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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-13579-5 - Charles Darwin and Victorian Visual Culture Jonathan Smith Table of Contents More information

Contents

List of illustrations page ix Acknowledgments xxi Note on the texts xxiii

1 Seeing things: Charles Darwin and Victorian visual culture 1 Darwin’s illustrations 3 Darwin, Ruskin, and Victorian visual culture 20 Word and image in science 33 2 Darwin’s barnacles 44 Think developmentally, illustrate transcendentally 45 The scientific and cultural life of Darwin’s barnacles 50 Depictions of the seaside in the 1850s 68 The visual natural theology of Philip Gosse’s seaside books 77 3 Darwin’s birds 92 Darwin and Gould 95 The Birds of Great Britain as a visual response to Darwinism 99 Depicting sexual selection 114 Ruskin’s Love’s Meinie and the rejection of the Descent 125 4 Darwin’s plants 137 The significance of Darwin’s botany 138 Darwin’s botanical illustrations 143 Popularizing Darwin’s botany: physiological aesthetics 160 Ruskin’s Proserpina and the response to physiological aesthetics 165 5 Darwin’s faces I 179 The Expression and the fine art tradition 182 Answering Bell 186 Physiognomy and phrenology 198

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viii Contents 6 Darwin’s faces II 214 Darwin and the photographic image 215 Ruskin and photography 227 Acting and expression 228 Darwin and Victorian caricature 233 7 Darwin’s worms 244 Worm castings and the grotesque 249 Geology, archaeology, and the picturesque 253 Ruskin and the grotesque 270 Ruskin and the picturesque 275 Geology and landscape: scientiﬁc naturalism and the scientiﬁc imagination 278

Notes 284 Bibliography 319 Index 341

Illustrations

1.1 Diagram from Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (London: Murray, 1859), between pages 116 and 117. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. page 7 1.2 “Tetraclita: Elminius.” Plate xi from Charles Darwin, A Monograph of the Sub-Class Cirripedia; The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes (London: Ray Society, 1851). University of Michigan Libraries. 11 1.3 “The Bearded Titmouse.” Thomas Bewick, A History of British Birds, vol. i (Newcastle, 1797), 246. University of Michigan Libraries. 12 1.4 “Mecistura Caudata.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. ii, plate 28. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 13 1.5 (a) “Orchis mascula.” William Curtis, Flora Londinensis (1777–98), vol. i, fasc. 2, plate 62. University of Michigan Libraries. (b) John Lindley, The Vegetable Kingdom, 3rd edn. (London: Bradbury and Evans, 1853), 173. University of Michigan Libraries. 14 1.6 “That Troubles Our Monkey Again.” Fun, 16 November 1872. Columbia University Library. 21 1.7 “Exactly So!” Fun, 26 January 1873. Columbia University Library. 22 1.8 Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872), plate i, ﬁg. 1. University of Michigan Libraries. 23 2.1 Wood engraving of a stomapod crustacean and a mature pedunculated barnacle from Charles Darwin, A Monograph of the Sub-Class Cirripedia; The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes (London: Ray Society, 1851), 28. University of Michigan Libraries. 47

x List of illustrations 2.2 (a) Plate ix and (b) plate x from John V. Thompson, Zoological Researches and Illustrations (Cork: King and Ridings, 1828–34). Courtesy of the Yale University Library. 54 2.3 (a) “Larva. First Stages” and (b) “Larva. Last Stages.”Plates xxix and xxx from Charles Darwin, A Monograph of the Sub-Class Cirripedia; The Balanidae (London: Ray Society, 1854). University of Michigan Libraries. 55 2.4 (a) “Anelasma: Ibla” and (b) “Ibla: Scalpellum.” Plates iv and v from Charles Darwin, A Monograph of the Sub-Class Cirripedia; The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes (London: Ray Society, 1851). University of Michigan Libraries. 57 2.5 “Alcippe Lampas” and (b) “Cryptophialus.” Plates xxii and xxiii from Charles Darwin, A Monograph of the Sub-Class Cirripedia; The Balanidae (London: Ray Society, 1854). University of Michigan Libraries. 59 2.6 Hablot K. Browne (“Phiz”), detail from cover illustration of monthly parts of Charles Dickens’s Little Dorrit (London: Bradbury and Evans, 1855–57). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 68 2.7 William Powell Frith, Life at the Seaside (Ramsgate Sands) (1854). Oil on canvas. The Royal Collection C 2004,Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. 70 2.8 John Leech, “Common Objects at the Seaside.” Punch 35 (21 August 1858): 76. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 72 2.9 “Seaside Sirens.” Wood engraving, 1855. Getty Images. 73 2.10 Hablot K. Browne (“Phiz”), “The Sea Side.” The Illustrated London News 29 (2 August 1856): 131. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 74 2.11 William Dyce, PegwellBay,Kent–ARecollection of October 5th, 1858 (1859–60?). Oil on canvas, 63.5 × 88.9 cm. Tate Gallery, London. By courtesy of the Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, New York. 76 2.12 “The Plumose Anemone &c.” Plate v from Philip Henry Gosse, The Aquarium, 2nd edn. (London: Van Voorst, 1856). University of Michigan Libraries. 78 2.13 (a) Pen and watercolor sketch by Philip Henry Gosse of Aiptasia couchii for Actinologia Britannica. (b) Lithographic proof plate for plate v of Philip Henry Gosse’s Actinologia Britannica. From “British Sea-Anemones and Corals: Original

