need for higher vide a validated technology base by the mid- density air to pass through the engine to pro-

58 duce the required thrust. As a result, an aero- full three-dimensional viscous flow fields are space plane must have an airframe and en- being calculated for candidate configura- gine structure that can withstand much tions, including internal flows, boundary lay- greater pressures and thermal loads than a ers, and shock interactions. rocket-powered vehicle. A variety of design approaches for both the The NASP is characterized as an airplane airframe and engine are being evaluated, in- that will fly to orbit, but there are major dif- cluding the use of structures made of ad- ferences between it and previous aircraft. In vanced materials that carry both pressure addition to the advanced airbreathing pro- and thermal loads, and insulated structures, pulsion system, the degree of integration re- in which low-temperature, load-carrying ma- quired between the airframe and the terials require a thermal protection system. propulsion system is substantially more com- High-temperature metals, advanced carbon- plex due to the strong interdependence of the carbon, and high-temperature composites are vehicle and engine flow fields. "he NASP de- being evaluated for use on the fuselage, tank, sign takes advantage of the flow compression and engine structure. developed through the vehicle forebody flow For areas of the vehicle where thermal en- field to produce the elevated pressures re- ergy will adversely affect available struc- quired for the combustion process, and uses tural materials, such as the leading edges of the aft undersurface of the vehicle as part of engine fuel struts, inlets, control surfaces, the engine exhaust nozzle. As a result, the and fuselage nose, cooling will be required. performance of the airframe and the engine Various cooling techniques and technologies is strongly coupled. are being evaluated for application to the X- The primary enabling technology for the 30 vehicle. Techniques that are under study NASP is the scramjet, which is needed for include regenerative cooling that requires airbreathing operation at speeds beyond the circulation of cold fuel through the air- Mach 6. Scramjet design and operation have craft skin to absorb heat before injecting it been optimized in subscale tests for internal into the engine and film cooling for localized geometric configuration, fuel injection and hot spots, heat pipes, and liquid metal heat mixing, and ignition and combustion effi- exchanges. ciency. Although there are several facilities The NASP program will also require ad- in which the lower speed propulsion technol- vances in the area of highly-integrated con- ogy can be verified, there are no ground facil- trol systems. With the exception of ities for testing the scramjet beyond Mach 8. airbreathing propulsion, technology devel- Therefore, performance predictions for the oped in the NASP program should be directly higher Mach numbers will be based on com- transferrable to future rocket-powered space putational analyses verified by partial simu- transportation systems. lation of selected parameters in wind tunnels. The X-30 flight research program is necessary to continue developing and demonstrating this hypersonic propulsion technology. Both experimental and computational tools are being used to identify and develop technologies, but computational capability is playing a more significant role than in the past. Because wind tunnel simulation capability is limited, compters will be the primary tool used for designing the NASP and analyzing very high Mach numbers and altitude conditions. The Numerical Aerody- namic Simulation system, and other supercomputers at NASA's Centers, government laboratories, and industry facilities are being used extensively for analyses of NASP configuration aerodynamics, trajectories, controls, structural concepts, and subsystem benefits and penalties. With this capability,

59 Department of Defense

The loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger on tween requirements for access to space and January 28 shocked the Nation, and resulted capability for launch, merely acquiring addi- in an unprecedented setback for the U.S. tional launch vehicles does not solve the space program. The grounding of the Shuttle problems of assured access to space. A mixed fleet severely impeded access to space for the fleet of launch vehicles is being developed Nation’s military, scientific, and commercial and procured, and will be maintained; future payloads. Further compounding the problem launch systems must be free of single point were the two Titan 34D launch failures, re- system failures, so major components of one sulting in the cessation of this launch capa- launch vehicle are independent of another’s bility for the year. This series of accidents led design; and future heavy-lift launch require- to the development of a national space launch ments are being analyzed and supported. In strategy that does not rely on a single launch addition, innovative new ways for payload system as the primary means to reach space. and launch vehicle processing and integra- Over the past year the Department of De- tion should be devised, approaching the fense (DoD), NASA, and the Department of methods used in cargo aircraft systems, to en- Transportation, as well as the commercial sure faster, more reliable turn-around of and scientific communities, have worked space systems and associated launch facili- closely to develop the Space Launch Recovery ties. The future U.S. space transportation Plan that will balance use of the Shuttle and system designs must be driven by the need expendable launch vehicles (ELV’s), to for operations and support efficiencies, in or- achieve efficiency and economy. Shuttle der to achieve substantial reductions in the launches will be used to exploit the flexibility recurring costs of space launch operations. of having man-in-the-loop, while ELV’s will Far-term national space launch alternatives be used for more routine missions or for those are currently being developed in the joint involving higher risks. DoD/NASA Space Transportation Architec- The purpose of the recovery plan, now well ture Study (STAS). The STAS is examining underway, is to satisfy national security re- all aspects of space launches that include requirements as well as scientific and commer- quirements, vehicles, operations, and tech- cial launch needs. The DoD commitment to nology; it will develop a framework for the recovery plan places renewed emphasis technological advances in areas such as pro- on use of expendable launch vehicles. The pulsion, lightweight structures, automated plan includes procurement of a fourth orbiter, operations, and advanced avionics. Incorpo- procurement of 23 Titan IV’s (previously ration of these advances into innovative sys- known as the Complementary Expendable tem concepts will allow the United States to Launch Vehicle (CELV)), with a production define a more cost-effective space launch pro- rate of five to six Titan IV vehicles per year, gram for the post-1995 period. and procurement of 12 medium launch vehicles (known as the Delta 11) over the next three years. While procurement of the Delta Space Activities I1 is required to support launches of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, this effort has also been structured to stimulate a Military Satellite Communications commercial space launch capability. The plan also includes ensuring that some payloads are dual-compatible with the Shuttle and MILSATCOM. Military Satellite Commun- Ens;transferring some Shuttle missions to ications requirements are satisfied with a ELV’s; and expanding to a Titan IV launch combination of satellite systems that provide capability at both the east and west coast a variety of services in several frequency launch facilities. bands. In the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) While the ultimate goal of the Space band, the Fleet Satellite Communications Launch Recovery Plan is to close the gap be- (FLWTCOM) System, augmented by leased

81 satellites (LEASAT), provide low-capacity, itary forces. Referred to as the Universal Mo- worldwide command and control to a large dem, this equipment will ensure survivable, community using small, mobile terminals. interoperable communications, and will oper- The Air Force Satellite Communications ate in the worst-case wartime environments. (AFSATCOM) System provides special capa- A new concept for a ground terminal was bilities to U.S. nuclear forces, using commun- considered using a “modular building block” ication packages on FLTSATCOM and other design to allow near real-time adjustment host satellites. At the Super High Frequency (tailoring) of its operational configuration. (SHF) band, the Defense Satellite Communi- The adjustment allows the terminal to oper- cations System (DSCS) provides high capac- ate using any of the standard DSCS modula- ity command and control, intelligence, and tion and access techniques. A limited number multichannel communications service to a of terminals are expected to provide a quick wide range of strategic, tactical, and non- reaction capability to meet urgent critical re- DoD users. In the future, using the Ex- quirements. A final decision on procurement tremely High Frequency (EHF) band, the is pending. Milstar Satellite Communication System The ground environment of the DSCS was will provide highly survivable and enduring expanded and modernized for increased sur- thin line communications for critical users. vivability, capacity, and reliability. In 1986, During 1986, MILSATCOM focused on en- 14 new Medium Earth terminals were ac- hancing the survivability and improving the cepted for deployment, and 24 additional ter- availability of service to all users. In addi- minals are expected by 1988. Acquisition of tion, planning efforts were initiated on two 12 net control and 83 nodal terminals for the new programs; one is expected to ensure in- DSCS Frequency Division Multiple Access teroperable communications among all Control Subsystem was initiated, and deliv- DSCS users under the most severe, hostile eries will extend through 1989. The fifth and conditions; and the other is designated to sat- final DSCS Ground Mobile Forces Control isfy very high speed digital communications Link was delivered to Oakhanger RAF, in the requirements. ‘lh integrate current activities United Kingdom. In addition, acquisition of with future needs, a comprehensive MILSAT- subsystems and components for increased COM architecture document was prepared. communications capacity and more respon- This document describes the plans and pro- sive and survivable control subsystems con- grams needed to ensure continued MILSAT tinued. COM service through the year 2010. Air Force Satellite Communication System Defense Satellite Communications Systems (AFSATCOM)/Single Channel Transponder (DSCS). The DSCS constellation provides (SCT). The AFSATCOM is a SATCOM capa- worldwide coverage between latitudes 75O bility that provides reliable global communi- north and 75O south. In 1986, the second cations between the National Command DSCS 111 satellite became operational, allow- Authorities and nuclear-capable forces. The ing the DSCS system to evolve into a more system includes a space segment composed of robust system. This new capability, which transponders on host satellites, a terminal significantly enhances DSCS support in the segment consisting of fixed and transport- Atlantic area that covers Europe, Eastern able ground terminals and airborne termi- United States and the Caribbean, includes nals; and a control segment. The Single increased capacity, flexibility, and wartime Channel Transponder Injection System is a survivability. new capability evolving as DSCS I11 satel- Replacing older, Phase I1 satellites with lites become operational, which will provide jam-resistant, electromagnetic pulse (EMP) a limited number of command elements with hardened Phase I11 satellites was delayed due a highly survivable capability to broadcast to a lack of launch capability. However, there essential messages to a large number of are sufficient Phase I1 satellites in orbit, with forces. There are three sites under contract reliabilities greatly exceeding specifications, for the installation of the Single Channel to allow continued service. Transponder Injection (Broadcast) capability; During 1986, the United States and the the remaining injection sites will be under United Kingdom conducted a joint evalua- contract in 1987. Also, efforts are under way tion of requirements for a new survivable, to procure additional receiver equipment for jam-resistant modem for use in all strategic ICBM Launch Command Centers and se- and tactical terminals of their respective mil- lected nonstrategic nuclear forces; contract

62 award is expected in 1987. follow-on satellite to provide continued serv- Milstar. Milstar is a multichannel, Ex- ice through the 1990’s. Two follow-on UHF tremely High Frequency (EHF)/Ultra High spacecraft will provide a greater number of Frequency (UHF’)satellite communications 25-KHz and 5-KHz channels than the current system that will provide survivable, endur- FLTSAT/LEASAT combination. Contract ing, jam-resistant, and secure voice/data com- award for procurement of these satellites is munications for the President, Joint expected in 1987. Chiefs-of-Staff, and the Commanders-in- After numerous delays caused by launch Chief. It will be used for the worldwide com- failures of the Space Shuttle, and Delta and mand and control of U.S. strategic and Titan 34D rockets earlier in the year, the tactical forces in all levels of conflict. Milstar Fleet Satellite (FLTSAT) 7 was launched on satellites, which contain special survivabil- December 4, 1986. FLTSAT 7 was launched ity features, will be launched into high and out of sequence ahead of FLTSAT 6 because low inclination orbits to provide full Earth FLTSAT 7 carried an additional payload, the coverage. Full-scale development of the space FLWT Extremely High Frequency package and mission control segments continued in PEP), designed to allow testing of Milstar- 1986, with critical design reviews scheduled compatible EHF terminals. EHF terminal for mid-1987 and early 1988. Detailed plan- testing will begin in the spring of 1987. ning for payloads and their integration into Satellite Laser Communications. The Satel- the satellite bus received major emphasis. lite Laser Communications (SLC) system is a Nuclear-hardened Milstar terminals will be joint technology demonstration effort be- provided to command facilities, surveillance tween the Navy and the Defense Advanced outposts, and to strategic and tactical forces Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to provide during the 1990’s. Modifications to existing the capability to communicate with a sub- AFSATCOM terminals that are currently in merged submarine from space using a laser progress will provide an early jam-resistant beam as the transmitting medium. To date, UHF capability, and a smooth transition be- the basic capability has been proven by send- tween AFSATCOM and Milstar. When coming messages to a submerged submarine pleted, Milstar will provide the Nation’s most from an aircraft using green laser light. An survivable wartime communications capabil- operational system will use blue laser light ity. The Air Force is the lead service for the which provides greater transmission effi- procurement of Milstar satellites, the dis- ciency. An aircraft-to-submarine test using a persed mission control network, and most of blue laser, scheduled for the spring of 1988, its own terminals. The Army and Navy also will complete the joint technology demon- have their own terminal development and stration. SLC has been approved as a Navy procurement programs. The terminal pro- new-start program for 1988. grams of all three services are coordinated through the Navy’s Joint Terminal Program Office, which has the responsibility to ensure Navigation and Geodesy interoperability and common specifications among the three designs. Fleet Satellite Communications System. Global Positioning System (GPS). No addi- This system provides low-capacity voice and tional GPS satellites were launched during data capabilities for small, mobile users, 1986. The last development GPS satellite, such as the Navy and those who require man- Navstar 11, was launched in October 1985. pack terminals. This satellite system consists Currently, five GPS developmental satellites of five FLTSAT satellites and three leased sat- are performing well. Two developmental satellites (LEASA!) in synchronous equatorial ellites, operating well beyond their design orbits which provide worldwide coverage be- lifetimes, showed the effects of age and per- tween 70° north latitude and 70° south lati- formed marginally. Procurement of opera- tude. tional satellites was in its fifth year under a FLTSAT spacecraft will approach their end- multiyear, 28 spacecraft, contract. The first of-life in the early 1990’s while the require- operational launch is scheduled for 1988, ment for UHF MILSATCOM services is with full operational capability planned for projected to rise significantly and continue 1990. These dates reflect an approximate 2- through the foreseeable future. ‘Ib satisfy year delay due to the lack of Space Shuttle these requirements, planning began for a Launch capability. In June 1986, Low Rate Initial Production sensor suite would give N-ROSS the capabil- (LRIP) of GPS user equipment was approved ity to measure sea surface temperatures, by the DoD Joint Requirements and Manage- ocean surface winds, significant wave ment Board. LRIP will continue through heights, ocean fronts and eddies, polar ice 1988, pending verification of correction of re- conditions, and atmospheric water vapor. Un- liability and maintainability problems en- der the original Navy plan, N-ROSS was countered during 1985 field testing. In 1989, scheduled for launch in September 1990. Un- another DoD review is planned for user der a revised plan, launch is now scheduled equipment performance before approving for mid-1992. full-rate production. In 1986, the master con- Defense Meterological Satellite Program trol station, which supports the current GPS (DMSP). DMSP is the DoD’s most important constellation, became operational at the Con- source of weather data. In 1986, DMSP solidated Space Operations Center at Falcon reached several significant milestones. The Air Force Station, Colorado. Full operational first two Block 5D-2 satellites, F-6 and F-7, capability of the control station is planned launched in December 1982 and November concurrent with full GPS capability. 1983, respectively, exceeded expected on- Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite. In Sep- orbit life. Also, in late 1986, the F-9 satellite tember 1986, the Navy’s Geodetic and Geo- was delivered, joining F-8 in ground storage physical Satellite (GEOSAT) completed its awaiting launch requirements. Production of primary 18-month mission, which was to pro- follow-on satellites, including a successful vide the Navy and the Defense Mapping multiyear procurement, continued. In July Agency with a large quantity of global alti- 1986, a contract was awarded to RCA for the meter data to be used in improving the prototype improved Block 5D-3 satellite, S- Earth’s gravitational models. At the conclu- 15. Also in 1986, initial operational capabil- sion of this primary mission, GEOSAT was ity was achieved for the interactive Satellite repositioned to a new orbit. This new.orbit, Data Handling System at the Air Force with a 17-day repeat cycle, is the same one Global Weather Central, Offutt Air Force used by NASA’s previous SEASAT, and is a Base, Nebraska. favorable one for collecting oceanographic topography data. Data obtained will assist in Surveillance and Warning the measurement of significant wave heights, surface winds, and ocean thermal features. GEOSAT will continue this valuable oceano- Early warning satellites, complemented by graphic mission until it reaches its end-of- ground-based radars and sensors, warn of po- life. tential ballistic missile attacks. In 1986, an Air Defense Initiative program was organized to develop technologies to detect, iden- Meteorology and Oceanography tify, and negate air threats to North America, including cruise missiles. Airborne, ground- Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System (N- based, and space-based surveillance tech- ROSS). Near the end of 1986, the Navy had niques that will allow detection of cruise been reviewing contractor proposals for the missiles are under study. Included in the construction of N-ROSS, with an expected studies is the feasibility of detecting and contract award to have been early 1987. In tracking cruise missiles from space platforms late December 1986, the Secretary of the using radar and infrared sensors. Surveil- Navy canceled the N-ROSS program due to lance and warning for continental air defense severe budgetary constraints. Therefore, N- is currently provided by a system of radar ROSS was not a development program at the sites and Sectorfigional Operations Control end of 1986. However, the Navy plans to Centers located in the United States and bring the proposed program before the De- Canada. The radar systems include the Joint fense Acquisition Board (DAB) and the De- Surveillance System and, under develop- fense Resources Board (DRB) in early 1987. If ment, the North Warning System, and Over- approved, the N-ROSS satellite is planned to the-Horizon Backscatter Radar System. The have four principal sensors, a Low-Frequency joint Air Forcemefense Advanced Research Microwave Radiometer, a Special Sensor Mi- Project Agency’s ‘ha1 Ruby program is de- crowave Imager, a precision radar altimeter, signed to detect airbreathing vehicles from and a NASA-developed scatterometer. This an orbiting platform.

64 Antisatellite (ASAT) Program. The Space Neutron Particle Beam Accelerator Test Defense program continued to develop a low- Stand attained operating levels making it altitude, miniature-vehicle ASAT system. the most powerful ion beam generator in the The primary purposes of an ASAT capability world. are to deter threats to space systems belong- ing to the United States and its allies, and to deny use by an adversary of space-based sys- Space Transportation tems that provide support to hostile military forces. ASAT will be launched from F-15 air- Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs). DoD craft. As a result of a FY 1986 congressional proceeded with activities that will lead to the restriction prohibiting testing against objects acquisition and launch of 23 Titan IV’s be- in space, the testing effort was reoriented. tween 1988 and 1993. By complementing the Infrared phenomenology flights, to assess the Space Shuttle, they will support the Presi- performance of the sensor at low altitudes, dent’s national policy for assured access to were successfully completed in August and space, and help to reduce the backlog of DoD September 1986. payloads that were scheduled for launch on the Space Shuttle. Strategic Defense Initiative Fifty-six existing Titan I1 missiles were moved to storage at Norton Air Force Base, California. Fourteen of the Titan 11’s will be The Strategic Defense Initiative Organiza- converted to a space launch configuration to tion (SDIO) has established an integrated support small payloads that require unique program around the five key areas of Surveil- orbits. The remaining Titan 11’s are available lance, Acquisition, Tracking, and Kill Assess- for future conversion. ment (SATKA); Directed Energy Weapons A program was initiated to acquire a Me- (DEW); Kinetic Energy Weapons (KEW); Sur- dium Launch Vehicle to support the Global vivability, Lethality, and Key Technologies Positioning System (GPS) program that faces (SLKT); Systems Analysis and Battle Man- significant launch delays as a result of the agement (SA/BM). It has also established the Challenger accident. A contract for the Delta Innovative Science and Technology Office I1 to launch 20 GPS satellites will be awarded (IST) to manage fundamental research. Each in early 1987. represents an essential component in the Significant progress was made in recover- development of a robust strategic defense ing from a Titan 34D failure in April 1986, system. including development and verification of KEW sponsored two successful flight tests state-of-the-art, non-destructive tests for in 1986. The first experiment conducted a large solid rocket motors. hit-to-kill intercept on a missile target at low Space Shuttle. The close working relation- altitude, using a millimeter wave radar ship between the Department of Defense and seeker in the interceptor. The program, called NASA on the Nation’s Space Transportation Flexible Lightweight Agile-guided Experi- System proved invaluable during the period ment, made three successful intercepts in of crisis following the Challenger accident. three attempts, the last of which destroyed an Together, an approved Shuttle launch mani- actual air-launched reentry vehicle. In the fest was developed that meets, as much as second experiment, critical space observation possible, priority DoD and NASA satellite data were obtained, and an actual space in- needs when Shuttle flights resume in 1988. tercept was conducted. The DoD placed the Vandenberg Shuttle U.S. Army Strategic Defense Command Launch Site in minimum facility caretaker WSASDC). The Army executing agency for status to allow the remaining orbiter fleet to SDI, USASDC, conducts a continuing re- concentrate on east coast operations and to search program to build a strong technologi- gain maximum efficiency in reducing the cal foundation from which a wide range of backlog of DoD and NASA payloads. Current strategic defense options can be developed. In funding will facilitate reactivation of the 1986, high Endoatmospheric Interceptor and Vandenberg complex when the requirements Exoatmospheric Reentry Vehicle Interceptor and Shuttle capabilities dictate. System contracts were awarded. The Free Upper Stage Programs. The Space Shuttle Electron Laser initiated a major new experi- utilizes upper stages to boost payloads from ment at White Sands Missile Range; and the low Earth orbit to higher orbits up to geosy-

65 nchronous (GEO) and beyond. The current tary-specific modifications of equipment and family of Shuttle-compatible upper stages in- new systems to ensure crew performance and clude the commercial Payload Assist Mod- protection in the space environment. ules, which can carry 450 to 1,400 kilograms to GEO and Air Force Intertial Upper Stage (IUS),capable of boosting 2,300 kilograms to Aeronautical Act lvltles GEO. As a result of NASA’s cancellation of the Shuttle-Centaur Program in 1986, the DoD began efforts to acquire more capable Fixed Wing Programs (2,430 to 4,550 kilogram class) upper stages to meet DoD Shuttle mission needs in the Bomber Development (B-1 B). In June 1985, 1990’s. the first B-1B was delivered to the Strategic Advanced Spacecraft l’kchnohgy. The pri- Air Command. In September 1986,15 opera- mary objective of this activity is increased tional aircraft were delivered to Dyess Air satellite survivability, autonomy, perform- Force Base, near Abilene, Texas. As part of ance reliability, and lifetime. The program the Strategic Air Command’s strategic deter- focuses on computers, electronics, and power rent force at Dyess AFB, the first B-1B’s subsystems. In 1986, the first phase of the were on constant alert status. Testing of B- program to develop technology for space-qual- 1B’s continues at Dyess AFB and Edwards ified Very High Speed Integrated Circuits AFB, California. Full operational capability was successfully completed, and the qualifi- will occur in 1988 with the delivery of the cation of a longer life, space-qualified battery 100th and final B-1B. was completed. This battery design has re- Advanced Rctical Fighter (ATF). The ATF sulted in a 5-year life test program. program is developing the next-generation Space Test Program Three Space Test Pro- Air Force fighter to counter the Soviet threat gram (STP) missions that carried 19 DoD ex- projected for the late 1990’s and beyond. As a periments remained in orbit collecting data follow-on to the F-15, the ATF is being de- applicable to the design of future DoD space signed to penetrate high-threat enemy air- systems. In 1986, two experiments were space and support of the air-land battle forces flown on the Shuttle, providing information with “first-look, first-kill” capability against on contamination in the Shuttle environ- a technologically advanced, numerically su- ment, and the effects of space on large struc- perior enemy. The ATF’s improved capabili- tures. In November 1986, the Scout-launched ties will be made possible by significant Polar Experiment and Auroral Research Sat- technological advances in the areas of signa- ellite carried three additional experiments ture reduction, aerodynamic design, flight into space to image the aurora, and provide controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, and forecasts of communications disturbances in integrated avionics. It will reach an initial the polar region. STP initiated procurement operational capability in the mid-1990’s. of a dedicated DoD Spartan experiment car- In April 1986, the ATF program was re- rier through NASA’s Goddard Space Flight structured to include flying prototypes and Center. The first flight will occur in 1989. ground-based avionics prototypes in the Dem- Military Space Crews. As space-related onstratioflalidation (DemNal) phase of the technology improves, the role of man in sup- program. The restructured program imple- porting and using that technology will ma- ments Packard Commission recommenda- ture. Military functions in space may closely tions, emphasizes fly-before-buy, a parallel those of civilian counterparts in such competition, and provides the means to re- areas as transportation, observation, con- duce technical and cost risks prior to enter- struction, and satellite launch or repair. The ing fullscale development in 1991. Department of Defense continues to work In October 1986, the ATF program com- with NASA to train military space crew pleted a Joint Requirements Management members, and to solve many human-centered Board Milestone I, and received Ofice of Sec- space technology problems. In 1986, the Air retary of Defense approval to award the Ded Force formulated a Military Man in Space Val contracts. Contracts were awarded to Program to help assess the operational capa- Lockheed and Northrop, and flight demon- bilities of man in space. The Air Force also strations of their prototype aircraft, desig- extended prior exploratory development into nated YF-22A and YF-23A respectively, will advanced technology development of mili- begin in 1990. General Electric and Pratt

66 and Whitney are providing the prototype en- battalion was fielded at Ft. Hood, ‘bxas in gines for the ATF aircraft. April 1986; the second battalion was fielded C-17. The C-17 aircraft will provide a ca- 120 days later, and by November 1986, a pability for intertheater airlift of light and third battalion based at Ft. Hood began ac- heavy combat units, including outsize equip- cepting aircraft and equipment in prepara- ment, and direct delivery into the forward ar- tion for fielding. These aircraft are being eas. In the late 19907s,the c-17 is expected delivered in compliance with the fourth pro- to satisfy the shortfall from the intertheater duction contract, which will procure 309 air- airlife requirement identified in the Congres- craft. Currently, contract negotiations are sionally Mandated Mobility Study. It will under way for procurement of aircraft as the provide an increase in intratheater capabil- Army moves closer to its procurement objec- ity. The C-17 is now in its second year of full- tive of over 593 AH-64’s. scale development, with first flight planned CH-47 Modernization, In April 1985, a in 1990, and an initial operational capability 5-year multiyear procurement (MYP) con- in 1992, using 12 aircraft. tract was awarded to modernize 240 CH- Remotely Piloted Vehicle. The Navy and Air 47A, B, and C model cargo helicopters to the Force are jointly developing a medium-range, D model configuration. The CH-47D pro- unmanned reconnaissance vehicle. The Navy vides substantial improvements in reliabil- is developing the unmanned vehicle, and the ity, availability, maintainability, flight safety Air Force is developing an electro-optical sen- and survivability. By November 1986, as the sor suite to be carried by Air Force and Navy program moved through the second year of manned and unmanned tactical reconnais- the 5-year MYP, 58 CH-47’s had been deliv- sance vehicles. In 1987, two contractors will ered to the Army. A proposed second MYF’ be selected to participate in a competitive fly- contract from 1990 to 1992 would complete a off of their unmanned vehicles that will occur procurement objective of 472 CH-47D’s. during 1988. UH-GOA Blackhawk. By November 1986, a total of 826 UH-GOA’S had been accepted by Cruise Missile Programs the Army. These aircraft were distributed to priority units in the United States, Europe, Japan, Korea, Panama, the Army National Air Lczunched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The Guard, the Army Reserve, and to the Train- ALCM is a long-range, subsonic missile de- ing and Doctrine Command. The UH-GOA is signed for deployment from the B-52G and H in its third MYP contract. models. An inertial guidance system, which is updated after launch by terrain correlation Light Helicopter Family (LHX).The Army initiated a technology development program matching, guides the missile to the target. A called Advanced btocraft ‘bchnology Inte- total of 1,715 missiles have been delivered to gration (ARTI). ART1 supports full-scale de- the Strategic Air Command. Missiles are cur- velopment in 1988 of a family of light rently deployed at five B-52 bases, and de- helicopters, planned for deployment in 1995. ployment is under way at two additional Previous research efforts have shown that an bases. integrated and automated cockpit, and asso- Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCW. ciated electronic architecture, will provide Air Force deployment of GLCM’s continues the LHX and existing helicopters with im- on schedule. Initial operational capabilities have been established in the United King- proved characteristics. The Army awarded contracts to two teams for full-scale develop- dom, Italy, Belgium, and the Federal Repub- ment of the LHX engine, designated the lic Germany. Deployment to the of T8OO. The T800 is a 1,200 shaft horsepower, Netherlands is on schedule for 1988. nonregenerative, free power turbine, turboshaft engine of advanced technology and Helicopter Programs high power to weight ratio coupled with low- specific fuel consumption. In August 1986, the Army awarded contracts to two teams for AH-64A (Apache) Advanced Attack Helt the purpose of reducing risk for initiation of copter: In November 1986, the 162nd AH- the LHX competitive development program. 64A Apache helicopter was delivered to the These risk-reduction efforts are concentrated Army. The first AH-64A attack helicopter in the areas of simulation, wind tunnel and

