Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 675

Energy Efficiency of Irrigated Wheat Production in Traditional and Mechanized Systems at East Azarbayjan Province, Iran

Majid AghaAlikhani1 and Reza KarimiNezhad2

1-Agronomy Department, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modarres University,Tehran, Iran. Phone: +98-21- 4196522 Email [email protected]; 2- Graduated Student (M.Sc.) of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran Iran. Phone: +98-21-4196522 Email [email protected]

Abstract Ecology of agroecosystems have suffered sever variation due to human mediation with the goal of maximizing energy and matter flow. Application of some input like fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides and fuels in mechanized agriculture counted direct and indirect form of subsidiary energy. In fact yield increment in modern agriculture is mainly the result of large amount of input and energy consumption (for crop planting, protection and harvest). However in some cases subsidiary energy at intensive systems will reduce the energy efficiency. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the most strategic crop that can affect the economy of a country. In recent years self-sufficiency in Wheat production have been an important priority of the Iran government. The most planted area in east Azarbayjan province belongs to wheat cultivation (100000 ha for irrigated and 320000 ha for dry farming wheat). This research tries to investigate the energy balance of wheat production under traditional and mechanized condition. Required information was obtained via technical questionnaires, which distributed between farmers. Energy efficiency was calculated by output to input ratio in both systems. Results showed that energy efficiency in traditional system (2.38) was higher than modern system (1.83). Increasing input energy in modern system increased yield but reduced the energy efficiency. This finding confirms the Mitcherlikh subtractive efficiency law. In spite of higher energy efficiency in customary system, total energy production per area unit was lower than mechanized one due to its low yield. From another point of view the ratio of input and output energy of mechanized to traditional system were 3.53 and 2.27 respectively. Therefore energy dissipation was more in modern cropping systems. It would be stated that more production in mechanized system need more input energy. So based on general objects of sustainable agriculture and considering the economic and environmental issues, the intensive farming is not a good strategy for food production in future.

Key Words: Wheat, Sustainable agriculture, Traditional agriculture, Mechanized system and energy sufficiency.

Introduction When human began agriculture, tried to produce more yields from the fields by application of different inputs and optimization of resources utilization. Reaching to development in different aspects of human life and bridle of natural energies (animals domestication, . . .), discovering and using other energies such as fossil fuels, facilitated the mechanisms of agricultural production. The simple examples of these energies used in agriculture were the agricultural machinery which used energy for crop planting, protection and harvest directly. Also we have to use indirect energy something like as pesticides, herbicides, chemical fertilizer, etc. All of these inputs need energy in their production processes. The yield increased with increasing of input energies to farm. But the excess increasing of these input energies may cause some economic prejudice. So calculating the energy balance of these Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 676 systems is too important. It can help the producers and agricultural programmers to evaluate the economic and noneconamic aspects of field activities, which are energy consumers such as different planting methods, type of planting systems etc. Energy balance in different farms is calculable estimating the input and output energies to agroecosystems and changing all of units to the same one. Energy efficiency is the ratio of used energy (GJ) for one-tone crop production. From economic point of view and energy profitability, we have to use the optimum rates of energy and prevent the energy loss in our fields. This would end to sustainable agriculture. So such assessments are very important on whole of agriculture crops and climates. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of important and strategic crops in Iran, which has determining role in the adjustment of the community throphic level. Consumption per capita of wheat in urban and rural community is 145 and 214 kg respectively. High gain rate of population (1.69 percent) showed that we need at least 13 million tone of wheat, for feeding a 70 million community. Population increases and environmental issues show a bad perspective for food security in future. Therefore all the country accessories and potentials with all scientific, industrial capacity should be used to reach a sustainable food security specially self-sufficiency in wheat production. Calculation of energy efficiency and input, output energies and optimization of the methods in order to reduce energy input in agroecosystems have calculated in different parts of the world. Less ratio of input energy to a tone crop yield, more energy efficiency.Analysis of consumed energy in row crops (corn and soybean) production in Ontario showed that in the period 1975-1991 energy efficiency has increased. In this review energy efficiency of corn production increased from 87.95 Liter Diesel Fuel Equivalent (LDFE) per tone to 44.16 LDFE/ton. Corn total production and yield increased 60 and 20.1 percent respectively. Different analysis of no-till systems have shown that energy requirement reach to a minimum rate due to application of high rate of different herbicides. Pimental et al (1972) reported that increased corn yield of the United States of America was the result of high rates of inputs (fossil fuels). Input energies to an agroecosystem are too variable and would be more or less from each ecosystem to another. Some of them are too small and dispensable into investigations. For example Green (1987), Southwell et al. (1977) and Clements et al. (1995) dispense with the energy requirements for herbicides transportation. One of the sustainable agriculture’s goals is to decrease the rate of energy input especially the chemically originated energy. Based on the findings of Magdoff et al. (1984), Fox et al. (1989) and Beachamp et al. (1992) testing the soil nitrogen is available to decrease fertilizer use. This evaluation is too important because fertilizer manufacturing includes the most energy consumption and consists of about 72.4 percent of total energy use for crop production. Energy use for tillage and herbicides depends on the kind of agroecosystems and their weed management (Swanton et al. (1996). Each system that uses less herbicide need more energy for tractors or laboures to weed control. In this case input energy for weed control is more than energy needed for herbicide manufacturing, so energy efficiency should be decreased.

Materials and Methods The assessment of wheat growing areas at east Azarbayjan province shows that some farmers in the most of the villages have been using traditional methods. They used semi-mechanized methods doing some agricultural operations in irrigated wheat cultivation such as: plough and threshing. While the others have done all the procedures in mechanized system (land preparing, planting, protection and harvesting). After recognition and selection about 100 farmers (50 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 677 persons per group) who used customary or mechanized systems, required information was obtain via technical questionnaires, and face to face interview. The questionnaires distributed between the groups and energy efficiency was calculated by output to input ratio in both systems. Even used form consulting of central engineer services to obtain correct responses. Initial data's were unprepared, then obtained using of specific formulae's and energy rating per input unit (Kocheki and Hosseini 1995) on the base of Kcal/ha. By this way input and output energies were identified.

Results and Discussion 1.Mechanized system. In generall entered energy or input in an agroecosystem is devided in to two sections: 1) direct energy use and 2) indirect energy use. First one in mechanized system included laboures and different field operations (Table 1). There were different kind of tractors but the majority of farmers used Romanian’s (65 hp.), which was considered in calculations. Equation 1 was used to calculate the effective capacity of the tractor (Kocheki and Hosseini 1995). Equation 1: Effective Capacity = (machine width*yield)/1000 Required time per unit area for each practice is calculated by reversing the effective capacity. Table 1 can be divided in two simple tables which indicate the laboure power (table 2) and calculating the ratio of using energy, (table 2) and the rate of fuel which was used by agricultural machines (table 3). Equivalent energy of laboure per hour is 175 Kcal and for gasoline per litter is 9583.3 kcal. Therefore, total entered energy is 11372658 kcal. Pesticides and fertilizers are the most common indirect energy use in mechanized systems. Their manufacturing and processing need energy (table 4). Therefore, entered energy in total (direct and indirect) per hectare obtained mechanized cultivation of irrigated wheat equal to 4096700 kcal. In order to calculate the energy efficiency, estimation of produced or exited energy by the ecosystem is also necessary. In wheat farms output energy assembled in two sections: seed and straw. According to the opinions, yield varied in different areas (table 5) of region but total average of wheat yield (seed and straw) was 4500 and 5800 kg/ha, respectively. These amounts were used to calculate output energy in mechanized system. According to the calculations by Kocheki and Hosseini 1992) the amount of calorie produced per kg of seed is 3460 kcal and 2210 kcal in wheat straw. Total energy efficiency = output/input = 28388000/15468758 =1.83 Grain energy efficiency = Grain output/ total input = 15570000/15468758 = 1.006 Straw energy efficiency = Straw output/ total input =128180000/ 15468758 = 0.82

2.Traditional system In this system some agronomic practices were used some machines, so it could be called as semi mechanized system. Input energy in semi mechanized cultivation of irrigated wheat included: direct and indirect energy use. Direct energy use consists of the operations performed by the machines (Table 6) and using of the laboure power (Table 7). Indirect energy entered to agroecosystem in semi-mechanized system included the energy used to produce seed, fertilizer (N, P), machines and handle equipment (Table 8). By this way total input energy would be calculated. (Total input energy = entered direct and indirect energies) (Table 9). Donkey is the common domestic animal used in this province. It does suppose that to Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 678 calculate unit energy of this animal, one head of donkey in 180 kg weight able to carry 1/4 hours load in 681 kg weight (1000 pound). Since produced energy of hours is 10 fold more than humans (1750 kcal/hr), so produced energy by each head donkey (in 180 kg weight) can be 583 kcal/hr (Kocheki and Hosseini 1992). Output energy calculation of traditional (semi mechanized) system needs the yield information. Average yield of irrigated wheat in traditional system is 2800 kg/ha in east Azarbayjan province, Iran. Also 3400 kg/ha of straw would be produced. Table 10 shows the thermal energies equivalent of wheat grain and straw in this condition. Total energy efficiency = output/input = 10439400/4383949 =2.38 Grain energy efficiency = Grain output/ total input = 9688000/ 4383949 = 2.21 Straw energy efficiency = Straw output/ total input = 751400/ 4383949= 0.171 Obtained information and the results of above mentioned calculations of energy efficiency in two systems indicate that: by adding more energy per unit area, energy efficiency may be changed. As the results showed increasing input energy in modern system (mechanized) increased yield but reduced the energy efficiency. This finding confirms the Micherlikh subtractive efficiency law. Classifying the sources of input energy in two systems (Table 11) can help us to recognize differences of the energy efficiency in traditional and mechanized systems precisely. According to the results the ratio of input energy in mechanized system to traditional system (3.53) is more than output energy ratio in mechanized to traditional system (2.72). This suggested the reducing of energy efficiency in mechanized system. Although it hasn't positive effect on ratio of used calorie but it was economically useful, because the cost of input energy (fuel…) is less than crop yield. Recently, in all cropping systems rate of input application is related to their costs. More manufacturing efficiency less production cost lead to increasing application rate of inputs per unit area. For example Swanton et al., (1996) stated that increment of production and using of pesticides and fertilizers in Ontario, Canada between 1975- 1991 have increased the energy efficiency of corn and soybean about 50%. Main reason for over use of these products was the reduction in cost and increment in their production efficiency. They have reported that if low input systems become current it may optimize the energy efficiency. Although high input systems may increase yield production in long period scale. From another points of view other researchers have stated that developing the low input agricultural systems can reduce the issue of atmospheric CO2. (Dalgard et al. 2000) Pimental et al. (1996) thought that developing the organic agriculture is one of the main principal to conserve energy. We believe faster energy cycle in agroecosystem, it would be more far from natural state. Therefore return to natural agriculture and reducing input such as: fertilizer and pesticides could result to sustainable use energy.