List of illustrations xi Sketches and Drawings in Colour by Philip Henry Gosse and his Correspondents, 1839–1861,” items 44 and 56 on folio pages 25 and 34. The Horniman Museum London. 86 2.14 (a) Lithographic proofs of individual ﬁgures and (b) the lithographic proof plate itself for plate iv of Philip Henry Gosse’s Actinologia Britannica. From “British Sea-Anemones and Corals: Original Sketches and Drawings in Colour by Philip Henry Gosse and his Correspondents, 1839–1861,” items 28 and 55 on folio pages 15 and 33. The Horniman Museum London. 87 2.15 (a) “Dotted Siponcle. Sea-Cucumber.” Plate 3 from Philip Henry Gosse, A Year at the Shore (London: Strahan, 1865), facing page 28. University of Chicago Library. (b) Pen and watercolor sketch by Philip Henry Gosse for plate 3 of A Year at the Shore. From “British Sea-Anemones and Corals: Original Sketches and Drawings in Colour by Philip Henry Gosse and his Correspondents, 1839–1861,” item 69+.The Horniman Museum London. 89 2.16 “Green Opelet. Orange-Disk Anemone.” Plate 9 from A Year at the Shore (London: Strahan, 1865), facing page 78. University of Michigan Libraries. 90 3.1 Introductory vignette. Thomas Bewick, A History of British Birds, vol. i (Newcastle, 1797) p. v. University of Michigan Libraries. 100 3.2 Golden Oriole. John Gould, The Birds of Europe (London, 1832–37), vol. ii, plate 71. Kalamazoo College Library. 101 3.3 “Erythacus Rubecula.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. ii, plate 48. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 102 3.4 “Red-tailed Buzzard.” John James Audubon, The Birds of America (New York, 1840–44) i:50, plate 7. University of Michigan Libraries. 104 3.5 (a) Great Horned or Eagle Owl. John Gould, The Birds of Europe (London, 1832–37), vol. i, plate 37. Kalamazoo College Library. (b) “Bubo Maximus.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. i, plate 30. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 105 3.6 “Falco Aesalon.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. i, plate 19. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 106

xii List of illustrations 3.7 (a) “Enneoctonus Collurio.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. ii, plate 15. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. (b) Red-backed shrike. Partially-colored sketch for John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. ii, plate 15. Gould Drawing 26, Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas. 107 3.8 “Lanius Excubitor.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. ii, plate 13. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 108 3.9 Pencil and watercolor sketch with annotations of (a) moorhen and (b) moorhen chick. (c) “Gallinula Chloropus” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. iv, plate 85. Gould Drawings 266 and 262, Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas. Moorhen plate courtesy of the University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 109 3.10 (a) “The Cuckoo.” Thomas Bewick, A History of British Birds, vol. i (Newcastle, 1797), 104. University of Michigan Libraries. (b) “Cuculus Canorus.” John Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. iii, plate 67. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 111 3.11 “Cuculus Canorus. Young [cuckoo] ejecting its nestling companions.” Gould, The Birds of Great Britain (London, 1862–73), vol. iii, plate 68. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 113 3.12 “The Ruff or Machetes pugnax.” Figure 37 from Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2 vols. (London: Murray, 1871) ii:42. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 118 3.13 (a) Spotted bower-bird. John Gould, The Birds of Australia (1840–48), vol. iv, plate 8. Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas. (b) “Der Kragenvogel (Chlamydera maculata).” Figure 46 in Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2 vols. (London: Murray, 1871) ii:70. University of Michigan Libraries. 119 3.14 (a) Satin bower-bird. John Gould, The Birds of Australia (1840–48), vol. iv, plate 10. Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas. (b) Satin bower-bird. Pencil and watercolor sketch. Gould Drawing 34, Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas. 121