67 Mission Equipment Package design, and 1987. In March 1987, the mobile MLS Re- ’ brassboard demonstrations. All efforts are quest for Proposal will be released concur- designed to ensure that LHX will enter the rently with the FAA’s Request for Proposal competitive development phase with no high- for Fixed Base MLS equipment. The FAA risk technology components. Full-scale devel- Base MLS Request for Proposal will include opment of the LHX airframe and mission equipment for the DoD, and contract award equipment will begin in 1988. The Army will for both systems is planned for early 1988. conduct a competitive program for LHX An MLS avionics architecture study, com- through development, and competition for pleted in 1986, considered MLS avionics al- production contracts begins with the third lot ternatives for high-performance aircraft that buy. are environmentally and space-constrained. As a result of this study, the Air Force will conduct a concept definition effort for a high V/STOLPrograms reliability (20,000 hour, mean time between failure) MLS/ILS receiver. The ILS capability will be retained until the transition to MLS V-22 Osprey (fbrmerly JVX). The Osprey is is completed in the year 2000. designed to provide the Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Army with a multimission Advanced Fighter nchnology Integration VerticaUShort lhkeoff and Landing (V/STOL) (AFTfl. In 1986, the AFTW-16 completed its capability for the 1990’s and beyond. It will last full year of testing at Edwards Air Force satisfy operational requirements such as Ma- Base. Its Automated Maneuvering Attack rine Corps assault vertical lift, Navy combat System provides highly accurate maneuver- search and rescue, Air Force special opera- ing attack against ground targets from very tions, and Army medium cargo assault lift. In low altitudes and improved air-to-air effec- April 1983, the Preliminary Design Phase tiveness. Technologies in the AFT1 program began; in 1986, a decision leading to full- will be used to improve the performance of scale development was made. Powered model, future aircraft such as the Advanced ‘hctical aeroelasticity, and large-scale rotor perform- Fighter. ance tests were completed. Results of these X-29 Advanced nchnology Demonstrator: tests will lead to detail design of the Ground The forward-swept wing X-29 aircraft has Test Vehicle. completed its second year of flight testing. This innovative program demonstrates advanced high-risk, high-payoff technologies for Aeronautics Technology future consideration. Exploitation of these technologies will improve future fighter air- Microwave Landing System (MLS). MLS is craft performance and will reduce the time, the precision approach landing system of the risk, and cost of future development. It is a future. It will replace the existing instru- joint DARPMNAWAir Force program that ment landing system ULS) and precision ap- expands significantly the existing data bases proach radar by the year 2000. Both fixed and for advanced composite research, aerody- mobile MLS ground equipment will be ac- namic and structural analytic design meth- quired as well as MLS avionics for DoD air- ods, design techniques of digital flight craft. The Federal Aviation Administration control systems, systems integration, and has overall responsibility for the national test and evaluation capabilities. The flight MLS program, and the Air Force was desig- testing is being conducted by a joint Govern- nated the lead service for the DoD. In 1986, menthndustry team at NASA‘s Dryden the Air Force completed preparation of Re- Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air quests for hoposals for modified commercial Force Base, California. MLS avionics and a mobile MLS. The modi- During 1986, the X-29A completed more fied commercial MLS avionics will be used in than 85 test flights to expand fully its flight cargo, tanker, trainer, and support aircraft. envelope to a maximum altitude of 40,000 The mobile MLS will replace the existing feet and a maximum Mach number of 1.45. fixed and mobile precision approach radars. Considerable testing was conducted at high- The modified commercial avionics Request dynamic pressures, a combination of low alti- for Proposal was released in December 1986, tude, high speed, and high-G load factors and a contract award is scheduled for May that stressed the capability of the aircraft

68 structure, flight control system, and aerody- sign, construction, and flight test of an exper- namic stability. Test results indicate that ve- imental aircraft, will begin in 1989. First hicle drag levels are significantly lower than flight of this experimental vehicle, desig- predicted, and that vehicle stability is better nated the X-30, is planned for 1993. The goal than analysis has predicted through the of Phase 111 is to accomplish sufficient flight flight envelope. A follow-on program has demonstration to provide a verified techno- been defined and approved to flight test the logical basis for future operational vehicles. second X-29A aircraft in a high angle of at- The many spinoffs from NASP technologies tack program. will enhance U.S. leadership in aeronautics National Aerospace Plane (NASP). This and in the commercial use of space during joint program including DARPA, Air Force, the early decades of the next century. Re- Navy, Strategic Defense Initiative Organiza- duced space launch costs and dramatically tion, and NASA is developing advanced tech- reduced transit times on long-haul airline nologies for a new generation of aerospace routes will result in significant economic vehicles. After a horizontal take-off, these benefits. liquid-hydrogen fueled, airbreathing, ramjet/ X-Wing. The X-Wing rotor system will be scramjet-powered vehicles will be capable of flight-tested on the NAWArmy Rotor Sys- operating at hypersonic speeds (Mach 6 to 12) tems Research Aircraft (RSRA). Successful in the atmosphere or in space as a single- testing of the X-Wing/RSRA will provide the stage-to-orbit launch vehicle. basis for a whole new generation of air vehicles that combine the best features of both Between 1986 and 1989, the main goal of helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. In the hel- the technology development phase (Phase 11) icopter mode, the X-Wing rotates like conven- is development and proof-of-concept test of an tional helicopter blades. While airborne, the integrated airframe/propulsion system capa- blades stop rotating and the aircraft will fly ble of operating efficiently from takeoff to in a fixed-wing mode. In order to accomplish this feat, four emerging technologies will be refined and integrated: digital flight controls that can maneuver an airframe with both helicopter and fixed-wing features; composite

materials that are both lightweight and ex- , tremely rigid; air that circulates around the rotor blades to increase lift; and propulsion techniques that provide both shaft horse power and thrust from a single engine. During 1986, the X-WingRSRA was delivered to the Dryden Flight Test Center for final assembly under NASA supervision. This facility ensures safety by conducting several Model of the National Aero-Space Plane. hours of operational testing to uncover component degradation that might affect flight orbit. New technologies needed to usher in tests. A second facility at NASA's Ames Re- this new generation of airbreathing aero- search Center, which contains a manned sim- space vehicles will be developed, such as ad- ulator to explore the handling qualities of the vanced propulsion engines, advanced X-Wing/RSRA, is being used for pilot train- low-drag airframe configurations, advanced ing and flight readiness review. high-temperature materials, actively cooled Army Aeronautical nchnology Research. structures, lightweight cryogenic tankage, The purpose of this program is to increase and computer fluid dynamics techniques. operational effectiveness of helicopters, re- These technologies being developed offer the duce life cycle costs, and improve systems in- potential of a future space launcher having tegration analysis and flight simulation substantially reduced costs per pound deliv- capabilities. The program includes research ered to orbit, and a future hypersonic cruise in the areas of aerodynamics, structures, pro- aircraft having two-hour flight time (or less) pulsion, reliability, maintainability, safety from the United States to any point on the and survivability, subsystems, mission sup- globe. port, flight simulation, and man-machine in- The next phase (Phase III), the detail de- tegration. In 1986, research projects

69 undertaken or completed are as follows: ADOCS Flight Demonstrator configuration A 15:l centrifugal compressor test for was completed in 1986. Development of ad- Army aircraft power plants was successfully vanced optical components will continue, completed, demonstrating that program de- along with a Tri-Service program to develop velopment goals were exceeded for compres- approaches to Atmospheric Electrical Hazard sor efficiencies and surge margin. If this new Protection for the Digital Optical Control compressor is placed in a new Army aircraft System. engine, it will mean significant improvements in power plant efficiency and reduc- Advanced Composite Aircraft Program tions in complexity. In laboratory testing, high-speed (ACAP). ACAP was formulated to demon- a strate the benefits of applying composite ma- (greater than 30,000 RPM) aircraft transmis- terials to a primary helicopter airframe sion clutch concept was validated that can structure. The program goals of achieving a significantly reduce clutch weight and improve capability and reliability. 17-percent reduction in airframe cost and a 22-percent reduction in airframe weight were Aircraft structures testing was completed that included tests of a new met or exceeded by the two helicopter manu- crashworthy, cyclic flight control stick and facturers conducting this demonstration. In 1986, Sikorsky and Bell completed their UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter floor armor. Aircraft Combat Maintenancemattle ACAP flight test programs. The program Damage Repair design guides were com- then proceeded to the initiation of the milita- rization phase in which avionicdightning pleted for Army aircraft fluid lines (fuel, hydraulic fluid, and oil) and for mechanical compatibility issues will be addressed; land- flight control components. ing gear and crashworthy characteristics will be demonstrated; and acoustics and main- Four computer simulations were conducted to support advanced Army rotorcraft: tainability improvements will be developed Light Helicopter Family (LHX) Flight Con- to ensure battlefield sustainability of composite materials used as a primary airframe trol System; single crew member advanced cockpit engineering to support the pro- structure. Due to the inherent high stiffness LHX of composite materials, acoustic energy gram; roll control effectiveness evaluations; (noise) may be more readily transmitted than and UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter valida- it is in metal structures. Acoustic isolation tions to support aircraft accident investigations. modifications for the ACAP aircraft will be fabricated and installed in the flight test ve- Advanced Digital Optical Control System (ADOCS). The task of the Advanced Digital hicle; tests of the avionics, electronmagnetic Optical Control System is to advance technol- interference, and lightning characteristics of ogy to provide a battlefield-compatible flight the airframe will be completed; and a concept control system for new Army aircrafl. The for enhancing maintainability will be devel- ADOCS will allow survivability of the con- oped. trol system in the natural and man-made electromagnetic environment of the future Low Speed Data Modem In 1986, a con- battlefield. The ADOCS also will provide im- tract was awarded to the Harris Corporation proved capability, reliability, maintainabil- to fabricate two low-data-rate (75 bits per sec- ity, and reduced ballistic vulnerability. ond) robust brassboard modems. The units Mission-tailored handling qualities com- will employ Harris serial modem technology bined with improved soldier-machine inter- and a computer-based message system that faces will significantly improve rotorcraft will provide “connect messages” and elec- mission performance. A ground test of the tronically synthesized voice to transmit com- ADOCS, using a UH-60 flight demonstrator, mands, flight status, other Command and was completed and flight tests were initiated. Control (C2) information, and targeting infor- The development of an Optohydraulic Ser- mation to and from Army aircraft. Because of vovalve was completed and work on a number the robust signal processing nature of the of additional improved optical components units, a very reliable data communication was initiated. These components will be de- link will be established. The technology will signed to upgrade and replace large, heavy, be studied and may become an integral part inefficient prototype components in the origi- of the advanced communication prototype nal flight demonstrator. The testing of the system.

70 Space and Aeronautlcs Support HQDA, and is under operational command of USCINCSPACE. By the time of its formal activation in October 1987,the agency will con- Consolidated Space Operations Center sist of 35 personnel and two detachments. (CSOC).CSOC was originally planned to con- One detachment, stationed at Falcon AFS, sist of a Satellite Operations Complex (SOC) Colorado, will conduct satellite control opera- and a Shuttle Operations and Planning Com- tions; the other, located at Johnson Space plex (SOPC). The SOC will share the satellite Center (JSC), Houston, Texas, will consist of Army astronauts and other Army personnel assigned to JSC. As Army space operational requirements evolve, USASA will command forces developed to meet those requirements. Currently, the USASA provides USSPACE- COM an Army perspective in planning DoD space system support for land forces and for strategic defense. The agency also will ensure integration of Army requirements into USSPACECOM planning and operations, and respond to needs of USCINCSPACE, such as providing operational forces, as appropriate. Conaoiidatml Space Operatlons Center, Falcon Air Force As part of the Army’s organization for Station, Colorado. space, the Army Training and Doctrine Com- control work load with the Satellite Test mand (TRADOC) activated the Army Space Center (STC), and the SOPC would have pro- Institute (USASI) in June 1986, at Fort vided facilities for secure flight planning and Leavenworth, Kansas, to represent Army inflight control for DoD Shuttle flights in con- terests in the process of defining military junction with NASA’s Johnson Space Center. space requirements. The USASI represents Reduced DoD dependence on the Space Shut- the Army user community in developing and tle, a key aspect of the space launch recovery integrating space-related concepts and doc- plan, coupled with budgetary constraints, trine across all Army mission areas; it is the caused the Air Force to cancel the SOPC por- Army’s proponent for space-related doctrine tion of the CSOC development. Despite this development, combat development, training cancellation, the CSOC/SOC will augment support, and personnel functions; and it is present control capacities and will integrative in nature, and is subordinate to strengthen U.S. space posture by eliminating TRADOC’s Combat Arms Development vulnerabilities in the existing satellite con- Activity. trol architecture. Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC). Construction of CSOC’s building, near Col- ESMC, at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, orado Springs, Colorado, was completed in provides developmental and operational 1985. The Global Positioning System Master launch services for the Army’s Pershing mis- Control Station, a tenant at CSOC, began sile, the Navy’s Poseidon and Trident mis- satellite operations in January 1986. The siles, and the Air Force’s short-range attack first of the CSOC’s two Satellite Mission Con- missiles. It also supplies launch and support trol Centers will be activated in 1987, fol- services for NASA and DoD satellites, and lowed by the second in 1988. As described continuous tracking of space objects. In 1986, above, due to reduced Shuttle planning re- ESMC supported 17 ballistic missile tests, quirements and fiscal constraints, SOPC four major space test operations, and one funding has been deleted from the CSOC pro- Space Shuttle launch. gram beginning in fiscal year 1988. Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC). US. Army Space Agency (USAS&. The WSMC, at Vandenberg Air Force Base, Cali- USASA was provisionally activated in Au- fornia, provides developmental and opera- gust 1986, at Colorado Springs, Colorado, as tional launch services for the Air Force’s the Army component of the U.S. Space Com- Minuteman and Peacekeeper missiles, space mand (USSPACECOM). The unit is a field vehicles of NASA and DoD that require polar operating agency of the Office of the Deputy orbits, and tracking and data acquisition sup- Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, port for aeronautical tests of the B-B1 and

71 cruise missiles. In 1986, WSMC supported 4 to-Air Missile, the Airborne Self Protection major space launches and 14 ballistic missile Jammer, IR Maverick AGM-130 Munition, launches. and the Joint !kctical Information Distribu- White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). In tion System. 1986, WSMR provided developmental and op- Arnold Engineering Development Center erational launch and testing services for a (AEDC).The AEDC, at Arnold Air Force Sta- variety of DoD and NASA systems. Launch, tion, %nnessee, conducts engineering devel- flight, and recovery services included ground opment tests for both Government and and flight safety, range surveillance, com- commercial users. In 1986, programs it sup- mand and control activities, and associated ported included Peacekeeper, Space Shuttle, data acquisition and analysis for numerous Small Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, Ad- short- to medium-range surface-to-surface, vanced !kctical Fighter, Strategic Defense surface-to-air, and air-to-surface missiles and Initiative, and Short Thkeoff and Landing rockets of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and fighter technology. commercial users. Nonflight hardware test- Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC). AF- ing was conducted on these same systems, on FTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, the PeacekeepedMinuteman and Small is an ideal test area with a large air space, ICBM, and on the Shuttle orbiter and launch dry lake beds, isolation, and highly instru- systems. Other activities included upper at- mented ranges. This unique facility provides mospheric soundings using rockets and bal- support for many users, including NASA's loons, a variety of astronomical test Dryden Flight Research Facility, the Army programs, precision aircraft positioning and Aviation Engineering Flight Activity, and tracking, and tests involving both ground- the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory. and space-based laser and directed energy In 1986, the Center supported tactical and systems. Shuttle-related activities included strategic systems activities such as the B-lB, operation of the ground terminal of the F-15, F-16, F-20, X-29, B-52 avionics modi- Tracking and Data Relay Satellite system, fications, C-17 parachutes and load extrac- and Shuttle flight and landing support. tion systems, advanced fighter technology US. Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA). Sys- integration, and air- and ground-launched tems and projects supported at USAKA in cruise missiles. 1986 included Minuteman and Peacekeeper testing, and the SDI's Delta 180 twin-satel- 4950th Test Wing. The 4950th Test Wing, lite space mission. Implementation of the based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Compact of Free Association between the Ohio, tests military systems, subsystems, and United States and the Republic of the Mar- components for the Air Force Systems Com- shall Islands ensures that USAKA will con- mand (AFSC). In 1986, the 4950th Test Wing, tinue to be available to support the continued support to DoD and NASA with requirements of the SDI and the developmen- the Advanced Range-Instrumentation Air- tal and operational testing of U.S. strategic craft, which serves key telemetry, data proc- offensive missiles. USAKA is one of two DoD essing, and command control functions ranges agreed to in the ABM Treaty for bal- during aeronautical flight testing and space listic missile defense testing. USAKA has missions. unique capabilities for collecting signature 6585th Test Group The 6585th Test Group data on objects in space, recording missile re- is located at Holloman Air Force Base, New entry phenomena, providing terminal trajec- Mexico, and is responsible for operation of the tory and impact data, and recovering reentry Central Inertial Guidance %st Facility, the vehicles. Radar !krget Scatter Facility, and the High Armament Division (AD). The AD, at Eglin Speed Test Track. These facilities support in- Air Force Base, Florida, conducts research, ertial navigation system training, high-speed engineering development, test evaluation, sled track simulations, and antenna and ra- and initial acquisition of Air Force non- dar cross section measurements. In 1986, pro- nuclear munitions. It operates 43 aircraft, grams supported included the B-B1, Trident, and uses 50 instrumented test ranges cover- Small Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, Ad- ing 724 square miles of land, and 86,500 vanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missiles, square miles of water, extending nearly 240 and Crew Escape Systems Technology. The miles south into the Gulf of Mexico. In 1986, Test Group is also the airspace manager for AD tested the Advanced Medium Range Air- the White Sands Missile Range.

72 Relations with NASA

National Space Transportation and Sup port Study DoD participated in a joint study with NASA on next-generation space transportation requirements, architecture, and technology. Study results, which were reported in May 1986, and provided to the Na- tional Security Council, show that a mixed fleet, consisting of a new cargo and manned launch vehicles, will be required to meet the Nation’s civil and national security space transportation needs of the late 1990’s and early 21st century. The study results are being used to direct technology programs that will allow next-generation space transportation systems to be much more cost effective than current systems.

73 Department of Commerce

Three agencies of the Department of Com- The primary role of the National Bureau of merce-the National Oceanic and Atmos- Standards (NBS) in space is to support funda- pheric Administration, the National Bureau mental research and testing in aerospace of Standards, and the National Telecommuni- technology, particularly in the areas of mate- cations and Information Administration- rials and processes. made contributions to U.S. aeronautics and As the worldwide demand for frequencies in space programs in 1986. the radio spedrum increases, eff&ive alloca- The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- tion and management of this limited resource ministration (NOAA)continued its operation are essential. The role ofthe National "blemm- of the TIROSMOAA and GOES families of munications and Information Administration environmental satellites. NOAA uses these (NTIA) is to help develop and coordinate U.S. spacecraft to sense and collect data about policy in space communications. conditions in the atmosphere, oceans, near- space, and on land. It transmits the data, in Space Systems raw and processed form, to the user community, which applies them to operational and Satellite Operations research use. This community consists of national and international participants, includ- -ing the U.S. military. The most notable uses The satellites operated by NOAA include of NOAA satellite observations are for fore- both polar-orbiting and geostationary space- casting weather and issuing storm or natural craft. Each of the two polar-orbiting satel- disaster warnings. The TIROS/NOAA and lites, interchangeably called TIROS and GOES satellites are operated by NOAA's Na- NOAA, move in circular, Sunsynchronous or- tional Environmental Satellite, Data, and In- bits 450 nautical miles above the Earth's sur- formation Service, which also archives face and are inclined 98.7 degrees to the Equator. Since the spacecraft orbit the Earth at the same rate as the Earth moves about the Sun, the time of day that they view the Earth does not change. Each of the two satellites that comprise the TIROSMOAA system views every point on the globe at least twice daily, once in daylight, and once at night. The polar-orbiting satellites observe the Earth in the visible and infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum by means of an Advanced Very High Resultion Radiometer (AVHRR) that provides images of cloud cover, surface water, land masses, snow and ice, and TIROSINOAA spacecraft. measures surface temperatures. A TIFtOS Operational Vertical Sounder ("C)VS) senses the data obtained from spacecraft observa- radiant energy from the atmosphere to deter- tions. Data and satellite-derived products mine water vapor content and construct a and services are distributed by NOAA's Na- temperature profile from the surface to the tional Weather Service, National Ocean upper stratosphere; a Space Environment Service, and National Marine Fisheries Serv- Monitor (SEM) measures energetic particles ice. In addition, the information provided by at orbital altitude; and an ARGOS Data Col- the satellites is used by NOAA's Oceanic and lection and Platform Location System (DC- Atmospheric Research Laboratories to de- PLS), provided by France, collects and relaye velop a better understanding of the composi- information from environment-sensing plat- tion and processes of the Earth's air, sea, and forms, such as buoys and balloons, and pro- land environment. vides the data to track them. The Search and

75 Rescue System (SAR) receives and retrans- NOAA 9 provided the agency’s polar-orbiting mits messages sent by persons in distress service for most of the year. Originally through Emergency Locator Transmitters launched in 1979, NOAA 6 was reactivated and Emergency Position-Indicating Radio and returned to service, replacing NOAA 8 Beacons. These retransmissions are used in when it became unusable. Although NOAA 6 the dispatch of search and rescue parties. operated without part of its vertical sounding In addition to recording and storing data system and tape recorders, it was able to for NOAA’s Command and Data Acquisition function until a new spacecraft, NOAA 10, Stations located at Wallops, Virginia, and Fairbanks, Alaska, TIROSNOAA spacecraft provide continuous broadcast services for domestic and foreign stations. High and low resolution AVHRR imagery, and TOVS sounding data are broadcast. They are known as High Resolution Picture Transmission, Automatic Picture Transmission, and Direct Sounder Broadcast services. With respect to the surface of the Earth, the Geostationary Operational Environmen- tal Satellite (GOES), remains stationary. At an orbital altitude of 19,300 miles, its rate of angular movement around the Earth equals that of the Earth’s rotation. Consequently, its observing position over the Equator remains fixed and the spacecraft maintains an uninterrupted view of the Earth. Sensing by the Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) on the spacecraft provides day and night images of the Earth, and allows the development of atmospheric temperature profiles and maps of water vapor. In addition, GOES carries a Space Envi- Launch of the NOM 10 satellite from Vandenberg Air Force ronment Monitor (SEM) that reports on the Base on September 17,1986. condition of the Earth’s magnetic field and could be placed in orbit. This was accom- the energetic particle flux at its geosta- plished in a near perfect launch from Vanden- tionary altitude; and a Data Collection Sys- berg Air Force Base on September 17, 1986. tem (DCS) that relays the data sensed in-situ NOAA 10 became operational on November by environmental reporting platforms. Un- 19, 1986. like polar-orbiting spacecraft, the GOES has no platform-locating capability. Because Geostationary Satellites. As the only GOES some of the platforms must be interrogated, satellite that was fully operational at the bean interrogation signal is broadcast that in- ginning of the year, GOES 6 continued to pro- cludes precise National Bureau of Standards vide imaging and sounding data throughout time. Also, GOES serves as a means to broad- 1986. In a “one-GOES operating mode,” it cast processed environmental data, such as was positioned above 98 degrees west to sup- imagery, charts, and alpha-numerics through ply coverage for the summedfall hurricane a product distribution technique called season. From its alternate wintedspring po- Weather Facsimile (WEFAX). sition at 108 degrees west, maximum cover- The normal operational configuration for age of winter weather from the Pacific Ocean the GOES system includes one spacecraft and Gulf of Alaska was achieved. WEFAX, placed at 75 degrees west and one at 135 de- DCS, and SEM services were provided using grees west. From these locations they can ob- the standby satellites, GOES 2, 3, 4, and 5, serve the eastern and western parts of the which no longer had imaging capability. United States and their adjacent ocean areas. In early May 1986,an attempt was made to Other GOES satellites, used for communica- launch a new GOES satellite, GOES G, that tions relay, may be positioned elsewhere. would have reinstituted a full two-GOES sys- Polar-Orbiting Satellites. NOAA 6 and tem. The effort resulted in failure when the

76 GOES spacecraft. Artist’s conception of a “GOES-Next” satellite. main engine of the Delta launch vehicle shut EOSAT has begun to develop a satellite re- down prematurely; subsequently, the GOES ceiving center in Norman, Oklahoma and an G satellite had to be destroyed. GOES H, the operations and control center in Princeton, last of the current series of GOES spacecraft, New Jersey to be used for ground data cap- is scheduled for launch in February 1987. ture, processing, and flight control for Land- GOES-Next. During 1986, the Ford Aero- sat 6. space and Communications Corporation pur- sued the design and development of the next-generation GOES spacecraft, GOES I- Satellite Data Servlces M, and associated ground equipment. Launch of the first in the new series of spacecraft is expected in 1989. LANDSAT Commercialized Operations. During 1986, NOAA provided the following Pursuant to the Land Remote Sensing Com- satellite data services made possible by the mercialization Act of 1984, the Earth Obser- observing and communicating capabilities of vation Satellite Company (EOSAT) operated TIROS/NOAA and GOES spacecraft: the Landsat land remote sensing satellite GOES Data Collection System (DCS). In system for NOAA in 1986. Construction of 1986, the System had an increase of over the next-generation Landsat 6 satellite has 2,000 environment-sensing data collection been halted pending Congressional approval platform assignments. DCS buoy, aircraft, of an Administration funding plan required river gauge, and other data were distributed under the FY 1987 Continuing Resolution. to 69 national and 30 international users Once approved, new sensor packages will be which included 26 direct readout stations (20 developed that include the Enhanced The- domestic and 5 non-U.S.). The second edition matic Mapper, featuring a 15-meter resolu- of the GOES DCS Users Catalog was com- tion panchromatic band, and other spectral pleted and distributed, and contains the data bands, including thermal infrared; and a collected, user identification, and addresses Wide Field Sensor that will provide low reso- of all platforms operating within the System. lution, wide area coverage suitable for land WEFM.Using three GOES spacecraft, the and ocean studies. Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) service broadcast processed satellite imagery, meteorologi- ture analyses were added to charts that cover cal analyses and prognoses, operational mes- U.S. coastal waters, and are being used by sages, and satellite ephemeris bulletins. The forecast offices of the National Weather Serv- number of known WEFAX users increased to ice. In August 1986, the creation of a new 220 (107 domestic and 113 non-U.S.). archive on sea surface temperature observa- Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Centel: In April 1986, tions was initiated for the Tropical Ocean a Letter of Agreement was signed between and Global Atmosphere ("!AGO) project of the the Navy and NOAA to improve data process- World Climate Research Program. ing capabilities at the NavyNOAA Joint Ice Satellite Weather Information System Center in Suitland, Maryland. The acquisi- (SWIS). The National Weather Service com- tion and installation of a digital image proc- pleted development of the Satellite Weather essing system at the Center will allow Information System (SWrS) which will pro- significantly enhanced operational ice data vide sophisticated capabilities for display and analyses and predictions for both the mili- animation of GOES imagery at all forecast tary and civil communities. offices and national centers. In early 1987, will be integrated with the Automa- Atmospheric WAS) SWIS GOES-VISSR Sounder tion of Field Operatione and Services system Datu In mid-June 1986, a VAS Data Utiliza- at field sites, and will allow simultaneous tion Center was delivered to the National En- display of GOES imagery and numerical vironmental Satellite, Data, and Information guidance products, such as charts, that are Service to evaluate its usefulness in applying generated from the National Meteorological GOES VAS data to monitor tropical storms, Center. Animation of GOES images and su- severe weather outbreaks, and major winter perposition of guidance products will improve storms. Evaluation results were extremely the ability of forecasters to monitor guidance favorable, and three additional Centers have material and track severe weather. been proposed to support the National Mete- Search and Rescue. In 1986, the interna- orological, National Severe Storms, and Na- tional satellite search and rescue service pro- tional Hurricane Centers. vided by Canada, France, the United States, Atmospheric Temperature and Moisture and the Soviet Union was responsible for the Sounding. The year 1986 marked the seventh rescue of 178 people, for a total of about 700 year of atmospheric soundings produced people, to date. In January 1986, a prototype through NOAA's polar-orbiting satellite sys- user awareness program to reduce the 99 per- tem. In April, a major improvement was cent false alarm rate for the 121.5 MHk fre- made with the implementation of the TIROS quency was initiated in Alaska. In August, a Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) En- similar program began in California; the gov- hancement Sounding System. The System ernor proclaimed a false alarm awareness produces soundings at a higher horizontal day, and a legislative resolution was intro- resolution in meteorologically active areas, duced proclaiming 1987 as the year of air and and provides additional temperature and maritime safety. moisture data where they are most needed. In January 1986, the Maritime Safety The increase in resolution was accomplished Committee of the International Maritime Or- without compromising data accuracy. Proc- ganization (IMO) approved 406 MHz as the essing efficiency was improved with new com- primary frequency for the float-free emer- puter facilities that allow soundings to be gency position indicating radio beacons for provided to the user community within 1 the future global maritime distress and hour and 20 minutes of satellite data read- safety system. out. Fisheries, Based on Coastal Zone Color Sea Surface Temperatures. Observations of Scanner information obtained by NASA's sea surface temperatures, made at 8 kilome- Nimbus 7 satellite, experimental charts of ter resolution, are produced from polar- the eastern Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of orbiting satellite infrared data and Mexico were prepared showing the location of transmitted to the National Meteorological weather mass boundaries that are useful in Center of the National Weather Service, the locating potentially productive fishing areas. Navy Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center, With this information, it was estimated that and the World Meteorological Organization the Gulf commercial fishing fleet could save for use in oceanographic and meteorological 20 percent of its time and expense in longline products. A variety of sea surface tempera- fishing operations. Creation of the charts,