References Bonny S. (1993) Is agriculture using more and more energy? A French case study, Agriculture Systems. 43, 51-66 Clements DR, Wiese SF, Brown R, Stonehouse DP, Hume DJ, Swanton CJ (1995) Energy analysis in herbicide and tillage inputs in alternative weed management systems. Agricultural Economics and Environment, 52. 119-128 Dalgaard T, Halberg N, Fenger J (2000) Fossil energy use and emissions of greenhouse gases — three scenarios for conversion to 100% organic farming in Denmark. In: vanLerland E, Lansink AO, Schmieman E (Eds.) Proceedings of the International Conference on sustainable Energy: Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 679

New Challenges forAgriculture and Implications for Land Use, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Chapter 7.2.1, 11 pp. Fox RH, Roth GW, Leversen KV, Piekielek WP (1989) Soil and Tissue Nitrate tests Compared for Predicting Soil Nitrogen Availability to Corn Agronomical journal: 81, 971-974 Koocheki A, Hosseini M (1992) Energy efficiency in Agroecosystwems. University of Mashhad. Magdoff FR, Rosse D, Amadon J (1984) A soil test for nitrogen availability to corn. Canadian Journal of Soil Science , 60, 403-410 Pimentel D, Hurd LE, Bellotti AC, Forster MJ, Oka IN, Sholes OD, Whitman RJ (1973) Food production and the energy crisis. Science 182 (4111), 443–449. Pimentel D, Pimentel M (1996) Food, Energy and Society. Rao AR (1992) Energetics of cotton agronomy. Swanton CJ, Murphy SD (1996). Weed science beyond the weed, the role of integerated weed management (IWM) in agroecosystem health. Weed Science, 44, 437-445

Table 1. Rates of different directly energy use in mechanized system of irrigated wheat production in east Azarbayjan Province Practices Machine Velocity Efficiency Effective Time for Replication All width (m) (m/s) capacity each needed (%) operation time (hr) (hr/ha) Tillage 0.9 7 70 0.44 3 1 3 Disc 2.4 8 75 1.44 1 2 2 Leveling 2.2 8 75 1.32 1 2 2 Fertilizer 6 7 60 2.52 0.5 3 1.5 distribution Seeding 6 5 60 1.8 0.75 1 0.75 Farrowing 1.5 9 75 1 1 1 1 Making - - - - 0.54 1 0.5 channels Harvest 3.5 6.5 70 1.59 1 1 1 Transport - - - - 1 1 1 Irrigation - - 75 - 8 4 32

Table 2. Labor power in mechanized system of irrigated wheat production Kind of labor Total hours % Tractor driver 12.75 8.57 Irrigator 32 21.51 Combine driver 1 0.67 Assistant driver 1 0.67 Uploading material 2 1.34 Engine guard 100 67.22 Total 148.75 100 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 680

Table 3. Using energy as fuels in mechanized system of irrigated wheat production Machine Power (hp) Power transport Used fuel Used fuel per Total used fuel efficiency (cal/ha) hr. (l) ( l) Tractor 65 75 2.14 8 94 Combine 75 80 2.63 10 10 Motor pump 75 80 2.63 10 1080 Total 1184

Table 4. Rate of indirect energy use in mechanized system of irrigated wheat production INPUT Rate (kg/ha) Energy per unit (Kcal/kg) Rate of energy use (K cal/ha) Seed 210 4200 822000 Pure phosphate 150 3190 478500 Pure nitrogen 100 17600 1760000 Machines 50 20712 1035600 Total 4096100

Table 5. Output energy in mechanized system of irrigated wheat production Yield parts Yield (kg/ha) Heat energy (kcal/kg) Total heat energy (kcal/ ha) Grain 4500 3460 15570000 Straw 5800 2210 12818000 Total 28388000

Table 6. Rates of different direct energy use in traditional (semi mechanized) system of irrigated wheat production in east Azarbayjan Province Practices Machine Velocity Efficiency Effective Time for Replication All width (m) (m/s) capacity each needed (%) operation time (hr) (hr/ha) Tillage 0.9 7 70 0.44 3 1 3 bordering 1 10 70 0.7 2 1 2 Chisel 2.5 8 70 1.6 1 1 1 plow threshing - - - - 2 1 2 Total 8

Table 7. Labor power in traditional (semi mechanized) system of irrigated wheat production practices Time for each operation Replication All needed time (hr) (hr/ha Bordering 9 1 9 Fertilizer broadcasting 3 3 9 Seeding 3 1 3 Irrigation 8 4 32 Harvest 75 1 75 Gathering 7 1 7 Threshing 2 1 2 Blowing 8 1 8 Screening 4 1 4 Grain transport 3 1 3 Straw transport 7.5 1 7.5 Transporting by animals 35 1 35 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 681

Table 8. Indirect energy used in traditional (semi mechanized) system of irrigated wheat production in east Azarbayjan Province Inputs Rate (kg/ha) Energy per unit (Kcal/kg) Rate of energy use (K cal/ha) Seed 230 4200 966000 Pure phosphorus 150 3190 478500 Pure nitrogen 100 17600 1760000 Machines and handle 25 20712 517800 equipment Total 3722300

Table 9. Total input energy in traditional (semi mechanized) system of irrigated wheat production INPUT RATE ENERGY per unit ENERGY used (Kcal/ha) Fuel 64 liter 9583.3 kcal/liter 613331.2 labor 159.5 hour 175 kcal/hr 27912.5 Indirect input 3722300 Domestic animal 35 hour 583 kcal/hr 20405 Total 4383949 Table 10. Output energy in traditional (semi-mechanized) system of irrigated wheat production in east Azarbayjan Province Yield parts Yield (kg/ha) Heat energy (kcal/kg) Total heat energy (kcal/ ha) Grain 2800 3460 9688000 Straw 3400 2210 751400 Total 10439400

Table 11. Classifying the sources of input energy in traditional and mechanized system of irrigated wheat production in east Azarbayjan Province Mechanized system Energy sources Rate of energy (kcal/ha) percent Fuel 11346627 73.35 Indirect 4096100 26.48 Labor 26031.25 0.17 Total 15468758.25 100 Traditional (semi-mechanized system Energy sources Rate of energy (kcal/ha) percent Fuel 613331 13.99 Indirect 3722300 84.9 Labor 27912.5 0.63 Total 4383949 100 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 682

A study of the effect of moisture-temperature factors On germination of oak (Quercus brantii) seeds in Khorramabad, Lorestan - Iran

Hassan Akbari 1 D.Gudarzi 2 S.R.Sohrabi 3 1-ph. D. Student, Forestry –Russia, Moscow, Lomonosov Moscow state university, and phone: +70-95-4317644 Email: [email protected] ;2- Ph. D. Student –Iran ; 3- M.Sc. Forestry –Iran

Abstract In this paper influence of conditions of storage (humidity and temperature) on germination of seeds of the Iranian oak (Quercus brantii) in conditions of Lorestan environment is investigated. The research has been carried with 3200 seeds. Experiment has been based on completely casual configuration of four factors and quadruple repetition of experiences. Seeds were planted in plastic pots, with the depth of crop 5cm. Factor (A) seeds were stored on fresh air 1 month, and then planted in pots. Factor (B) seeds were planted at once after gathering. Factor (C) seeds were stored in a refrigerator within one month at the temperature 1-5 ɋº, and then planted. Factor (D) seeds were wetted after gathering in usual water on 48-hours and within one month stored in a refrigerator at the temperature 1-5 ɋº, then planted. As a result of the analysis it is shown, that there are significant distinctions between factors. Comparison of germination of seeds has shown, (under Duncan test) that four factors correspond with two classes: the class (ɚ) includes factors (B), (C) and (D) with germination percents of 95.50 %, 97.38 %, and 98.50 %, respectively. The class (b) includes the factor (A) with germination percent 23.00 %. According to the results, the factor (B) would be the most suitable method of planting seeds for renewal of oak forest of the Western Iran.

Key words: Oak seed , germination , Moisture , temperature

Introduction The vegetative cover is a reflection of well-being of each territory. The western part of Iran is covered with meadow and forest vegetation which is formed mainly by various kinds of oaks which at the moment are close to disappearance for different reasons and require restoration. One of the decisions of this problem is to restore a population of oaks. Natural regeneration of oak forest in the Western Iran is limited with pastures where ground is stamped by animal hoofs. There is also a small part of the territories inaccessible to animals and people where renewal is possible. Thus, for duplication they use artificial methods which are carried out by two ways: direct planting of young trees and direct planting of seeds . In the first method charges on cultivation, transport and repeated planting are rather essential. The method of direct planting of seeds is more important. For realization of the method of direct planting of seeds there is no proved way of storage of seeds before planting. Biology of an oak The oak relates to the family Quercus, class Fagaceae, order Fagales. This family is the most important among other trees of the world and includes more than 600 species which are the main components of broadleaf forest in different countries. This family is represented basically by trees, but there are also by bushes. The Iranian specie of an oak known as berodar, height of 9 m. (sometimes up to 13 m, even up to 20 m) and diameter 140 cm, has a light-grey trunk with Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 683 furrow and a dense crown . The fruit of an oak refers to geland; it is in the bottom part in a needle cup. The cup is funnel-shaped and has in the bottom part vertical and fine thorns straight in the middle and bent and rarely straight thorns at the edge.

Geographical distribution of the oak in Iran In Iran there are some kinds and subspecies of oaks, which are located mainly in the north (1), northwest (2) and the West (3) Iran’s. The basic kinds: 1-oaks of northern forest of Iran from Astara up to Golidaghi: Quercus castaneifolia Quercus macranthera Quercus atropatana 2- Oaks of northwest forest: Quercus macranthera Quercus petraea 3-oaks of the western forest of Iran: Quercus brantii Quercus magnosquamata Quercus polynervanta Quercus libani Quercus carduchorum Quercus robur subsp Quercus infectoria Quercus mannifera Quercus longipes Quercus ovicarpa Among mentioned above the Iranian specie of an oak (Quercus brantii) covers the greatest area (2250000 ha) (on Tregubov and Mobin). Renewal of the Iranian oak Renewal is carried out by two ways: 1. Asexual renewal. 2. Sexual renewal.

Sexual renewal of oaks of the western woods occurs in two ways: 1. Natural renewal: Natural renewal of forest of Zagros Mountains is in a critical condition since their restoration is less than 1 %. 2. Artificial restoration Artificial restoration. Natural renewal was strongly reduced because of firm ground, presence of animals, vermin and illnesses. To solve this problem it is necessary to carry out artificial direct planting of seeds. In this area positive results were received. However in the case of planting by seeds the number of trees in the subsequent year decreased. The reasons were: wrong storage of the seeds, incorrectly chosen time of planting an inappropriate climate, low humidity and a solid superficial layer of ground and etc.

Materials and methods In the paper influence of conditions of storage (humidity and temperature) on germination of seeds of the Iranian oak (Quercus brantii) in conditions of Lorestan environment is investigated. Research has been carried out with 3200 seeds. Experiment has been based on completely casual configuration of four factors and quadruple repetition of experiences. Seeds were planted in plastic pots, with the depth of crop 5cm. Place of work The work was executed at the agrarian faculty of Lorestan, located in 12 km to southwest from Khorramabad at the height of 1175 m above sea level. Condition of ground Mechanical structure of soil of the forest region basically sandy (48 % of sand, 34 % of dust, 18 % of clay). Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 684

Climate Spring (%) Summer (%) Autumn (%) Winter (%) Close 18.1 0.1 32.9 48.9 to the place our research was carried out, there was a meteorological station which data used in work. Average annual precipitation level was 521.3 mm, the maximal temperature +47 ɋº , the minimal temperature-13 ɋº . The climate of the given area is moderately half-continental, 5 dry months per year is typical that confirms Climatogeraph Khorramabad ( Fig. 1.) . Average precipitation by seasons, average relative humidity in research area is specified in tables 1 and 2.

Table 1-distribution of precipitation by seasons in the area of meteorological station Khorramabad

Table 2- Average 24-years temperature, relative humidity and precipitation at the station Khorramabad since 1968 till 1992. Months precipitation (mm) Relative humidity (%) Average temperature (ɫ) Jan 82.7 69.5 5.0 Feb 76.1 64.1 6.6 Mar 96.3 60.0 10.4 Apr 65.0 56.0 15.3 May 28.9 45.2 19.8 Jun 0.5 28.3 24.7 Jul 0.1 24.7 29.0 Aug 0.2 25.5 27.6 Sep 0.0 28.2 23.9 Oct 23.8 40.1 18.3 Nov 50.6 56.2 11.8 Dec 97.1 68.1 7.2 Average suitable 521. 47.2 16.7 Fig.1. Climatogeraph Khorramabad Temperature (ɫ) Precipitation (mm) 50 100 45 90 40 80 35 70 30 60 25 50 20 40 15 30 10 20 5 10 0 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 685

Characteristics of used seeds The quantity of used healthy seeds counts 3200 pieces. Time of seeds gathering: the middle autumn. Depth seed’ planting is 5 cm. in plastic pots in diameter of 18 cm. and height 20 cm. . The quantity of strength germination at once after gathering was 98.7 %. Percent moisture content in seeds at once after gathering and during planting in pots is shown in table3, and the form and the size of seeds on fig. 2. Average weight of 1000 pieces of seeds: 12.5 kg. Average length of seeds: 57.9 mm. (fig. 2). Average diameter of seeds: 20.8 mm.

Table3. Moisture content of seeds under different conditions of experience in seeds

Specification Ⱥ B ɋ D Moisture content in seeds at once after gathering , in % 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4 Moisture content during planting in pots, in % 21.7 34.5 37.4 38.4

Fig2. Seed used in experience.

Used factors Factor A: Storage of seeds on fresh air during 1 month, then planting in pots. Factor B: seeds were planted at once after gathering. Factor C: Storage of seeds in a refrigerator within 1 month at the temperature 1-5ɫ., then planting in pots Factor D: Planting of seeds after gathering wetted in usual water on 48-hours and stored in a refrigerator during one month at the temperature 1-5 ɋº, then planting. Definition of germination In this experience, every seed that has been germinated and has reached the length of 2 mm has been considered as a sprouting seed.