List of illustrations xiii 3.15 “Tetrao cuido: male.” Figure 39 in Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd edn. (New York: Burt, 1874), 422. University of Michigan Libraries. 124 3.16 “Polyplectron chinquis, male.” Figure 51 in Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd edn. (New York: Burt, 1874), 450. University of Michigan Libraries. 125 3.17 “Side-view of male Argus pheasant, while displaying before the female.” Figure 52 from Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd edn. (New York: Burt, 1874), 452. University of Michigan Libraries. 126 3.18 (a) “Outer tail-feather of Scolopax frenata” and “Outer tail-feather of Scolopax javensis.” Figures 42 and 43 from Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2 vols. (London: Murray, 1871) ii:64. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. (b) Outline (A) and Profile (B) of wing-feather of a robin. Figure 1 from John Ruskin, Love’s Meinie. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xxv:37. University of Michigan Libraries. 131 3.19 (a) “Peacock’s Feather with enlarged filaments.” Plate v from John Ruskin, Love’s Meinie. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xxv:39. University of Michigan Libraries. (b) “Feather of Peacock...”Figure 53 from Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2 vols. (London: Murray, 1871) ii:137. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 133 3.20 “Decorative Plumage. Peacock.” Plate v from John Ruskin, The Laws of Fésole. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xv:411. University of Michigan Libraries. 135 4.1 “The rock-pigeon, or Columba livia.” Figure 17 from Charles Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (London: Murray, 1868). University of Michigan Libraries. 144 4.2 (a) The English Carrier. B. P. Brent, The Pigeon Book, 3rd edn. (1871), 25. University of Michigan Libraries. (b) “English Carrier.” Figure 19 from Charles Darwin, The Variation of

xiv List of illustrations Animals and Plants Under Domestication (London: Murray, 1868). University of Michigan Libraries. 144 4.3 “Orchis mascula.” James Edward Smith, English Botany (1790–1814), vol. 9, plate 631. University of Michigan Libraries. 146 4.4 “Orchis mascula.” Figure i from Charles Darwin, On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilised by Insects, and the Good Effects of Intercrossing (London: Murray, 1862), facing p. 18. University of Michigan Libraries. 147 4.5 “Drosera rotundifolia.” Figure 2 from Charles Darwin, Insectivorous Plants (London: Murray, 1875), 4. University of Michigan Libraries. 148 4.6 “Diagram showing the movement of the upper internode of the common pea.” Figure 6 from Charles Darwin, The Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants, 2nd edn. (London: Murray, 1875). University of Michigan Libraries. 149 4.7 “Fructification: The sexual apparatus of Orchis mascula...” Tab. 3 from Francis Bauer, Illustrations of Orchidaceous Plants (London: James Ridgway, 1830–38). C 1995–2004 Missouri Botanical Garden. 153 4.8 “A. Pollen-mass of O. mascula.” Figure ii from Charles Darwin, On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects, and the Good Effects of Intercrossing (London: Murray, 1862), 15. University of Michigan Libraries. 154 4.9 “Primula veris.” Figure 1 from Charles Darwin, The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species (London: Murray, 1877), 15. University of Michigan Libraries. 155 4.10 “Section of the flower of an orchid.” Figure xxxii from Charles Darwin, On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilised by Insects, and the Good Effects of Intercrossing (London: Murray, 1862), 292. University of Michigan Libraries. 156 4.11 (a) Schematic representation of the different “unions” possible in long- and short-styled flowers of the common cowslip. (b) “Diagram of the flowers of the three forms of Lythrum salicaria.” Figures 2 and 10 from Charles Darwin, The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species (London: Murray, 1877), 139. University of Michigan Libraries. 159

List of illustrations xv 4.12 “Outline of a Leaf of Burdock.” Figure 13 of John Ruskin, Proserpina. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xxv:304. University of Michigan Libraries. 169 4.13 “Primula acaulis.” William Curtis, Flora Londinensis (1777–98), vol. ii, fasc. 6, plate 16. C 1995–2004 Missouri Botanical Garden. 171 4.14 “Contorta Purpurea. Purple Wreath-Wort.” Plate xxiii in John Ruskin, Proserpina. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xxv: facing page 341. University of Michigan Libraries. 172 4.15 “Flower of Contorta Purpurea.” Figures 41 and 42 of John Ruskin, Proserpina. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xxv:546. University of Michigan Libraries. 173 4.16 “Four Stages in the Young Life of a Primrose.” Figure 7 of John Ruskin, Proserpina. The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: Allen, 1903–12) xxv:261. University of Michigan Libraries. 174 4.17 Charles Allston Collins, Convent Thoughts (1851). Oil on canvas. 84 × 59 cm. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. 177 5.1 Fear. Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as Connected with the Fine Arts, 3rd edn. (London: Murray, 1844), 165 and 166. Yale University, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library. 188 5.2 Rage. Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as Connected with the Fine Arts, 3rd edn. (London: Murray, 1844), 176 and 178. Yale University, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library. 189 5.3 Devotion. Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as Connected with the Fine Arts, 3rd edn. (London: Murray, 1844), 104. Yale University, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library. 189 5.4 Comparison of the face of a monkey (a) and an ox (b) with that of a human of comparable characteristics. Plate i from Johan Caspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy, trans. Thomas Holcroft, 2nd edn., 3 vols. (London: Symonds, 1804) ii:154.