78 made at the request of the fishing industry, Techniques used for processing satellite im- was a joint project of the National Marine agery were used to create and interpret a Fisheries Service, National Ocean Service, stereo-physiographic map of the world. Digi- Scripps Institute of Oceanography, and God- tal elevations and bathymetry data archived dard Space Flight Center. at NOAA’s National Geophysical Data Cen- Space Environment Services. NOAA’s Space ter were processed to create the map, which Environment Services Center prepares a was presented at the annual meeting of the weekly summary of variations in the space Geological Society of America. The map gives environment that includes solar activity and scientists a unique perspective of the Earth’s its effects on the terrestrial environment. In physiography and is useful in interpreting 1986, a set of plots describing conditions in global-scale features that may improve un- the geostationary environment that may be derstanding of the Earth’s geological proc- deleterious to spacecr& was added to its esses. data base. naining. During 1986, NOAA’s commitment to training in the applications of satel- lnternatlonal Actlvltles lite imagery increased. A major effort was initiated to ensure coordinated interagency satellite training with films, laboratory exer- World Administrative Radio Conferences. cises, audio cassettes, and tape-slide pro- World Administrative Radio Conferences grams. The Satellite Applications (WARC’s) are conducted under the aegis of Laboratory of the National Environmental the International Telecommunication Union Satellite, Data, and Information Service 0,and the National Telecommunications (NESDIS) began conducting two training and Information Administration (NTIA) of courses annually for U.S. Navy officers. In the Department of Commerce actively partic- addition, training was provided to National ipates in them. The NTIA prepared for the Weather Service and Air Force forecasters, 1987 Mobile WARC and the 1988 ORB(2) and to Navy reservists. In 1986, approxi- WARC, both of which will be of major impor- mately 1,000 persons received satellite appli- tance to US.space interests. cations training from NOAA. Proposed changes to the ITU Radio Regula- The National Weather Service and NES- tions that were proposed at the 1987 Mobile DIS jointly developed a training program on WARC include allocation of 1500/1600 MHz satellite imagery interpretation, emphasiz- to the Radio Determination Satellite Service ing imagery animation. The program’s two (RDSS) and Mobile Satellite Service (MSS). components consist of a handbook on imag- The RDSS would use satellites to provide us- ery interpretation, and a collection of video- ers with specific information on their loca- tapes depicting various aspects of imagery tion for management, inventory, and safety. analysis. The handbook entitled “NWS Fore- The MSS allocation would accommodate land casting Handbook #6, Satellite Imagery In- mobile, aeronautical mobile, and maritime terpretation for Forecasters” is a collection of mobile services. The WARC on the Use of the 54 papers divided into eight chapters. Each Geostationary Satellite Orbit and the Plan- chapter covers a unique meteorological phe- ning of Space Services Utilizing It, commonly nomenon ranging from basic interpretation known as the ORB(2) WARC, will address the and synoptic scale analysis to convection and critical issue of equitable access to the geo- fog stratus. The collection of four twenty- stationary orbit for all countries. minute videotapes covers topics on basic Advanced Communication Technology Sa& cloud identification, tropical upper-air vortex ellite Experimentation Planning continued motion, fog and stratus indentifkation, and for experiments that NTIA will conduct us- absolutehelative cloud motions. Distributed ing the Advanced Communications Technol- in the summer of 1986, the tapes supplement ogy Satellite (ACTS) under development by two other tapes that depict the initiation of NASA. Experiments projected include net- convection and thunderstorm outflow bound- work and switching performance measure- aries from the satellite perspective. Other ments, system performance measurements, tapes, covering both synoptic and mesoscale utilizing the user-oriented performance pa- frontal analysis, will be developed and dis- rameters recommended by American Na- tributed in early 1987. tional Standard X3.102-1983, beam- Stereo Physiographic Map of the World pointing, timing accuracy measurements,

79 and propagation studies. Results of these ity space environments to measure very high experiments are expected to provide idorma- temperature thermophysical properties of liq- tion important to future satellite communica- uids and solids was explored. Heat transfer tions systems. analyses made on the behavior of liquid oxy- Assistance to the Egyptian Government. gen and liquid hydrogen in a low gravity en- NOMS National Geophysical Data Center vironment, similar to that experienced by the (NGDC) provided technical assistance to the Space Shuttle, have implications for future Minerals, Petroleum and Groundwater As- experiments that will be conducted on the sessment Program of the Egyptian Govern- Space Station. ment, an effort sponsored by the U.S. Agency In the area of materials science, NBS pro- for International Development. NGDC as- vided consultation to aerospace companies on sisted in processing and interpreting satellite the feasibility of fabricating a liquid hydro- imagery, and integrating satellite images gen or slush hydrogen fuel tank from all- with geophysical data for resource explora- graphite epoxy composites for the proposed tion and assessment. Aero-Space Plane. In an effort to find safer CGMS. In November 1986, the Coordina- components for launch vehicles and ground- tion of Geostationary Meteorological Satel- based support systems, NBS also studied the lites (CGMS) group, consisting of ignition and combustion characteristics of representatives from the United States, Ja- metals that come into contact with high pres- pan, India, the Soviet Union, and the Euro- sure oxygen. pean Meteorological Satellite (EUMETSATI Using funding supplied by INTELSAT, community, met in New Delhi, India. In- NBS made a comparative evaluation of mea- cluded in its agenda were issues such as re- surement techniques that could be used to laying Indian satellite imagery data to the determine the performance of antennas on United States; planning for contingencies the new INTELSAT VI spacecraft. The objec- where one satellite replaces another; chang- tive of the evaluation was to-find the mea- ing the schedule for Data Collection System surement technique best suited for such a (DCS) platform-reporting; and refining complex system. When completed, the evalu- satellite-borne calibration techniques. ation will benefit measurement support for ARGOS. In 1986, the Centre National all emerging high-performance satellites. d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) created a subsidi- ary organization responsible for all promo- Detection of Gravitational Waves. Scientists tional and operational activities of the at NBS assessed the practicality of using a ARGOS system. In the spring of 1987, a laser, on an experimental basis, to detect CNES ARGOS data processing center will gravitational waves in space that last about become operational in the Washington, D.C., 0.1 seconds or longer. The detection of such area. waves or pulses by means of a laser would International Training. In 1986, visiting provide an entirely new way to study events foreign scientists were trained by NOAA in in the universe that involve very large applications of remote sensing data obtained masses. These events include collisions of by environmental satellites that included es- massive black holes, thought to exist at the timating precipitation from satellite imag- center of many galaxies, that probably pro- ery, assessing climate, forecasting weather vide the energy source for quasars. and crops, and managing satellite data. Earth's Atmospheric Chemistry. Through a cooperative agreement with NASA, NBS engaged in experiments on the chemical dy- Research namics of gas phase processes (reaction rates and mechanisms) selected for their importance to the study of atmospheric chemistry. Technology fir Space Flight. In 1986, re- The results of these experiments are expected search resources of the National Bureau of to assist in modeling various atmospheric Standards were applied to a variety of space phenomena, such as the effects of natural flight-related subjects: and atmospheric emissions on the stratos- Studies on fluid-fluid and fluid-solid inter- pheric ozone layer, atmospheric radiation faces were conducted as prototype experi- budget (greenhouse effect), and tropospheric ments for low gravity research in an orbiting acid precipitation. laboratory. The feasibility of using low grav- Planetary Atmospheres. In a program sponsored by NASA, in collaboration with several sion of NOAA's National Hurricane Center universities, NBS investigated far infrared used the communications capability of the absorption spectra that result from collisions GOES Data Collection System. Atmospheric of nonpolar molecules found in the atmo- sounding data from the mid- and lower- spheres of the outer planets. The investiga- troposphere were transmitted by dropwind- tion is expected to lead to a better sondes to a NOAA aircraft and, subsequently, understanding of the nature of thermal emis- relayed by an aircraft-to-GOES data link. sions from these atmospheres, the amount of Also, the TIROS/NOAA spacecraft provided gases such as hydrogen, helium, methane, support by relaying data from drifting buoys. and nitrogen, and to determine temperature profiles. Satellite Magnetometel: To determine the Aeronautical Programs practicality of various designs for the Geo- magnetic Autonomous Shuttle-Launched Probe (GASP), a three-phase study was con- Charting. As part of its continuing respon- ducted for the Navy by NOAA's National Geo- sibility to produce charts, NOAA's National physical Data Center. GASP will serve as the Ocean Service developed a Pacific Oceanic survey platform for the Naval Oceanographic Route Chart, for use by Federal Aviation Ad- Ofice's Project MAGNET. The study investi- ministration air traffic controllers, and a gated cheaper and simpler ways to survey the Navigational Aid Digital Data File that con- geomagnetic field by satellite. tains the geographic position, type, and The COHMEX Experiment. In the summer unique characteristics of every navigational of 1986, the Cooperative Huntsville Meso- aid in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the scale Experiment (COHMEX) was conducted Virgin Islands. to provide a better understanding of thunderstorms and their associated downbursts. It was supported by GOES and TIFtOS/NOAA spacecraft, Doppler radars, NOAA special ra- winsonde coverage, the Federal Aviation Ad- ministration, aircraft flights sponsored by the National Science Foundation, and special Tennessee Valley Authority rain gauge and surface reports. The experiment included studies of microbursts and severe thunderstorms in a moist environment; downburst influence on aircraft performance; mesoscale environments as they affect precipitating storm development and evolution; and arc cloud lines to understand thunderstorm outflow dynamics and how outflow interacts with local environments to influence deep convective storms. Satellite Cloud CZimatology In a program that compiles a global data set of calibrated visible and infrared radiances, the Satellite Research Laboratory of NOAA's National En- vironmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service collected data from international geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites. The radiances will be processed into a cloud data set that includes cloud top temperatures, volumes, heights, and optical thick- ness, helpful information to understand the role of clouds in the Earth's radiation budget and hydrological cycle. Hurricane Research. In its 1986 hurricane field program, the Hurricane Research Divi- Department of Energy

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and generate electricity. Thermoelectric elements predecessor agencies, (the Atomic Energy in the converter section convert heat, gener- Commission, and the Energy Research and ated by decay of the radioisotope, to electric- Development Administration) have sup- ity by means of a basic material property ported efforts to design, develop, produce, and referred to as the Seebeck effect. Plutonium- deliver Radioisotope Thermoelectric Genera- 238 fuel has been used to power all U.S. space tors (RTG's) for highly specialized space and RTG's launched to date. terrestrial applications. In fact, 1986 marked The remarkable success of RTG's in space the 25th anniversary of the first use of RTGs, applications can be attributed to RTG techno- previously referred to as Systems for Nuclear logical advances that improved systems Auxiliary Power (SNAP). Over this time, the safety and efficiency, as reflected in enhanced RTGs delivered by DOE to the National specific power and increased power output. Aeronautics and Space Administration For example, mission power was increased (NASA), and to the Department of Defense from the SNAP-3A's 2.7 watts of electricity, (DOD) provided safe and highly reliable elec- used on the TRANSIT navigational satellite trical power sources that contributed to the launched in 1961, to about 158 watts of elec- success of some of the most ambitious and tricity from the MHW-RTG's used on NASA's spectacular astronautical events ever under- Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977. The taken by the United States. The five SNAP- specific power for these two systems in- 27 RTGs, launched between 1969 and 1972, creased from 1.29 to 4.2 watts of electricity to power the Apollo lunar experimental pack- per kilogram. This improvement was the ages, were still operational when the lunar result of enhanced design features, including stations were closed in September 1977. The the use of silicon-germanium (SiGe) thermo- SNAP-19 RTGs, launched in 1975 on the Vi- electrics in the MHW-RTG, as opposed to the king Lander, allowed an extended mission on lead-tellurium technology used in the the surface of Mars. The SNAP-19 RTG's, SNAP-3A. The use of SiGe thermoelectrics launched in 1972 and 1973 on the Pioneer 10 increased system efficiency to 6.6 percent, and 11 missions to Jupiter, are still opera- compared to 5.1 percent in the SNAP-3A; a tional. Pioneer 11 has flown past both Jupi- fuel change from plutonium metal to pressed ter and Saturn, and Pioneer 10 has passed oxide contributed to system safety, and al- the orbit of Pluto, the outermost planet. The lowed RTG systems to operate at higher tem- MultiHundred-Watt (MHW) RTG's, launched peratures (approximately 1,000 degrees in 1977 on the Voyager 1and 2 spacecraft, are Centigrade), which yield higher specific still operational. This has allowed NASA to powers. The successful performance of the complete long-duration flights to Jupiter and MHW-RTG's resulted in the use of SiGe Saturn; and in 1986, Voyager 2 made a spec- technology for the high power, 285 watts, tacular flyby of Uranus. Voyager 1 is now General-Purpose Heat Source RTG (GPHS- headed for Neptune. RTG). The GPHS-RTG has a specific power of 5.2 watts of electricity per kilogram, compared to the MHW-RTG's 4.2 watts of elec- Space Nuclear Power Systems tricity per kilogram. Four flight qualified GPHS-RTG's were fabricated and tested by DOE, and are available to support NASA's Space nuclear power systems are of two ba- Galileo and Ulysses missions. sic types: reactors or isotopic, and are gener- The improved designs of the RTG's have ally categorized by the type of energy consistently demonstrated that they are de- conversion systems used, either static or dy- pendable power supplies that are indepen- namic. The RTG is a static isotopic power sys- dent of the external environment. Designs, tem that consists of a radioisotope heat ranging from the SNAP-3A to the MHW- source thermally coupled to a converter seg- RTG, have provided power at or exceeding re- ment; it is not dependent on moving parts to quirements. The MHW-RTGs have operated five years beyond their projected lifetime, tiveness of space nuclear reactor technology which was demonstrated in January 1986 by that can provide up to about one megawatt of the Voyager 2 encounter with the distant electric power for military and civilian space planet Uranus. Similarly, improved design missions in the 1990’s and beyond. Com- features are reflected in the construction of pleted in 1985, Phase I of the program estab- the newest GPHS-RTG’s. A unique feature of lished technical and safety feasibility, and the GPHS-RTG is that it is fueled with a one power system concept was selected for modular heat source that improves safety further development and testing. Phase I1 ac- and provides a higher specific power. The tivities, that will be conducted from 1986 RTG has 18 fueled modules, each containing through 1992, involve civilian and military 250 thermal watts of plutonium-238 in the mission analyses, defining requirements, de- form of oxide pellets. DOE continues to sup- veloping and testing a prototype SP-100 port studies of RTG design, heat source mate- space reactor power system, and pursuing ad- rials, and thermoelectric materials to ensure vanced aerosyace technology that could im- optimum performance on future space mis- prove system capability in the future. sions, such as those using Mariner Mark I1 Under the Phase 11 agreement reached by Class spacecraft. DOE, DOD, and NASA, DOE is responsible for In January 1986, four GPHS-RTG’s (F-1, SP-100 Ground Engineering System (GES) de- F-3, F-4, F-51, were sent to the Kennedy velopment and testing; DOD’s Strategic De- Space Center (KSC) to prepare for the Galileo fense Initiative Organization, using the Air and Ulysses space missions. However, due to Force as its executing agent, is responsible for the tragic accident of the Space Shuttle Chal- military mission analyses and defining re- lenger, they were not used as intended. Nev- quirements; and NASA is responsible for civil- ertheless, the RTG’s were used at KSC to ian missions analyses and defining provide direct system integration data, such requirements, and investigating advanced aer- as matching the F-1 and F-5 RTG’s to the ospace technologies that could enhance an SP- Galileo spacecraft, and experiments were 100 power system in the future. conducted using the F-3 RTG and the U1- SP-100 Ground Engineering System (GES). ysses spacecraft. Subsequently, the RTGs In late 1986, contract negotiations for GES were returned to DOE’S Mound Plant in Ohio were initiated with contract selection ex- for servicing, monitoring, and safekeeping pected in the fall of 1987. The contract pack- until required by future missions. Under sim- age, which represents the largest and most ulated space conditions, testing of the important activity of the SP-100 Phase I1 GPHS-RTG Qualification Unit, and the elec- program, contains extensive system defini- trically heated Engineering Unit continued, tion requirements that must be met to satisfy and demonstrated power performance to de- program objectives. sign specifications. The Lightweight Radio- During Phase 11, a prototypical space reac- isotope Heater Units, consisting of 134 units tor will be tested in a vacuum chamber, of approximately 1 watt each that will be which simulates the space environment. used to keep instruments warm on the Gali- Plans were made to modify facility designs, leo spacecraft, also were returned for storage and to refine resource estimates to meet the at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. GES schedule and test program objectives. Building upon the success of SiGe thermo- Z’kchnology Development. To continue high electric technology, DOE sponsored the devel- priority work on thermoelectric materials and cell fabrication, technology contracts opment of a Modular RTG (MOD-RTG) that were awarded to develop and characterize offers the potential of higher power per unit high temperature thermoelectric cell insula- mass, based upon a modular concept compati- tor materials that are thermally and chemi- ble with the Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft. Also, work continued on development of a cally compatible with long-term operation; to multicouple (a collection of thermoelectric el- synthesize thermoelectric materials, and ements bonded together), with emphasis develop thermal and electrical contact bonds; placed upon improving the insulating glass and to design, fabricate, and test compliant that separates the thermoelectric elements. pads for the thermoelectric cells using state- of-the-art materials and production proc- SP-100 Space Reactor Program esses. The goal of the SP-100 Space Reactor pro- Testing continued on fuels and materials gram is to develop, and demonstrate the effec- irradiation. Three fuel irradiation tests were

84 conducted in DOE’s Experimental Breeder DOE laboratories, that produce the detec- Reactor Number I1 (EBR 11). To date, maxi- tion systems, maintain continuous programs mum burn up is 3.6 atom percent, which rep- to improve related technology. The goals are resents more than one-half the design life. to obtain improved energy resolution, faster Post-irradiation examination of the first two sensor response times, wider spectra cover- sets of fuel pin tests were completed, and the age, compression of data processing, greater results agreed with predictions. Materials survivability, and development of new appli- test specimens irradiated in EBR-I1 were re- cations and sensors. Also, in order to enhance moved from the reactor, and shipped to DOE’s event discrimination and prevent false Hanford Engineering Development Labora- alarms, considerable research is devoted to tory (now Westinghouse Hanford Company) the study of satellite operating environ- for examination and testing. Also, planning ments. Many developmental experiments are and design of the test capsule for prototype flown aboard NASA satellites, and many are fuels and materials irradiation in DOE’s Fast conducted jointly with other nations. Flux Test Facility continued. Materials to produce fuel for the GES reactor test were installed. Hyperstoichiometric uranium ni- tride fuel pellets were fabricated in large batches, and analyzed at the Los Alamos Na- tional Laboratory. Program Planning. Program planning activities underway include the development and implementation of an SP-100 Project Plan, a Project Management Plan, a Compre- hensive Safety Program Plan, detailed Safety Implementation Plans for each participant, and a rigorous Quality and Reliability Pro- gram Plan. Plans also were finalized for the technical work to be performed by the participating federal laboratories, particularly in the areas of fuel and materials fabrication and testing, thermoelectric materials development and testing, and characterization of heat transport components. Phase I1 activities will lead to Flight Sys- tem Production, Qualification, and Applica- tiodDemonstration, the third and final phase of the SP-100 program, scheduled for 1992 through 1995. Included in Phase I11 is actual launch and first use of the technology in spaceflight.

Nuclear Test Detection

DOE continues to support the national requirement to verify compliance with the Limited Test Ban Treaty and the Nonprolifer- ation Treaty by producing nuclear detonation detection systems deployed as secondary payloads aboard DOD satellites. These systems consist of optical and direct radiation sensors, and are the primary means of monitoring nuclear testing in the atmosphere. They are also the only systems capable of detecting nuclear detonations in space.

85 Department of the Interior

As the Nation's principal conservation During 1986, approximately 40,000 Landsat agency, the Department of the Interior is re- Thematic Mapper 0 and Multispectral sponsible for most of the nationally owned Scanner (MSS) images were processed and public lands and natural resources. This re- added to the archive, bringing the total U.S. sponsibility entails fostering the wisest use archive to 750,000 images. The EROS Data of land and water resources, protecting fish Center maintains a computer-based catalog and wildlife, preserving the environmental and inquiry system for these images and list- and cultural values of national parks and his- ings of over 800,000 images held by certain torical places, and ensuring the enjoyment of foreign Landsat ground receiving stations. life through outdoor recreation. The Depart- During 1986, approximately 26,000 film and ment monitors energy and mineral resources digital Landsat products were generated and to ensure that their development is in the distributed to users worldwide. Nation's best interest. Also, the Department NOAA and the USGS have developed a sys- has a major responsibility for residents of tem at the EROS Data Center to receive and American Indian reservations and Island process NOMSAdvanced Very High Resolub "brritories under the administration of the tion Radiometer (AVHRR) data of the conter- United States. minous United States. In 1986, design and Frequently, the Department relies on data procurement of the system were completed, acquired by satellite and aircraft sensors to and operation is scheduled to begin in 1987. inventory and monitor lands under its man- The system will generate selected AVHRR agement, and maintains an active program of data that are optimized for land science ap- research and technique development in re- plications consistent with the Department's mote sensing, digital cartography, and geo- research and land management responsibili- graphic information systems. During 1986, ties, and for other Federal research purposes. bureaus and agencies of the Department of the Interior participating in remote secsing and digital data applications included the Aerial Photographs Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Mines, Mineral In 1986, contracting for the National High Management Service, National Park Service, Altitude Photography (NHAP)program was U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Geo- completed. The initial phase, NWI, was logical Survey. begun in 1980 by participating Federal agencies to acquire simultaneous 1:80,000-scale black-and-white and 1:58,000-scale color- Remotely Sensed Data Acqulsltlon infrared aerial photographs of the contermi- and Processing nous United States during the nongrowing (leaf-off) season. Photographs covering over 2,900,000 square miles, or about 95 percent Satellite Data of the conterminous United States, were acquired under NHAP I and are available to The Earth Resources Observation Systems the public from the USGS and the U.S. De- (EROS) Data Center of the US. Geological partment of Agriculture. It is anticipated Survey (USGS) continued to support the tran- that all photographic acquisitions for NHAP sition of Landsat operations, data marketing, I will be completed by the end of 1987. and data sales from the National Oceanic The second major phase, NHAP 11, began in and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to 1985 as a 5-year plan to acquire 1:80,000- the Earth Observation Satellite (EOSAT) scale black-and-white and 1:58,000-scale Company, the commercial operator of Land- color-infrared aerial photographs of the con- sat. The EROS Data Center supported NOAA terminous United States with two differences and EOSAT in archiving, processing, and dis- from NHAP I: image acquisition is scheduled tributing Landsat data products to users. during the growing (leaf-on)season, and work

87 is contracted by complete State units rather as image strips, lo by 2O mosaics, and, for than by lo blocks. During 1985 and 1986, selected areas, as computer-compatible tapes. 460,192 square miles were contracted; by the end of 1986, 80 percent of the 1985 acquisitions and 57 percent of the 1986 acquisitions Digital Data Processing were completed, covering a total of 200,800 and lkansmission square miles. After a reassessment of individual Federal Software Development and Implementation and State agency needs, the NHAP Program was redesigned to meet current requirements for higher resolution aerial photographs. The In 1986, the cooperative development ef- new program, called the National Aerial Pho- forts of the National Aeronautics and Space tography Program (NAPP), will provide com- Administration's (NASA) Goddard Space plete, standardized, and uniform-quality Flight Center and the USGS culminated in coverage of the 48 conterminous United the implementation and release of the Land States. New photographs will be acquired Analysis System (LAS) for general use by sev- from an altitude of 20,000 feet with a single eral government and academic organiza- 6-inch focal length camera exposing color- tions. LAS is an image processing and infrared film at a scale of 1:40,000. The pho- geographic information system that provides tographs will be centered on quarter sections a broad range of capabilities, including im- of standard 7.5-minute quadrangles. NAPP age processing and analysis, tabular data will begin in 1987, and photographs of all or processing and analysis, geographic data cap- parts of 12 States will be acquired. ture and manipulation, and geometric registration and image mosaicking. The system is Sidehoking Airborne Radar Data used for enhancing Landsat digital images, producing geometrically registered and mo- saicked image maps, integrating raster and In 1986, the USGS Side-Looking Airborne vector data sets, and merging different image Radar (SLAR) program continued, and a con- types, such as Landsat TM and the French tract was awarded to acquire data covering Systeme Probatoire #Observation de la Terre approximately 206,000 square miles in the (SPOT). LAS was developed to link several conterminous United States, Alaska, the heterogeneous computer systems, using local-area network file transfer over high- speed communication lines, and is used in approximately 20 facilities throughout the United States. NASA and the USGS are working together to enhance system capability and improve system portability. Use of LAS software in low-cost, workstation-oriented computer systems continues to receive high priority within the USGS, and is expected to result in a wide range of applications far beyond the basic image processing capabilities that were envisioned. The availability of workstation hardware from Digital Equipment Corporation (MicroVAX systems) Status map showing extent of coverage by the USGS Slda allowed easy application of most of the LAS. Looking Alrborno Radar (SLAR) program. Because the LAS program also supports use of applications modules under the UNIX Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the Vir- operating system, it can be installed on a va- gin Islands. From 1980 through 1986, SLAR riety of 32-bit, multiprocessing, supermicro- data were acquired, or contracted for acquisi- based workstations. tion, for more than 941,000 square miles in During 1986, the National Park Service the United States. Acquisition areas are se- (NPS) continued to adapt software to the lected after a review of areas proposed by UNIX operating system, allowing users to State geologists and scientists from private run it on very powerful, yet significantly industry and the USGS. Data are available lower-cost, hardware. The NPS cooperated

88 with NASA’s National Space Technology Lab Renewable Resources oratories to produce an operational UNIX- based version of the Earth Resources A cooperative research project between the Laboratory Applications Software (ELAS). NOAA Satellite Research Laboratory and the ELAS is used by NPS and other Federal and USGS is underway at the EROS Data Center non-Federal agencies to process and classify to evaluate satellite assessment of land sur- multispectral scanner, radar, and other re- face features and climatic variables. The ob- motely sensed data from satellite and air- jective of the study is to determine if craft platforms. Geographical Resources relationships can be established between rou- Analysis Support System (GRASS), devel- tinely available ground-based data and satel- oped by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is lite measurements. Satellite data include another UNIX-based software system daily and weekly composites of AVHRR adopted by the NPS. GRASS is user friendly Global Area Coverage data for the Great and can process both raster and vector data. Plains region of the United States. Geo- Both ELAS and GRASS are being installed graphic information for the area includes po- on UNIX-based workstations for operational litical, topographic, climatic, and land use in national parks and other NPS units. resource data bases that will be used to strat- ify the satellite and ground-based observations. The satellite and ground-based data Polar Satellite Communications sets are expected to contribute to the overall understanding of land surface climatology. The National Wetlands Inventory Project of The USGS is participating in a joint project the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) It0 install and operate the South Pole Satellite identifies and classifies the Nation’s wetland Data Link, the first satellite telecommunica- habitats with the use of high-altitude aerial tions link from the South Pole to the United photographs from the NHAP Program. The States. Participants include the National Sci- USFWS works with the Defense Depart- ence Foundation, University of Texas Applied ment’s Computer-Assisted Photo Interpreta- Research Laboratories, Bendix Field Engi- tion Laboratory, and other groups, to neering Corporation, ITT Antarctic Services, evaluate digital mapping capabilities, such NASA, and NOAA. Installed in 1985, this as wetland data digitization, use of computer telecommunications system was the primary graphics, and analytical photogrammetry. means of transmitting USGS scientific data The USFWS will use these automated meth- daily from the South Pole during 1986. Fur- ods when it becomes cost-effective to do so. ther modifications to the system are planned, Since the early days of the Landsat pro- and it is expected that a broader range of sci- gram, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has entific data will be transmitted in the future. used remotely sensed data from satellites for natural resource applications. Early projects emphasized applications development, while Remote Senslng Applications current activities emphasize operational use. In spite of decreasing program budgets and personnel ceilings, BIA has assigned high Cooperative Federal Land Remote Sensing priority to these activities as a means of Research Program achieving natural resource management objectives. BIA plans to conduct operational and experimental projects, using both Land- The USGS and NOAA signed an agreement sat and SPOT satellite data, that include to establish the Cooperative Federal Land Re- both visual interpretation and digital analy- mote Sensing Research program that will be sis to determine information content. Pro- located at the EROS Data Center. The objec- jects that are already in progress on tive of this program is to conduct land remote reservations include: San Carlos Agency, Ar- sensing research, applications development, izona-a land cover and land use map of the and user education. The program is expected reservation for use in a range survey; Yakima to promote greater operational and research Agency, Washington-evaluation of SPOT use of remotely sensed data and related tech- and Landsat TM data to improve natural re- nology within Federal and State govern- source interpretation; Hopi Agency, Ar- ments, academia, and the private sector. izona-incorporation of remotely sensed data

89 into a geographic information system; and As part of NASA's International Satellite Warm Springs Agency, Oregon-evaluation of Land Surface Climatology program, the SPOT and Landsat TM data to assess forest USGS is using data collected by Landsat and resources. AVHRR to study the relationship between ir- The NPS continues to acquire and use rigation development and climatic change in Landsat TM data, combined with USGS digi- western Nebraska. Data collected during se- tal elevation model data, to develop digital lected years that represent transformations data bases for more than 30 million acres of in vegetation greenness and land surface al- national parks in Alaska. In conjunction bedo (brightness) will be analyzed and com- with the data base development, the NPS is pared to changes in land cover. experimenting with enhancement tech- Landsat TM images are being produced by niques for Landsat TM data to detect all- the USGS to support water resource investi- terrain vehicle (ATV) trail damage to arctic gations in California and Nevada. The im- tundra. Although the width of most ATV ages are used for mapping water-bearing trails is less than the satellite sensor resolu- formations and distinguishing vegetation tion, many trails are being detected because that indicates the presence of ground water. they contrast sharply in tone with the natu- Also, Landsat data are being analyzed to rally vegetated surroundings. As satellites identify and map agricultural crops along the with higher spatial resolution sensors be- lower Colorado River Valley and to determine come available, these techniques may serve the amount of irrigation water that is used by as an effective way to monitor ATV damage the crops and returned to the atmosphere by and subsequent vegetation recovery. evapotranspiration. The information is used to allocate and regulate the use of irrigation Hydrology water. This work is being performed in conjunction with NASA and the State of Ar- izona. In addition, Landsat TM images are The USGS is using remotely sensed data in being used to monitor the extent of growth of a variety of water resources investigations, hydrilla and other submersed aquatic vegeta- including studies of groundwater, water qual- tion in the upper Potomac River estuary near ity, water use, evapotranspiration, and snow Washington, D.C. and ice. In most instances, Landsat MSS and TM data are used to map land use/land cover Data from active and passive microwave and terrain features as an intermediary step sensors are being used to develop techniques in estimating hydrologic conditions. For ex- for characterizing and measuring snow and ample, several studies are concerned with es- ice properties. Data from the Nimbus-7 scan- timating the amount of ground water that is ning multichannel microwave radiometer are pumped for agricultural irrigation. In such used to measure snow distribution, snow wa- studies, irrigated crop types are determined ter equivalent, and snowmelt initiation time and their acreage calculated from a digital and progression patterns. These remote sens- classification of Landsat data. This informa- ing measurements are coupled with selected tion is then integrated with other variables, field measurements of the vertical distribu- such as climatic conditions, into a model that tion of snow density, snow grain size, temper- calculates the irrigated water demand of spe- ature, and the presence of crust and ice layers cific crops. in the snowpack. This approach has demon- The USGS is conducting research on use of strated considerable potential for providing ground water on the Columbia Plateau. immediate information on snow characteris- Landsat MSS data were used to determine tics to forecast snowmelt runoff in large river acreage of agricultural crops by water-use basins like the upper Colorado River. category; spectral classification of the MSS The USGS used image enhancement tech- data was used to identify crop categories; and niques to reveal detail on Landsat MSS and a geographic information system was used to TM images of Antarctic snow and ice fields. store, analyze, and display the data. Individ- This process allows both the identification of ual crops were more accurately distinguished blue ice patches, which commonly contain using Landsat TM data than Landsat MSS surface concentrations of well-preserved me- data. Acreage of crops by water-use category teorites, and tracking of specific glacial fea- was summarized by quarter-township units tures, from which accurate glacial flow rates and incorporated into a water-use model. can be determined.