Results After carrying out the experiences and recording data (table 4 and table 5), in each experience have been constructed on the basis of numbers sprouting seeds. By using of the computer program SAS we analyzed the received results (table 6 and table 7). The tables allow to divide all factors into two classes. The received results of the dispersive analysis variants indicated that the average meaning of factors differ in the level 1% (table 6).By using of the Duncan’s test, we compared a pair of average factors. Composing the table 7, we classified all factors in the two classes (a) and (b). The class (a) contains B, C and D, and the class (b) contains only A. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 686

Statistically factors B, C and D do not differ, but factor A in class (b) has great difference with the factors B, C and D. In other words, the way of storage and planting seeds (factor Ⱥ), is much less than others factors.

Table4. Relative quantity of germination seeds Repetitions rep.1 rep.2 rep.3 rep.4 Factors Ⱥ The sum of all planted seeds 200 200 200 200 germination seeds 47 47 47 43 B The sum of all planted seeds 200 200 200 200 germination seeds 197 196 175 196 C The sum of all planted seeds 200 200 200 200 germination seeds 198 195 197 189 D The sum of all planted seeds 200 200 200 200 germination seeds 198 197 198 195

Table 5. Regression equations

Specification Ⱥ B C D Moisture content of seeds during planting = X 21.7 34.5 37.4 38.4 Percent of germination of seeds = Y 23.0 95.5 97.4 98.5

Table 6. Analysis of variation quantity of germination seeds of the Iranian oak. Dependent Df (degree SS(sum of squares) MS(mean squares) F variable of freedom) Factors 3 66007.6875 22002.5625 645.95** Error 12 408.75 34.0625 - The sum 15 66416.4375 - -

(Coefficient of variation) C.V=3.7 % ** Statistical distinctions at 1 % are significant difference. Table 7. Situation of various factors Conditions Ⱥ B C D Relative quantity of germination seeds 184 764 779 788 Average quantity of germination seeds in each repetition 46 191 195 197 Moisture content in seeds right after gathering in % 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4 Moisture content of seeds during planting in % 21.7 34.5 37.4 38.4 Percent of germination of seeds 23.0 95.5 97.4 98.5 Comparison and classification of factors on Duncan’s test b ɚɚ ɚ Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 687

Discussion The received results show, that the factor A in comparison with other factors is characterized by insignificant percent of germination, this method is not recommended for planting of seeds. . Three factors had higher percent of germination seeds. The factor B (planting of seeds in pots at once after gathering) is recommended from the point of view of economy of charges on storage. In table 7 we may see the relation between different ways of storage with changes of humidity of seeds (humidity of seeds during planting), and also with the percent of germination of seeds, i.e. relation between the percentage of moisture during planting and the percentage of germination is 5 %. It is possible to conclude, that there is an authentic dependence between the percent of germination of seeds and the percentage of moisture in them during planting. On the basis of the results of table 5 the regression equation is equal: Y =-77.43+4.7 X, where α ≈ 0.98 . It is not found out yet to what structure features of the seeds the reduction of moisture in them during storage is related. Solving this problem is planned in next researches.

Recommendations 1- Storage of seeds in the open air it is not recommended. 2- Planting of seeds is to be carried out at once after gathering. 3- In case of absence of an opportunity of planting seeds at once after gathering it is possible to use a method of storage of seeds in a refrigerator or in a wetted kind.

Gratitude To the dean of Research University of Lorestan, to the management of Faculty, to the management of the Institute of Natural Resources and to the colleagues and students.

References 1- Ebrahimi Rastaghi MO, (1993) roots destruction of forests of Zagros, journal of forest and pasture, No, 18 2- Akari HA, (1996) Research renewal of the Iranian oak in Khorramabad, the Seminar is executed in university of Lorestan. 3- Cabeti HA, (1994) forests, trees and bushes of Iran. 4-Cohrabi SE.RA, (1998) Research of depth of planting seeds an oak, the report of institute resources of natural of Lorestan. 5- Tabatabai MH, Ghacriani FA, Ɍɚɛɚɬɚɛɚɢ, (1991) forests and pastures of Kordestan. 6- Fatahi MO, (1992) Research of a problem renewal in forests of Zagros, a seminar of research of a problem of renewal in Kermanshah. 7- Fatahi MO, (1993) Research forests of Zagros an oak and the most important parameters its destruction, institute research of forests and pastures of country. 8- Naciri BE, (1998) Processing of meteorology in Lorestan. 9- Hedayati MO.AL, (1991) an oak, presentation and planting, the organization of forests and pastures of country. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 688

Alborze mountain the Southernmost habitat of Silver Birch species in the Globe. Dr. Moslem Akbarinia*, Habib Zare**, Dr. Seyed Mohsen Hosseini* and Dr. Hamid Ejtehadi***. * Scientific member of natural resources and marin faculty of Tarbit Modares University of Iran. ** Scientific member of research institute of forest and rangeland in botanical garden of Noushaher. *** Scientific member of Ferdowsi University of Iran

Abstract There are about 60 species from Birch genus in the world which all distributed at Arctic and subarctic as well as cold mountain of temperate regions of the North hemisphere. All of these species are as tree or shrub as dominant in some places of boreal biome.In Iran only one species of Birch (Betula pendula Roth) found in high altitude of Alborz Mountain especially in Sangdeh and Lar regions in Mazandaran province as its latest habitate. By the aid of TWINSPAN (Two Way Indicator Species Analyses) method we found 9 indicator species in two ecological groups. The first group with indicator species of Cotonaster nummularioides was the indicator of a poor and Calcic habitate. The second group with indicator species of Actaea spicata was the indicator species of an acidic and rich habitate. Principal Component Analyses (PCA) ordination carried out for sample areas and species. This analyses showed five ecological groups which segregated due to differences with each other, each group possess some sample areas with the highest floristic similarities.

Key words: Birch, Alborz mountain, Ecological species group, PCA, TWINSPAN Introduction The species of Birch genus are distributed in the north America, Canada, Alaska, many places of Europe such as the mountain of the south Spain, Carpathian, Alps, Scandinavia, Siberia, west Asia, Caucasus, Iran and Iraq as well as Himalaya mountain, China and Japan (Krussmann, 1981).In Iran it distributed some areas of the Alborz mountain like rocky forests of Dodangeh, in south of Sari, as well as into the narrow gallery of Lar valley. Regarding vegetation history, these forests seem to be the last habitat and refuge of Betula pendula Roth. Dodangeh is located in the heights of the Hyrcanian forests with the area of about 2,000 ha and the altitude of 2,500–2,950m a.s.l. and Lar habitat is located in a gallery with the area of about 10 ha and mean altitude of 1700m a.s.l.

Material and methods Study areas Dodangeh forests are located in south of Sari, North Iran, with the latitudeof 35° 10’ to 36° 30’ and longitude of 53° 10’ to 53° 27’ (Fig. 1). The altitude is varied from 2,500 to 2,950m a.s.l. Themean annual precipitation is 850 mm. Lar vally is located in the south of Amol with the latitude of 35˚ 55ǯ to 36˚ 04ǯ in Mazandaran province. This habitat is located in a gully with the area of about 10 ha and mean altitude of 1700m a.s.l. with the mean annual precipitation of 570 mm which most of this precipitation is snow during the late of fall and winter. Here has a cold mountain climate.

Methods Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 689

In order to determine floristical composition, ecological characteristics of Betula pendula and distribution range of this species in Sangedeh 20 relevés of the size 400 m² located along a transect of 250 m based on the distribution of species and geomorphology of the area were selected. In lar valley Birch admixed with other species seen in vegetation patch along 2km of the valley in the both sides of the river thus, whole patches were sampled. The data collected by Braun-Blanquet method (Braun-Blanquet, 1983) were subjected to analysis by Syn-Tax 5.0 (Podani 1995) and PC-ORD for Windows (McCune and Mefford 1999) by using TWINSPAN method to characterise ecological groups and importance of Betula pendula in successional trends. Life form spectrum of the area was obtained according to the Raunkiaer’s life form. Nomenclature and chorology of the species follow Asadi (1989–2002), Davis (1965–1988), Ghahreman (1980–2002), Komarov and Shishkin (1963–1974), Rechinger (1963–1998), and Zohary et al. (1980–1993).

Results and Discussion In Lar valley 88 plant species in 52 families were identified. Here Poaceae familly with 15 species or 17% then Asteraceae with 13 species as well as lamiaceae with 8 species, Cruciferaceae with 6 species and Chenopodiaceae with 5 species form the most abundant famillies. Among the whole 13 species out of 1800 are belong to the endemic plant of Iran while in Sangedeh altogether 181 plant species belonging to 129 genera and 52 families were identified in the study area based on Flora of Iranica (Rechinger 1963–1998), Flora of USSR (Komarov and Shishkin 1963–1974), Flora of Turkey (Davis1965–1988), Flora of Iran (Asadi 1989–2002), Colour Flora of Iran (Ghahreman 1980–2002). In Sangedeh out of these, 17% (31 species) were endemic of Hyrcanian and Irano-Turanian regions including four species, viz. Aconitum iranshahrii Renz., Cortusa mathioli subsp. iranica, Delphinium elbursense var. Elbursense and Doronicum wendelboii which could be found nowhere else in the world. Despite the small size of the sampled area (20 relevés of 400m²), about 1.7% of the endemic plants of Iran (31 out of the total 1800) are present in this area. Rosaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae and Caryophyllaceae had 23 (13%), 20 (11%), 15 (8%), 8 (4%) and 7 (4%) species, respectively. Based on the table method of Braun-Blanquet (Braun-Blanquet 1983), we obtained one association named Querco macrantherae-Betuletum pendulae including Scabiosetosum hyrcanii subassociation as well as Acer hyrcanum and Delphinum elbursense var. elbursense variants. This association is recorded, for the first time, in the Hyrcanian and Euro-Siberian regions. The results of some analyses by Syn-Tax 5.0 and PC-ORD, by using TWINSPAN method, indicated two ecological groups with different ecological characteristics (Fig. 1). The first group with Cotoneaster nummularioides indicates a habitat of poor and calcareous soil with high C/N ratio. The second with Actaea spicata and indicates ahabitat of richand weak acidic to acidic soil withlow C/N ratio.The biological activitiy of the soil is low in the first and high in the second one, therefore decomposition process will be longer in the first than the second group. Life form spectrum of two areas were obtained based on life form system of Raunkiaer (Küchler and Zonneveld 1988) (Figs. 2, 3 ) as it show the percentage of Therophyte in these two habitate is completely different. Chorological studies of Querco macrantherae-Betuletum pendulae in Sangdeh showed that the number of plant elements of Irano-Turanian (Ir.-Tur.), Euro-Siberian (Euro-Sib.) and Hyrcanian (Hyrc.) regions exceed other existing vegetational regions (19 chorotypes) (Fig.4 ). The reason is that this association is located in the upper part of Hyrcanian and in the vicinity of Irano-Turanian region so that it can be exposed to the invasion of vegetation elements of the two regions. Since elements of Hyrcanian areas belong to Euro- Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 690

Siberian regions, the presence of Euro-Siberian elements in this association is both natural and indicator of Hyrcanian areas. In Lar habitat the number of plant elements of Irano-Turanian is similar to Sangdeh and has the highest number of plant, then the plant elements of polyregion has the second position (Fig.5). PCA analysis of sample plot showed five ecological groups which segregated due to differences with each other, each group posses some sample areas with the highest floristic similarities, group I with 4 releves was the biggest group, here the species of Cystopteris fragilis, Delphinium elbursense var. elbursense, Betonica nivea sub sp. mazandarana and Bromus benekeni were presence. The second group with two releves and species of Alchemilla hessi, Melica transsilbvanica, Leontodon hispidus and Thanacetum parthenium had very similar character. Since there has not been anywhere recorded about the presence of Betula pendula in Hyrcanian region and the distribution is restricted to this small area, it could be considered as a rare and endemic species. To concern this fact, there should be real protective measures regarding social, cultural and environmental protection conditions suchas gradual removing of grazing animals, enclosing the vital patches and training of rangeland and forest habitats.