xvi List of illustrations University of Chicago Library, Special Collections Research Center. 191 5.5 (a) Weeping child. Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as Connected with the Fine Arts, 3rd edn. (London: Murray, 1844), 155. Yale University, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library. (b) Photographs of crying children. Plate i from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 192 5.6 Photographs of smiling faces. Plate iii from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 193 5.7 Photographs of individuals with placid and grieving expressions. Plate ii from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 194 5.8 “Horror and Agony, copied from a photograph by Dr. Duchenne.” Figure 21 from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872), 306. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 195 5.9 “Am I Not a Man and a Brother?” Black on yellow Wedgwood Jasper slave medallion. By courtesy of the Wedgwood Museum Trust, Staffordshire, England. 197 5.10 (a) “Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions.” Figure 5 from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872), 52. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. (b) Edwin Landseer, Alexander and Diogenes (1848). Oil on canvas, 112.5 × 142.6 cm. Tate Gallery, London. Courtesy of the Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, New York. 206 5.11 “Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky.” Figure 18 from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872), 141. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 207 5.12 (a) “Observativeness Large – Mr. Charles Darwin . . .” and (b) “Persistenacity very Large,” “Persistenacity very Small,” “Persistenacity Small – A prairie Wolf, or Coyote,” and “Persistenacity Large–ABull-dog.” Joseph Simms, Nature’s

List of illustrations xvii Revelations of Character; or Physiognomy Illustrated (New York, 1879), 192 and 193. Hesburgh Library, University of Notre Dame. 210 5.13 (a) “Profile of a Luchatze negro woman, showing deficient bridge of nose and chin, and elongate facial region and prognathism.” (b) “Face of another negro, showing flat nose, less prognathism and larger cerebral region. From Serpa Pinto.” (c) “Esquibo Indian women, showing the following peculiarities: deficient bridge of nose, prognathism, no waist, and...deficiency of stature through short femur.” Figures 5, 6, and 7 from E. D. Cope, “Evolution of Human Physiognomy,” Knowledge 4 (1883):168–69. University of Michigan Libraries. 212 6.1 (a) “From a photograph of an insane woman, to show the condition of her hair.” Figure 19 from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872), 141. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. (b) Madness. Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as Connected with the Fine Arts, 3rd edn. (London: Murray, 1844), 180. Yale University, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library. 220 6.2 (a) Sneering lady and crying, frowning child. Plate iv from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. (b) Photograph by A. D. Kindermann of a crying, frowning child. Darwin Papers, Cambridge University Library, dar.53.1:c.122. By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library. 224 6.3 Disdain. Plate v, figure 1 from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 229 6.4 (a) Indignation. Plate vi, figure 2 from Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Murray, 1872). University of Michigan Special Collections Library. (b) Resistance. Figure 32 from Johann Jacob Engel, Ideen Zu Einer Mimik (1785), J. J. Engel’s Schriften, vol. vii (Berlin: Mylius, 1804), facing p. 290. University of Michigan Libraries. (c) Resistance. L.-J. Moreau, ed., L’Art de Connaˆıtre les Hommes par la Physionomie (Paris, 1820), vol. iii, plate 120, figure 11. Copy of an original in the Department of Special Collections, Kelvin Smith Library, Case Western Reserve