90 Rapld spring bmak-out of Ice flows Into the Bering Sea Is Strait, and the normally south-to-north oceanic current is shown In these Landsat MSS band 7 images acquired on twersed by sea-surface tilt induced by atmospheric pres- March 6 and March 7,1983. Ice mows southward through the sum. Daily Ice displacements during this tlme were generally Bering Strait from the Chukchl Sea into the northern Bering on the order of 35 km per day but ranged as high as 70 km Sea when winds blow from north to south through the per dw. alyzing satellite and airborne visible and Oceanography near-infrared reflectance measurements for lithologic determinations. Certain hydroxyl- Through the Outer Continental Shelf Envi- bearing minerals, commonly associated with ronmental Assessment program of the metal deposits, exhibit diagnostic reflectance Alaska Region Studies Program, the Miner- characteristics that can be detected in rock als Management Service funds a remote and soil. Digital analysis of images recorded sensing project that acquires, analyzes, and in the visible and near-infrared parts of the archives satellite images and other remotely electromagnetic spectrum allows identifica- sensed data of the U.S. Arctic region. The ar- tion of these minerals and compilation of chive contains selected high-quality Landsat maps showing their distributions. In highly and AVHRR images that are used to study vegetated terrain, subtle reflectance differ- the forms, seasonal distribution, and move- ences, caused by anomalously high copper ment of sea ice. In 1986, studies continued to content, also were detected using high spec- correlate ice motion, such as ice-ridge build- tral resolution measurements. These tech- ing and formation of polynya (permanent or niques have considerable potential for semipermanent open-water areas within an mineral appraisal studies, especially as ice-covered sea), with meteorological condi- advanced imaging systems are placed into tions. Specific studies were conducted in the orbit. Bering Straits-ice-ridge building and ice Mine Development and Safety Monitoring. movement; Yukon Delta-ice movement and To improve the ability to predict ground haz- distribution; Beaufort Sea-ice distribution ards in underground coal mines, the Bureau and concentration during summer; and of Mines continued its research on the appli- Chukchi Sea-ice behavior. Also, satellite cation of Landsat MSS data to geologic data were used to delineate suspended sedi- lineament analysis. In 1986, activities con- ment plumes, verify the presence of Ocean cir- centrated on ground-data collection to verify culation features, and identify areas of high correlations between surface lineament fea- plant-pigment concentrations in the sea. tures and subsurface ground conditions. Based on the analysis of remotely sensed Geology data, a map of potential mine hazards was developed for an underground coal mine near Geologic Mapping and Analysis. Signifi- Orangeville, Utah. Subsequently, the map cant advances were made by the USGS in an- was compared to roof conditions in the mine

91 and roof failures experienced in areas of ac- resolution. Both models will be used for all tive mining. About 80 percent of the deterio- feature map compilations of Mars. The digi- rating and fallen roof areas in the mine, tal image model is an image map or mosaic in including areas of heavy water inflow, were a sinusoidal equal-area projection. This pro- found within the hazardous zones that were jection is a convenient configuration for digi- identified by lineament analysis. This result tal storage, and it can be transformed into seems to verify the methodology that is being any standard map projection for map publica- developed by the Bureau for predicting tion. The digital terrain model will be de- ground hazards in mining by using remote rived from a new photogrammetric model of sensing techniques. On the other hand, five the planet Mars that has recently been com- lineaments mapped from Landsat data of the pleted. The model involves simultaneous so- coal mining region in southwestern Pennsyl- lutions for 1,250 images and 5,000 control vania were compared to subsurface geologic points, and it incorporates spacecraft occulta- conditions by using geophysical traversing tion and Earth-based radar data. This redefi- and soil moisture sampling. The results nition of the shape of Mars' surface is the failed to show any significant subsurface geo- basis for a new series of topographic maps at logic disturbances that could be correlated 1:2,000,000scale. with the lineaments. Thus, accurately pre- Geologic studies of Mars from image data dicting subsurface ground hazards, using re- indicate that ice may be present near much of motely sensed data in various geographical the Martian surface, and that Mars may con- regions, remains a critical issue for further tain more water than has been predicted investigation. from studies of its atmospheric composition. Other geologic studies of Mars include the Planetary Studies. In January 1986, the Voyager I1 spacecraft, launched in September identification of potential landing sites for fu- 1977, flew past Uranus and its satellites. Ap- ture manned or unmanned missions that proximately 7,000 images were transmitted might involve returning samples of Martian to Earth and were used to construct maps and surface materials to Earth. to interpret the geologic history of several Meteorite impact craters on Earth are being studied to improve understanding of the absolute time scale in which cratering occurred. Information gained from these studies can be compared to the surface ages of other planets and satellites. Detailed numerical modeling of a large meteorite impact that may have been responsible for the worldwide extinction of species millions of years

50 Continental Impact Ocean Impact 50 F 30s 1 The complex geologic history of Miranda, one of the moons of Uranus, is revealed in this mosaic of images acquired by ager 2 on January 24, 1986. At least thrw terrain types of different age and geologic style am wldent: ancient, cratered terrain consisting of roiilng subdued hliis and degraded craters (right of center); a grooved terrain with linear valleys and ridges (right and lefl sldes); and a complex terrain in whlch intersecting curvilinear ridges and troughs am abruptly trun- cated by the linear, gmoved terrain (left of center). Mantle . satellites of Uranus. The images show that - Mantle -SO-" -SO-" ' "' '" '" "-50 the satellite Miranda has a very peculiar sur- 75 75 face, suggesting that this body may have KILOMETERS Computer simulation of a 10-km diameter amroid Impacting been completely broken up by large impacts, continental and otxanlc environments of the Earth at a speed and that the large fragments remaining were of 20 km per second. in this simulation, the craters nached reformed into the mass currently observed. maximum depths of nearly 40 km about 30 seconds after Im pact, and displaced material then mbounded violently up New digital mapping techniques were de- wad. in the ocean impact event, the rim cmst rose almost 40 km In altitude and rushed outward at speeds of several km per veloped to construct a digital image model of second to cause enormous tsunami. More than 100,OOO km' of Mars at 100-meter resolution and a digital rock and ocean were ejected into the atmosphere and over the terrain model that has 500-meter vertical surrounding amin the two slmuiations.

92 ago, such as dinosaurs, is being conducted to mately 1:4,000,000,AVHRR data were col- determine the nature of the resulting land- lected for the Eastern United States to merge forms and the amount of meteoric and terres- with data already available for the Western trial material that was ejected into the States; and AVHRR data collection was initi- atmosphere. This modeling will help to deter- ated to produce a similar product for the mine the effects of large asteroidal or come- State of Alaska. In addition, research was tary impacts on past and future life on Earth. conducted to determine the largest scale AVHRR image map that can be produced to cover large unmapped areas of the world. Cartography A Landsat MSS image map of the Araxa area, approximately 350 miles northwest of Satellite Data Processing and Image Map Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, was printed by the ping. In 1986, the USGS continued research USGS for the National Research Council of investigations to refine procedures for pro- Brazil. The comparison printing was made at ducing satellite image maps. Achievements 1:250,000 scale using halftone enlargements include incorporating deconvolution (restora- from a graphic arts color scanner-plotter and tion) software into the Landsat MSS and TM photographic copy camera. The halftone en- data processing system, and modifying soft- largements were made from continuous-tone, ware to process AVHRR data. In addition, silver film-negative separations digitally procedures were improved for converting digi- processed at 1:1,000,000 scale. These test tal image data to hard-copy color transpar- prints will serve as printing guides for a map ency film products that are more suited to project proposed by the Fundacao Universita- processing on a graphic scanner-plotter, ria Jose Bonifacio and the Federal University which produces the halftone reproducible of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Council plans to film required for lithographic printing. use a series of 1:250,000-scale Landsat MSS Landsat MSS and TM restoration proce- or TM image maps to expand the economic dures were developed by the University of Ar- izona under contract to the USGS. The restoration procedure improves image quality by removing sensor-introduced degrada- tions, such as optical blurring and electronic signal smearing. This procedure is used as one of the steps in digital processing to produce image maps. Restoration is performed during the process of geometric rectification, where data are resampled and registered with other images or to a map base. Images rectified using the restoration procedure are both visibly sharper and of higher radiomet- ric fidelity than those rectified without the procedure. Currently, research is under way at the University of Arizona to develop image restoration for AVHRR data. In addition, the USGS and the University will soon enter into a cooperative agreement to develop this capability for high-resolution images acquired from the SPOT satellite. The USGS continued its experimental program to produce image maps from Landsat MSS and TM data, incorporating digital processing techniques into their production. In Sequential Landsat thermal infrared (band 6) images of the Landsat MSS image maps (scale Soviet nuclear reactor site at Chernobyi. The June 6, 1985 1986, and April 22, 1986 Images show the normal tone pattern 1:250,000)that were printed include Denali associated with warm water discharge from the reactor (ar- National Park and Preserve, Alaska; Rich- row). Warm water (lighter tones) cools as it circulates coun- mond, Virginia; and Mariposa, California. terclockwise in the pond. Water in the pond is uniform in To tone on the April 29 and May 8,1986 images, indicating that produce a false-color image map of the conter- the cooilng system had been shut down following the April minous United States, at a scale of approxi- 26 disaster.

93 development of Brazilian mineral resources. included. In 1986, data of the Gulf of Mexico The demonstration printing was completed and offshore areas around Puerto Rico were in time for exhibit at the 1986 Pan American analyzed, using the USGS-developed Mini Institute of Geography and History (PAIGH) Image Processing System. Substantial image XV Consultation on Cartography in Rio de processing and mosaicking are required to Janeiro, Brazil. make GLORIA data useful for interpretation Shortly after the April 26,1986 disaster in- purposes. Processed data continue to reveal volving the Soviet nuclear power plant at new information about the geology of the Chernobyl, the USGS EROS Data Center ac- ocean floor. For example, analysis of data quired Landsat TM data and SPOT high- from the Gulf of Mexico revealed topographic resolution visible (HRW panchromatic data features, such as basins and escarpments as- on the site, and applied digital processing sociated with the flow of salt that was mobi- techniques to maximize the interpretability lized from the depths by pressure from the of images. Landsat mid-infrared TM images weight of overlaid sediments. Other features (bands 5 and 7), acquired on April 29, showed include massive debris flows and meandering direct evidence of the high-temperature heat submarine channels over 100 kilometers long source associated with the damaged reactor. through which sediment-laden currents are These spectral bands may be useful to detect believed to flow. other high-temperature thermal anomalies Aerial Profiling of Terrain System. The that might be associated with active lava USGS completed an application test program flows and forest fires. Data in Landsat TM and managed operational projects using the band 6 were used to observe differences in prototype Aerial Profiling of Terrain System water temperature in the cooling pond adja- (APTS). The system demonstrated the feasi- cent to the power plant before and after the bility of using an airborne precision laser disaster. The 10-meter SPOT panchromatic profiling and tracking system to collect eleva- image revealed significantly greater spatial tion data. The APTS is composed of a precise detail in the vicinity of the reactor site than inertial navigation system that is used to in- the Landsat TM data. In addition, TM and terpolate aircraft position and orientation be- SPOT data were combined, using data-merg- tween laser tracker updates; a pulsed laser ing and color-transformation techniques, to profiler measures the distance from the air- produce a single image that presented much craft to the ground. The prototype system of the multispectral information available demonstrated that it can measure terrain only from the Landsat TM data. In the fu- profiles with horizontal accuracy of 60 centi- ture, these techniques will be used to merge meters and vertical accuracy of 15 centi- different types of satellite data into single- meters. Because the prototype APTS has had image maps. extensive operational use and many compo- Sonar Image Mapping. In response to the nents have become unreliable, the system Presidential Proclamation establishing the will be taken out of service in 1987. Work is Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) over sub- underway with the Charles Stark Draper merged lands extending 200 nautical miles Laboratory of Cambridge, Massachusetts to seaward from the coasts of the United States develop the design specifications for a system and certain possessions, the USGS continued that will use the satellite-based Global Posi- to collect and analyze sonar image data. tioning System and take advantage of other USGS is producing a series of reconnaissance new technology. maps of the sea floor of the EEZ area by using Global hsitioning &stem The Global Posi- data from the GLORIA (Geologic Long-Range tioning System (GPS), a satellite-based naviga- Inclined ASDIC) system, designed and devel- tion system under development by the oped by the Institute of Oceanographic Sci- Department of Defense, has the potential to ences, United Kingdom. As presently revolutionize surveying technology. The USGS configured, the GLORIA system operates in recognized this potential and helped to support water depths from 150 meters to the deepest the development of Qxas Instruments TI- parts of the ocean. 4100, the first portable GPS receiver system During 1986, GLORIA data of Pacific designed for field survey work. In 1986, five of Ocean areas off the West Coast of the United these units were used to develop an operational States were published in an atlas of thirty- capability to perform GPS surveys and begin three 2O by 2O map sheets. Also, associated applications testing. The USGS has investi- profiles of magnetic and seismic data were gated the use of GPS for crustal motion stud-

94 ies, and has taken a lead role in the development of more precise satellite ephemerides. A 50-station network was established in the Sac- ramento Valley to monitor land subsidence; and the USGS and NOAA are using the GPS to determine the elevations of selected points around Phoenix, Arizona so that land subsidence caused by extraction of ground water can be mapped. Future research and development efforts will focus on achieving maximum accuracy using the system for crustal motion studies, and for establishing a dynamic positioning capability.

International Activities

The USGS is working with the National Bureau of Surveying and Mapping (NBSM) of the People’s Republic of China under a Proto- col for Scientific and Technical Cooperation in Surveying and Mapping Studies Concern- ing Scientific and Bchnical Cooperation in the Application of Remote Sensing Informa- tion to Cartography. Under this Protocol, four scientists from the NBSM visited the USGS during 1986, including two who spent 12 weeks in the United States studying digital image processing techniques for remotely sensed data; subsequently, two USGS scientists visited China for four weeks to continue the research and training activities. Scien- tific exchanges under the Protocol are planned for three more years. In 1986, the USGS conducted a 5-week remote sensing workshop at the EROS Data Center for 10 scientists from 6 countries. The workshop covered applications of Landsat data for geologic, hydrologic, and vegetation analysis.

95 Department of Agriculture

In 1986,the remote sensing program of the sensed data, from aircraft and multiple satel- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) em- lite platforms, were used to extrapolate point phasized basic applications research and the measurements of water balance. For exam- effective use of data from space-based sen- ple, forecasting the amount of water availa- sors. Operational activities in agencies of the ble for irrigation required timely information Department, such as the Soil Conservation on snow cover and the extent of melting. Service, were supported by the Remote Sens- Snow runoff modeling involved mapping ing Research Laboratory. The Forest Service snow covered areas and estimating the continued developmental work on Geo- amount of snow water from data obtained by graphic Information Systems, using space- research satellites. In addition, using data based remotely sensed data as an from Landsat’s Multispectral Scanner NSS), information source. The National Agricul- the Hydrology Laboratory developed a proce- tural Statistics Service, and the Foreign Ag- dure to estimate amounts of sediment con- ricultural Service continued the development centration. This research will enhance efforts and use of space-based remotely sensed data to monitor the quality of water in lakes, to assess agricultural conditions and to pro- streams, and rivers. vide more accurate crop statistics. The ARS participated in a cooperative experiment with the U.S. Geological Survey and the University of Arizona’s Maricopa Agricultural Remote Sensing Research Center on the use of remotely sensed spectral data for large-scale farm management. Be- cause relationships between spectral data, soil, The new Remote Sensing Research Labora- and crop properties are not sufficiently under- tory, established as part of the Agricultural stood and documented, the use of remotely Systems Research Institute, Agricultural Re- sensed data for operational farm management search Service (ARS),is a focal point for re- decisions has not yet occurred. A detailed ex- mote sensing research. Located at the amination of what remotely sensed data can Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in provide from observations of soils and crops is a Maryland, the Laboratory’s primary mission logical first step toward developing a farm-ori- is to conduct basic and applied remote sens- ented remote sensing system. However, such ing research that serves agencies of the De- an examination is complex because it must in- partment. Currently, the Laboratory clude remotely sensed data at Merent spec- provides support to the Soil Conservation tral and spatial resolutions, and a variety of Service, for monitoring and inventorying re- crops at Werent growth stages and health sources, and to the Foreign Agricultural conditions. Service, improving that agency’s ability to The objective of the experiment at the use the environmental satellites of the Na- Maricopa Agricultural Center was to collect tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- a comprehensive set of remote and ground- tion (NOAA). Research that will provide based spectral data on agricultural fields. As long-term benefits to programs involves the the experiment evolved, additional research calibration of various satellite remote sens- needs were identified, and the number of par- ing systems. Calibration allows consistent ticipants multiplied. The experiment evolved and accurate values to evaluate satellite into an intensive endeavor; each day that data. Landsat-5 passed overhead, weather and Working closely with the Remote Sensing equipment permitting, numerous measure- Research Laboratory, the Hydrology Labora- ments of the atmosphere, soil, and plants tory of the ARS participated in the first Inter- were made. national Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot In cooperation with specialists at USDA’s Experiment (HAPEX) conducted in France. Soil Conservation Service, ARS scientists an- The goal of this experiment was to improve alyzed Landsat images for saline and alka- climatological understanding. Remotely line soil problems. The images were taken

97 during the years 1973,1978,and 1984 in four Satellite remote sensing activities in the counties in northwestern Oklahoma. Al- Forest Service use both MSS and Thematic though specific areas of saline and alkaline Mapper (TM) data from Landsat spacecraft. problems could not be identified precisely, The Forest Service has two operational image productive, and consistently used soils could processing systems: Region and Forest Pest be detected. Management, located in Atlanta, Georgia, Other research focused on relating plant and the Okanogan National Forest in the Pa- yield characteristics and plant responses to cific Northwest Region. Due to the develop- environmental conditions, such as weather, ment of Geographic Information Systems soil, stress, and a variety of field manage- (GIs), and a general improvement in comment practices. These relationships allowed a puter literacy in the Forest Service, interest sound basis for estimating the yield of impor- in image processing is increasing. tant world market crops. In conjunction with "here is a continuing effort in the pacific satellite data on crop growth and yield Southwest Region of the Forest Service to use models, a major research effort focused on a Landsat data on vegetation to inventory tim- model based on infrequent observations ber. Initially, MSS data were used; in 1986,TM made by Landsat's MSS. In an experiment, data were used for the first time. Image data in use of the model improved the average yield digital form are analyzed using computers, estimate of sample grain sorghum fields to which facilitate the classification of vegetation within three percentage points of the ob- and the stratifcation of commercial timber served value. Currently, this technique is be- stands for mapping, area summations, and ing tested using observations of sample corn, ground sample selection. To evaluate the soybean, and wheat fields in Iowa, Nebraska, results accurately, ground plots were estab and North Dakota. lished that represented major vegetation types. Traditional data bases and decision proc- On the first National Forest inventoried, the .esses have been incapable of fully supporting precision of the net timber volume estimate forest fire operations in Okanogan National was plus or minus 7 percent of the total volume Forest in eastern Washington. However, new of 560 million cubic meters. natural resource data bases, using MSS im- An evaluation of MSS imagery to classify agery, digital terrain data, and ancillary in- lodgepole pine mortality, caused by the formation, provided a fully integrated, mountain pine beetle, has been completed. real-time, computerized fire dispatch system. This work began in 1981 by the School of For- Additional data bases, such as those project- est Resources, North Carolina State Univer- ing timber productivity, and land-ownership, sity, under a cooperative agreement with the were acquired and installed. The value of Forest Service. Included in the test site were data bases for other purposes also was recog- two Ranger districts in the 'hrghee National nized in the acquisition process. Forest, Idaho, an area that experienced on- Using Landsat data for information, Geo- slaughts of mountain pine beetle that were graphic Information Systems (GIs) were de- catastrophic. Based on the percentage of po- veloped for other National Forests. For tentially marketable volume killed, logepole example, Flathead National Forest in Mon- pine stands were classified into three mortal- tana is developing a GIs for forest manage- ity classes. These classes corresponded well ment. The data base will improve and with ground conditions; 76 percent of the enhance use of data for forest classification. plots for which ground data were available In turn, the vegetation classification from the were classified correctly. project will serve as the vegetative section in In cooperation with the National Aeronau- the GIs data base. tics and Space Administration, the Southern An unusual application of Landsat data Forest Experiment Station is finishing a pilot was to map grizzly bear habitats in Lewis study on the use of TM data to classify forest and Clark National Forest. This project used cover. The study area consists of two adjacent three Landsat images of the east side of the parishes in northern Louisiana. Continental Divide in northwestern Mon- An evaluation of the utility of TM data for tana. The finished project will allow person- the detection of forest damage was conducted nel at Lewis and Clark National Forest to by the National Vegetation Survey, an ele- manage more effectively those areas with ac- ment of the Terrestrial Effects %sk Group of tivities ranging from oil and gas exploration the National Acid Precipitation Assessment to the habits and practices of grizzly bears. Program. Initial research indicates that mea-

98 surements, based on ratios of TM bands, may be useful to detect and quantify forest damage at sites reported to have received acid precipitation. In 1986, TM data were evaluated on three sites in the eastern United States to determine the level of forest damage. If the analytical procedure proves to be valid, it may become a valuable tool for conducting surveys to detect forest damage. Remotely sensed data from Landsat and NOAA polar orbiting environmental sat& lites continued to be good sources of information for assessing domestic and foreign crops by the National Agricultural Statistics Serv- ice (NASS), and the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), respectively. Applying results of recent research, as well as findings of earlier applications programs, such as AgRIS- TARS (Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys Through Aerospace Remote Sens- ing), NASS used remotely sensed data effectively to improve estimates of crop acreage for winter wheat, corn, soybeans, rice, and cotton in the states of Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado, Missouri, Iowa, Arkansas, Illinois, and Indiana. Benefiting from the installation of new computer systems with increased capability, FAS continued to use data from Landsat and NOAA’s polar orbiting environmental satellites to analyze crop conditions in major agricultural regions around the world. In addition, the unique expertise of FAS’s remote sensing analysts was used by the U.S. Agency for International Develop- ment to improve grain crop estimates in the Sudan, resulting in bet,ter planning and lo- gistical support for food production in that country. Federal Communications Commission

The Federal Communications Commission tion will provide substantial benefits to inter- (FCC) regulates interstate and foreign com- national telecommunications users without munications by radio, television, wire, and causing significant economic harm to IN- cable. It is responsible for developing and op- “ELSAT. Finding that their application met its erating broadcast services, and providing legal, technical, and initial financial qualifica- rapid, efficient nationwide and worldwide tel- tions and public interest considerations, the ephone and telegraph services at reasonable Commission granted conditional authority to rates. These activities include protecting life establish separate satellite systems to Orion and property through radio communications, Satellite Corporation, International Satellite, and using radio and television facilities to Inc., RCA American Communications, Inc., strengthen capabilities for national defense. Pan American Satellite Corporation, and Cyg- nus Satellite Corporation. In 1986, the Com- mission granted conditional authorization to Communications Satellites two additional applicants, McCaw Space Bch- nologies, Inc., and Columbia Communications Corporation, to establish separate interna- International Commercial Communications tional satellite systems. Of these applicants, Sate11 ites only PanAmSat has reached agreement with a foreign correspondent and initiated the IN- At the beginning of 1986, the International TELSAT consultation process. Final action by ‘klecommunications Satellite Organization INTELSAT on the F’anAmSat proposal is ex- (INTELSAT) global communications system pected in April 1987. consisted of 16 satellites in orbit; 1 IN- TELSAT IV, 4 INTELSAT IVA’s and 11 IN- Domestic Commercial Communications TELSAT V’s. During 1986, the INTELSAT V (F-14) was lost due to the launch failure of Satellites the Ariane-2 launch vehicle. The INTELSAT IVA (F-1) was decommissioned and, in order In 1986, no new domestic commercial com- to provide enhanced Ku-band coverage, deci- munications satellites were authorized for sions were made to modify two INTELSAT V construction and launch. At the end of 1986, and five INTELSAT VI satellites. At the end 27 domestic satellites were located between of 1986, INTELSAT maintained 15 satellites 69O and 143O west longitude on the orbital in orbit: 1 IV, 1 IVA and 6 V’s in the Atlantic arc; 16 operate in the 6/4-GHz band, 8 oper- Ocean Region; 3 V’s in the Indian Ocean Re- ated in the 14/12-GHz band, and 3 operated gion; and 2 WNs and 2 v’s in the Pacific in both bands. Ocean Region. Three of the IVA satellites In 1985, the Commission authorized the have exceeded estimated maneuver life. construction and launch of 20 additional do- In 1986, the Commission approved the con- mestic fixed satellites to provide communica- struction and operation of 30 new Earth station services through the end of the century. tion facilities to access the INTELSAT system Some of these satellites were scheduled for in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean Regions for launch in 1986. INTELSAT (digital) business, and television The Commission’s Advisory Committee on 2O transmission and reception service. Spacing was established in 1985 to elicit sug- In 1985, the Commission released its policy gestions by industry representatives on the statement in CC Docket No. 84-1299 estab- most efficient and economical methods to ac- lishing the regulatory policies that will be commodate satellite operations under reduced used to consider applications for satellite sys- spacing conditions. The Committee is divided tems providing international communication into working groups to consider issues relating services independent of INTELSAT. The to Earth stations, space stations, and coordina- Commission found that separate interna- tion. In June 1986, the Committee issued rectional systems proposed by the Administra- ommendations on these areas. With respect to

101 Earth stations, the Committee recommended in 1987. The global maritime and safety sys- mandatory manufacturer product qualification tems are expected to be phased in between tests, and onsight verification tests by opera- 1991 and 1997. tors of all Earth station systems, including Currently, INMARSAT is leasing three op- transportables. The Committee also recom- erational and three in-orbit satellites to serve mended that the Commission revise Section the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean Re- 25.209 of the Rules and Regulations on an- gions. Second-generation satellites, the first tenna performance standards so that they are of which is expected to become operational in more definitive with respect to side-lobe re- 1989, are being built under INMARSAT spec- quirements. ifications, and will have a capacity about tri- On the subject of space stations, the Com- ple that of the current leased satellites. mittee recommended the adoption of certain INMARSAT currently serves over 5,000 ves- technical parameters for C and Ku-band sat- sels through its 48-member country organiza- ellites, including opposite polarization for ad- tion. Seventeen coast stations in 12 countries jacent satellites and ground control of are in operation with five more expected in polarization switches. ‘Ib aid in the imple- 1987. mentation of 2O spacing, it also proposed the In 1986, the Commission issued three deci- creation of a satellite spacing coordination sions bearing on the INMARSAT’S second- data book for use by the Commission, and generation satellites. First, the Commission satellite users and operators. The data book authorized the Communications Satellite would contain data on interference, satellite Corporation (COMSAT) to participate in IN- characteristics, key transmission parame- MARSAT’s program to procure three second- ters, and satellite system operation and coor- generation satellites to serve the Atlantic dination procedures. Ocean Region beginning in 1988. Second, In the area of coordination, the Committee COMSAT was authorized to participate in an recommended the use of standard video INMARSAT contract with Arianespace for an masks for computation of video interference additional launch of its second-generation between adjacent satellites; mandatory up- maritime satellite communications system. link identification signals for all video trans- COMSAT’s request for an additional launch missions; and adoption of power flux density was based on uncertainty as to whether the limits for C-band Earth stations and anten- planned July 1988 Shuttle launch would oc- nas less than 9 meters in diameter. cur. Third, to provide additional backup facil- The Committee concluded that it should ities and to provide currently authorized not make a determination at this time on cri- INMARSAT services via INMARSAT satel- teria for transponder fill, satellite replace- lites, COMSAT was authorized to lease capac- ment, and new entries. ity on the MARISAT system. Due to the serious deficiency in performance of two of INMARSAT’S first-generation satellites, and Maritime Satellite Service because other satellites were experiencing service irregularities, this authority was National and international efforts to estab- deemed necessary. The prospect of a launch lish a future global maritime distress and delay of second-generation satellites places a safety system are continuing. The Interna- greater burden on first-generation space- tional Maritime Organization (IMO) is devel- craft. oping the system that will use Standard A and Standard C ship Earth stations through Aeronautical Satellite Service INMARSAT as well as satellite emergency position-indicating radio beacons (EPIRB’s) to provide initial distress alerting idormation In October 1985, the Assembly of Parties of from ships to rescue coordination centers. the International Maritime Satellite Organi- While present plans include satellite EPIRB’s zation (INMARSAT) adopted amendments to operating through COSPAS/SARSAT (polar or- the INMARSAT convention and operating bit) satellites, the IMO Maritime Safety Com- agreement that will allow it to offer aeronau- mittee is also considering use of L-band tical services. The amendments will take ef- EPIRB’s through INMARSW. (geostationary fect 120 days after two-thirds of member orbit). In addition, trials of distress and safety countries, representing two-thirds of the total services will be conducted on GOES satellites INMARSAT investment shares, have filed no-