REFERENCES 1- Asadi, M. (1989–2002): Flora of Iran. 1–35. – Research Institute of range and forest management, Tehran, Iran. 2- Braun-Blanquet, J. (1983): Plant sociology. – Koeltz Scientific Books, West Germany. 3- Davis, P. H. (1965–1988): Flora of Turkey. 1–10. – EdinburghUniversity Press, Edinburgh. 4- Ghahreman, A. (1980–2002): Color flora of Iran. – Research Institute of range and forest management, Tehran, Iran. 5- Komarov, V. L. and Shishkin, B. K. (1963–1974): Flora of the USSR 1–24. (Translated by Landua, N., R. Lavoot, Z. Blake and L. Behrman), Keter and IPST Press, Jerusalem. 6- Krussmann, G., 1981. Manual of Cultivated Broad-Leaved Trees& Shrubs, VI, A-D, Trans. By Michael E. London, 220-233 PP. 7- Küchler, A. W. and Zonneveld, I. S. (1988): Vegetation mapping. – Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 8- McCune, B. and Mefford, M. J. (1999): Multivariate analysis of ecological data. Version 4.17. MjM software. – Glenden Beach, Oregon, U.S.A. 9- Podani, J. (1995): Multivariate data analysis in ecology and systematics: A methodological guide to the SYN-TAX 5.0 package. – SPB Academic Publishing bv., The Netherlands. 10- Rechinger, K. H. (1963–1998): Flora Iranica. 1–173. – AkademischDruck UV Verlagsanstalt, Graz. 11- Takhtajan, A. (1986): Floristic regions of the world. – University of California Press. 12- Zare, H. (2002): Ecological study of Betula pendula Roth. in Sangdeh and Lar. – MSc thesis, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. (In Persian) 13- Zohary, M., Heyn, C. C. and Heller, D. (1980–1993): Conspectus Flora Orientalis, Vols 1–8. An annotated catalogue of the flora of the Middle East. – The ……Academy of Sciences and Humanities, ……. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 691

Fig.1, The ecological groups derived from TWINSPN analyse

50 40 40 30 30 20 20

% of species % of 10 % of species 10 0 0 Phan. Cham. Cryp. Hemi. Ther. Phan. Cham. Cryp. Hemi. Ther. Raunkiar life forms Raunkiar life forms Fig. 2, Life form spectrum of Birch Fig. 3, Life form spectrum of Birch in in Sangdeh habitat Lar Habitat

45 60 40 48 35 50 30 40 25 20 30 15 20 10 12 Number of species of Number 9 7 5 10 1 2 1 1 2 11 11 0 0 0

t r

r Number of species r b d d p b 0 b b c i c c c d n S x c i i y m n i S u u r r e r r e a - r S e u - S y S y A s o J S y T T y - H S - A - - - E S - - - M . M M - o - r r r P n r r H H - l H - . r - H r r c n . I x o . I ib ib n I u - . - C - r u u o d u - ed ed ia r . u n c . .ss yrc x b . Tu E r i i r r E E u e E M - H E Ir-A -H u - u - y u n r/M ro-S ed . S S Ir- cania ro-S . T - . E - . - M o r d r - T . c H T Eu Ho l.A yrcan - r r - - r r . r - P Eu e u I Hy r u r . r r-Tu H I u u y I I ur/M r/Eux T r ed/ M u u - E T T Euxi n-Hyrca n Co smopo litia - - H u r - . I r T - Ir-T r - r/M r I T Ir-Tur/Euro-Sib r-Tur/ Ir-T I r x - I u - I r Chorotype . u I T r-Tu b E I - i r Chorotype I S - r

u Fig. 4, Plant elements chorology of BirchE habitat in Ir-Tur/Me d/Euro-Si b/sino-Japo n Sangedeh Fig. 5, Plant elements chorology of Birch in Lar. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 692

Investigation on Cultivation of Wild King Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii DC: Fr. Quel) of Charmahal va Bakhtiary Province (Iran)

Azizollah ALAVI1; Ebrahim MOHAMMADI GOLTAPE2; Abdolkarim Kashy3; Kazem ARZANI 2 and Esmaeil ASADI4 1) Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural, Shahr-e-kord University, 2-km of Saman Road, Shahr-e- kord, P.O.B 115 ; 2) Department of Plant protection, Faculty of Agricultural, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran; 3) Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricultural, Tehran University, Karaj, Iran; 4) Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricultural, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran; 5) Department of Natural Resources, Faculty of Agricultural Shahr-e-kord University, 2-km of Saman Road, Shahr-e-kord P.O.B 115

Abstract Sixty-three isolates of Pleurotus eryngii DC: Fr. Quel were collected from various geographical location of Chaharmahal va Bakhtiary province (Iran). After obtaining pure cultures, morphological and ecological characters as well as vegetative and reproductive growth phases ere studied. Morphological characters indicated that the isolates are belonging to king oyster mushroom (P. eryngii). They scattered among 1500-3600 m altitudes, 22-23º and 49-50º longitudes. Evaluation of growth rate showed that 20º C is the optimum temperature for vegetative growth, however the lowest growth rate was observed at 40º C. Among the above mentioned isolates only three of them showed reproductive growth phases and for the rest, growth was stopped at vegetative phase.

Key words: Pleurotus eryngii, vegetative growth, reproductive growth, temperature, ecology

Introduction: The pleurotus eryngii species complex represents a typical component of the Mediterranean mycoflors.It grows in close association with umbelifers and produces highly priced edible mushrooms (Zervakis and Ballis , 1991;Venturella et al , 2000). Pleurotus eryngii is the best testing, tickly fresh, used in traditional medicine for at least 35 disorders or diseas. It is recommended in Chinese traditional medicine for joint and muscle relaxation. The powdered fruit bodies are effective in treatment of lumbago, numbed, limbs, and tendon and blood vessel discomfort (Wiel, 1987; Wasser and Weis, 1999; Yang, 2002). Pleurotus eryngii strongly inhibited the growth of S. aureus bacteria and has lipid and cholesterol lowering compounds (Smania et al, 2002). Pleurotus eryngii var nebrodensis struggled in central, southern and western provinces of Iran (saber, 1988) with geographical specification of 1500- 3600 m altitudes 22-32o latitudes and 49-50o longitudes. The aim of this study was investigation of morphological; Ecological and Biological characteristics of this complex in Chaharmahal va Bakhtiary Province were studied. This is the first study case in Iran. Figure1: Geographical distribution of pleurotus eryngii in Chaharmahal va Bakhtiary (Iran)

Material and Methods Ecology: Topography, gradient and vegetation cover were studied according to ecological characteristics such as geology, pedology, geomorphology and related maps (Hammon, 1998). Due to importance of effects of temperature, humidity and rainfall on mushrooms growth phases and lack of meteorological data in the regions, climate index was determined by gradient of altitude and temperature of the stations (Asadi, 1990). Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 693

Sampling: For the vast area, sampling was carried out according to the method described by Asadi, 1990.

Morphology: Description of the species defined as fresh and dry samples, dried in oven at 40 - 45˚C. Micro morphological characteristics were determined by throwing of basidiocarp in 5 percent potassium hydroxide. Reaction of mycelium and spores was determined by Melzer spotser (Venturella et al, 2000). Length and width of 25-30 spores for each sample were measured using. Light microscope (Olympus – 2B.H. model).

Biology: The collected isolates were inoculated in petri dishes contain Y.M.G. (Yeast malt extract agar) under pH = 6 – 6.5. After obtaining pure cultures, they were incubated at different temperature (ranging from 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40˚C). Using complete randomised design (C.R.D) with three replications. For study of reproductive phase and providing of spawns, wheat grains were boiled in water till it became half cooked. After getting extra water from the boiled grains, they were mixed with %2 So4 ca and %1 Co3ca. The ready grains poured in milk bottle and put it in autoclave at 121o C for two hours. Later on the seeds were cultivated on wheat straws that were pasteurised at 58 - 60o C for 72 hours (Ziombra, 1998; Mohammadi, 2002).

Results and discussion

Ecology: The investigations show that geologically, mushroom’s out growth returns to cretaceous; in view of pedagogical class, it is grows on mountainous areas; geomorphology, it is observed on rocky states with medium soils and dominant vegetative cover that comes as fallowing:

Species Family Closia oderatisima umbeliferea Astragalus s.p.p Papilionaceae Fritilaria imperialis liliaceae Simirniopsis aucheri umbelifereae Prangos ferulacea umbelifereae Rumex poticus Aliacea Daphnne mucronata Liliaceae

Pleurotus eryngii grows from April till late May in altitudes between 1500 - 3800 m in Chaharmahal va Bakhtiary. Lewinsohn et al (2002) investigated that p. eryngii has a unique association with Apiaceae species. Such phenomena can raise evolutionary questions and it can be attributed to the host plant and fungus. They also indicated that P. eryngii varieties relate to altitude and seasonal growth. However P.eryngii var eryngii is quite common and occurs from sea level to 1500 m while P. eryngii var thapsiae restricts to the mountainous area. P. eryngii var frula widespread mainly on calcareous soils from sea level to 1000 m. P. nebrodensis produces basidiomata only from late of April to early of June. Pleurotus eryngii var elaeselini basidiomata appear during the period March till October (Venturella, et al. 2002). Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 694

Morphology: Macroscopic characters with semi round to round, flat and some cases with irregular crackes, white and cream to yellowish colour with 2 - 17cm diameter carpophors. Thicked lamella prolonged to stip and formed pleurotid shape. Microscopic characters with cylindrical spores colour less, flat 11.2- 13.2 µm in size. Basidia and cheilocystidis with 5.5×6µm with elongated mace to oval. Mycelia with clamp connection. The results were in close of Pleurotus eryngii and according to (Saber, 1996; Lewinsohn et al. 2002; Venturella and Zervakis, 2002)

Figure 2: Schematic illustrations of different morphological sections in Pleurotus eryngii. A, Basidia; B, cheilocystidis; and C, spores

Figure 3: Representation of Basidioma in Pleurotus eryngii

Biology: Results showed that 20˚C was the optimum temperature for vegetative growth rate, however the lowest growth rate was observed at 40˚C. Among sixty-three isolates only three of them showed reproductive growth phases and for the rest, growth was stopped at vegetative phase. Theochari et al (2003) suggested that P. eryngii fructifies at 20˚C. Delmas and Mamoun (1981) also investigated that mean temperature for P. eryngii growth was close to 14-16˚C. Miauchi et al (1998) indicated that the optimum temperature for mycelia growth of P. eryngii is 30˚C. The investigations of Pari, et al (1981) showed that the optimum temperature for vegetative growth of P. fossalatus is 25˚C and that for fruit body development is 20˚C. This result indicates that there is a relationship between varieties and optimum temperature growth rates.

Refrences: 1.Asadi,E.(1990).Ecological investigation of plant collections of Sabskooh in Chaharmahal va Bakhtiary. Tarbiat Modarres University, thesis Pp. 209 2.Lewinsohn, D.; Wasser, S. P.; Reshetnikov, S. V.; Hadar, Y.; Nevo, E. (2002). The pleurotus eryngii species complex in Israel: Distribution and Morphological description of new taxon: 51-67. 3.Mohammadi Goltapeh, E. (2002). Principles of edible mushroom cultivation. Tarbiat modarres University press, 604, pp 4.Miyauchi, S., Kon, K., Yamachi, T. & Shimomura, M. (1998). Cultural characteristics of mycelial growth of Pleurotus eryngii Nipon. Kingakakai, Kaiho. 39(3): 83-87. 5. Mitsuaki, S., Kyoji, J., Tsunetomo, M. & Tesuro, I. (2002). Inhibitory effects of edible basidiomycetes mushroom extracts on mouse type I.V. Allergy. International journal of medicinal mushrooms. V. 4 (1): 80-87. 6.Pamela, M.; Loretta, G.; Stefania, M.; Vittorio, V. (1999). Nutrients in edible mushrooms: an interspecies comparative study. Food Chemistry.65: 477-482. 7.Pegler, D. N. (1977). Pleurotus (Agaricales) in India Nepal and Pakistan. Kew Bulletin 31(3): 501-510. 8.Sohi, H. S. & Upadhyay, R. C. (1989). Effect of temperature on mycelial growth of Pleurotus species and their yield performance on selected substrates. Mushroom Science XII, part II: 49-56. 9. Smania, A; Monache, F. D.; Loguericio, L. C.; Smania, E. F. A.; Geber, A. L. (2002). Antimicrobial activity of basidiomycetes of medicinal mushrooms, 3: 87.91 10. Venturella, G.; Zervakis, G.; Rocca, S. (2000). Pleurotus eryngii, var elaeoselini, var nov, from Sicily, Mycotaxon LXXVI: 419-427. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 695

11. Venturella, G.; Zervakis, G.; A. Saltta. (2002). Pleurotus eryngii var elaeoselini, var nov. from Sicily. Mycotxon LXXI: 69 - 74. 12. Wsser, A. L.; Weis, A. L. (1999). Medicinal properties of substances occurring in higher basidiomycetes mushrooms. J. of medicinal mushrooms, 3: 87- 91 13. Wiel, A. (1987). Mushroom a day. American Health, 2: 129-134. 14. Yeung, S. R.; Cheung, P. C. K. (2002). The hypolipidmic effects of some lesser- known edible and medicinal mushrooms. biology Dept,Chinese univ of Hong Kong Annual Meeting and Food Expo, Anahim, California 15. Zervakis, G.; Ballis, C. (1991). Pleurotus Species of Greece. An evaluation of their morphological and physiological characters, Mushroom Science and cultivation of edible fungi. V. 2: 537-544

Table1: Temperature and humidity fluctuations and mushroom growth periods in different altitudes.