xviii List of illustrations University, Cleveland, Ohio. (d) “Menace.” Henry Siddons, Practical Illustrations of Rhetorical Gesture and Action (London: Phillips, 1807), between pages 148 and 149. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 231 6.5 “Suggested Illustration for Dr. Darwin’s Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants.” Punch 69 (11 Dec. 1875): 242. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 234 6.6 “Good Dog.” Illustrated Times, 16 May 1863. Courtesy of the Yale University Library. 236 6.7 “Shadow Portraits” of (a) R. B. Brough and (b) C. H. Bennett. Charles H. Bennett and Robert B. Brough, Character Sketches, Development Drawings, and Original Pictures of Wit and Humour (London: Ward, Lock, and Tyler, [1872]), 47 and 48. University of Michigan Libraries. 237 6.8 “As Thirsty As A Fish.” Illustrated Times, 10 October 1863. Courtesy of the Yale University Library. 239 7.1 “Diagram of the alimentary canal of an earthworm.” Figure 1 from Charles Darwin, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (London: Murray, 1881), 18. University of Michigan Libraries. 246 7.2 “A tower-like casting.” Figure 3 from Charles Darwin, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (London: Murray, 1881), 124. University of Michigan Libraries. 251 7.3 “Remains of the Cathedral at Concepcion.” Robert Fitzroy, ed., Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty’s Ships Adventure and Beagle..., 3 vols. (London: Colburn, 1839) ii: facing p. 405. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 254 7.4 “Britannia or Tower Rock, Port Desire,” “Anchorage and Spanish Ruins, Port Desire,” “Upper Part of Port Desire Inlet,” and “Bivouac at the Head of Port Desire Inlet.” Robert Fitzroy, ed., Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty’s Ships Adventure and Beagle..., 3 vols. (London: Colburn, 1839) ii: facing p. 316. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 255 7.5 “Roman Walls of Caerwent.” Thomas Wright, Uriconium; A Historical Account of the Ancient Roman City, and of the Excavations made upon its Site at Wroxeter, in Shropshire (London: Longmans, 1872), 92. University of Michigan Libraries. 256

List of illustrations xix 7.6 (a) “Section of Field.” Figure 1 from Charles Darwin, “On the Formation of Mould,” Transactions of the Geological Society of London, 2nd series, pt. 3, vol. 5 (1840): 506. University of Michigan Libraries. (b) “Section of the lowest plain at Port S. Julian.” Figure 16 from Charles Darwin, Geological Observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America, 3 vols. (London: Smith, Elder, 1851) iii:95. University of Michigan Libraries. (c) “Section...ofthevegetable mould in a field, drained and reclaimed fifteen years previously.” Figure 5 from Charles Darwin, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (London: Murray, 1881), 133. University of Michigan Libraries. 259 7.7 (a) “Section through the foundations of a buried Roman villa at Abinger.” (b) “Section within a hall in the Basilica at Silchester.” Figures 8 and 10 from Charles Darwin, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (London: Murray, 1881), 180 and 205. University of Michigan Libraries. 261 7.8 Colored tracings by J. G. Joyce of the Silchester excavations. Darwin Papers, Cambridge University Library, dar 65.104.By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library. 262 7.9 (a) “A north and south section through the subsided floor of a corridor, paved with tesserae...”Figure 14 from Charles Darwin, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (London: Murray, 1881), 214. University of Michigan Libraries. (b) “Section of the tertiary formation at Coquimbo.” Figure 21 from Charles Darwin, Geological Observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America (London: Smith, Elder, 1851), iii:128. University of Michigan Libraries. (c) “Section of the Peuquenes or Portillo Pass of the Cordillera,” “Section of the Cumbre or Uspallata Pass,” and “Section up the Valley of Copiapo to the Base of the Main Cordillera.” Plate i from Charles Darwin, Geological Observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America (London: Smith, Elder, 1851). University of Michigan Libraries. 264 7.10 (a) “Section through one of the fallen Druidical stones at Stonehenge.” (b) “Traverse section across a large stone, which had lain on a grass field for 35 years.” Figures 7 and 6 from Charles Darwin, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the

xx List of illustrations Action of Worms (London: Murray, 1881), 151. University of Michigan Libraries. 266 7.11 “Stonehenge, From the North.” Thomas Wright, Wanderings of an Antiquary (London: Nichols, 1854), facing pages 293–94. University of Michigan Libraries. 267 7.12 (a) View of Stonehenge made in 1620 by Inigo Jones. (b) View of Stonehenge made in the late nineteenth century. Edgar Barclay, Stonehenge and Its Earth-Works (London: Nutt, 1895), between pages 16 and 17 and 6 and 7. University of Michigan Libraries. 268 7.13 Stone Henge. J. M. W. Turner, Picturesque Views in England and Wales (London: Longman, 1838). Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection. 268 7.14 “Punch’s Fancy Portraits.–No. 54. Charles Robert Darwin, LL.D., F. R. S.” Punch 81 (22 October 1881): 190. University of Michigan Special Collections Library. 273 7.15 “Man is But a Worm.” Punch’s Almanack for 1882 (6 Dec. 1881). University of Michigan Libraries. 274