102 tices of acceptance. INMARSAT’S first three 1985, none was able to demonstrate “due dili- second-generation spacecraft are being con- gence” in satellite construction within the structed with three megahertz of bidire- time allowed. Accordingly, these permits chonal bandwidth in the aeronautical mobile were cancelled. satellite (R) band. Through its subcommittee In September 1986, three companies were on Future Air Navigation Systems, the Inter- awarded conditional construction permits for national Civil Aviation Organization has new satellite systems. Of these permittees, been considering the application of standards one has demonstrated “due diligence” and for aeronautical satellites in civil aviation. has requested channel and orbital position Through the Airlines Electronic Engineering assignments. This system will use two 16- Committee, the aviation community is ac- channel satellites equipped with 125-watt tively developing an aeronautical satellite TW”s to provide DBS service. The system system that will provide voice and data serv- is expected to begin operation in 1991. Three ices. Aeronautical Radio, Inc., plans to create DBS system applications were filed in De- an international system by interconnecting cember 1986 and are currently pending. its terrestrial VHF network with satellite fa- On November 25,1986, the Commission is- cilities for oceanic coverage. In addition, land sued a ruling which modified its earlier state- mobile satellite applicants are proposing ments regarding the acceptable uses of the aeronautical services on their systems. DBS allocation. Provided that certain restric- tions are met, nonconforming uses of DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite Service (DBS) transponders which do not detract from the goal of introducing DBS service, and which may help advance it, will be permitted. Of the eight “first-round” DBS companies previously granted permits to construct Di- rect Broadcast Satellites, three are actively New Satellite Services progressing in the construction of their authorized satellites. These three permittees will use 200 to 230-watt traveling wave tube New technology is developing to provide ad- amplifiers (TWTA) in conjunction with vari- ditional uses for satellite-delivered communi- ous half-CONUS or full-CONUS beam config cations. Increased capacity in the 14/12-GHz urations to provide service across the band allows the development of services continental United States. Modifications using much smaller antennas than feasible granted in September 1985 will allow two of in the 6/4-GHz band. This has prompted sev- these companies to increase transponder ca- eral applications for large private networks pacity from six channels to eight channels of small Earth stations to provide communi- per satellite. Projected completion of satellite cation services between various business lo- construction varies for each company from cations. These applications request mid-1987 through 1988. These permittees streamlined licensing procedures that will are required to have their satellite systems in enable such networks to be constructed more operation by the last quarter of 1988. expeditiously and economically. In April Additionally, of the six “second-round” ap 1986, the Commission issued a declaratory plications granted conditional permits in late ruling that streamlined processing proce- 1984 and early 1985, one has demonstrated dures for pending and future applications. “due diligence” in construction of its satellite In addition, on July 12,1984, in response to system and has been awarded channels, or- a petition from Geostar Corporation, the bital position, and launch authorization. In Commission issued a Notice of Proposed contrast to the three “first-round” compan- Rulemaking in General Docket No. 85-689, ies, this system will use two 16-channel satel- proposing to implement a radio determina- lites equipped with 100 watt TWTA’s to tion satellite system domestically that would provide DBS service. Advances in antenna allow subscribers to determine latitude, lon- and receiver technology were cited in support gitude, and altitude, and to exchange brief of midpower transponder selection. Com- coded messages using inexpensive hand-held mencement of DBS operations for this com- transceivers. In July 1985, the Commission pany is scheduled for mid-1989. allocated frequencies in the 1610 to 1626.5- Of the conditional construction permits for MHz, 2483.5 to 2500-MHz and 5117 to 5183- new satellite systems granted in September MHz bands for radio determination satellite

103 service. In August 1986, the Commission and issues involving broadcasting satellites. granted the application of Geostar Corpora- Also, in May 1986, the Commission’s staff at- tion to construct, launch, and operate three tended an International Frequency Registra- geostationary satellites, and one in-orbit tion Board information meeting; and, in spare, to provide radio determination satel- June, participated in the Interim Working lite service and ancillary message services. Party 4/1 that examined technical aspects of On January 28, 1985, in response to a peti- conference preparation. In addition, the Com- tion from NASA, the Commission issued a mission’s staff worked with NASA and other Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in General Government agencies to define priorities and Docket No. 84-1234,that proposed to allocate positions for the second session and, in partic- spectrum for a mobile satellite service, to es- ular, to develop appropriate computer capa- tablish technical and regulatory guidelines bilities to aid in the allotment planning for the service, and to authorize a licensee. effort. The service envisioned by NASA would provide mobile telephone service in rural areas, long-range vehicle dispatch functions, data transmission and data collection, vehicle position determination, message distribution (paging), and emergency communications. The Commission received voluminous comments concerning the issues raised in the rulemaking. The Commission also received a dozen applications from entities proposing to establish mobile satellite systems. In July 1986, the Commission allocated 27 MHz of spectrum for the provision of this service. In December 1986, the Commission issued a Re- port and Order that established general policies concerning the licensing of the entity charged with the initial implementation of mobile satellite service. The Commission concluded that joint ownership of a mobile satellite system would be the best way to provide a variety of mobile satellite services to the public. The Commission directed qualified applicants to negotiate a joint venture contract and propose a mobile satellite system to operate in the assigned frequencies.

International Conference Activities

During 1986,the Commission was involved in several activities in preparation for the second session of the Space World Adminis- trative Radio Conference (Space WARC) scheduled for 1988. The objective of the Con- ference is to guarantee to all countries equitable access to the geostationary satellite orbit and to the frequency bands allocated to space services. The Commission’s Advisory Committee, representing industry, continued to make recommendations for the second session’s agenda that include allotment planning; a multilateral planning process; simplified procedures for access to the orbit;

104 Department of Transportation

The Federal Aviation Administration tem performance. Crash tests continued at (FAA), a component of the U.S. Department of FAA and NASA research facilities. Transportation, is responsible for regulating Although the research and testing program air safety, ensuring the safe and efficient uti- was multifaceted, a key effort was the evalua- lization of the national airspace system, and tion of a simple laboratory dynamic test pro- fostering the development of civil aviation. lb cedure that simulated an aircraft's crash support these responsibilities, the FAA en- environment. Anthropomorphic dummies gages in a wide range of research and devel- were used as surrogates for human occu- opment activities that enhance safety and pants; the dummies, seats, and restraining increase the efficiency of air navigation and systems were subjected to forces up to 16g; air traffic control. measurements made during the tests were used to evaluate the level of protection offered to the occupants. This technique is su- Aviation Safety perior to the static test procedure used to evaluate aircraft seat performance currently During 1986, developing new standards for required by the Federal Aviation Regula- civil aircraft seats and restraint systems was tions, because the static procedure provides one of the most important research projects of only an indication of the structural strength the FAA's crash dynamics engineering and of the seat. development program. The goal of the pro- Simulated crash tests were supplemented gram was to demonstrate the ability of new by a joint FANNASA Controlled Impact systems to minimize hazards to occupants Demonstration using a full-scale remotely during aircraft crashes. This research effort controlled and fully instrumented transport was the culmination of a long series of cooper- category airplane. In combination with prior ative steps between the Federal Aviation work, these tests generated sufficient data to Administration, the Department of Defense, permit the FAA to define the level of occu- the National Aeronautics and Space Admin- pant protection provided by contemporary istration, and segments of the civil aviation transport airplanes. It was determined that community. incidents of undesirable seat performance In recent years, developments in both the were usually related to the displacement of private and public sectors demonstrated that the cabin floor and to excessive lateral iner- passenger survivability in accidents could be tial loads. By early 1986, the agency deter- improved when the forces of impact were mined that seat deficiencies could be within the limits of human tolerance, and eliminated by establishing dynamic test that improvements could be adopted without standards that provided the same level of im- imposing either a heavy engineering or eco- pact injury protection and structure perform- nomic burden on the aviation community. ance as that provided by the airplane Hence, in the early 1980's, the FAA and structure itself. Consequently, in July 1986, NASA's Langley Research Center contracted the FAA issued a notice of proposed rulemak- with transport airplane manufacturers to re- ing that modified standards for occupant seat view and evaluate accident data, and define protection in transport category aircraft by areas where possible improvement in passen- revising the test criteria for passenger re- ger safety could be achieved. In March 1983, straints and impact injury. The proposed cri- the FAA's Civil Aeromedical Institute and teria abandoned static tests in favor of a the FAA's 'lkchnical Center published a joint combined vertical and longitudinal test that study on passenger seat and restraint system simulates an aircraft hitting the ground after performance in accidents. The study found a a high-rate vertical descent; and a test that correlation between passenger injuries or fa- simulates a horizontal impact with a ground- talities and floor or cabin deformation that level obstruction. With the first test, manu- caused seat failure; and a correlation be- facturers can evaluate the means provided to tween passenger injuries and restraint sys- protect passengers from spinal injury; with

105 the second, they can assess the effectiveness storm known as a microburst, is a violent of the restraining system and the structural column of cold or dense air that descends rap- performance of the seat. The proposed rule idly to meet the ground and expands in all applies only to newly certificated air trans- directions, much like water from a garden port category aircraft. hose. A microburst is often no more than a Concurrent with this effort, the FAA tested mile or two in diameter and lasts for as little the performance of general aviation seats as 5 minutes. An airplane flying into this and restraint systems, activity that resulted column of air during a takeoff or landing first from deliberations of the General Aviation encounters a head wind, which increases lift, Safety Panel which was established in 1982 and then a tail wind, which produces a sharp to recommend safety improvements in small loss in lift. In extreme cases, the tail wind airplanes. A special working group of the can be violent enough to cause the airplane Panel made recommendations for improved to crash. Over the past 10 years, encounters seats and restraint systems for small air- with wind shear may have contributed to as planes that were based largely on experimen- many as 25 aircraft accidents worldwide re- tal and test data generated by the Civil sulting in over 506 fatalities. Aeromedical Institute. The Panel recom- Because wind shear is not visible to the mended that dynamic tests be conducted at pilot’s eye, the main protection against this up to 26g in order to demonstrate the per- powerful phenomenon is timely warning and formance of the seat and restraint system; avoidance. To make this possible, the FAA that the testing program include techniques and other Federal agencies are pursuing a for demonstrating system performance, even variety of detection programs. During 1986, in the case of seriously deformed airframes; the FAA installed an experimental weather and that criteria be incorporated to ensure radar system at Huntsville, Alabama, to that the occupants will be protected from ir- study microbursts and other hazardous wea- reversible injury in a crash that seriously de- ther conditions. The testing was conducted forms an airframe. Manufacturers had for the FAA by the Lincoln Laboratory of the already developed systems that met the crite- Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The ria established by the Panel’s recommenda- testing system had previously been located tions and presented their systems to the near Memphis International Airport; Hunts- Institute for evaluation. The Panel’s recom- ville was selected as the new experimental mendations were presented at the Small Air- site because its environment is typical of plane Airworthiness Review Program and much of the Southeast, where storm-related received the support of the General Aviation wind shear and microbursts frequently occur. Manufacturers Association. At the end of Lincoln Laboratory had at its disposal two 1986, the FAA was considering a notice of Doppler weather radars, a system of 30 auto- proposed rulemaking to implement these rec- matic weather stations, and an instrumented ommendations. aircraft for airborne data collection. Doppler radar has the ability to “see” inside storms and measure both rainfall intensity and the Aviation Weather speed of winds moving toward or away from the antenna site. By combining wind infor- Wind Shear Adverse weather has always mation from the two radars, technicians can been a challenge to aviation. One of avia- obtain three-dimensional information on the tion’s most serious weather concerns today is wind field within a storm. Data collected wind shear, a sudden change in wind speed from these tests will be used to refine com- and direction. A number of meteorological puter software that will enable a Doppler ra- events can cause wind shear. Large thunder- dar system to detect wind shear conditions storms produce strong outflows and down- automatically and present this information drafts; gust fronts, found at the leading edges to pilots and air traffic controllers in a read- of outflows, can extend several miles away ily usable form. The FAA plans to install from the rain area and last for periods of an Doppler weather radar at major airports be- hour or more; and small storms or relatively ginning in 1989. innocuous looking clouds also are capable of In another development, the FAA and the producing intense downdrafts that can be National Aeronautics and Space Administra- just as hazardous to aircraft as their larger tion entered into a Memorandum of Agree- cousins. Wind shear, produced by a smaller ment to develop system requirements for

106 “forward looking” wind shear sensors for air- the new algorithms and a new tower cab dis- craft, such as Doppler radar and Doppler play at an operational airport. lidar. These airborne sensors will “look” In addition, a program that began in 1985 ahead of the aircraft and sense hazardous to develop a standardized wind shear train- wind shear before the aircraft enters the ing program for pilots neared completion. It area. Manufacturers have performed rela- will provide airlines with tools to train pilots tively little work in the area of developing in wind-shear avoidance and techniques to forward-looking airborne sensors; rather, escape from inadvertent wind-shear encoun- they focused their attention on reactive wind ters. The Boeing Commercial Airplane Com- shear sensors. Instead of looking ahead, pany, which is developing the program with these systems react when an aircraft enters a Douglas, Lockheed, United Air Lines, and shear and compare the inertial data of air- Aviation Weather Associates, is expected to craft with air mass data. When a shear is deliver the finished product to the FAA in encountered, the airborne equipment sounds February 1987. an alert and the flight crew is provided with Atmospheric Electrical Hazards. Light- information on how to exit the shear. The ning, static discharge, and other sources that FAA and NASA are working closely with the produce electromagnetic transients can pose manufacturers of these reactive devices to en- a serious threat to aircraft in flight. They sure that forward-looking sensors will func- couple to the aircraft’s internal wiring and tion in harmony with the reactive devices. adversely affect electronic flight controls and The FAA also continued to work on the avionics. During 1986,the FAA continued its ground-based wind shear detection system cooperative effects with the Department of currently in operational use, the six-sensor Defense, NASA, and the aviation industry to Low Level Wind Shear Alert System characterize hazards and define their threat (LLWAS). LLWAS employs computer process- to modern technology aircraft. ‘Ib this end, ing algorithms that compare wind speed and the FAA produced both advisory circulars direction from sensors on the airport periph- and user’s manuals to assist officials with ery with centerfield wind data. The system problems of electrical hazards in aviation. alerts air traffic controllers to the presence of Icing. It has long been recognized that wind shear, and the controllers, in turn, issue flight through supercooled clouds will result wind shear advisories to departing and arriv- in the formation of ice on an aircraft’s air- ing aircraft. During 1986, the LLWSS’s at frame and engines. The aerodynamic penal- Denver’s Stapleton International and New ties of this ice formation include increased Orlean’s Moisant International experienced drag, loss of lift, and even loss of control. Ice a high level of false alarms. Since the prob- shed can lead to structural and engine dam- lem was caused by the sensor’s location, the age. Ice protection systems technology has FAA formed a team to assess the siting of all advanced along with advances in aircraft and LLWAS sensors at 110 airports in the United engine designs. Proper certification of air- States. At the same time, wind experts from craft for flight into known icing conditions Colorado State University and the National using new or modified ice protection designs Center for Atmospheric Research developed depends heavily on understanding equip- new and more comprehensive siting criteria. ment limitations under various operating Information collected by the team was also conditions. During 1986, the FAA reported used to identify nuisance alarms caused by on areas of concern in the application of two short-lived, very localized, and meteorologi- concepts: the exuding of an antifreeze solu- cally insignificant events. By the end of 1986, tion from porous surfaces on the leading new algorithms were developed to reduce the edges of wings; and the de-icing of wing lead- effect of false alarms. The algorithms will be ing edges by electromagnetic impulse shock. incorporated into the system as the LLWAS sensors are resited during and 1987 1988. Aircraft Cabin Flammability Standards In 1986, new algorithms also were devised for the new eleven-sensors LLWAS. The algorithms give the new system an enhanced On August 20, 1986, a new Federal Avia- capability to detect hazardous microbursts, tion Regulation went into effect prescribing and allow results to be reported in terms of tougher flammability standards for materi- runway coordinates, a form more useful to als used in cabins of existing and future air- the user. In 1987, the FAA plans to evaluate liners with 20 seats or more. The new

107 standards require manufacturers to use more into a portal for screening passengers. The fire resistant and slower burning materials first airport test of a prototype chemilumi- than those currently allowed for cabin side- nescent detection portal is scheduled for walls, ceilings, partitions, storage bins, gal- March 1988. Also, the agency initiated a fea- leys, and other interior structures. The use of sibility study of a chemiluminescent system materials that release lesser amounts of heat for screening carry-on baggage and began during a cabin fire will delay the onset of evaluating a mobile chemiluminescent sys- “flashover,” or rapid and uncontrolled cabin tem for use in aircraft cabins. fire growth, thereby increasing the time for Several studies involving detection technol- passenger evacuation. Manufacturers must ogies and concepts were initiated that had subject specified cabin materials to a radiant their genesis in an FAA request for proposals heat test that measures the amount of heat for new approaches to explosive detection. produced by a material when it burns; mate- Out of the 22 responses to this request, 4 rials that produce more heat or burn faster were considered sufficiently promising to than the prescribed standards are banned. merit the award of contracts for feasibility The rule goes into effect in two stages, studies. In addition, research continued on stretching over a 4-year period. dual sensor and fast neutron scattering ap- Earlier, on June 16,1986,the FAA adopted proaches that had been initiated earlier, and more stringent fire safety standards for air both proved feasible. The dual sensor ap- transport cargo and baggage compartments. proach, which combines X-rays and thermal The new standards apply only to airplanes neutron activation sensors, offers considera- certificated after the rule’s effective date and ble promise of surpassing the performance of require manufacturers to use more fire resist- a simple thermal neutron activation system. ant materials for ceiling and sidewall liners In order to strengthen airport concourse se- in Class C and Class D cargo compartments, cwity, the possibility of improving discrimi- which are located below the main cabin. The nation capabilities of current generation FAA’s fire tests of typical materials currently metal detectors was investigated. Also, stud- used in cargo holds demonstrated that only ies were initiated on new infrared and acous- fiberglass meets the new criteria. Also, in or- tic techniques for detecting both metallic and der to limit the supply of oxygen available to nonmetallic weapons on passengers. The pos- feed a fire, the new rule restricts the size of sibility of enhancing concourse X-ray systems the Class D cargo compartment to 1,000 cu- for automated detection of explosives and bic feet. weapons in carry-on and checked baggage In a related development, a new FAA rule also was explored. requiring smoke detectors in the lavatories of all large airliners went into effect on October Human Perfirmance Research 29, 1986. Because lavatories are closed from view most of the time, the smoke detectors will warn cockpit crews or flight attendants Aeronautical DeciswrtMaking. In 1986, six of a fire that might not otherwise be detected. pilobjudgment training manuals, and corresponding audio-visual materials, were revised. The materials addressed the issue of aeronauti- Aviation SecuriQ cal decision-making for private, commercial, and rotorcraft instrument-rated pilots, and in- During 1986, the FAA made progress on struhrs and multicrew operations. The type of many fronts in the area of explosives detec- training prescribed in the manuals augments tion. The agency approved several competi- but does not replace traditional pilot training, tive designs for thermal neutron activation which stresses knowledge, skills, and experi- (TNA) systems, which will be used to screen ence. However, traditional training methods do checked baggaged and air cargo. At year’s not teach judgment; pilots acquire judgment end, the fabrication on TNA prototypes was through experience that is directly related to well underway, and the initial airport test of accumulated flight time; and it was surmised a prototype was scheduled for May 1987. In that pilots with good experience-based judg- addition, the FAA successfully demonstrated ment shared airspace with pilots that po5 a breadboard chemiluminescent vapor detec- sessed lesser decision-making skills. Used as tor. This project has now progressed to the part of a standard curriculum, the manuals are phase of integrating the first vapor detector intended to teach aeronautical decision-mak-

106 ing to each segment of civil aviation. Other Sa& Developments Flight Crew Workbad Measurement In July 1981, the President’s ’Ibk Force on Aircraft The Crew Complement recommended that the gen- General Aviation Propulsion &search erally accepted method of evaluating cockpit FAA accelerated its study of alternate fuels for work load during aircraft type certification- use of piston-engine general aviation aircraft. taskkime-line analysis-be augmented by im- In recent years, the availability of 80 octane proved subjective evaluation methods. A team aviation gasoline has diminished while the of representatives from the FAA, the Force, price differential between automobile gasoline Air (autogas) and other grades of aviation gasoline NASA, and manufacturers of air transports has grown. This resulted in pressure on the was formed to carry out this recommendation. In 1986, two workshops were planned as fo- agency applied by the general aviation community to substitute autogas for aviation gasoline. rums to choose the most appropriate measurement techniques available. An initial part-task In examining autogas for aviation use, it was and a subsequent fdl-mission simulation ex- determined that its use can produce fuel system vapor lock, severe detonation in high per- periment at NASA’s Ames Manned Vehicle Systems Research Facility will be used to vali- formance engines, and a signifcant loss of fuel date these techniques. due to evaporation and venting. The FAA plans to continue testing autogas and alternate general aviation fuels, including gasahols. Airport Rwement Research Aircraft Turbine Engine Bird Hazard Re- search, The collision of birds with aircraft, in- Through an interagency agreement with the cluding the ingestion of birds by engines, is Army Corps of Engineers, the FAA completed both a serious safety hazard and a major cause the development of a Pavement Maintenance of property damage. Actions taken to reduce Management System. By using new software the bird hazard include evaluating the ade- called mimPAVER, airport owners and opera- quacy of bird ingestion engine certification re- tors will be able to allocate resources effec- quirements against service experience, and tively and establish priorities to maintain and increasing the emphasis on airport bird threat rehabilitate pavements based on conditions, control. In order to determine the adequacy of funds available, and expected rates of deterio- current bird ingestion certification standards, ration. Through another interagency agree- the FAA gathered data and analyzed engine ment, the Corps of Engineers developed bird ingestion incidents and accidents. The criteria to prevent heaving of airport pavement agency completed a 26-month study and pub- in cold weather and weakening of subgrades lished a report on bird ingestion incidents and during thaw. At the end of 1986, the criteria accidents involving aircraft powered by large were being evaluated at representative air- inlet area, high bypass turbofan engines. Also, ports located in the frost belt. it initiatedra similar study of the Boeing 737, The FAA also investigated ways to minimize equipped with both JT8D and CFM56 engines, runway and taxiway repair time and improve that will provide a comparison of new genera- substitutes for currently used pavement mate- tion high bypass engines (CFM56’s) with older rials, which are expensive to transport. During low bypass engines (JG8D’s) subjected to the 1986, contractors completed the development same aircraft bird ingestion exposure. Addi- of standards for the effective use of geotextiles. tional studies are scheduled that will concen- Also, research was conducted on lime, cement, trate on business, executive, and commuter and fly ash combinations for bases, rubber, and aircraft powered by small inlet turbofan and polymer additives. turboprop engines. In order to ensure that airport pavements are Rotorrraft Turbine Engine Rotor Failure h constructed, rehabilitated, and maintained to tection. Since 1979, the fleet size, total FAA standards, in 1986 the agency was in the operating hours, operating hours per craft, and process of developing acceptance criteria and total number of engine failures of civil turbine- quality control techniques for airport pave- powered rotocraft in the free world have in- ment construction and material. Once devel- creased significantly. In many cases, engine oped, the criteria will provide payment of failure generates high-energy fragments that adjustment factors that will be applied to con- penetrate and escape the engine casing. This tractors’ fees based on how well the pavement results in loss of engine power and can damage meets FAA standards. critical structures, systems, controls, and other

109 engines. Such damage has led to fires, loss of aircraft encountering the wake. Since the trail- aircraft control, hull loss, and occupant injury ing vortex of a helicopter is invisible, the heli- and death. Consequently, the FAA issued wv- copters used in the experiments were equipped eral advisory directives to correct type design with smoke generators for the wake flow visu- deficiencies that were identifed as the primary alization system. The data collected in this pro- causes of failure on certain engine models. Be- gram will be used to explore the feasibility of cause type design improvement is not feasible establishing reduced air traffic control separa- in all cases, an advisory directive was issued tion standards for mixed terminal area opera- that required the use of an internal turbine tions. case containment ring. With a turboshaft engine rotor failure history established during the early 1980’s and the feasibility of rotor Air Navfgatlon and fragment containment technology for this class Alr lkaff IC Control of engines demonstrated, the FAA initiated a study to develop a new certification standard for commercial rotorcraft. The study will at- National Airspace Systems Plan tempt to provide operational data on rotorcraft turbine failure and the technology for hazard Host Computer System. On January 28, protection. 1981, the FAA unveiled the National Air- AntiMisting Fuel The FAA completed its space Systems (NASI Plan, a technological test program on the effectiveness of an experi- blueprint for modernizing and increasing mental anti-misting agent that was added to the capacity of the Nation’s common civil- kerosene jet fuels to prevent or reduce the dan- military system of air navigation and air gers of post-crash fires. The program demon- traffic control. On November 22, 1986, the strated that jet fuel can be modified to provide implementation of the NAS Plan reached a a significant degree of protection against post- major milestone with the delivery of the first crash fires in impact-survivable accidents. At of a new generation of air traffic control com- the end of 1986, the agency was formulating a puter systems to the air route traffic control new program to provide even better means of center in Seattle, Washington. inhibiting postcrash fires. ‘Ib prevent combus- The new host system represents the latest tibles spilled during a crash from igniting, the off-the-shelf technology. The “host” designa- program will explore the possibility of combin- tion reflects the fact that the new equipment ing fuel additives with aircrafk system modif- will use the same basic instruction package cations. as the IBM 9020 computers currently operat- Airport Rescue and Firefighting. In an effort ing at the 20 air route traffic control centers to minimize rescue and firefighting require- in the contiguous 48 states. The key element ments of US. airports, without reducing fire is the IBM 3083-BX1 computer. Each instal- protection for passengers and property, the ef- lation has two computers, one serving as the fectiveness of current and advanced firefight- primary unit, the other providing support ing agents were evaluated. In a series of and backup. The new mainframe is ten times small-scale laboratory tests, a number of foams faster and has four times the capacity of the were studied and approximately 40 percent older 9020 computer. Tests conducted by IBM were found to conform to firefighting specifica- demonstrated that the host can handle the tions. These promising foams will be evaluated air traffic workload projected for 1995 using further in a series of large-scale tests. only 33 percent of its capacity. During fiscal Helicopter Wake Vortex Study In 1986, the year 1985, the FAA’s air route traffic control FAA and the Transportation Systems Center of centers handled 33 million aircraft opera- the Department of Transportation participated tions under instrument flight rules; in fiscal in a joint full-scale helicopter flight test pro- 1995, they are expected to handle almost 44 gram to investigate the wake vortex character- million. This allows for unforeseen traffic istics of S-76 and CH-53E helicopters. The growth and also permits the FAA to incorpo- flight tests measured the trailing vortex inten- rate new automation functions and upgrade sity, persistence, movement, and decay of the existing functions such as conflict alert and helicopter wake as a function of time. A Laser en route traffic metering. Doppler Velocimeter was used to acquire vor- The Seattle host is expected to begin oper- tex intensity data, and an airplane probed the ating during the summer of 1987. Comple- vortex to determine the potentialbzard to an tion of deliveries of host computers to the

110 remaining 19 air route traffic control centers and interphone communications within and is expected by the end of 1987. The next between FAA facilities. The contra& allow 35 phase of the NAS Plan scheduled for comple- months for the development of prototypes; and tion is the Advanced Automation System, the winner of the competition will produce and which includes new controller sector suites, install 25 systems. computer software, and processors. Automated Flight Service Stations. The Airport Visual Aids and Lights Flight Service Station (FSS) modernization program will consolidate 300 manually operated FSS's into a network of 61 automated The FAA continued to investigate ways to hub facilities. In March 1986, the FSS's com- standardize instrument flight rule approach missioned the first three automated flight lighting systems for heliports. The FAA Tech- service stations, located at airports in Bridge- nical Center and NASA's Langley Research port, Connecticut, and Cleveland and Day- Center evaluated prototype lighting systems ton, Ohio. An additional 21 stations were using actual weather and simulation flights. commissioned during the course of the year, Testing will continue at the Technical Center, and 13 more sites accepted delivery of the and a system is expected to be operational automated equipment. before the first commercial IFR heliport is Flight service stations provide pilots with established in the United States. preflight and inflight briefings. They also ac- Also, the agency continued to investigate cept and file flight plans, serve as a commun- taxiway visual guidance devices that reduce ications link for pilots with air traffic control the frequency of inadvertent runway instruc- facilities, collect and disseminate aeronauti- tion. A joint FAA-industry working group cal and weather data, and provide emergency was convened to address this problem. Reme- services to pilots in distress. The automated dies suggested by the working group were stations are linked by dedicated communica- evaluated at the Technical Center. tions lines to a central Flight Service Data In a related effort, the FAA evaluated Processing System (FSDPS) located at an air newly developed runway lighting systems, reroute traffic control center. Weather data, quiring no external power source, that use flight plans, and other information are con- tritium-powered, self-contained ra- tinually fed into the FSDPS. Using computer dioluminescent lights. One of the systems terminals at the automated facilities, flight evaluated consisted of runway edge lighting service specialists receive quick access to this units, threshold lighting units, an airport information, which can be called up on dis- identification beacon, and a lighted wind di- play screens and printed out for future refer- rection indicator. The system provided satis- ence. General aviation pilots are the primary factory visual cues only under the most users of these services since most airlines favorable climatic conditions, and without have their own flight dispatch facilities. background lighting. Therefore, its potential Voice Switching and Control System. In Oc- use is limited to remote areas not affected by tober 1986, the FAA awarded contracts to city night lights. ATbT Technologies and the Harris Corpora- tion to develop competing prototypes of a New York TRACON computer-based switching system to control voice communication for en route air traffic control. The contracts represent the first In March 1986, a contract was awarded to phase of a two-step procurement that will cul- improve the automated air traffic control sys- minate in the selection of a contractor to pro- tem at the New York Terminal Radar Ap- duce the Voice Switching and Controlling proach (TRACON) facility. The New York System, a critical element in the NAS Plan. TRACON provides radar service to aircraft The new electronic switching system will be approaching or departing three major air- hker, more flexible and reliable, and cheaper ports and 40 satellite airports in the New to maintain than the present electromechan- York metropolitan area. It is the largest facil- ical system, which is based on the technology of ity of its kind in the FAA air traffic control the 1950's. The new system will provide con- system, handling more than 1.5 million trollers at air route traffic control centers with flights annually. Improvement of the system computerantrolled voice switching for air- is necessary to allow the TRACON to keep ground communications as well as intercom abreast of increasing traffic growth.