1000 1800 2200 2400 2600 3200 3800 Periods Temperature m,alt m,alt m,alt m,alt m,alt m,alt m,alt -0.1 -4.8 -7.2 -8.4 -9.5 -13.1 -16.62 April A.B.S.Min (ȅC) 4 -.4 -2.6 -3.7 -4.8 -8.1 -11.4 May 7.9 2 -1 -2.5 -3.9 -8.4 -12.82 April A.V.G. Min(ȅC) 12.1 6.7 3.9 2.6 1.2 -2.9 -6.94 May 25.1 30.6 28.4 27.3 26.1 22.8 19.22 April A.B.S.Max (ȅC) 39.7 36.4 34.8 34 33.1 30.7 28.22 May 22 15.4 12 10.4 8.5 3.7 -1.2 April A.V.G. Max(ȅC) 29.2 22.1 18.5 16.7 15 9.6 4.3 May 15 8.7 5.5 2 2.4 -2.35 -7 April AVG (ȅC) 22.65 14.4 11.2 9.6 8.1 3.3 -1.3 May 49.82 52.06 53.18 53.74 54.7 55.98 57.66 April Humidity( % ) 45.56 45.27 45.12 45.08 44.73 44.81 44.60 Humidity( % ) May Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 696 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 697

The Study of Effective Factors on Distribution of Wild Almond (Amygdalus scoparia) in Two Various Areas of Fars Province

Alvaninejad, S.1 and Marvi Mohajer,M.R.2 1. Ph.D. Candidate of Forestry of Tarbiat Modarres University,Noor, Iran. Tel: 0098 122 6253101-3 Fax: 0098 1226253499.Email:[email protected] or, [email protected] ; 2. Assoc. Prof. of Tehran University. Tel:0098 2612223044-7, Email:[email protected]

Abstract Determining the wild almond distribution related to ecological factors the species that founded in type was done in some regions of fars province as a research.After field consideration and using maps in the scale of 1:50000, is showed that this species are founded in Firoozabad, Fasa,Arsanjan, Dashte-Arjan and Kazeroon as typic stands(Auji,M,Gh,2001).In the next step based on availability and costs,two areas that named Dashte-Mook in Firoozabad and Derbak in the north west of Shiraz were selected for the research(Zobeiri,M,1997).The sampling technique was random method and liner-square selected.Considering the lowest elevation point to the highest one by using and exact azimuth and passing each 100 meter differences in elevation,a sample plot were applied and that area was 1000 meter square.In per plots some parameters were measured and the results are as fallows: The species such as Amygdalus scoparia, A.lycioides, A.orientalis, Acer cinerascens, Daphnea macronata, Pistacia mutica and P.khinjuk have the most distribution in Dashte- Mook.In this area the number of wild almond was 83 per hectar and in Derbak was 111 per hectar.Plant diversity in Derbak area was lower than Dashte-Mook,and species such as Oak(Quercus persica),Amygdalus scoparia, Pistacia mutica and Cratagus sp Were distributioned In Derbak area.One of the most important affecting factor in wild almond distribution is geographical aspect to some extent that this species is appeared in southern, eastern and south-eastern aspects. Elevation was affecting factor in distribution of wild almond, the most distribution was in 1900-2150 m(above sea level) in Dashte-Mook and 1600-1870 m in Derbak area.Regarding to climate,the wild almond habitat are semi-arid, arid and warm mediteranian, humid and arid regions.Regarding to geology and pedology the wild almond habitat are often seen on mountineous and rocky areas and on Asmari, Pabde-Gurpi, Gachsaran and Bakhtiari type and also on undeveloped and eroded alkalin soils, with the texture of loamy, clay and clay-loamy.

Key Words: Wild almond ,Distribution,Firoozabad, Dashte Arjan,Fars, Iran

Introduction Zagrosian forests extend through out 1600 kilometer of Zagros mountains where was bigining northwest of Iran(Sardasht region in the western Azarbaiijan province) and continue to the southeast of Iran(the region of Firoozabad in the Fars province), and includes ten province of Iran(Basiri,R,1998).This region has 5.5 million ha areas(Ebrahimi Rastaghi.M,1994) .The genous of Amygdalus is one of the most valuable shrub species in Iran,that has been distributed in mountainous section of Iran-Touranian region in center, east and west of the country, also in mountainous regions of Zagros .This genous have more of 40 species which are growing in Iran(Irannejad Parizi,1995) .In much of slopes with calsic parent material in arid region of central parts in Iran,the species of Amygdalus scoparia with many of other xerophytes species are dominant(Bobec1951) .The forest areas of Fars province is evaluated about 1.3 million hectars and vastly area of this region is devoted to A.scoparia(Auji,M,GH,2001) .This species includes much area of Zagros forests domain such as Bakhtegan lake watershed, around of Kazeroon city,Firoozabad and Fasa in Fars

697 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 698 province,Behbahan city and Masjedsoliman in khoozestan, Sireh river watershed in Lorestan , Bakhtaran, Bakhtiari , Baluchestan, Khorasan and central mountains of Isfahan and Yazd(Ebrahimi Rastaghi.M,1982). Growth possibility and existing of this species , that is endemic of Iran ,and resists to the variations of temperature in many place of Iran where more of %80 of its regions are arid and semi-arid areas , and its ecosystem is very sensitive to the deforestation phenomenon ,is very significant(Dargi,A1992, Sabeti,H,A1994) .Thus it is necessary for biodiversity conservation,conservation and development of natural resources in Iran , also for environmental valuses ,feeding, industrial and medical uses, such species must be noticed .This research is aimed to survey the effective factors on distribution of A.scoparia in Fars province noticing the various ecological factors also quantitative and qualititative investigations of the existing forest stands.

Material and Methods 2.1. Site location This study was conducted on two sites, including Dashte Mook and Derbak regions . 2.1.1. The Dashte Mook region has located in southeast of Fars province and around Firoozabad that its longitude is 52°,30' to 52°, 40' and its latitude is 29° 00', to 29° ,15' .The mean of annual precipitation is about 447mm.Maximum and minimum temperatures are 42° C in the first month of summer and -12° C in the second month of winter.The mean of annual temperature is 15.9° C. 2.1.2. The Derbak region has located in northwest of Shiraz city that its longitude is 51°,28' to 51°,53' and its latitude is 29° ,38' to 29°,43' . The mean of annual precipitation is about 679mm .Maximum and minimum temperatures are 37.6° C in the first month of summer and -8.5°C in the second month of winter .The mean annual temperatures is 12.33° C . 2.2. Sampling Method After field consideration and using the maps in the scale of 1:50000 and getting necessary information , the distribution of Amygdalus.scoparia was survied in Fars province .Then with doing of forest consideration ,sampling method, the number of plots and plots area were selected.The sampling was done with random method and linearly with square-form plots ,and each area was 1000 m2(Zobeiri,M,1997).In this method, a random plot was selected,then using polariscope and altimeter with a given azimuth(north-south) and moving on the line and passing each 100 m elevation difference,a sample plot was selected.In dashte mook 4 lines and 19 plots and in Derbak 3 lines and 14 plots were sampled .The distance of two neighbor line was 500-800 m .In these plots some parameters were measured, which are as below: -The number of trees and shrubs for evaluation of site density. -The number of trees' and shrubs'sprouts. -Height of trees and shrubs with used of jalon and gradimeter and using the formula: (h=a(tgĮ-tgȕ). a= The horizontal distance until trees or shrubs, tgĮ =The gradient of the tip of the tree or shrub and tgȕ =the gradient of the butt of tree or shrub. -The crown height of the trees and shrubs(for vitality determination). -Two cross diameter of the crown trees and shrubs(for evaluation of cover percentage and studying of site quality. Crown percentage of the forest was calculated with this formula: 2 2 dm(m)=d1+d2/2 , S(m )=ʌ *(dm/2) , ʌ=3.14 dm=The average of crown diameter d1=The crown taller diameter d2=The crown small diameter S=The crown area of each tree or shrub) -The calculate number of A.scoparia,s regeneration. -The surving of forest floor cover and identification important herbs species.

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-The vitality is evaluated for A.scoparia,which is used from the factors such as the length of green crown, branch density and dried branches,and to base on this objection, the vitality is divided to three situation good, medium and bad. -The studying of geology with using of geology maps . -The studying of soil types with 6 profile in this regions. -The studying of climate using of 30 year data of climatology station, located in the study area.

Results 3.1. Quantitative results • stand composition and the number of A.scoparia and P.mutica. In dashte mook region the distribution of A.scoparia,A.orientalis,A.lycioides and pistacia mutica was more than other species(Auji,M,Gh,2001).The number of A.scoparia was 83 per ha and for P.mutica 21 per ha, the species of Pistacia khinjuk, Acer cinerascens, Cerasus microcarpa , Daphnea mucronata, Ficus carica and Ephedra foliate was presenting in this region. In Derbak region The number of A.scoparia was 111 per ha and for P.mutica was15 per ha, the species of Quercus persica and A.scoparia have distribution more than other species and,Cratagus sp,P.khinjuk, A.lycioides, Daphnea mucronata and Ficus carica in this region was founded.This region diversity was less than Dashte Mook . •The distribution of A.scoparia related to elevation in two regions. In Dashte Mook region,The elevation of 1700-1900 m(above sea level),the species such as A.lycioides, A.scoparia, A.orientalis, P.mutica, P.khinjuk and D.mucronata was existing. The elevation of 1900-2150 m(above sea level),this altitude has the most distribution of A.scoparia and other species such as D.mucronata, Ficus carica, Ephedra foliate ,Cerasus microcarpa and Cratagus sp was founded. The elevation of 2150-2300(above sea level) where the species such as A.orientalis and Acer cinerascens was replaced insteat of other species(Auji,M,Gh,2001). In Derbak region the lowest elevation was 1550-1600 m where the species such as Quercus persica,A.scoparia(a little), Astragalus sp and Graminea sp exist. In elevation of 1600-1870 m(above sea level), the wild almond has the most distribution and other companion species, are Q.persica, P.mutica,P.khinjuk, Ephedra foliate and Ficus carica was existened. In the elevation of 1900-2100, Q.persica was replaced insteat to other species(Sabeti,H,A1994).

•The number of mean regeneration of A.scoparia per ha in various range slopes. (table1 , table 2) •The number of mean in ha A.scoparia and other species in various ranges of slopes(table3,table4) •The effective of geography aspects in distribution of species(table5,table6) •The results of mean crown percentage and crown height of A.scoparia and P.mutica In Dashte Mook, the mean of crown percentage and crown heght were measured for A.scoparia%0.03 and 1.23 m and for P.mutica %0.03 and 2.18 m.In Derbak region its measured for A.scoparia %0.05 and 1.19 m and P.mutica %0.01 and 1.82 m. •The comparative between n/ha A.scoparia in geography aspects. In Dashte Mook region is used from aside variance analyses was specificed that amount of p value about was 0.03 and because this value is lesser than 0.05,thus were existence different between of mean n/ha A.scoparia.To notice that Duncan test with %5 of probility level,was specificed that,between of mean n/ha A.scoparia in northwest aspect with southeastern and 699 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 700 eastern there was different.Also was different between n/ha A.scoparia in the flat region with southeastern and eastern regions.In Derbak region with used of Duncan test was obtained that between the mean n/ha A.scoparia in aspect of northwestern with southeastern and southern there was different.

3.2. Qualitative results The most important factor of quality in trees and shrubs,was vitality that was studied(Basiri,R,1998).In Dashte Mook region %30.4 of A.scoparia shrubs had unsuitable vitality(affect factors such as grazing, runn of water, pests and natural disease), %39 medium statutes and %30.6 had good vitality. In Derbak region there had the destructive factors such as run off water and grazing, and %35.7 of A.scoparia shrubs had unsuitable vitality, %42.8 medium and %21.5 had good vitality.In this region the percentage of herb cover was low, consequently effect on regeneration of A.scoparia where was low in this region.