111 Currently, the TRACON is equipped with a The Department of Transportation (DOT) standard automated radar terminal system was an active participant in both the Na- known as ARTS IIIA, a real-time computer tional Security Council’s Senior Interagency system that processes data from remote radar Group on Space and the Economic Policy sites and presents it, in alphanumeric form, Council’s (EPC) Commercial Space Working directly to controllers’ radar displays. The Group. These groups developed policy posi- displayed information included aircraft iden- tions and draft language for the President’s tification, altitude, and ground speed. The August 15 decision regarding a replacement enhanced system, known as ARTS IIIE, and orbiter and Shuttle use for commercial and the only one of its kind, will perform the foreign payloads, and for DOD’s procurement same functions but will have a greater capac- of additional ELV’s. Also, the Department ity. When completed, it will be capable of worked closely with other executive agencies tracking 2,800 aircraft at one time within a to develop a transition plan for payloads that 15,000 square mile area. would no longer fly aboard the Shuttle. The Department also participated in Cabinet-level efforts to identify impediments Off ice of Commercial Space to space commercialization by chairing an Tkansportation EPC Working Group subcommittee on insurance. In this capacity, it evaluated the availability of private sector launch insurance and third-party liability insurance as they affect One of the major consequences of the Chal- space commercialization. During 1986, the lenger tragedy was the President’s decision Office’s Director delivered testimony on the to take the Shuttle out of the business of insurance issue before two House and Senate launching routine foreign and commercial subcommittees. satellites. This decision, announced in Au- The President’s National Commission on gust 1986, was later incorporated into the Space. The Office of Commercial Space U.S. Space Launch Strategy, which called for Transportation participated as an ex-officio a space transportation system composed of member of the National Commission on both ELV’s and the Space Shuttle. The fac- Space and contributed to its report, “Pioneer- tors contributing to a mixed fleet strategy in- ing the Space Frontier.” The Department’s cluded a significant backlog of payloads, a participation primarily involved issues re- dramatically reduced flight rate, new operat- lated to the private sector’s role in next- ing rules imposed in response to the recom- generation space transportation systems. mendations of the Presidential Commission Also, it contributed to the transportation sys- on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, tems architecture study on future launch ve- and the added cost of orbiter design and re- hicles conducted by DOD and NASA. placement. The revised space launch strategy Use of Government Facilities and Services. emphasized that the Shuttle fleet would be The Ofice of Commercial Space Transporta- used for missions requiring its unique capa- tion assists commercial launch firms by help- bilities, and that the commercial expendable ing them gain access to national launch launch vehicle industry would be a critical facilities and services. In 1986, DOT worked element in meeting Government and indus- closely with DOD and NASA to develop the try needs. Indeed, the Air Force insisted that policy guidance and establish the terms and the winner of the Medium Launch Vehicle conditions that will govern commercial competition demonstrate commercial adapt- launch operations on Government ranges. As ability as part of its proposal. a result of close cooperation among all three Complementing Government policy changes agencies, American Rocket Company was aimed at creating a positive environment for able to use the Air Force’s Rocket Propulsion commercial ELV’s, the Wice of Commercial Laboratory facilities at Edwards Air Force Space Transportation developed regulatory Base to conduct tests of its hybrid rocket en- guidance and interagency relationships for this gine. In August 1986, NASA signed an agree- important initiative. Meetings were held with ment with Space Services, Inc. authorizing domestic launch fums, satellite manufactur- that company’s use of the Wallops Island ers, and owners and operators to ascertain the launch facility. potential effect of various public options on Liaison with the Commercial Space Indus- their business operations. try. Significant effort was devoted to main-

112 taining productive working relationships 14 agencies that included the Occupational with all segments of the commercial space Health and Safety Administration, Environ- industry. DOT representatives met with mental Protection Agency, and the Nuclear members of the financial community to clar- Regulatory Commission, along with agencies ify and reinforce the Government’s commit- directly involved in the space program such ment to commercialization of space. In as NASA, DOD, and Commerce. Interim reg- addition, working relationships were estab- ulations were published in February 1986, lished with representatives of the communi- with an invitation for public comment. The cations industry to determine the factors public comments they generated generally shaping demand for communications satel- were favorable, and will result in the publica- lites. Efforts were made to determine launch tion of final regulations in early 1987. These firms’ need for communications services to regulations will provide guidance to any com- support tracking, telemetry, and control. mercial launch company, operator of a pri- Commercial Space Transportation Advisory vate launch site, or operator of an unlicensed Committee (COMSTAC). The Advisory Com- payload applying for a Government review mittee’s members are appointed by the Secre- and safety determination. tary of Transportation, and include Administration policy requires that all reg- representatives from the major aerospace ulations that affect the private sector be as- manufacturers, satellite communications sessed to determine the impact they will have firms, the financial, investment and legal upon public safety, and upon the industry’s communities, and entrepreneurial launch economic health and chance for survival. In companies. Two meetings of COMSTAC were some instances, DOT’S interim final launch held to ensure that the Department had a licensing regulation will require that a firm complete, accurate overview of the issues fat- provide substantial data demonstrating the ing the space business community. safety of its activity. In compliance with Ex- This year, COMSTAC focused on launch ecutive Order 12291 and internal Depart- and third-party liability insurance and its ef- ment policies, DOT prepared an impact fect upon financing commercial space ven- assessment of the new regulation. It con- tures, upon capital formation, and upon the cluded that the benefits of these policies out- development of DOT’S regulatory framework. weighed the potential cost to the industry Briefings were also presented on impedi- and the Nation. Like the draft regulation, the ments to space commercialization, on com- impact assessment was available for public mercial launch firms’ activities in response comment. to increased demand after the Challenger ac- The Commercial Space Launch Act charges cident, and on initiatives undertaken by aer- the Department of Transportation with re- ospace firms in the Houston area. sponsibility for establishing minimum re- Regubr~l’kchnicd and Sa& Activities. In quirements for third-party liability 1986, the Department directed much of its ef- insurance, which commercial launch opera- fort toward establishing an efficient procedural tors must carry. Third-party liability insur- Mework for regulating commercial launch ance protectk the Government from having to activities. While publishing regulations in the pay damages should a third party, such as Federal Register and issuing licenses are highly persons or property not directly involved with visible actions that can be used to measure pro- the launch operation, be hurt or otherwise gress, these actions are actually the product of damaged as a result of the launch. In 1985, an intense, behind-the-scenes effort to imple- the Department issued an advance notice of ment legislation as important and sweeping as proposed rulemaking (ANPRM) requesting the Commercial Space Launch Act. Thus, re-- public comment on a variety of mechanisms latory development and research in 1986 be- to implement the Department’s authority in gan with the previous year’s policy statement this area. To answer the extensive probing outlining general concepts for a launch licens- and complex questions that resulted from the ing process. ANPRM, the Department researched issues In order to manage an effective licensing germane to third-party liability insurance program, the Department developed specific, requirements. step-by-step administrative procedures, li- Environmental Assessment The National En- censing policies, mission and safety review vironmental Fblicy Act requires that major procedures and criteria, and information re- Federal actions be assessed for their effects quirements. This effort was conducted with upon the environment. Clearly, issuing regula-

113 tions that govern the activities of a new indus- An efficient launch approval process had to try constitutes a major Federal action. Because be devised, and disincentives to investment, commercial launches are expected to be rou- such as U.S. Government competition in the tine events, their environmental effects had to commercial launch market, removed. ‘Ibday, be assessed prior to issuing regulations under those barriers have largely been removed. which they would operate. The effects of com- The Department of Transportation has made mercial launches on air quality, water quality, substantial progress in encouraging and fa- noise levels, and land uses were evaluated by cilitating the development of this new indus- using information about unmanned space try, and has established the foundation for launches conducted over the last 20 years. In commercial success in the space frontier. February 1986, this evaluation was published as a programmatic environmental assessment, and made available for public review and comment. “he environmental assessment represents a major milestone in commercial space transportation. The only response to the assessment that the Department received was a finding by the Environmental Protection Agency that there appeared to be no significant impacts, and, in September, the Department issued a “Finding of No Significant Impact.” Although no significant environmental impacts are expected from the development of the industry, or from the conduct of routine launch operations, there may be launch-peculiar as- that will have to be addressed during the licensing review process. Safety Research and Technical Program De- uelopment. One of the most challenging aspects of the Department’s charter is ensuring that no aspect of commercial launch activities poses unreasonable risks to public safety. In order to develop appropriate safety requirements, DOT conducts analyses and studies of the same scope and depth as those conducted in other modes of transportation. The Department has planned a research program that will examine methodically safety issues involved in commercial space launch activities. The research will not duplicate efforts of NASA or the Air Force, but will build upon the existing knowledge base, as DOT does now in the area of aviation. Commercial space launch research will concentrate in areas that include risk management, commercial payload effects on the space environment, commercial ground and flight safety, safety equipment requirements, and commercial safety operating procedures. Encouraging commercial investment in space transportation remains a U.S. Govern- ment priority. In 1983, when the President first requested the Government and the private sector to make the development of a robust commercial launch industry a national goal, significant barriers were encountered.

114 Environmental Protection Agency

The Environmental Protection Agency Acid Deposition Studies (EPA)cooperated with NASA in developing and applying a number of aerospace technol- NASA and EPA are developing methods to ogies that include a geographic information model acid deposition from the Philadelphia system for monitoring the environment and metropolitan area. This area can be visual- factors that Sect it; laser technology for the ized as an 80- to 100-kilometer square con- remote measurement of airborne pollutants taining a large number of individual sources and water quality; mathematical models for of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, hydrocar- acid deposition studies; the use of high- bons, and the oxides of nitrogen. The purpose altitude photography in support of provisions of the modeling study is to characterize how of the Resource Conservation and Recovery the pollutants dect the chemical composi- Act (RCRA) relating to waste-site location, tion of rainfall reaching the ground in the permit writing, site analysis, enforcement ac- first few hundred kilometers downwind of the tivities, and the underground storage tank sources. It will compare results of calcula- program. Aerial photography is also used to tions using mathematical models of meteoro- support waste-site investigations conducted logical and chemical processes with the under the Comprehensive Environmental results of field observations. Response, Compensation and Liability Act "he mathematical models are of two types. (CERCLA), also knowa as Superfund. First is a meteorological model called the Me- soscale Atmospheric Simulator Model (MASS) developed for Langley Research Center. This Monitoring and Assessing model was tested by the Goddard Space Flight the Environment Center and provided an excellent simulation of the weather. "he second model, the Sulfur Transport Eulerian Model (STEM), was devel- Geographic Infirmation Systems oped jointly by the Universities of Iowa and Kentucky with financial support from NASA and EPA. Both models run on Langley's com- Geographic Information Systems (GIs) pro- puters and represent the state of the art in vide a means for computerized manipulation of their respective disciplines. multiple data sets from or related to Landsat Since the study's inception in March 1985, satellites, photography, topography, land use, meteorological conditions for three experi- vegetation, soils, weather, population distribu- mental periods were simulated successfully. tion, geology, and sampling locations for moni- The simulations are necessary because the bring and assessing the environment. The atmosphere at levels above the surface is ob- locations of spatially variable inf'ormation am served only at 12-hour intervals, and at sta- organized and referenced using Cartesian (x,y) tions approximately 400 kilometers apart. coordinates and grid cells. The information is Calculations of meteorological conditions then retrieved by subject (such as land we, soil with the models yield resolutions that are type, and water well location) and manipu- more detailed than those obtained from ob- lated, combined, and displayed as complex geo- servations alone. graphic data bases. Processing and Once the meteorological fields have been manipulating the GIs data base through vari- calculated, STEM performs the functions of ous computer operations result in a series of modeling the chemical transformations oc- thematic overlays describing many environ- curring in the atmosphere, the transporting mental variables that relate to a particular site of the various chemical species, and the re- or region. Applications for the overlays include moval of the species by rain. Both STEM and hazardous waste permit analysis, local and re- MASS are designed to simulate field experi- gional environmental impact assessment, ments and to analyze major processes con- monitoring systems design, and compliance tributing to acid deposition on a mesoscale monitoring. basis. The field results from the EPA experi-

115 ments indicate that nitrate deposition result- ties. During the implementation of this legis- ing from urban-industrial sources can be very lation in areas serviced by septic systems, significant. The models are designed to deter- EPA recognized the need to document the mine the origin of nitrates from several condition of these systems. Unfortunately, sources, such as automotive emissions and available field survey methods have technical petrochemical processing emissions, and limitations, and public records are usually then comparing calculated results. In this incomplete. Therefore, researchers at EPA way, the models and field efforts are mutu- have developed aerial photographic tech- ally supportive. niques to help identify failures in septic systems. High-Altitude Photography An area under study is photographed using both color infrared and standard color photography at a scale of 1:8,000.This scale pro- The Resource Conservation and Recovery vides the necessary resolution while allowing Act requires states to inventory open dumps and landfills associated with municipal and enough area coverage to make the method cost-effective. The color infrared imagery is industrial activities. Similar inventories of the primary source for interpretation be- surface impoundments are required under cause of its in the Clean Water Act. These inventories help ability to detect subtle changes vegetative growth patterns. The standard states determine and control the effects of color photography is used primarily for com- seepage, drainage, and plumes from surface parative purposes. impoundments, landfills, and open dumps. To support state efforts, scientists from The analyst uses high-powered optics and EPA acquire and analyze aerial photographs, stereoscope to examine each lot in the study obtained by NASA U-2 flights, to help locate area for signs of unusual vegetative growth, and inventory hazardous waste sites. Aerial plant foliage stress, and excessive soil mois- photography provides an accurate and cost- t ure levels. Growth-stress-dep t h vegetative effective way to supplement other sources of patterns associated with upward or lateral information, such as industrial directories, movements of septic system effluent appear government records, thematic and topo- different from the surrounding vegetation on graphic maps, and letter surveys that may both standard color and color infrared pho- provide only partial information, or may be tography. out of date. The aerial photographic invento- Analysts also can identify secondary indi- cations of septic system failures. Indicators of ries serve as a basic guide to sites and provide general identification and descriptions. such failures may be small ditches or In one application, specialists were able to trenches constructed by home owners to re- acquire high-altitude aerial photographs cov- move the effluent from failing systems, small hoses or pipes to reroute wash water from an ering the State of Pennsylvania, about 48,000 square miles, in 8 hours of flight time. The overloaded system, and coverings o€ an im- pervious material such as clay. photographs located approximately 3,500 landfills and dumps and several times as many impoundments in the state. Similarly, Aerial Photography fir RCRAKERCLA Gulf Coast areas of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, about 21,000 square miles, were photographed from high altitude with a con- Remote sensing projects support the proc- ventional mapping camera in less than 9 ess of issuing permits for facilities, site anal- hours of flight time. These photographs al- ysis, and enforcement activities under lowed identification of over 600 waste sites. provisions of the Resource Conservation and Sites are classified according to the kind of Recovery Act (RCRA); and site operations monitoring, topographic and flood mapping, facility associated with them, such as industrial, municipal, agricultural, mining, oil or demographic change analysis, and the Un- gas, sewage treatment, and land disposal. derground Storage %nk program. Aerial photography is also the most commonly used remote sensing technique for supporting Aerial Photographic Septic Tank Assessments waste-site investigations conducted under the Comprehensive Environmental Re- The Clean Water Act authorizes the fund- sponse, compensation and Liability Act ing of sewage collection and treatment facili- (CERCLA), often called Superfund. The prin-

116 cipal aerial photographic system used is the 9” x 9” mapping camera. Color and color infrared files are most frequently used because these media provide enhanced differen- tiation of subtle spectral characteristics associated with such features as surface lea- chate, surface water turbidity, soil moisture, and vegetation stress. Various types of aircraft are used at different flight altitudes. Ar- chival aerial photography provides a valuable source of information for the historical analysis of hazardous waste sites and is routinely used. Moreover, image analysts who interpret aerial imagery are fully qualified to provide expert witness testimony on the analysis findings. EPA conducts four basic types of remote sensing under RCRA or CERCLA. First, priority is given to emergency response projects under hazardous material release situations requiring rapid assessment of conditions at a site. When current information on a site is required, the practice is usually to acquire new photography. Data analysis may be conducted on this new imagery or on historical imagery taken during a particularly significant period in the history of the site. Second, intensive site-analysis projects are performed on selected sites to document changing conditions over a period of time. Third, waste-site inventories are conducted over large areas to establish a baseline reference of sites. In addition, a number of special purpose products are produced using more advanced technologies to process photographic data. Fourth, photogrammetry is employed to produce detailed topographic maps of waste sites. As an expansion of the applications of photogrammetry, flood-plain maps defining the 1 in 25, 1 in 50, and 1 in 100-year flood plain are developed for hazardous waste sites. This effort involves combining topographic data derived from photogrammetry with hydraulic or stream-flow data sets.

117 National Science Foundation

The National Science Foundation (NSF) Atmospheric Sciences supports research in both the astronomical and atmospheric sciences. In 1986,NSF supported ground-based and theoretical astron- In 1986, NSF supported basic atmospheric omy that included five grant programs research on a wide range of subjects, and re- benefiting more than 140 universities and mains the largest federal supporter of aca- three National Astronomy Centers. demic research in the atmospheric sciences. In the atmospheric sciences, NSF provides Significant achievements in the atmo- the primary support for research by universi- spheric sciences included modeling of the ice ties, and both nonprofit and profit-making age climate. Reconstructions of climate of the groups in the United States. It also supports past 20,000 years from paleoecological land the National Center for Atmospheric Re- records correlated remarkably well with search (NCAR) and the Upper Atmospheric results from the NCAR Community Climate Facilities (UAF) program. In collaboration Model. with the atmospheric sciences community, Basic research on the physics of cirrus NCAR conducts large scientific research pro- clouds will allow a better understanding of grams, and offers use of major facilities that the absorption, reflection and transmission of would be beyond the scope of those available solar and terrestrial radiation by these at a single university. The UAF supports four clouds in global climate models. This is due incoherent-scatter radar facilities that to the observations of liquid water in cirrus stretch in a longitudinal chain from Green- clouds, previously thought to consist entirely land to Peru. of ice crystals. Researchers have established that the solar flux increased from the solar cycle maximum Astronomical Sciences in 1968 through 1969 to the solar cycle maximum from 1978 through 1979, and, subsequently, decreased to the present time. The solar diameter showed the same pattern. In 1986, the fastest known spinning binary This connection is important for understand- pulsar was discovered. The pulses are so reg- ing climate variations, and for studying the ular that the possibility exists for using this physics of solar activity and variability. object as a very precise clock whose accuracy In August, the National Ozone Expedition exceeds that of the best terrestrial standards. (NOZE), was dispatched to study the deple- In the process of star formation, astrono- tion of stratospheric ozone over the Antarctic mers observed the stage where the collapsing continent. In addition to NSF, support was object is closer to attaining stellar dimen- provided by NASA, NOAA, and the Chemical sions than anything previously observed. Ob- Manufacturers Association. Research results servations made at radio wavelengths show should provide a better understanding of evidence of a star that has only one-quarter of ozone depletion over Antarctica. the mass of the Sun. It is surrounded by a cloud of falling material whose mass continues to increase, indicating that the star might become as massive as the Sun. In a related area, astronomers have obtained optical evidence of companion white dwarf stars in binary pulsar systems. The highest magnetic field known was measured on the surface of a white dwarf star. The strength of this magnetic field is 700 million times greater than the Earth’s magnetic field.

119 ! Smithsonian Institution

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to of large volumes of superfluid helium in the Nation’s space goals through basic re- space also were measured. search programs at the Smithsonian Astro- physical Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and through public exhibits, Atmospheric Sciences lectures, and educational programs at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, D.C. NASM’s Center for Earth The chemistry of Earth‘s stratosphere was and Planetary Studies (CEPS) also conducts studied by means of far-infrared spectra ob- basic research in planetary geology and ter- tained from a balloon-borne telescope. The restrial remote sensing. most significant result of this research was the first detection of stratospheric hydrogen peroxide. Space Sciences

High-Energy Astrophysics

Using a combination of satellite and Space Technology ground-based observations, SA0 scientists discovered a possible third black hole in the Milky Way. The technique used-observing After more than a decade of work, SA0 and its visible light counterpart-can be applied Harvard University scientists succeeded in to the search for additional objects of this operating an atomic maser clock to within type. one-half degree of absolute zero. At that tem- The continued reduction and analysis of perature, it is anticipated that the “cold data from the HEAO-1 and HEAO-2 @in- clock” will be one thousand times more accu- stein) satellites led to the discovery of a cool, rate than any other time standard yet devel- high-density, x-ray-emitting gas in the cen- oped. The new clock could be used in a tral regions of some galaxies. As this gas con- variety of experiments in space. tinues to cool, it condenses to form new stars; thus, these “old” galaxies still show activity characteristic of younger galaxies. Planetary Sciences Quasars, extremely luminous objects located at the core of some galaxies, emit x-rays with a universal signature which allows an SA0 scientists were among many involved efficient way to locate them. This is impor- in Halley’s Comet research, including inter- tant for understanding the development of national efforts to achieve a close fly-by of the certain properties of the universe over the Comet, and to measure the physical charac- past 15 billion years. teristics of its nucleus. The measurements confirmed the “dirty snowball” model of a Infrared Astronomy comet’s nucleus that was developed by an SA0 scientist. Maps of the infrared sky were produced Voyager spacecraft data show Saturn’s out- from data obtained by a helium-cooled infra- ermost ring to be curiously uneven in bright- red telescope 0 carried on the flight of ness, with two bright regions 180 degrees Spacelab 2 in July 1985. Although hampered apart separated by two darker regions. Re- by significant background contamination as- search indicates that this irregularity is sociated with the Shuttle environment, the caused by a tendency of particles to cluster IRT successfully traced diffuse infrared radi- gravitationally in aligned arrays that reflect ation from the plane of the Milky Way in light better in one direction than in the direc- wavebands previously unrecorded. Properties tion perpendicular to it.

121 SA0 continued its study of lunar samples. In particular, collaborative research was undertaken with other institutions on rocks taken from the Apollo 16 site. Located in the Moon’s central highlands. this site contains complex layers of debris, splashed there by giant impacts that created large lunar basins approximately 3.9 billion years ago. SA0 studies suggest the impact that formed the Imbrium basin occurred 50 million years earlier than previously thought, providing a more accurate chronology of the Moon’s early history. Using Viking Orbiter images taken in different color filters, CEPS researchers iso- lated discrete areas of the Martian terrain that indicate much of the northern smooth plains of the planet formerly were underlain by ancient crust, which is now only visible in the southern hemisphere. Currently, image processing techniques are being used to re- construct evolution of the northern smooth plains from an early period of intense meteor- itic bombardment to the most recent deposition of fluvial sediments. In 1986, a comparative study of the basalt plains on Mars and Earth began. The The- matic Mapper Camera aboard Landsat provided images of structural features in the Columbia Plateau. This information was compared to images of similar features on Mars taken by the Viking Orbiter. This research is particularly valuable because field work on the Columbian ridges could result in validation of theories on their origin. Changes in Earth’s desert regions, caused by sand transport and different uses of arable soil, are being monitored through a study of orbital images. The research is concentrated on southern Egypt, where dune migration has overtaken the landscape, and Mali, where visible land-use patterns indicate areas prone to active erosion. The long-term goal is to determine what can and cannot be learned from medium- and high-resolution spectral imaging of Earth’s arid regions.

122 Department of State

The role of the Department of State in the (UN)and its Committee on the Peaceful Uses U.S. civil space program is to evaluate space of Outer Space (COPUOS). programs, policies, and agreements in the context of advancing U.S. foreign policy interests. It advises the President on interna- Actlvltles Wlthln the Unlted Nations tional space matters, is the principal negotiator of government-to-government Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer agreements, and represents the United Space States in international organizations involved in space. The 53 member COPUOS was established In 1986, the United States continued to ne- in 1958 by the UN General Assembly to pro- gotiate with international partners on the mote international cooperation in the explo- permanently manned Space Station. In close ration and peaceful uses of outer space. For cooperation with NASA and other interested 20 yeas it served as a productive vehicle for agencies, Department officials met with Eu- the exchange of scientific information. It was ropean, Japanese, and Canadian representa- also responsible for negotiating four widely tives to negotiate government-to-government accepted UN conventions that form the basis agreements on the detailed design, develop- of international space law. ment, operation, and utilization of the Space In recent years, however, the scientific and Station. This activity builds upon Memo- legal work of the Committee have seriously randa of Understanding signed in 1985, and deteriorated. Debates were influenced by ex- signifies progress in making the largest in- traneous political factors, and there was an ternational space project in history a reality. increasing tendency to involve the Commit- The Department of State strongly supports tee in disarmament and political issues out- the Space Station as a concrete demonstra- side its mandate. As the 39th session of the tion of U.S. leadership in space, as a stimulus UN General Assembly, the United States and for exploring new areas of science and tech- other Western nations attempted to arrest nology, and as a positive model for interna- the decline by making a number of changes tional cooperation and mutual benefit. in the agenda of COPUOS and its Subcom- mittees. During 1985 and 1986, Western In 1986, the Department played a major role states continued their efforts to restore scien- in interagency discussions on a number of tific and technical utility to the work of space policy issues. The Challenger tragedy re- COPUOS and to make it function in accord- sulted in a reevaluation of the entire U.S. civil ance with its original mandate. space program, changed U.S. commercial space In Febquary 1986, the Scientific and Bch- policy, and radically altered plans for world sa& nical Subcommittee adopted a U.S./Western ellite launches. Each of these areas affected in- proposal to add planetary exploration and as- ternational space policies, and national tronomy to its agenda. This was one of many policies of countries that have cooperative proposals that Western nations made in an space projects with the United States or depend effort to arrest serious deterioration in the on it for launch serihces. As the agency respon- Subcommittee’s scientific work. The Subcom- sible for representing U.S. foreign policy inter- mittee rejected an Eastern bloc proposal to ests in the international arena, the add new items to the agenda that focused Department of State actively participated in largely on the disarmament position of the discussions of these issues, conveying and eval- Soviet Union. uating foreign country viewpoints and explain- In March 1986, the Legal Subcommittee ing U.S. decisions. endorsed the Austrian draft text “Principles The Department of State continued to rep- Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth resent the United States in international from Outer Space.” Modeled on policies and bodies involved in space issues. One of the practices instituted years ago by the United principal forums is the United Nation States, the principles encourage the public,

123 non-discriminatory availability of data, and Communlcatlon Satellites promote opportunities for international participation in national remote sensing pro- International Telecommunication Union grams. COPUOS endorsed the draft text; (ITV subsequently, it was presented to the 41st Session of the UN General Assembly. During its 29th plenary session in June The United States prepared for the ITU’s 1986, COPUOS agreed to include life science World Administrative Radio Conference for research, astronomy, and planetary science Mobile Services (Mobile WARC) that will be in the 1987 agenda of the Scientific and Tech- held in Geneva, Switzerland in September and nical Subcommittee. COPUOS also accepted October 1987. The conference will review and a Latin American proposal to establish a revise regulations for mobile services from ter- Working Group of the Whole for the 1987 restrial and satellite communications, radio meeting of the Scientific and Technical Sub- determination and radio navigation satellite committee that will evaluate the implemen- systems. In July, at a special meeting held in tation of the Unispace ’82 recommendations. Geneva, a draft of the U.S. technical proposals That proposal was similar to one recom- was presented to 41 countries. mended by the West in 1985. The U.S. and In September, the ITU’s International Fre- Western delegations continued to press for quency Registration Board unanimously measures to review the organization and adopted a report that identified and docu- working methods of COPUOS and its Sub- mented 37 frequencies of the Voice of Amer- committees, without much success, to date. ica, Radio Liberty, and Radio Free Europe that were jammed by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. This is the fmt UN General Assembly (UNGA) official technical body within the UN system to recognize this violation of obligations under.the ITU’s Radio Regulations and the Hel- On the recommendation of the Special Po- sinki accords. litical Committee, the 41st session of the UN In May, the ITU’s International Radio Con- General Assembly adopted the omnibus reso- sultative Committee submitted to the Ple- lution “International Cooperation in the nary Assembly a U.S. recommendation for Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.” The resolu- worldwide High Definition Television tion sets the agendas of COPUOS and its (HDTV) standards for the studio and for in- Subcommittees for 1987, and reflects several ternational program exchange. This position proposals the U.S. and other Western states was developed by the Advanced Television had offered in 1986 to re-establish the scien- Systems Committee, a voluntary organiza- tific and technical content of the Committee’s tion of U.S. industry, established in 1983. work. The UNGA also adopted the draft text However, a coalition of EEC members, pri- “Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of marily concerned with protecting the inter- the Earth from Outer Space” that was forests of the European electronics industry, was warded by COPUOS. Pursuant to Article X of instrumental in effecting a two-year postpon- the Convention on the Registration of Objects ment of any decision to adopt worldwide Launched into Outer Space, the UNGA also HDTV standards. conducted a review of that instrument to determine whether it required revision. The International Communications Satellite UNGA determined that the Convention Organization (INTELSAT) works satisfactorily, and urged non-signatory states to consider becoming parties to it. In December 1986, the INTELSAT Board of In the 41st session of the UNGA, the U.S. Governors approved a US. proposal to estab- reiterated its concerns over the unwilling- lish the first international satellite commun- ness by many member states to consider the ications system separate from INTELSAT. need to make COPUOS and its Subcommit- Also, in 1986, following its 1985 decision to tees more efficient and effective, and ex- provide domestic services, INTELSAT con- pressed its disappointment that COPUOS cluded several sales and lease agreements. In had not yet acted on other proposals that addition to international communications, it Western states had presented in an effort to now offers domestic services, particularly to revitalize it. developing countries. International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT)

Member states began ratifying the 1985 amendments to the INMARW convention that will allow aeronautical communication services. While several countries have rati- fied the amendments, the U.S. has taken them under advisement. In the meantime, work continues on defining technical requirements and tarsstructures for the services.