Discussion The paying attention to geology and geomorphology in this region, the A.scoparia habitates has located in mountainous regions and on types such as Asmari, Pabdeh-Gurpi, Gachsaran and Bakhtiari, also in regions where have calcic parent material . The studing of pedology in this regions has showed that, the wild almond habitates has founded on soils wich have alkaline pH and Loamy, Clay and Clay-Loamy also on undeveloped and erosion soils(Irannejad Parizi,M,H1995). About of climate in this regions, the habitates of wild almond has located in semi-arid ,warm and arid- mediteranian, humid and arid climates, but the most distribution of this species has founded in semi-arid regions(Irannejad Parizi,M,H1995,Sabeti,H,A,1994). The effective factors in destructive of wild almond in this regions, are human and natural factors.The human factors are such as cutting of the branches and sprouts, collective of seeds, grafting of A.commonis on the A.scoparia, dry farming in steep asides forest regions and road construction(Auji,M,Gh,2001, Basiri,R,1998). The natural factors such as pests and desease of wild almond,run off water and snow. In Dashte Mook region the most distribution of wild almond is related to altitude of 1900- 2150 m(above sea level). The cause of this matter is the less of human intervention and grazing in this altitude.In Derbak region the most distribution of wild almond is related to altitude of 1600-1870 m(above sea level).The cause of distribution of wild almond in this region is low than from Mook, could due to which in Derbak the annual mean temperature is lower than mook(12.33° C in comparative with 15.9° C) and in this region the humidity is more than from Dashte Mook consequently cold factor in heigh elevation is caused ,which this species is disappeared and its distribution is limited to low elevations. Due to existence of appropriate of the parent trees, in the altitude of 1900-2150 m and 1600-1870 m (above sea level) in two regions, the number of wild almond regeneration are increased ,also in this elevation range, grazing and collect of seeds by the human,are lesser than of other elevation areas.This species is more located in southern ,eastern and southeastern aspects.The other species are more located in northwestern and include are species such as A.lycioides, A.orientalis, A.cinerascense, Daphnea muaronata and P.mutica. Because of that in this aspect the humidity is more than of other aspects,consequence this species is located in this aspect.We suggestion that: -To identify of confines in this forest and divide to based on watershed. -The important subject in this matter is, each program should doing according to common laws, that their to be able to are perform, because plentiful of costs that government should paying for conservation of this forests is very high and a impediment factor.

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-To notice that, the Fars province is specific region about the distribution of Amygdalus species(particular A.scoparia) is proposed for use of genetic potential and for improvement of existence species, a seed garden of natural species from Amygdalus is established. -To creat of research station particular to Amygdalus species for research in long time and surving of their development, that has climatology station. -To enclose with, in regions where have destructiveed, and have few regeneration. -For plantation in this regions can use of species such as Juglands sp, Cupressus arizonica, Cupressus simpervirens var horizentalis, pinus bruttia and Robinia pseido-acacia, but for their planting should more exactly studies to be done.

References Alberghinaho,O,1978. The wild almond(Amygdalus webii), of southwest Sicilly.Tecnica- agricola,30:6,385-393,15 ref. Andelibi,M,J1997.The geology of Shiraz.Depatement of program and budjet of the Fars province. Auji,M,Gh,2001.The planning of research forest of the P.mutica.Center of research in natural resources and pasture of Fars province. Basiri,R,1998.The studing of ecological specialies of plants types of the Pistacia mutica in around of Firoozabad in Fars province.M.s thesis in Tarbiat Modarres university. Browices,K,Zohary,1996.The genus of Amygdalus,L.(Rosaceae) : species –relationship, distribution and evolution under domesticati on. Genetic resources and crop evolution,43:3,229-247,50 ref. Chaychi,S1988.Genetic diversity and geographical distribution of the wild almonds reserves.journal of Zeitoun(Persian) ,no.87,22-25. Dargi,A,1992.The Amygdalus, a tree resistance to arid and production for exports.journal of Sonboleh(Persian),no.47,30-35. Denisov, VP,1982.Distribution and variability of the wild almonds of Azerbaidzh- an.Rastenievodstva,Imeni,N,Vavilova,No.126,39-42,3 ref. Department of programe and Budjet,the book statistics of Fars province,2001. Ebrahimi Rastaghi,M,1994.The mountanius of Zagros to give lifetime for the Iran plateau.Journal of forest and pasture(Persian),No.22,p.34. Ebrahimi Rastaghi,M,1996.The particular specialies of Zagros and its forests.Journal of forest and pasture,No.31,P.12. Ebrahimi Rastaghi,M,2001.The activities of administration of farming and rural prosperity in the Chehar Mahal and Bakhtiari province. Departement of plant- ing and forestry. Faridnia,A,1997.From beginning of planting to stage of harvest.Publications of department of forests and pastures. Ghamuri,G,1992.Improvment of endemic Amygdalus in Fars province.The ministry of agriculture,department of improvement and provide of the seed and seedling. Habibi,K,1992.The pedology fundamentals of forest.Publicate by the Tehran university. Irannejad Parizi,M,H,1993.The studing of natural sites of Pistacia in Iran.Journal of Pajouhesh and Sazandegi(Persian),No.19,year 5. Irannejad Parizi,M,H,1994.The survey of distribution of Amygdalus in Iran and the world.M.S seminar,Tarbiat Modares university. Irannejad Parizi,M,H,1995.The ecological study of the types of Amygdalus species in Kerman province.M.S thesis in Tarbiat Modares university. Khatamsaz,M,1985.A new species of Amygdalus(Rosaceae) ,The Iranian journal of Botany,volum3,No.1. Khatamsaz,M,1988.New Rosaceae from iran .The Iranian journal of Botani, Volum1,No.2. MaghulmM.Shokuhi,M.Khagedin,J,1981.Restoring and development of forest In south of Isfahan and northeast of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari provinces. Researches department of forests and pastures. Mirshamsi,H,1997.The studing of silviculture in Pistacio-Amygdaletum forest In Harat in Yazd province.M.S thesis in Tehran university. Khatamsaz,M,1992. Iranian flor,Rosaceae.Researches institution of the forest and Pastures. Sabeti,H,A,1994.The trees and shrubs of Iran. Publications of the Yazd university.

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Solimanzadeh,E,1969.The forestry planning of the Abolhayat strait.The ministry of the agricultural and rural prosperity, the forestry department in Fars province. Zobeiri,M,1997.The inventory in the forest(measurement of tree and forest). Publication of the Tehran university.

Table 1: N/ha of A.scoparia in Dashte Mook region Slope ranges(%) n/ha 5-20 152 20-35 230 35-50 320 50-65 420

Table2: N/ha of A.scoparia in Derbak region Slope classes(%) n/ha 5-20 50 20-35 245 35-50 244

Table 3 : : The mean of n/ha species in ranges slopes in Dashte Mook region Slope ranges(%) A.scoparia(n/ha) Other species(n/ha) 5-20 60 181 20-35 68 210 35-50 116 103 50-65 83 246

Table4 : The mean of n/ha species in ranges slopes in Derbak region Slope ranges(%) A.scoparia(n/ha) Other species(n/ha) 5-20 0 280 20-35 154 92 35-50 97 85

Table5: N/ha of species in geography aspects in Dashte Mook region geography aspect A.scoparia(n/ha) Other species(n/ha) northwestern 20 228 southeastern 142 160 eastern 156 143 southern 60 200 flat 0 153

Table6: N/ha of species in geography aspects in Derbak region geography aspect A.scoparia(n/ha) Other species(n/ha) Northwest 0 150 southeast 130 85 southern 102 104 eastern 105 83

702 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 703

Utilization of floodwater spreading, as a mechanism for sustainable development in arid and semiarid rangelands

H.Amirabadizadeh, F. Saghafi – khadem and M. Abbassi Researchers of Khorassan Research center of Agriculture and Natural Resources.Mashhad, Iran. Phone: +98- 511- 8790012 – 17; Fax: (0511) 8783879; Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Jajarm floodwater spreading network is located in near Jajarm town, NW Khorassan province at a distance of 410 Km. from Mashhad, with an area of 290 ha. The climate is cold desert dry (on the basis of reformed Domartan method) with an average precipitation of 150 mm. annually in Jajarm meteorological station. The vegetation cover was investigated by mixed method of transect – quadrate and T- test used for comparison of the obtained data. The results indicated that there were two plant types in the studied region including Artemisia sieberi – Convolvulus fruticosus and Cousinia sp. – Convolvulus fruticosus. Among the whole species of plant types, 4 species including Artemisia sieberi, Salsola tomentosa, Stachys trinervis and Convolvulus fruticosus as grazable plants by domestic animals were selected for comparing their production. On the basis of obtained data, flood water spread 10 times on the field with different volumes during 1998, 1999 and 2000 years which only 3 times, they filled the whole network and flew out via discharge canal. These floodwaters were occurred 60% in spring, 20% in summer, 10% in autumn and 10% in winter. Effects of the floodwater on plant productivity were different so that, yields of Artemisia sieberi 150 – 310%, Convolvulus fruticosus 250 – 260%, Stachys trinervis 190 – 410% and Salsola tomentosa 60 – 120% were increased in comparison with the control. Statistically, the differences of increased production between the field and the control, about plant type Artemisia sieberi – Convolvulus fruticosus was significant for species Artemisia and Convolvulus, and about plant type Cousinia sp – Convolvulus fruticosus was significant for species Stachys, Convolvulus and Salsola (P = 1%). Additionally, the floodwaters affected positively on regeneration and freshness of the plant species and caused to increase the period of vegetative growth and phenology.

Key words: Jajarm, floodwater spreading, sustainable development, Artemisia sieberi, Convolvulus fruticosus, Salsola tomentosa, and Stachys trinervis

Introduction Usage of floodwater as a method of irrigation has a historical record and with most probability was applied as a pioneer method in ancient era, so that in Menese period, transition of Nile water to the western cultivated lands was carried out by controlling overflow of the river. In that period, the riverbanks were equipped with soil barrier that divided them to several ponds in an area from 100 to many millions m.sq. (Anon, 1972; Gulhati & Smith, 1967). Also floodwater spreading has developed in recent century because of increasing population and food shortage. On the basis of the related measurement made throughout the world, effects of floodwater spreading on forage yield increasment were different and recorded from 4-12 times in comparison with control in different countries as the following: Hubbell & Gardner (1944) investigated effects of floodwater spreading from three watersheds on rangelands of Newmexico. Their results showed that forage production was increased 4-9 times in comparison with control. Floury (1952) has recorded 10 times increasment of forage under effects of floodwater spreading in special rangelands of Indians located in SW United States. Bussain & French (1944) that indicated 12-time increasment in

703 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 704 forage recorded the same results. They succeeded to increase annually plant yield production from 180 to 240 kg/ha in grasslands of Rakh miran, West Pakistan. In Iran, in spite of much irrigation made on the basis of floodwater spreading method on the wide area, but no compiled information is available.

Materials and methods At present study, plant coverage characteristics such as production, canopy, density, frequency, freshness, regeneration and diversity were measured by using mixed method of transect – quadrate. In this method transect lines were systematically and sampling places randomizedly selected, subsequently the quadrates were fixed on the field. Quadrates dimension was determined on the basis of minimum area method (by Cain) that was 2×2 m.sq. and sample number was accounted by evaluation of mean and variance parameters of the existing plant society that was 30 samples. Totally, regarding 2 plant types in the region, Totally 60 samples in the field and 60 samples in control places were determined and then distributed randomizedly in 13 transects. Dimensions of transects was determined on the basis of length of the field located between 2 irrigation canals so that were 6×50 m.sq. in 8 transects and 6×100 m. sq. in 1 transect inside the field and 6×100 m. sq. in 4 transects inside the control places. Additionally, for protecting samples from grazing animals, the quadrates were surrounded by angle irons and thorny wires. Plant matter including fresh and dry matter as an important index to determine how growth of individual plant, plant population and plant society, were measured through cutting leaves and branches grown in the same year, weighting the fresh samples immediately, then weighting the dry matters after drying samples in 60 – 70 degree centigrade during 24 – 48 h., rarely 72 h.

Results In the whole, obtained results from present study indicated that 4 plant species Artemisia sieberi, Convolvulus fruticosus, Stachys trinervis and Salsola tomentosa were most important plants because be grazed by animals.

1- Comparison of production in plant type Artemisia sieberi – Convolvulus fruticosus Mean production of 3 - year sampling (Fig. 1) showed that amount of the floodwater spreading field in comparison with the control was 2.6 – times. Also most increasement of production belonged to year 1997 that was 3.1- times in comparison with the control. These results indicated that floodwater spreading irrigation was very effective method to increase plant yield (P” 0.1 %) so that mean production of 3 years experiment for Artemisia 3.1 – times, for Convolvulus up to 2.6 – times, for Stachys 1.9 – times and for Salsola up to 1.2 – times were recorded. (Table 1). Differences between the means were significant for Artemisia (P” 0.1 %) and for Convolvulus (P = 1%), (Fig. 2).