128 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

The United States Arms Control and Dis- and its First Committee, and the Conference armament Agency (ACDA), established in on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva, Switzer- 1961 to advise the President of the United land. In March 1985, the CD established an States on arms control policy, plays a key role ad hoc committee to examine issues relevant in the development and support of that policy. to the prevention of an arms race in outer Historically, ACDA has paid considerable at- space. The United States and its allies sup- tention to arms control in outer space. With port the work of this specialized committee, increased emphasis placed upon the potential which has a non-negotiating mandate to ad- use of space, the role of ACDA has grown in dress space arms control issues, to review the importance. current legal regime of space, and to discuss existing and future proposals. U.S. Space Arms Control Actlvltles Space Policy

President RRagan outlined the National Space Policy July 4, 1982. In his remarks, he ACDA is involved extensively in the formula- said: tion of U.S. space policy. For example, the The United States will continue to study agency cochairs the Interagency Group on De- space arms control options. The United fense and Space, which addresses space arms States will consider verifiable and equita- control issues. Also, it is a member of the inter- ble arms control measures that would ban agency group that defines U.S. policy on the or otherwise limit testing and deployment Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). In addition, of specific weapons systems, should those ACDA provides administrative support, senior measures be compatible with United States representatives, advisors, and legal experts to national security. U.S. arms control negotiations. The President reaffirmed that policy on The agency participates in the Senior Inter- March 31,1984in a report to the Congress on agency Group on Space that addresses a anti-satellite (ASAT) arms control. range of issues involving space, such as devel- During the past two years, ACDA has been opment of the manned U.S. Space Station. deeply involved in the Nuclear and Space There are a number of other interagency 'Iglks, a bilateral U.S.-Soviet arms control groups in which ACDA participates that renegotiation that began in March 1985. In view topics relative to space, such as bilateral January 1985, at a meeting between Secre- governmental space activities and coopera- tary of State Shultz and then Soviet Foreign tion, and the sale of space-related items. Also, Minister Gromyko, it was agreed that these ACDA contributes to U.S. consideration of talks would be composed of three separate technical collection assets for verifying com- groups, one of which addresses defense and pliance with arms control agreements; these space issues. In this forum, called the De- include space-based assets that are part of fense and Space Negotiating Group, ACDA the national technical means of verification. has continued to analyze and articulate the U.S. position on space arms control.

Multllateral Dlscusslons on Space Arms Control

ACDA continues to pursue US. space policy objectives in two multilateral forums each year: the United Nations General Assembly

127 United States Information Agency

As part of its continuing coverage of Ameri- video tapes on space topics to USIS posts can achievements in science and technology, abroad, including a 17-part series entitled the United States Information Agency “NASA at Work.” Many of the video tapes (USIA)devotes considerable attention to the were broadcast by overseas TV stations, US. space program. ‘Ib tell its story to the while others were shown to large audiences world, USIA uses such communication tech- at various locations. niques as radio programs, newspaper stories, direct satellite TV broadcasts, exhibits, and Other USIA Activities overseas visits by scientists and astronauts. USIA’s Press and Publications Service pro- Voice of America vided USIS posts abroad with a variety of information for placement in the local media, In 1986, a major subject of news programs post publications, and for background use. of the Voice of America (VOA) was the acci- “he Wireless File, which serves 213 posts in dent of the Space Shuttle Challenger. VOA’s 128 locations, provided full and accurate cov- English and foreign language broadcasts pro- erage of the Challenger accident, along with vided full and objective coverage of the disas- statements by the President, and others, em- ter, and attempted to place it in its proper phasizing America’s determination to con- context within the U.S. space program. tinue its pursuit of a vigorous space program. Among other topics meriting in-depth news Articles on space exploration highlighted the coverage were: Voyager 2’s encounter with many benefits to be derived through interna- Uranus, the appearance of Halley’s Comet, tional cooperation. the future Space Station, remote sensing sat- America Illustrated, USIA’s monthly Rus- ellites, and the Report of the National Com- sian-language magazine which is distributed mission on Space. Most of VOA’s 41 foreign in the Soviet Union, published an illustrated language services covered stories in these ar- feature on Voyager 2’s encounter with eas. The fact that VOA continually receives Uranus. USIA’s Foreign Press Centers in inquiries on these topics by overseas audi- Washington and Los Angeles offered brief- ences is an indication of the high interest in ings on the space program, and assisted resi- the U.S. space program. dent and visiting correspondents from overseas news organizations. Television Service USIA worked closely with NASA in the development and operation of the American Pa- Worldnet, USIA’s popular satellite telecast vilion at yncouver’s Expo ’86. The Pavilion service, generated a steady stream of news focused on space exploration and transporta- and features on the U.S. space program. tion, and, in particular, on the manned Space Worldnet’s news magazine, America Zbduy, Station proposed for the 1990’s and beyond. A focused on events such as the Voyager 2 mis- number of American and Canadian astro- sion, the Challenger accident, the Young As- nauts visited the Pavilion, which was one of tronauts Program, and the future Space the most popular at the fair. Station. Worldnet also carried live inter- In 1986, the American Participant Pro- views, via satellite, between NASA officials, gram sponsored trips abroad for two astro- U.S. space experts, and foreign journalists nauts; both received extensive and favorable and scientists. For example, NASA’s Admin- news coverage. Jon McBride visited Indone- istrator, Dr. James Fletcher, discussed the sia, and participated in the opening of a ma- space program with newsmen in Bern, Brus- jor international air show. Dr. Franklin sels, Paris, and Rome. Chang-Diaz traveled on two separate pro- In other activities, the Satellite File, a grams. His first trip was to Argentina, Uru- weekly series of TV clips, distributed many guay, Chile and ‘Venezuela; his second items about NASA to 120 countries; the TV journey was to Malaysia, where he partici- acquisition program sent a large number of pated in the ASEAN Science Symposium. Appendixes APPENDIXA-l U.S. Spacecraft Record (Includes spacerraft from moperating countries launched by US. launch vehicles.) Calendar Earth Orbit" Earth Escape' Calendar Earth Orbit " Earth Escape ' Year Success Failure Success Failure Year Success Failure Succesa Failure 1957 ...... 0 1 0 0 1972 ...... 33 2 8 0 1958 ...... 5 8 0 4 1973 ...... 23 2 3 0 1959 ...... 9 9 1 2 1974 ...... 27 2 1 0 1960 ...... 16 12 1 2 1975 ...... 30 4 4 0 1961 ...... 35 12 0 2 1976 ...... 33 0 1 0 1962 ...... 55 12 4 1 1977 ...... 27 2 2 0 1963 ...... 62 11 0 0 1978 ...... 34 2 7 0 1964 ...... 69 8 4 0 1979 ...... 18 0 0 0 1965 ...... 93 c 4 1 1980 ...... 16 4 0 0 1966 ...... 94 12 7 lb 1981 ...... 20 1 0 0 1867 ...... 78 . 4 10 0 1982 ...... 21 0 0 0 1968 ...... 61 15 3 0 1983 ...... 31 0 0 0 1969 ...... 58 1 8 1 1984 ...... 35 3 0 0 1970 ...... 36 1 3 0 1985 ...... 37 1 0 0 1971 ...... 45 2 8 1 1986 ...... 11 4 0 0 Total ...... 1. 112 142 79 15 The cri?rion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. "Esca flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth . %is rarth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. APPENDIXA-2 World Wordof Space Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond (Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)

People's United calendarBar States U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom ASpace India of China genv 1957 ...... 2 ...... 1958 ...... 5 1 ...... 1959 ...... 10 3 ...... 1960 ...... 16 3 ...... 1961 ...... 29 6 ...... 1962 ...... 52 20 ...... 1963 ...... 38 17 ...... 1964 ...... 57 30 ...... 1965 ...... 63 48 ...... 1 ...... 1966 ...... 73 44 ...... 1 ...... 1967 ...... 57 66 ...... 2 ...... 1 ...... 1 ...... 1968 ...... 45 74 ...... 1969 ...... 40 70 ...... 1970 ...... 28 81 ...... 2 ...... l '...... 1 ...... 1 ...... 197 1 ...... 30 83 ...... 1 ...... 2 " ...... 2 ...... 1 ...... 1 ...... 1972 ...... 30 74 ...... 1 ...... 1 ...... 1973 ...... 23 86 ...... 1974 ...... 22 81 ...... 2"...... 1 ...... 1975 ...... 27 89 ...... 3 ...... 1 ...... 2 ...... 3 ...... 1976 ...... 26 99 ...... 1 ...... 2 ...... 1977 ...... 24 98 ...... 2 ...... 1978 ...... 32 88 ...... 3 ...... 1 ...... 1979 ...... 16 87 ...... 2 ...... 1 ...... 1980 ...... 13 89 ...... 2 ...... 1 .... 1981 ...... 18 98 ...... 3 ...... 1 ...... 2 ...... 1 .... 1082 ...... 18 101 ...... 1 ...... 1 ...... 1983 ...... 22 98 ...... 3 ...... 1 ...... 2 ...... 1 .... 1984 ...... 22 97 ...... 3 ...... 3 ...... 4 ...... 1985 ...... 17 98 ...... 2 ...... 1 ...... 3 ...... 1986 ...... 6 91 ...... 2 ...... 2 ...... 2 ...... %tal ...... 859 1,922 10 8 31 17 "; 1 1 14 3 "Includes foreign launchee of U.S. spacecraft.

131 APPENDIXA-3 Successful US. bunches-1988

-~ Apogee and Launch Date (GMT), Fbrigee (km), S aceeraRName, Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks CO~~PARDesi Spacecraft Data Inclination to Launch VeE? Equator (“1

Jan. 12 Ob’ective: lb launch RCA Satcom K-1, and con- 350 Twenty-fourth flight of Space Trans- S ce Shuttle duct ex riments. 327 rtation System. Piloted by Ro- c”olumbia SpacecrgShuttle orbiter carrying satellite as 91.3 E* L . “Hoot” Gibson and ~SrSalC) well as experiments. Materials Science 28.5 Charles F. Bolden. Mission spe- 3A Laboratory-2 (MLS-2), Hitchhiker Gl,Parti- cialists Franklin R. Chang-Dim, cle Analysis Cameras for the Shuttle (F’ACS), Steven A. Hawley, and George D. Capillary Pump Loop (CPL), Shuttle Environ- “Pinky” Nelson. Payload s ment Effeds on Coated Mirrors (SEECM), 12 ists Robert J. Ceder mcE%$ experiments flown on Get Away Special Bridge Congressman C. William “Bill” Assembly, 1additional GAS experiment, Infra- Nelson. Columbia launched KSC red Ima ’ngExperiment (ZR-IE). Middeck pay- 655 a.m., EST. Satellite deployed loads: Ynitial Blood Storage Experiment and experiments conducted. Shut- (IBSE), and Comet Halley Active Monitoring tle landed at Edwards AFB, CA, Program (CHAMP). Additional1 3 Shuttle 858 a.m., EST, Jan. 18. Mission Student Involvement Program (is IP) experi- duration 6 days, 2 hrs, 4 min. ments. Weight 12,708 lbs.

Jan. 12 Objective: lb successfully launch communica- 35,794 Successfully deployed from Colum- RCA Satcom K-1 tions satellite. 35,781 bia, second in series satellite for 3B Spacecrak Box-shaped, 67 by 84 by 60 inch main 1436.2 RCA American Communications, structure, three-axis stabilized, twin 280 0.0 Inc. In orbit. uare R. solar panels de loyed after launch. yeight at launch: 15,929 ks. Feb. 9 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available In orbit. Defense and technology. 14A Spacecrafk Not announced. Atlas H Feb. 9 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available. In orbit. Defense and technology. 14E Spacecrafk Not announced. Feb. 9 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available. In orbit. Defense and technology. 14F Spacecraft: Not announced. Feb. 9 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available. In orbit. Defense and technology. 14H Spacecraft: Not announced. se5 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 719 Successful launch by NASA for Lfem and technology. 212 DoD, Strategic Defense Initiative 69A Spacecrafk Not announced. 93.9 (SDD.Space intercept and colli- Delta 180 39.1 sion test. Destroyed. se5 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 611 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDn betense and technology. 223 space intercept, and collision test. 69B Spacecraft: Not announced. 92.9 Destroyed. 22.8

Se 17 Objective: lb launch spacecraft into 823 Third of the advanced Tiros-N se- EOAA 10 sunsynchronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to 804 ries. Funded by NOAA and suc- 73A enable satellite to accomplish its operational 101.2 cessfully launched by NASA. Also Atlaa E mission requirements. 98.7 onboard Search and Rescue in- Spacecrak Launch configuration: 491 cm high, struments. Spacecraft returning 188 cm diameter, weight: 1,712 kg. data. Still in orbit. Awmmx A-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-1 980

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and SJ;~?Name, Mission Objectives, &geePerigee (km), esignation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks sP-----cr n-A- Inclination to Launch Vehicle Equator ("1 Nov. 14 Objective: To launch Air Force P87-1 satellite 1015 Successfully launched by NASA for Polar Bear into an orbit which will enable the successful 960 the U.S. Air Force. Reconditioned 88A achievement of mission objectives. 104.9 satellite which hung for several scout SDacecraft: Not announced. 89.6 vears in the National Air and 'Weight: 270 lbs. Space Museum. Experiments to study radio interference caused by Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights. Operating and returning data. Dec. 5 Objective: To launch satellite into planned 36,024 Launched by NASA for Navy, to Fltsatcom 7 geostationary position. 35,551 serve DoD. Still in orbit. 96A Spacecraft Hexagonal, composed of payload and 1436.2 Atlas-Centaur spacecraft module; 22.7 R. high. Provides 1 5.2 EHF and 23 UHF communications channels. Weight at liftoff: 5,073 lbs. Weight on orbit: 2,488 lbs. APPENDIXB-1

U.S.-Lwmchod AppHcations Satellites 1980-1 986

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

COMMUNICATIONS

Jan. 18,1980 F1tsat.com 3 Atlas-Centaur Third of DoD series. Oct. 31,1980 Fltsatcom 4 Atlas-Centaur Fourth of DoD series. Nov. 15,1980 SBS 1 Thor-Delta C"l Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic communications links. Dec. 6,1980 Intelsat V F-2 Atlas-Centaur First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. Feb. 21,1981 Comstar D-4 Atlas-Centaur Fourth in series.for Comsat General Corp. May 23,1981 Intelsat V F-1 Atlas-Centaur Second in series for INTELUT, positioned over Atlantic. Aug. 6,1981 Fltsatcom 5 Atlas-Centaur Fifth in DoD series. Sept. 24, 1981 SBS 2 Thor-Delta 0 Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. Nov. 20,1981 RCA-Satcom 3-R Thor-Delta C"l Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom 3. Dec. 15,1981 Intelsat V F-3 Atlas-Centaur Third in series. Ib be positioned over Atlantic. Jan. 16,1982 RCA-Satcom 4 Thor-Delta (TAT) Fifth in series for RCA. Feb. 26,1982 Westar 4 Thor-Delta First in a series of second-generation for Western Union Co. Mar. 5,1982 Intelsat V F-4 Atlas-Centaur Fourth in series;.positioned over Pacific. Apr. 10, 1982 Insat 1A Thor-Delta (TAT) First in series for India Department of Space. June 9,1982 Westar 5 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second in series of second-generation for Western Union Co.; replaces. Westar 2. Aug. 26,1982 Anik D-1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Telesat Canada as replacement for in-orbit satellites. Sept. 28,1982 Intelsat V F-5 Atlas-Centaur Fifth in series; positioned over Indian Ocean. Oct. 27, 1982 RCA-Satcom 5 Thor-Delta (TAT) Joined 4 operational satellites launched for RCA. Oct. 30, 1982 DSCS 11, Titan III(34) Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series DSCS III D/IUS of uprated satellites. Nov. 11, 1982 SBS 3 Space Shuttle, Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. PAM-D Nov. 12, 1982 Anik C-3 Space Shuttle, Second in new series for Telesat Canada. PAM-D Apr. 4, 1983 TDRS 1 Space Shuttle, First in series. System to rovide continuous satellite communi- IUS cation. Leased by NA& from Space Communications Co. (Spacecorn). Apr. 11, 1983 RCA-Satcom 6 Delta 3924 Replacement for RCA-Satcom 1, launched for RCA. May 19, 1983 Intelsat V F-6 Atlas-Centaur Sixth in series; positioned over Atlantic Ocean. June 18,1983 Anik C-2 Space Shuttle, Launched for Telesat Canada. PAMTD June 19,1983 Palapa B-1 Space Shuttle, Indonesian domestic communications. PAM-D June 28,1983 Galaxy 1 Delta Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 3920PAM-D July 28, 1983 Telstar 3A Delta Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 3920PAM-D Aug. 31,1983 Insat 1-B Space Shuttle, Indian domestic communications. PAM-D Sept. 8, 1983 RCA-Satcom 7 Delta 3924 Replacement for RCA-Satcom 2, launched for RCA. Sep. 22,1983 Galaxy 2 Delta Second in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 3920PAM-D Feb. 3,1984 Westar-6 Space Shuttle, Launched for Western Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, PAM-D satellite retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for refurbishment. Feb. 6,1984 Palapa-B2 Space Shuttle, Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite retrieved PAM-D and returned to earth by Shuttle. Mar. 1,1984 Uosat-2 Delta 3920 Secondary payload with Landsatd; for amateur radio communications. June 9,1984 Intelsat V F-9 Atlas-Centaur Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 24. Aug. 31,1984 SBS4 Space Shuttle, Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. PAM-D Aug. 31,1984 Syncom IV-2 Soace Shuttle Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. Sept. 1, 1984 Telstar-3C Sbace Shuttle, Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. PAM-D

134 APPENDIXB-l-Continued US.-Launched Applications Satellltes 1980- 1986

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks Sept. 21, 1984 Galaxy-3 Delta Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 3920PAM-D Nov. 9,1984 Anik-D2 Space Shuttle, Launched for Telsat Canada. PAM-D Nov. 10, 1984 Syncom IV-1 Space Shuttle Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. Nov. 14,1984 NATO IIID Delta 3914 NATO defense-related communications satellite. Mar. 22,1985 Intelsat VA F-10 Atlas-Centaur First in series of six improved satellites. Apr. 12, 1985 Telesat-I Space Shuttle Launched for Telsat Canada. Apr. 13,1985 Syncom IV-3 Space Shuttle Launched for US Navy. June 17,1985 MORELOS-A Space Shuttle Launched for Mexico. June 18,1985 Arabsat-1B Space Shuttle Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization- (ASCO). June 19,1985 Telstar-3D Space Shuttle Launched for the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&Tl.. , June 30,1985 Intelsat VA F-11 Atlas-Centaur Second in series of improved satellites launched for INTELSAT. Aug. 27,1985 AUSSAT-1 Space Shuttle Launched for Australia’s National Satellite Company. Aug. 27,1985 ASC-1 Space Shuttle Launched for American Satellite Company. Aug. 29,1985 Syncom IV-4 Space Shuttle Launched for US Navy. Sep. 29,1985 Intelsat VA F-12 Atlas-Centaur Launched for INTELMT. Nov. 27,1985 MORELOS-B Space Shuttle Launched for Mexico. Nov, 27,1985 AUSSAT-2 Space Shuttle Second satellite launched for Australia’s National Satellite Com- PaW Nov. 28,1985 RCA Satcom K-2 Space Shuttle Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. Jan. 12,1986 RCA Satcom K-1 Space Shuttle Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. Dec. 5,1986 Fltsatcom 7 Atlas-Centaur Launched for DoD. WEATHER OBSERVATION * May 29,1980 NOAA-B Atlas F Failed to achieve useful orbit. Sept. 9, 1980 GOES 4 Thor-Delta (TA’l’) Fourth of this series for NOAA. May 22,1981 GOES 5 Thor-Delta CHFl Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. June 23,1981 NOAA 7 Atlas F Replacement for NOAA-B. Dec. 21,1982 DMSP F-6 Atlas E DoD meterological satellite. Mar. 28,1983 NOAA 8 Atlas E Joined NOAA 7 as part of %satellite operational system; launched for NOAA. Apr. 28,1983 GOES 6 Delta 3914 Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-West. Nov. 18,1983 DMSP F-7 Atlas E Second in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. Dec. 12,1984 NOAA-9 Atlas E Launched for NOAA, to replace NOAA-7. Sep. 17,1986 NOAA 10 Atlas E Launched for NOAA. EARTH OBSERVATION July 16, 1982 Landsat 4 Thor-Delta (TAT) Fourth experimental earth resources satellite. First use of thematic mapper CTM). Mar. 1,1984 Landsat-5 Delta 3920 FiRh experimental earth resources satellite, to replace ailing Landsat-4. GEODESY Mar. 13,1985 GEOSAT Atlas E Measure ocean surface height. NAVIGATION Feb. 9,1980 Navstar 5 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. Apr. 26, 1980 Navstar 6 Atlas F Global hitioning System satellite. May 15,1981 Nova 1 scout First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. July 14, 1983 Navstar 8 Atlas E Global Positioning System satellite. Feb. 5, 1984 JRT Space Shuttle Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. June 13,1984 Navstar-9 Atlas E Global Positioning System satellite. Sept. 8, 1984 Navstar-10 Atlas E Global Positioning System satellite. Oct. 12,1984 Nova-3 scout Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. Aug. 3,1985 Oscar 24 scout Part of Navy Transit System. Aug. 3,1985 Oscar 30 scout Part of Navy Transit System. Oct. 9.1985 Navstar-11 Atlas E Global Pbsitionine Svstem satellite. ‘Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch.

135 APPENDIXB-2 US.-Launched Sclentfflc Satellites 1980-1 986

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks Feb. 14,1980 SMM mor-Delta 0 Solar Maximum Mission. Aug. 3,1981 Dynamics Thor-Delta 0 DE 1 and 2 to measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy cou- Explorers 1, 2 pling, electric currents and fields, plasmas. Oct. 6, 1981 SME mor-Delta 0 Solar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric ozone. Oct. 6,1981 uow (Oscar 9) mor-Delta 0 Secondary payload with SME, for amateur radio and science experiments. Jan. 26,1983 IRAS Delta 3910 Infrared sky survey. May 26,1983 EXOW Delta 3914 European Space Agency study of x-ray sources. June 22,1983 SPAS 01 Space Shuttle Reusable free-flyingplatform deployed and retrieved during STS 7; 6 scientific experiments from West Germany, 2 from ESA. NASA experiments tested spacecraft technology. June 27,1983 HEAT (P83-1) Scout Propagation effects of disturbed plasma on radar and communication systems, for DoD. Apr. 6,1984 Long Duration Space Shuttle Scientific experiments designed for retrieval from space by Exposure Facil- Shuttle. ity (LDEF-1) Aug. 16,1984 Charge Composi- Delta 3924 Measurement of earth‘s magnetosphere, one of three satellites tion Explorer composing Active Magnetosphere Particle Tracer Explorers (CCE) Mission WPTE). Aug. 16,1984 Ion Release Mod- Delta 3924 Second of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same ule o vehicle. Aug. 16,1984 United Kingdom Delta 3924 Third of three satellites of AMF”lX Mission, launched by same Satellite (UKS) vehicle. Oct. 5,1984 Earth Radiation Space Shuttle First of three satellites in Earth Radiation Budget Experiment Budget Research Program. NOAA-9 and NOAA-G carrying other Satellite (ERBS) instruments in Program. Apr. 29, 1985 NUW-1 Space Shuttle Northern Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system cali- brator). June 20,1985 Spartan-1 Space Shuttle Reusable free-flyingplatform. July 29, 1985 Plasma Diagnos- Space Shuttle Reusable experimental platform. tic Package (PDF’) Oct. 30,1985 GLOMR Space Shuttle Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite. Nov. 14,1986 Polar Bear scout Exueriments to studv radio interference caused bv Aurora Bo- kalis, for DoD. -

136 APPENDIXB-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes 19’15-1986

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks Aug. 20,1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIE- Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Centaur Sept. 6, 1976,while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed ita surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. Sept. 9, 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIE- Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, Centaur July 20, 1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. Jan. 15,1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIE- Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of Sun, Centaur measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had same West German and U.S. experiments as He- lios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. Aug. 20,1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIE- Ju iter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in Centaur July 1979,arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989. Sep 5,1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIE- Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the Centaur way, swung around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980,headed for outer solar system. May 20,1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. Aug. 8,1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. None in 1984 None in 1985 None in 1986

137 U.S. and Sovlet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1986

Flight Time Highlights Spacecraft Launch Date crew (davs:hrs:min) Kstok 1 Apr. 12,1961 Yuriy A. Gagarin 0: 1:48 First manned flight. Mercury- May 5,1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 0: 0:15 First US. flight; suborbital. Redstone 3 Mercury- July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 0: 0:16 Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; Redstone 4 astronaut safe. Vostok 2 Aug. 6,1961 German S. Titov 1: 1:18 First flight exceeding 24 h. Mercury-Atlas 6 Feb. 20,1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 0: 4:55 First American to orbit. Mercury-Atlas 7 May 24,1962 M. Scott Carpenter 0: 4:56 Landed 400 km beyond target. Vostok 3 Aug. 11,1962 Andriyan G. Nikolayev 3 : 22 : 25 First dual mission (with Vostok 4). Vostok 4 Aug. 12,1962 Pavel R. hpovich 2 : 22 : 59 Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. Mercury-Atlas 8 Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 0: 9:13 Landed 8 km from target. Mercury-Atlas 9 May 15,1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 1: 10 : 20 First US. flight exceeding 24 h. Vostok 5 June 14,1963 Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 4:23: 6 Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). Vostok 6 June 16,1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 2 : 22 : 50 First woman in space; within 5 km of Voetok 5. voskhod 1 Oct. 12, 1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 1: 0:17 First 3-man crew. Konstantin F? Feoktistov Boris G. Yegorov voskhod 2 Mar. 18,1965 Pavel I. Belyayev 1: 2: 2 First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 Aleksey A. Leonov min). Gemini 3 Mar. 23,1965 Virgil I. Grissom 0: 4:53 First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneu- John W. Young vers in orbit. Gemini 4 June 3,1965 James A. McDivitt 4: 1:56 21-min extravehicular activity (White). Edward H. White II Gemini 5 Aug. 21,1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 7 : 22 : 55 Longest-duration manned flight to date. Gemini 7 Dec. 4,1965 Frank Borman 13 : 18 : 35 Longest-duration manned flight to date. James A. Lovell, Jr. Gemini 6-A Dec. 15,1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 1: 1:51 Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. Thomas I? Stafford Gemini 8 Mar. 16,1966 Neil A. Armstrong 0 : 10 : 41 First docking of 2 orbiting s acecraft David R. Scott (Gemini 8 with Agena target rocK et). Gemini 9-A June 3,1966 Thomas I? Stafford 3: 0:21 Extravehicular activity; rendemus. Eugene A. Cernan Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 John W. Young 2 : 22 : 47 First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Michael Collins Agena 10, then Agena 8). Gemini 11 Sept. 12, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 2 :23 : 17 First initial-orbit docking; first tethered Richard F. Gordon, Jr. flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km). Gemini 12 Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 3 :22 : 35 Longest extravehicular activity to date (Al- Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. drin, 5 hrs 37 min). SOYU 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 1: 2:37 Copmonaut killed in reentry accident. Apollo 7 Oct. 11,1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 10:20: 9 First US. 3-man mission. Donn F. Eisele R. Walter Cunningham soyuz3 Oct. 26,1968 Georgiy T. Beregovoy 3 : 22 : 51 Maneuvered near unmanned Sop2. Apollo 8 Dec. 21, 1968 Frank Borman 6: 3: 1 First manned orbitis) of moon; first manned James A. Lovell, Jr. departure from Earth’s sphere of influ- William A. Anders ence; highest speed attained in manned flight to date. soyuz4 Jan. 14,1969 Vladimir A. Shatalov 2 : 23 : 23 Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 soyuz5 Jan. 15,1969 Boris V. Volynov 3: 0:56 cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. Aleksey A. Yeliseyev Yevgeniy V. Khrunov Apollo 9 Mar. 3,1969 James A. McDivitt 10: 1: 1 Successfully simulated in Earth orbit o ra- David R. Scott tion of lunar module to landing and t&ff Russell L. Schweickart from lunar surface and rejoining with command module. Apollo 10 May 18,1969 Thomas €? Stafford 8: 0: 3 Successfully demonstrated complete system John W. Young including lunai: module descent to 14,300 Eugene A. Cernan m from the lunar surface.

138 APPENDIXC-Continued U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1 986

Flight Time Highlights Spacecraft Launch Date Crew (davs:hrs:min) Apollo 11 July 16,1969 Neil A. Armstrong 8: 3: 9 First manned landing on lunar surface and Michael Collins safe return to Earth. First return of rock Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. and soil samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 4 : 22 : 42 Soyuz 6,7, and 8 operated as a group flight Valeriy N. Kubasov without actually docking. Each conducted soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969 Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 4 : 22 : 41 certain experiments, including welding Viktor N. Gorbatko and Earth and celestial observation. Vladislav N. Volkov soyuz8 Oct. 13, 1969 Vladimir A. Shatalov 4 : 22 : 50 Aleksey S. Yeliseyev Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 10: 4:36 Second manned lunar landing. Explored sur- Richard F. Gordon, Jr. face of moon and retrieved parts of Sur- Alan L. Bean veyor 3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 James A. Lovell, Jr. 5 : 22 : 55 Mission aborted; explosion in service mod- Fred W. Haise, Jr. ule. Ship circled moon, with crew using John L. Swigert, Jr. LM as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. soyuz 9 June 1,1970 Andriyan G. Nikolayev 17 : 16 : 59 Longest manned spaceflight to date. Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov Apollo 14 Jan. 31,1971 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 9: 0: 2 Third manned lunar landing. Mission dem- Stuart A. Roosa onstrated pinpoint landing capability and Edgar D. Mitchell continued manned exploration. soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 Vladimir A. Shatalov 1 : 23 : 46 Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board Aleksey S. Yeliseyev space station launched 19 Apr. Crew recov- Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov ered Apr. 24, 1971. soyuz 11 June 6,1971 Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 23 : 18 : 22 Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew Vladislav N. Volkov occupied space station for 22 da Viktor I. Patsayev perished during final phase of E;?.. capsule recovery on June 30,1971. Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 David R. Scott 12: 7:12 Fourth manned lunar landing and first Alfred M. Worden Apollo “J” series mission, which carried James B. Irwin Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s intlight EVA of 38 min 12 sec was performed during return trip. Apollo 16 Apr. 16,1972 John W. Young 11: 1:51 Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Charles M. Duke, Jr. Roving Vehicle. Thomas K. Mattingly I1 Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 Eugene A. Cernan 12 : 13 : 52 Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar land- Harrison H. Schmitt ing, again with roving vehicle. Ronald E. Evans Skylab 2 May 25,1973 Charles Conrad, Jr. 28: 0:50 Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned Joseph I?. Kerwin May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged Paul J. Weitz station. Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 Alan L. Bean 59:ll: 9 Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. Jack R. Lousma Owen K. Garriott soyuz 12 Sept. 27, 1973 Vasiliy G. Lazarev 1 : 23 : 16 Checkout of improved Scyuz. Oleg G. Makarov Skylab 4 Nov. 16, 1973 Gerald P. Carr 84: 1:16 Docked with Skylab 1 in longduration mis- Edward G. Gibson sion; last of Skylab program. William R. Pogue Soyuz 13 Dec. 18, 1973 Petr I. Klimuk 7 : 20 : 55 Astrophysical, biological, and earth re- Valentin V. Lebedev sources experiments. Soyuz 14 July 3,1974 Pave1 R. Pbpovich 15 : 17 : 30 Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew Yuriy €! Artyukhin occupied space station. Soyuz 15 Aug. 26,1974 Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 2: 0:12 Rendemwed but did not dock with Salyut Lev. S. Demin 3. Soyuz 16 Dec. 2, 1974 Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 5 : 22 : 24 “est of ASIT configuration. Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov

139 APPENDIXC-Continued

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1986

Flight Time Highlights Spacecraft. Launch Date CreW (davs:hrs:min) &yuz 17 Jan. 10,1975 Aleksay A. Gubarev 29 : 13 : 20 Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. Georgiy M. Grechko Anomaly Apr. 5,1975 Vasiliy G. Lazarev 0: 0:20 Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recov- Oleg G. Makarov ered after abort. 18 May 24,1975 Petr I. Klimuk 62 : 23 : 20 Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. soyuz Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov Soyuz 19 July 15, 1975 Aleksey A. Leonov 5 : 22 : 31 %get for Apollo in docking and joint exper- Valeriy N. Kubasov iments of ASTP mission. Apollo (ASTP) July 15, 1975 Thomas F? Staf€ord 9: 1:28 Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of Donald K. Slayton ASTP mission. Vance D. Brand soyuz 21 July 6, 1976 Boris V. Vol nov 48: 1 :32 Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. Vitaliy M. iholobov soyuz 22 Sept. 15, 1976 Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 7:21:54 Earth resources study with multispectral Vladimir V. Aksenov camera system. Soyuz 23 Oct. 14,1976 Vyacheslav D. Zudov 2: 0: 6 Failed to dock with Salyut 5. Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 24 Feb. 7,1977 Viktor V. Gorbatko 17 : 17 : 23 Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. soyuz Yuriy N. Glazkov Soyuz 25 Oct. 9, 1977 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 2 : 0 :46 Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 Valeriy V. Ryumin station. soyuz 26 Dec. 10,1977 Yuriy V. Romanenko 37: 10: 6 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Georgiy M. Grechko SoyUz 27; crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. soyuz 27 Jan. 10,1978 Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 64 : 22 : 53 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Oleg G. Makarov Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 min. 28 Mar. 2,1978 Alekwy A. Gubarev 7 : 22 : 17 Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech soyuz Vladimir Remek cosmonaut to orbit. sayuz 29 June 15,1978 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 79 : 15 : 23 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Alelusandr S. Ivanchenkov Soyuz 31; crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 48 min. Soyuz 30 June 27,1978 Petr I. Klimuk 7:22: 4 Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was Miroslaw Hermaszewski first Polish cosmonaut to orbit. soyuz 31 Aug. 26,1978 Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 67 : 20 : 14 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Sigmund Jaehn Soyuz 29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 min. Jaehn was first German Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. soyuz 32 Feb. 25,1979 Vladimir A. Lyakhov 108: 4 : 24 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Valeriy V. Ryumin Soyuz 34; crew duration 175 days 36 min. soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 1 : 23 : 1 Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 Georgi I. Ivanov station. Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. Soyuz 34 June 6,1979 (unmanned at launch) 73 : 18 : 17 Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. Sop35 Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 55: 1:29 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Valeriy V. Ryumin Soyuz 37. Crew duration, 184 days 20 hrs 12 min. Soyuz 36 May 26,1980 Valeriy N. Kubasov 65 : 20 : 54 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Bertalan Farkas Soyuz 35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 min. Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit. Soyuz T-2 June 5,1980 Yuriy V. Malyshev 3 : 22 :'21 Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of Vladimir V. Aksenov new-generation ferry. soyuz 37 July 23, 1980 Viktor V. Gorbatko 79 : 15 : 17 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Pham Tuan Soyuz 36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 min. Pham was first Vietnamese to orbit. Soyuz 38 Sept. 18, 1980 Yuriy V. Romanenko 7 : 20 : 43 Docked with Salyut 6. 'hmayo was fvst Arnaldo kayoMendez Cuban to orbit. Soyuz T-3 Nov. 27, 1980 Leonid D. Kizim 12:19: 8 Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-manflight in Oleg G. Mahv Soviet program since 1971. Gennadiy M.Strekalov

140 APPENDIXC-Continued US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1986

Flight Time Highlights Spacecraft Launch Date crew (days:hra:min) soyuz T-4 Mar. 12,1981 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 74 : 18 : 38 Docked with Salyut 6. Viktor I? Savinykh soyuz 39 Mar. 22,1981 Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 7:20:43 Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Jugderdemidiyn Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. Gurragcha Space Shuttle Apr. 12,1981 John W. Young 2 : 6 : 21 First flight of Space Shuttle, tested space- Columbia Robert L. Crippen craft in orbit. First landing of airplanelike (STS 1) craft from orbit for reuse. 40 May 14,1981 Leonid I. Popov 7 : 20 :41 Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Roma- soyuz Dumitru Prunariu nian cosmonaut to orbit. Space Shuttle Nov. 12, 1981 Joe H. Engle 2 : 6 : 13 Second flight of Space Shuttle, fmt scientific Columbia Richard H. Truly ayload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipu- (STS 2) fator arm. Returned for reuse. Swce Shuttle Mar. 22,1982 Jack R. Lousma 8 : 4 : 49 Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scien- Columbia C. Gordon Fullerton tific payload (OSS 1). Second test of remote (srs 3) manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day because of flooding at primary landin site; alternate landing site used. Return e! for reuse. May 13,1982 Anatoliy Beremvoy 211: 9 : 5 Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 Valentin Lebedev days. Crew returned in SopT-7. June 24,1982 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 7 : 21 : 51 Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French Aleksandr Ivanchenkov cosmonaut to orbit. Jean-Loup Chretien Space Shuttle June 27,1982 Thomas K. Mattingly II 7: 1: 9 Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD Columbia Henry W. Hartafield, Jr. payload, additional scientific payloads. Re- (STS 4) turned July 4. Completed orbital flight testing program. Returned for reuse. Soyuz T-7 Aug. 19, 1982 Leonid Popov 7 : 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Aleksandr Serebrov Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in Svetlana Savitskaya Soyu~T-5. Space Shuttle Nov. 11, 1982 Vance D. Brand 5 : 2 : 14 Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first opera- Columbia Robert F. Overmyer tional fli ht; launched 2 commercial satel- (srs 5) Joseph I? Allen lites (SB% 3 and Anik C-3); first fli ht William B. Lenoir with 4 crew-members. EVA test cance7 ed when macesuits malfunctioned. Space Shuttle Apr. 4,1983 Wul J. Weitz 5: 0:24 Sixth fliiht of Space Shuttle, launched Challenger Karol J. Bobko TDRS 1. (STS 6) Donald H. Peterson Story Musgrave Soyu~T-8 Apr. 20,1983 Vladimir Titov 2 : 0 : 18 Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 Gennady Strekalov station. Aleksander Serebrov Space Shuttle June 18,1983 Robert L. Cri 6 : 2 :24 Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 Challenger Frederick H. Ktck commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and Pa- (STS 7) John M. Fabian la a B-l), also launched and retrieved Sally K. Ride SfAS 01; first flight with 5 crewmembera, Norman T. Thagard including first woman U.S. astronaut. Sayu~T-9 June 28,1983 Vladimir Lyakhov 149: 9 : 46 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Aleksandr Aleksandrov Space Shuttle Aug. 30,1983 Richard H. Trul 6 : 1 : 9 Eighth Flight of Space Shuttle, launched one Challenger Daniel C. Brandrenstein commercial satellite ansat 1-B), first 6"s 8) Dale A. Gardner flight of U.S. black astronaut. Guion S. Bluford, Jr. William E. Thornton Space Shuttle Nov. 28, 1983 John W. Youn 10 : 7 : 47 Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of Columbia Brewster W. daw Spacelab 1, first fli ht of 6 crewmembers, (STS 9) Owen K. Garriott one of whom was #est German, first non- Robert A. R. Parker US. astronaut to fly in U.S. space Byron K. Lichtenberg program. Ulf Merbold

141 APPENDIXC-Continued U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1 986

Flight Time Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Highlights (days:hrs:min) Space Shuttle Feb. 3,1984 Vance D. Brand 7 : 23 : 16 Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communi- Robert L. Gibson cation satellites failed to achieve orbit. ?E% Bruce McCandless First use of Manned Maneuvering Unit Ronald E. McNair (MMU) in space. Robert L. Stewart Soyuz T-10 Feb. 8,1984 Leonid Kizim 62 : 22 : 43 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space Vladimir Solovev duration record of 237 days. Crew returned Oleg Atkov in Soyuz T-11. say^ T-11 Apr. 3, 1984 Yuriy Malyshev 181: 21 : 48 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first Gennadi Strekalov Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz Rakesh 8arma T-10. Space Shuttle Apr. 6,1984 Robert L. Crip en 6 : 23 :41 Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment Challenger Frances R. SoLe of LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar Max- C3Ts-41C) Terry J. Hart imum Satellite retrieved, repaired, and George D. Nelson redeployed. James D. Van Hoften Soyu~T-12 July 17, 1984 Vladmir Dzhanibekov 11 : 19 : 14 Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman Svetlana Savistskaya extravehicular activity. Igor Volk Space Shuttle Aug. 30,1984 Henry W. Hartsfield 6 : : 56 Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of Discovery Michael L. Coats US. non-astronaut. (STS41D) Richard M. Mullane Steven A. Hawley Judith A. Resnick Charles D. Walker Space Shuttle Sept. 5,1984 Robert L. Crippen 8: 5:24 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, fmt Challenger Jon A. McBride flight of 7 crewmembers, including first @“S-41G) Kathryn D. Sullivan flight of two US. women and one Cana- Sally K. Ride dian. David Leestma Paul D. Scully-Power Marc Garneau Space Shuttle Nov. 8, 1984 F’rederick H. Hauck 7 : 23 : 45 Fourteenth flight of S ace Shuttle, first re- Discovery David M. Walker trieval and return oftwo disabled commu- (STSSlA) Joseph I? Allen nications satellites (Westar 6, Wlapa B2) Anna L. Fisher to Earth. Dale A. Gardner Space Shuttle Jan. 24,1985 Thomas K. Mattingly 3 : 1 : 33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mis- Discovery Loren J. Shriver sion. (mS-51C) Ellison S. Onizuka James F. Buchli Gary E. Payton Space Shuttle Apr. 12, 1985 Karol J. Bobko 6 : 23 : 55 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications Discovery Donald E. Williams satellites. First US. Senator in space. (SlS51D) M. Rhea Seddon S. David Grig s Jeffrey A. Hoffman Charles D. Walker E.J. “Jake” Garn Space Shuttle Apr. 29,1985 Robert F. Overmyer 7 : : 9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo Challenger Frederick D. Gregory bay of shuttle. (mS-51B) Don L. Lind Norman E. Thagard William E. Thornton Lodewijk Vandenberg lslylor Wang soy^ T-13 June 5,1985 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 112: 3 : 12 Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to Viktor Savinykh earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 spacecraft, Sept. 26, 1985.

142 APPENDIXC-Continued U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1 986

~ Flight Time Highlights Spaced Launch Date crew (days:hrs:min) Space Shuttle June 17,1985 Daniel C. Brandenstein 7: 1:39 Eighteenth STS flight. Three communica- Discovery John 0. Crei hton tions satellites. One reusable (srS.51G) Shannon W. Lucid ayload-Spartan-1. First US. flight with John M. Fabian kench and Saudi Arabian crewmen. Steven R. Nagel Sultan binBau7? Sa man bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud Space Shuttle July 29, 1985 Charles G. Fullerton 7 : 22 : 45 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo a&n#y Roy D. Bridges bay. Karl C. Henize Anthony W. England F. Story Musgrave Loren W. Acton John-David F. Bartoe Space Shuttle Aug. 27,1985 Joe H. Engle 7 : 2 : 18 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three com- Discovery Richard 0. Covey munications satellites. Repaired Syncom (STS51D James D. van HoRen Iv-3. William F. Fisher John M. Lounge soy^ T-14 Sep 17,1985 Vladimir Vasyutin 64:21 : 52 Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor Sa- Georgiy Grechko vinykh, Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir Aleksandr Volkov Vasyutin returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985 when Vasyutin became ill. Space Shuttle Oct. 3,1985 Karol J. Bobko 4 : 1 :45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DoD mis- Atlantis Ronald J. Grabe sion. ~SIS-514 Robert A. Stewart David C. Hilmers William A. Fkiles Space Shuttle Oct. 30, 1985 Henry W. Hartsfield 7: :45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated Ger- Challenger Steven R. Nagel man Spacelab D-1 in shuttle cargo bay. (SIS-61A) Bonnie J. Dunbar James F. Buchli Guion S. Bluford Ernst Messerschmid Reinhard Furrer Wubbo J. Ockels Space Shuttle Nov. 27, 1985 Brewster H. Shaw 6:22:54 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three Atlantis Bryan D. O'Connor communications satellites. First flight of (STS-61B) Mary L. Cleve Mexican astronaut. Sherwood C. Spring Jerry L. Ross Rudolf0 Neri Vela Charles D. Walker Space Shuttle Jan. 12,1986 Robert L. Gibson 6: 2: 4 Twentyfourth STS fli ht. Launched one Columbia Charles F. Bolden, Jr. communications satel&e. First member of (STS-GlC) Franklin Chang-Diaz US. House of Representatives in space. Steven A. Hawley George D. Nelson Roger Cenker Cong. Bill Nelson soy^ T-15 Mar. 13,1986 Leonid Kizim 125: 1 : 1 Docked with MIR space station on May 516 Vladimir Solovyov transferred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 25/26 transferred from Salyut 7 back to MIR.

143 APPENDIXD U.S. Space Launch Vehicles Max. Payload (kgIb Thrust Max. Dia. Circular First Vehicle Stages Propellant a (kilo- X Height 185-Km GeosYnch.- IWwtons) (m) Orbit Synch.Sun- Launch Orbit scout 1. Algol IIIA...... Solid ...... 431.1 1.14 x 22.9 255 - 155' 197360) 2. Castor IIA ...... Solid ...... 285.2 205' 3. Antares IIIA ...... Solid ...... 83.1 4. Altair IIIA ...... Solid ...... 25.6 Delta 2900 Series 1. Thor plus ...... LOXIRP-1 ...... 912.0 2.44 x 35.4 2,000 705 1,250d 1973(60) mor-Delta) 9 TX 354-5 ...... Solid ...... 147 each 1,410' 2. Delta ...... N,O,/Aerozine-BO .. 44.2 3. TE 364-4 ...... Solid ...... 65.8 Delta 3900 Series 1. Thor plus ...... LOXIRP-1 ...... 912.0 2.44 x35.4 3,045 1,275 2,13Sd 1982(60) mor-Delta)" 9 TX 526-2 ...... Solid ...... 375 each 2,180d 2. Delta ...... N,O,/AerozinedO .. 44.2 Atlas E 1. Atlas booster 3.05 x 28.1 2,O9Odf - 1,500d 1972(67) & sustainer ...... LOXIRP-1 ...... 1,722.0 Atlas-Centaur 1. Atlas booster 3.05 x 45.0 6,100 2,360 - 1984(62) & sustainer ...... LOXIRP-1 ...... 1,913.0 2. Centaur ...... LOXLH, ...... 146.0 Direct Sun- 185-Km Geo- Synch. Orbit synch. Transfer Orbit Orbit Titan mB-Agena 1. LR-87 ...... N,O,IAerozine ...... 2,341.0 3.05 x48.4 3,600' - 3,060d 1966 2. LR-91 ...... N,O,/Aerozine ...... 455.1 3. Agena ...... IRFNMDMH ...... 71.2 Titan III(34)D/ 1. Two 5%-segment, IUS 3.05 m dia ...... Solid ...... 11,564.8 3.05 x48.0 14,920 1,850' - 1982 2. LR-87 ...... N,O,/Aerozine ...... 2,366.3 3. LR-91 ...... N,O,/Aerozine ...... 449.3 4. IUS 1st stage ..... Solid ...... 275.8 5. IUS 2nd stage .... Solid ...... 115.7 Titan III(34)D/ Same as Titan III(34)D plus: 3.05 x 46.9 14,920 1,855' - 19fMh Tramtage 4. Transtage ...... N,O,/Aerozine ...... 69.8 280- to 420-Km Orbit Space Shuttle 1. Orbiter; 3 main 29,500 1981 (reusable) engines (SSMEs) in full fire in parallel performance with SRBs ...... LOWLH, ...... 1,670 each 23.79 x 37.24 configuration 2. Two-solid-fueled wing long rocket boosters span (SRBs) fire in y~&l with ...... AL/NH,CLO,/ PBAN ...... 11,790 each 3.71 x 45.45 Mounted on external tank (ET) ...... 8.40 x 46.88 a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen The date of first launch a plies to this latest modification and a modified kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant com- with a date in parentheses Por the initial version. bining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer = Solid; Polar launch. inhibited red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethyl- e Maximum performance based on 3920,3920PAM config h drazine = IRFNALJDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and urations. PAM = payload assist module (a private venture). dDMW H = N O,/aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydro- With dual TE 364-4. = LOhk * aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and poly- With 96O flight azimuth. Eadiene acroTonitrile terpolymer = AL/NH,CLO,/PBAN. Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch Due east launch except as indicated. to be scheduled as needed. Nom Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of Space Transportation System Support Programs.

144 APPENDIXE-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government HISTORICALBUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY (in millions of dollars)

NASA %tal Fiscal Year Defense Energy merce Interior NSF Total SDace" Ael-Space 1959...... 330.9 260.9 489.5 34.3 ...... 784.7 1960...... 523.6 461.5 560.9 43.3 ...... 0.1 1,065.8 1961...... 964.0 926.0 813.9 67.7 ...... 6 1,808.2 1962...... 1,824.9 1,796.8 1,298.2 147.8 50.7 ...... 1.3 3,294.8 1963...... 3,673.0 3,626.0 1,549.9 213.9 43.2 ...... 1.5 5,434.5 1964...... 5,099.7 5,016.3 1,599.3 210.0 2.8 ...... 3.0 6,831.4 1965...... 5,249.7 5,137.6 1,573.9 228.6 12.2 ...... 3.2 6,955.5 1966...... 5,174.9 5,064.5 1,688.8 186.8 26.5 ...... 3.2 6,969.8 - 1967...... 4,965.6 4,830.2 1,663.6 183.6 29.3 ...... 2.8 6,709.5 1968...... 4,587.3 4,430.0 1,921.8 145.1 28.1 0.2 0.5 3.2 6,528.9 1969...... 3,990.9 3,822.0 2,013.0 118.0 20.0 .2 .7 1.9 5,975.8 1970...... 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4 102.8 8.0 1.1 .8 2.4 5,340.5 1971...... 3,311.2 3,101.3 1,512.3 94.8 27.4 1.9 .8 2.4 4,740.9 1972...... 3,306.6 3,071.0 1.407 .0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.6 2.8 4,574.7 1973...... 3,406.2 3,093.2 1,623.0 54.2 39.7 10.3 1.9 2.6 4,824.9 1974...... 3,036.9 2,758.5 1,766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 1.8 4,640.3 1975...... 3,229.1 2,915.3 1,892.4 29.6 64.4 8.3 2.3 2.0 4,914.3 1976...... 3,550.3 3,225.4 1,983.3 23.3 71.5 10.4 3.6 2.4 5,319.9 Transitional Quarter .... 931.8 849.2 460.4 4.6 22.2 2.6 .9 .6 1,340.5 1977...... 3,817.8 3,440.2 2,411.9 21.7 90.8 9.5 6.3 2.4 5,982.8 1978...... 4,060.1 3,622.9 2,738.3 34.4 102.8 9.7 7.7 2.4 6,518.2 1979...... 4,595.5 4,030.4 3,035.6 58.6 98.4 9.9 8.2 2.4 7,243.5 1980...... 5,240.2 4,680.4 3,848.4 39.6 92.6 11.7 13.7 2.4 8,688.8 1981...... 5,518.4 4,992.4 4,827.7 40.5 87.0 12.3 15.5 2.4 9,977.8 1982...... 6,043.gb 5,527.6 6,678.7 60.6 144.5 12.1 15.2 2.0 12,440.7 1983...... 6,875.3' 6,327.9 9,018.9 38.9 177.8 4.6 20.4 o.od 15,588.5 1984...... 7,248.0 6,648.3 10,194.9 34.1 236.0 3.0 19.4 0.0 17,135.7 1985...... 7,572.6 6,924.9 12,767.9 34.0 422.9 2.0 14.8 0.0 20,166.5 1986...... 7.766.0 7.165.0 14.126.0 34.6 308.9 2.0 22.9 0.0 21.659.4 1987 lest.1...... 10:507.0 9;SOS.O 15i717.0 47.0 277.4 2.0 24.0 0.0 25i876.4

1988 [est.]...... 9I481.0 8,756.0 17,196.0 90.3 340.1 2.0~ 24.8~ 0.0 26,409.2 "Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). SOURCE Ofice of Management and Budget. bIncludes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed . "Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of rior year funds. dNSF funding of balloon research transferregto NASA .

145 U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority FY 1971-1986

26.0 26.0 26.0 25.0 24.0 24.0 23.0 23.0 22.0 22.0

21.0 21.0 20.0 20.0 19.0 1B.O 18.0 16.0

17.0 17.0

16.0 16.0 15.0 15.0 14.0 14.0

MILLIONS OF 13.0 13.0 DOLURS 12.0 12.0 11.0 11.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 9.0

8.0 1.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 6.0

5.0 5.0 4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET

146 APPENDIXE-2 Space Actlvltles Budget

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Budget Authority Budget Outlays Federal Space Programs 1986 1987 1988 1986 1987 1988 Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate Federal agencies: NASA" ...... 7,165.0 9,809.0 8,756.0 6,756.0 7,254.0 8,861.0 Defense ...... 14,126.0 15,717.0 17,196.0 11,448.5 14,262.2 15,395.8 Energy...... 34.6 47 .O 90.3 34.7 47.3 90.3 Commerce...... 308.9 277.4 340.1 316.9 299.2 316.1 Interior ...... 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 NSFb ...... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Agriculture ...... 22.9 24.0 24.8 22.9 24.0 24.8 Total...... 21,659.4 25,876.4 26,409.2 18,581.0 21,878.7 24,600.0 "Excludes amounts for air transportation. Includes $37.6 SOURCE office of Management and Budget. million for reappropriation of prior year funds. bNSF funding for balloon research transferred to NASA.

APPENDIXE-3 Aeronautlcs Budget

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Budget Authority Budget Outlays Federal Aeronautics F'rograms 1986 1987 1988 1986 1987 1988 Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate NASA" ...... 601.0 698.0 725.0 648.0 622.0 683.0 Department of Defenseb...... 4,927.0 5,173.0 7,009.0 4,372.6 4,866.9 5,923.0 Department of Transportation' ...... 1,132.1 946.3 1,500.0 1,050.3 1,037.2 1,100.6 Total ...... 6.660.1 6.817.3 9.234.0 6.070.9 6.526.1 7.706.6 "Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, SOURCE Oftice of Management and Budget. Research and Program Management. bResearch, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraR and related equipment. 'Federal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. Information: To obtain neral information about the contents of this re rt, contact EE. Kale, Code XH, NAGA Headquar- ters, Wasrngton, D.C. 20546, (202) 453-8300.

147 APPENDIXF-1

THE WHITE HOUSE

Office of the Press Secretary

For Immediate Release February 3, 1986

EXECUTIVE ORDER

PRESIDENTIAL COMMISSION ON THE SPACE SHUTTLE CHALLENGER ACCIDENT

By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and statutes of the United States of America, including the Federal Advisory Committee Act, as amended (5 U.S.C. App. I), and in order to establish a commission of distinguished Americans to investigate the accident to the Space Shuttle Challenger, it is hereby ordered as follows: Section 1. Establishment. (a) There is established the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident. The Commission shall be composed of not more than 20 members appointed or designated by the President. The members shall be drawn from among distinguished leaders of the government, and the scientific, technical, and management communities. (b) The President shall designate a Chairman and a Vice Chairman from among the members of the Commission. Sec 2. Functions. (a) The Commission shall investigate the accident to the Space Shuttle Challenger, which occurred on January 28, 1986. (b) The Cornmission shall: (1) Review the circumstances surrounding the accident to establish the probable cause or causes of the accident; and (2) Develop recommendations for corrective or other action based upon the Commission’s findings and determinations. (c) The Commission shall submit its final report to the President and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration within one hundred and twenty days of the date of this order. Sec 3. Administration. (a) The heads of Executive departments and agencies shall, to the extent permitted by law, provide the Commission with such information as it may require for purposes of carrying out its functions. (b) Members of the Commission shall serve without compensation for their work on the Commission. However, members appointed from among private citizens of the United States may be allowed travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, to the extent permitted by law for persons serving intermittently in the government service (5 U.S.C. 5701-5707). (c) To the extent permitted by law, and subject to the availability of appropriations, the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration shall provide the Commission with such administrative services, funds, facilities, staff, and other support services as may be necessary for the performance of its functions. Sec. 4. General Provisions. (a) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other Executive Order, the functions of the President under the Federal Advisory Committee Act which are applicable to the Commission, except that of reporting annually to the Congress, shall be performed by the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, in accordance with guidelines and procedures established by the Administrator of General Services. (b) The Commission shall terminate 60 days after submitting its final report.

RONALDREAGAN

THE WHITE HOUSE, February 3, 1986.

148 APPENDIXF-2

THE WHITE HOUSE

Of'fice of the Press Secretary

For Immediate Release August 15, 1986

STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT

I am announcing today two steps that will ensure America's leadership in space exploration and utilization. First, the United Statee will, in FY 1987,start building a fourth Space shuttle to take the place of Challenger which was destroyed on January 28th. This decision will bring our shuttle fleet up to strength and enable the United States to safely and energetically project a manned presence in space.

Without the fourth orbiter, NASA's capabilities would be severely limited and long-term projects for the development of space would have to be either postponed, or even canceled. A fourth orbiter will enable our shuttles to accomplish the mission for which they were originally intended and permit the United States to move forward with new exciting endeavors like the building of a permanently manned space station.

My second announcement concerns the fundamental direction of the space program. NASA and our shuttles will continue to lead the way, breaking new ground, pioneering new technology, and pushing back the frontiers. It has been determined, however, that NASA will no longer be in the business of launching private satellites.

The private sector, with its ingenuity and cost effectiveness, will be playing an increasingly important role in the American space effort. F'ree enterprise corporations will become a highly competitive method of launching commercial satellites and doing those things which do not require a manned presence in space. These private firms are essential in clearing away the backlog that has built up during this time when our shuttles are being modified.

We must always set our sights on tomorrow. NASA and our shuttles can't be committing their scarce resources to things which can be done better and cheaper by the private sector. Instead, NASA and the four shuttles should be dedicated to payloads important to national security and foreign policy, and, even more, on exploration, pioneering, and developing new technologies and uses of space. NASA will keep America on the leading edge of change; the private sector will take over from there. Together, they will ensure that our country has a robust, balanced, and safe space program.

It has been over 6 months since the tragic loss of the Challenger and her gallant crew. We have done everything humanly possible to discover the organizational and technical causes of the disaster and to correct the situation. The greatest tribute we can pay to those brave pathfinders who gave their lives on the Challenger is to move forward and rededicate ourselves to America's leadership in space.

149