2 – Comparison between amounts of production in plant type Cousinia sp. – Convolvulus fruticosus: In the whole years of the experiment, yield amounts of the plants in the field was more than the control (Fig. 3) and the mean production of 3 years experiment in this plant type was the same as the latter plant type equal to 2.4 – time increasment in comparison with the control. In this type, plant species Convolvulus and Salsola had the most and the least increasment of production in both field and control (Fig. 4). In this line, the mean production of 3 - years experiment in field in comparison with control were 4.1 – times for Stachys and 2.5 – times for Convolvulus. Afterwards, Artemisia with 1.5 – times and finally Salsola with 0.6 – times increasement in production was the plant species

704 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 705 having less increasement among these species. (Table 1). Differences between the mean production of 3 - year experiment and mean production of plant species were significant (P ” 0.1%).

3 - Survey on precipitation in the studied region On the basis of 10-years statistical data (1989 – 1998) from meteorological station of Jajarm, annually mean precipitation was 149.8 mm (Table 1) that 29.6 mm belonged to April. Seasonal precipitation distribution in the station indicated most precipitation amount belonged to autumn with 60.5 mm equal to 40% annually precipitation and spring with 58.7 mm equal to 39% annually precipitation. (Table 3) Comparison between precipitation data during 1996 – 2000, also, mean precipitation of 10- years in Jajarm station showed precipitation amount in this period has decreased in comparison with annually mean precipitation (Table 4) and differences between them except of cultivating year of 1996 – 1997 were significant (p = 5%).

4 – survey on flood water occurrence in the region Obtained data from 3 – year experiment showed in all years floodwater have taken place twice per year and totally, 10 – times were spred on the field but they did not flow identically and uniformly. Distribution pattern of the floodwaters indicated that they have occurred 2 in April, 2 in May, 2 in June, 1 in august, 1 in September, 1 in November and 1 in Marcie. In the other word, they have occurred 6 in spring, 2 in summer, 1 in autumn and 1 in winter (Fig. 5).

Discussion One of the most important objects for establishing floodwater spreading network, is utilization of floodwater overflows or any related runoff for increasing soil moisture and supplying required water to improve growth of wild or cultivated plants. In this line, many studies and investigation have carried out that resulted to new applied achievements. On the basis of present study in Jajarm floodwater spreading network, we observed some variations in plant species productivity, so that, increasement of the production ranged from 60% for Salsola tomentosa to 410% for Stachys trinervis and totally, annually production of the field in comparison with control had twice increasement. Results obtained from other researches made throughout the world, according to our study, indicated to increase production but with very wide changes. (Hubbell & Gardner, 1944; Flory, 1952; Hubbard & Smoliac, 1953; Houston, 1960). Additionally, certain results about increasement of production are as the following: Moony & Martin (1956) succeeded to gain an approximate yield of 5 ton/ha. Forage and great amounts of seeds from cultivating alfalfa (Medicago sativa var. kazakh.) Also, Annon (1974) proved increasement of forage in grassland of Byrock in NSW State under effect. In Iran, during 4 years of floodwater spreading operation in Groobygone region of Fassa, amounts of the grazable forage in first strip of the network was increased 50 – times in ha. (Kowsar, 1374 H., narrated by Malekpoor and Paymannifard, 1365 H.). Therefore, effect of floodwater spreading on plant productivity in Jajarm according to other results obtained from many researches in the world, confirmed increased production in such lands. On the basis of our observation in Jajarm floodwater spreading plant species such as Convolvulus fruticosus, Artemisia sieberi, and Stachys trinervis had a new vegetative and generative growth out of usual season (in autumn). This phenomenon was obvious only in places that received floodwater in august of the same year. According to this, Hubbard &

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Smoliac (1953) believed that floodwater spreading cause to increased phenology period of the plants and therefore, may be utilized more, better and for longer time by animals.

References 1. Arnon, I. 1972a. Crop production in dry regions. Vol. I.Background and principles. Hill, London. 650 p. 2. Anon. 1974. More water for arid lands. NAS, Washington, D. C.153 p. 3. Arzani H, M. Fatahi and M. R. Ekhtesasi. 1999. Investigation on quantitative and qualitative chenges in rangeland vegetation of Poshtkuh area of Yazd during last decade(1986 to 1998). Pajouhesh and Sazandegi, no.44 pp:31-35. 4. Flory, E. L. 1952. Effect of soil conservation practices, water spreading and water impounding on water yields and sediment in semiarid areas. Proc. 6th Int. Grassl. Congr. 2: 1056-1061. 5. French, N. H., and I. Hussain. 1964. Water spreading manual. Range management record No.1. West Pakistan Range Improvement Scheme, Lahore. 44 p. 6. Gulhati, N. D. and W. C. Smith. 1967. Irrigated agriculture: An historical review. P. 3-11. In R. M. Hagan, H. R. Haise, and T. W. Edminster (eds.) Irrigation of agricultural lands. Agronomy 11. ASA, Madison, WI. 7. Houston, W. R. 1960. Effects of water spreading on range vegetation in eastern Montana. J. Range Manage. 13: 289-293. 8. Hubbard, W.A., and S. Smoliak. 1953. Effect of contour dykes and furrows on short- grass prairie. J. Range Manage. 6:55-62. 9. Hubbell, D.S., and J.L. Gardner. 1944. Some edaphic and ecological effects of water spreading on rangelands. Ecology 25: 27-44. 10. Iranian Meteorological Organization. 1989 to 1998. Meteorological year book. 11. Jaamaab consultant engineers. 1991. Climates records, holistic plan on water of Iran. 12. Kent Martin and Paddy Coker; translated by: M. Mesdaghi. 2001. Vegetation description and analysis: A practical approach. Jihade- Daneshgahi Mashhad. Publication no. 243. 13. Kowsar S. A. 1995. An introduction to Flood Mitigation and optimization of floodwater utilization: Flood irrigation, artificial recharge of groundwater, small Earth Dams. Research Institute of Forest and Rangelands. Publication no. 150. 14. Mesdaghi M. 1993. Management of Iranian’s rangelands. Razavi cultural fundation. 15. Moghaddam M.R.1998.Range and range management. Teheran university publications no. 2370. 16. Moghaddam M.R.2001.Quantitative plant ecology. Teheran university press no. 2512. 17. Rashed M.H., H. Safavi et al. 1992. Khorasan vegetation: A report on plant collection and identification of Khorasan province. Ferdowsi university of Mashhad, publication no. 3. 18. Rashed M.H., H. Safavi et al. 1999. Khorasan vegetation: A report on plant collection and identification of Khorasan province (1988-1990). Ferdowsi university of Mashhad, publication no. 4.

Tables Table1: Comparison between mean of forage production in plant type Artemisia sieberi – Convolvulus fruticosus Sampling Year Artemisia Convolvulus Stachys Salsola Annually place (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) Forage production 1997 191.3 249.6 9.5 19.2 469.6 1998 204.4 202.1 21.3 23.7 451.5 Field 1 1999 182.7 172.0 9.9 23.6 388.2 Mean 192.8 207.9 13.6 22.2 436.4 Control 1 1997 55.9 71.7 4.0 18.4 150.0 1998 74.7 103.2 9.2 21.3 208.4

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1999 54.4 69.3 8.1 16.3 148.1 Mean 61.7 81.4 7.1 18.7 168.8 Table2: Comparison between mean of forage production in plant type Cousinia sp – Convolvulus fruticosus Sampling Year Artemisia Convolvulus Stachys Salsola Annually place (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) Forage Production 1997 40.8 58.2 53.6 1.8 181.4 1998 42.4 105.2 80.4 2.2 230.2 Field 1 1999 40.4 83.4 60.5 2.0 186.3 Mean 41.2 91.3 64.8 2.0 199.3 1997 27.1 34.9 11.0 3.4 76.4 1998 39.3 40.7 19.7 3.5 103.2 Control 1 1999 17.8 34.9 16.5 3.2 72.4 Mean 28.1 36.8 15.7 3.4 84.0

Table3: Seasonal precipitation in Jajarm climatology station Season Winter Spring Summer Autumn Month 1 13.4 29.6 0.0 3.3 2 14.9 22.9 0.8 7.1 3 32.2 6.2 2.1 17.4 Total 60.5 58.7 2.8 27.8 Percentage of 40% 39% 2% 19% total Data are on the basis of milimeter.

Table 4: Comparison of precipitation in years 1996-2000 Variance Annually of Year Precipitation precipitation (mm) (mm) 1996-1997 145.4 -4.4 1997-1998 105.2 -44.6 1998-1999 79.4 -70.4 1999-2000 95.5 -54.3

250 500 200 450 400 150 350 100 300 250 50 200 dry weight (Kg/Ha) 0 150

dry weight(Kg/Ha) dry 100 s a sia y 50 i ch m lvulus rte o Sta Salsol 0 A nv 97-98 98-99 99-00 Mean Co field1 Years spices control1 field1 control1

707 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 708

Fig 2: Comparison between 3 years mean Fig 1: Comparison between annually forage productions of spices in plant type Forage production in plant type Artemisia sieberi- Convolvulus fruticosus Artemisia sieberi- Convolvulus fruticosus

100 250 80 200 60 150 40 20 100 Dry weight(kg/ha) Dry 0 50 Dry weight(Kg/Ha) a lus la isi so lvu em o tachys Sal 0 v S Art n 97-98 98-99 99-00 Mean Co field2 spices field2 Years control2 control2 Fig 4: Comparison between 3 years mean Fig 3: Comparison between annually forage productions of spices in plant type Forage production in plant type Cousinia sp - Convolvulus fruticosus Cousinia sp - Convolvulus fruticosus

10% 10%

20% 60%

Spring Summer Autumn Winter Fig. 5: Seasonal distribution of floodwater in the field

708 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 709

Dormancy- breaking protocols for Ferula ovina

Dr. R.Amooaghaie Biology department, Shahrekord university,Iran ; Tel:0381-4424419; Emai :[email protected]

Abstract Ferula ovina is one of grazing plants that belongs to umbeliferae. This plant grows in grazing lands of Isfahan and Chaharmahal. Despite many tries by natural resource management ª the natural growth spreads of this plant is decaying now because of over grazing. Unfortunately, our knowledge on dormancy breaking of Ferula ovina is nil. This investigation was carried out to studying of some involving factors on dormancy breaking of this plant. Dormancy breaking protocols were including of evaluating of effect of factors: prewashing, prechilling on filter paper, stratification into sand layers, alternating- temperature regimens and use of KNO3 and GA3 solutions. Results showed that prewashing has not statistically significant effect. Stratification had similar results with prechilling. Prechilling in 0-3C for 7-9 weeks on moist filter paper was best treatment for seed dormancy breaking. The addition of 500 PPm GA3 in upper condition increased significantly rate of germination. Also a significant increase in germination was obtained with the addition of 1% KNO3 solution only for 20/30 C temperature regimen. Our results led us to suggest that special conditions is necessary for dormancy breaking of Ferula ovina seeds that these should notice for recovering of this plant spreads in grazing lands of Iran.

Key words: dormancy breaking, ferula ovina, pre-chilling, GA3, KNO3, Alternating temperature

Introduction Ferula ovina is a short, robust perennial shrub that occurs in Mediterranean, south Asian and Southeast Asian regions. In Iran this species commonly is found growing in grazing lands for example in Isfahan and Chaharmahal. This plant seems to be well adapted to cold and semiarid condition. Ferula ovina has native medicinal uses and potential interest because of antimicrobial activity of its essential oils (Syed& Hanif; 1987). Ferula ovina exhibit good quality as grazing plant. This plant is eaten by animals when that is dried and classified in grade 2 group of plant for palatability. These characteristics make this plant especially interesting for conservation and regeneration of arid and semiarid soils in the Mediterranean basin (Ruiz, et al; 1990). The natural growth spreads of this plant in Iran is decaying now because of over grazing. The monitoring of seed viability is a critical function in conservation of plant genetic resources (Widrlchner, 2000). Established procedure for germination testing for many commonly cultivated crop species are now available (AOSA, 1993; ISTA,1993) but little attention has been paid to wild plant species. However very little information is apparently available on the germination of Ferula ovina and none of the studies could be described as definitive. Therefore some knowledge about the germination of their seeds is needed. The aim of this work was to establish the adequate incubation condition and dormancy breaking treatments for the seed germination of Ferula ovina .

Materials and Methods Experiments were conducted to measure the effect of factors: pre-washing, cold treatment, alternating-temperature regimens and use of KNO3 and GA3 solutions. Pre-washing and cold treatments of seeds In this experiment effect of pre-chill and stratification were compared on seed germination of Ferula ovina. In the first experiment were evaluated effects of factors: pre-washing (0,24,48 h), pre-chilling temperature on filter paper (0-3,5-7 ºC) and cold period (3,5,7,9 weeks). Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 710

The second experiment was performed with same treatments of first experiment, but stratification was applied instead of pre-chill and seeds sown into sand layers. For each treatment were applied three replications of 50 seeds imbibed with 25ml of distilled water on two germination papers. GA3 and cold treatments Three replications of 50 seeds were treated with 25ml distilled water (control) or 500 ppm GA3 and 1000 PPm GA3 solutions on two papers in petridish. Treatments received 1,2,3,5,7 weeks pre-chilling in 0-3ºC on filter paper in petrdish. Then seeds in all treatments were placed in germinator and time of reaching to 50% germination was calculated for each treatment. KNO3 and alternating – temperature treatments Seeds in all treatments received 7 week pre-chilling in 0-3ºC on filter paper in petridish before this experiment. Three replicates of 50 seed were tested on germination paper with and without KNO3 1% solution. Germination test lasted 28 days under two alternating-temperature treatments (20/30ºC or 15/25ºC).

Results Data analysis showed that pre-washing did not have significant effects. According to data in table 1, 7-9 weeks pre-chilling in 0-3ºC on filter paper in petridish was the best treatment for seed dormancy breaking of Ferula. Stratification had similar results with pre-chilling but, this method is not suggested because, application of pre-chill is very simpler than stratification between sand layers.

Table1. The effect of cold treatment on germination percentage of Ferula ovina seeds. Temperature (ºC) Cold period (weeks) Type of cold treatment Pre-chilling Stratification 3 32 e 20 f 5 60 c 28 e 0-3ºC 7 82 a 66 bc 9 85 a 71 b 8 20 f 21 f 5 32 e 30 ef 5-7 ºC 7 65 bc 51 d 9 68 bc 69 bc

Results in table 2 show that in comparison with the control, the addition of 500 ppm GA3 solution produced statistically significant increases in germination of Ferula ovina. Application of 500ppm GA3 together with 3 weeks cold treatment caused germination percentages significantly greater than control. The addition of GA3 reduced needed time for cold treatment to almost half in comparing to control without GA3. However with increasing of GA3 concentration to 1000 ppm, no further increase in germination rate occurred and GA3 could not replace exactly need for cold treatment because GA3 treatment without cold treatment or with cold treatment of less than 3 week did not have significant effect (table 2). Therefore at least 3 week cold treatment is necessary for good germination. Without cold treatment we never obtained 50% germination either with GA3 or without GA3.

Table2- The effect of GA3 on time of achieving (day) to 50% of germination under different cold period treatment

GA3 treatment Cold period Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 711

0 1 2 3 5 7 Control (water) - 86 c 82 c 50 b 51 b 49 b 500 ppm GA3 - 83 c 79 c 35 a 34 a 35 a 1000 ppm GA3 - 82 c 80 c 33 a 34 a 34 a

Seeds under alternating temperatures germinated at much higher percentages than did seeds tested under constant temperatures. The addition of KNO3 1% to germination solution did not show any increase in germination in usual condition. The most significant increase in germination obtained when KNO3 was added together 20/30ºC alternating temperature regimen.

Table3- The germination percentage in 28 days under KNO3 and alternating temperature treatments. Alternating temperature solution Germination percentage Control (water) 20 b 15/25 KNO3 1% 26 b Control 27 b 20/30 KNO3 1% 38 a Control 12 c 20/20 KNO3 1% 13 c

Discussion Dormancy as a means of avoiding climatic stress has great importance in evolution, allowing the colonization of habitats unfavorable for growth at certain times of the year (Bewley & Black,1985). Seasonal changes in environmental conditions are responsible for controlling the cycles of growth and dormancy in plants and for the timing of seed germination, probably through the agency of hormone-like substances (Bewley & Black,1985). In some plant cold of winter is led to increasing of GAs and changes in hormonal balances is caused preparation for germination (Copeland & Donald,1995).The chilling process could also exert its effect through changing membrane permeability (villiers,1978). This research showed that cold treatment is very useful for dormancy breaking of seeds (table1). Also application of 500ppm GA3 solution significantly increased germination of seeds (table 2). These results seem to confirm this assumption which probably the main cause for the dormancy of Ferula ovina is related to hormone balances in embryo. Application of cold treatment together GA3 have significant effect on germination (table 2). Several authors reported that GA3 stimulates the germination of both light-requiring and cold- requiring seeds, and if used to force cold-requiring seeds to germinate without chilling, prevents the development of the symptoms of physiological dwarfing. Therefore it is no surprising that gibberellins have been shown to appear in seed during winter chilling (Bewley & Black ,1982;Naidu, et al,2000;villiers,1978). Gibberellins are concerned with release from dormancy, and have been shown to increase in amount during winter chilling and after dormancy-breaking photoperiodic treatments (Atwater,1980;Gonzalez,etal,1997).GAs cause an increase in RNA polymerase activity and in RNA level in hazel embryos and this is preceded by an increase in the reactivity of DNA in supporting RNA transcription. GA may therefore act directly or indirectly on the DNA, making it more available for transcription and allowing the various enzymes responsible for growth to be produced (villiers,1978; Baskin & Baskin,1999). Seeds test under alternating temperatures germinated at much higher percentages than did seeds tested under constant temperatures. This regimen may mimic that found naturally in Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 712 relatively arid regions with wide diurnal temperature fluctuations there are this temperature fluctuation in Isfahan and Chaharmahal that this plant grows. Application of KNO3 together 20/30C alternating temperature regime showed significant effect (table 3) in this experiment. Nitrate and thiourea have been considered as possible regulators of seed germination in soils (Egely, 1995; Esashi etal., 1979). The nitrogenous compound significantly alleviated the innate dormancy in many species. Therefore Ferula ovina probably has innate dormancy because KNO3 stimulates its germination rates. The results of these experiments indicate that two alternative approaches for dormancy breaking are the use of a 7-9 week moist cold treatment in 0-3 ºC or a 3 weeks moist and cold treatment combined with GA3. Both methods improved by KNO3 and alternating temperature regimen. These results seem to confirm that the main cause for seed dormancy in Ferula ovina has innate dormancy due to nutrient and hormone balances and hardiness or impermeability of seed coat in not important.

Reference 1-Association of Official Seed Analysis (AOSA) 1993 Rules for testing seeds Journal of seed technology 16: 1-113 2-At water B.R.1980 Germinations dormancy and morphology of the seeds of herbaceous ornamental plants. Seed sci. and technol. 8: 523-573 3-Baskin C.C. and Baskin J.M. 1999 Seed ecology, dormancy and germination A modern synthesis Am.J.Botany 86: 903-905 4-Bewley J.D. and Black M.1982. Physiology and biochemistry of seeds in relation to germination. Springer-verlag, New York. 5-Bewley J.D. and Black.M 1985 Seeds physiology of development and germination. plenum press, New York, p.221 6-Copeland L.O. and McDonald M.B. 1995 Principals of seed science and technology third edition. Chapman and Hall,New york. 7-Egely G.H.1995 Seed germination in soil: dormancy cycles. In: seed development and germination. eds: J.Kigel and G.Galili. marcel dekker Inc, New york P.834 8-Esashi Y Ohara Y Okazaki M. and Hishinuma K. 1979 Control of cocklebur seed germination by nitrogenous compounds: nitrite, nitrate, hydroxylamine, thiourea, azide and cyanide. Plant and Cell Physiology 20: 349-361 9-Gonzalez- Melero J.A Perez- Gareia F and Martinez-Laborde J.B 1997 Effect of temperature, scarification and gibberellic acid on the seed germination of three shrubby species of coronilla. Seed Sci & technol. 25: 167-175 10-International seed testing association (ISTA) 1993 International rules for seed testing. Seed sci. and technol. 21, (suppl. Rules). 11-Naidu C.V Raiendrudu G and Swamy P.M 2000 Effect of Plant growth regulators on seed germination of sapindus trifoliatus. Seed Sci & Technol 25: 249-252 12-Syed M Hanif M 1987 Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of umbelliferae family: Part IV. Ferula narthex, Ferula ovina and Ferula oopoda, Pakistan J. Sci. and Industerial Resbaich. 4: 35-44 13-Ruiz de la Torre y Gil Borrell P Garcia vinas J.I Gonzalez andrados J.R Gil Diaz-Oidonez F and Ruza Tarrio F 1990 Catalogo de especies vegetales a utilizar en plantaciones de carreteras. Ministerio de obras publicasy urbanismo, Madrid p.281 14-Villiers T.A 1978 Dormancy and the survival of plants Edward Arnold publishers limited. London P.71 ; 15- Widrlchner M.P and Kovach D.A 2000 Dormancy-breaking protocols for cuphea seed Seed Sci & Technol 28:11-27 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 713

Autecological Study of Salsola oreintalis S .G.GMELIN in Khorassan

Majid Dashti, Hamed Zarif Ketabi and Gholamreza Hosseini Bamrood ,Members of Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Center of Khorassan ;Mashhad-Iran . Phone: +98-511-8790012 Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Conservation and rehabilitation of vegetation is a very important issue, because development of every country is dependes on this resources. Improper use of rangelands is caused soil erosion and also reduced or removed palatable species in areas where they are expected to be. Hence, Autecological study of adapted species is very important .Salsola orientalis is a perennial plant of chenopodiaceae family . Recently, drought and overgrazing have caused many of it’s habitates were degraded. This research was conducted on autecology of this species since 1997. Objectives were: study habitate characteristics, morphology , topography , edaphic parameters (EC, pH , Na+, k+, gypsum and lime) , geology ,land use , climatic factors, vegetation cover , phenology, seed germination, longivity and rgeneration. Geology and land use of Salsola orientalis habitates were studied using geology and land use maps and fiels check. 20 plants were marked in two habitates and their phenology and morphology were studied in 10-15 days intervals . Vegetaion cover was studied using 50 meter strip transect and 1×1 meter quadrates. Results showed that it’s altitude ranges 500-1500 meter and spread in all geographical dirctions and slops. This species is compatible to deep and moderately deep solis, with sandy loam to silty loam texture , pH =7-8 and gypsum in depth , but it is less tolerant to salinity than other Salsola species . This species is more frequent on Quaternary alluvial sediment specially on losses. Temperature and precipitation of habitates are 10-17.5 degree centigrade and 150-400 mm .and mainly located in cold-desert-arid climate. It was not observed as a dominant species in it’s habitats. The most important plant type were mainly Artemisia diffusa, Artemisia sieberi , Poa bulbosa and Salsola spp. Vegetation growth initiate from early March and goes to flowering stage in late May. Since it is indeterminate , vegetative growth continue during flowering stage . Seed setting initiate from early September and gradually ripen in late November and then shed . It generate with seed. Seed have high viability after gathering but they lose viability during storage after 3 years. Key words:Autecology , Salsola orientalis , Phenology , Seed germination and longivity Khorassan

Introduction Iran is located on dry belt of earth. ,so most of areas included arid and semi arid regions. However climatic variation in different regions caused one of the richest flora in the world. Native species adaptability to environmental conditions make them a good resources for range plant breeding. Salsola orientalis is a tolerant plant, adapted to unfavorable condition. It could be recommended for rangelands rehabilitation in steppe regions. Unfortunately, because of overgrazing, it is imposed to extinction. Salsola spp. are mostly forage plant with high Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 714 productivity and nearly adapted to dry and saline lands. Hence, they are favorable species for rehabilitation of vast areas of arid and saline lands. More than 120 plant species tested for range improvement in Uzbekistan. Salsola orientalis, kochia prostrata subsp. Grisea and Artemisia sogdiana were recommended for dry stony condition. Khassanove et al. (1984) found that three fodder species ; Salsola orientalis, Haloxylon aphyllum and Khochia prostrata , are shown to be the most suitable species for establishing pastures or for improving degraded pastures in deserts and semi-deserts of uzbekistan (Khassanove et al.,1994) . Salsola orientalis have individual characteristics such as intensive root system in early season and also they are tolerant to high temperature low leaf water content (Peymani-fard et al.1983). In west desert of Iraq, associations of Salsola orientalis and Artemisia herba alba provided year- round grazing for sheep and camels (Zakirov, et al.1989). Oshanina and Azimova (1975) showed that soil moisture deficit (SMD) at budding/flowering stage increased N contents in all species.The nutritive value of 12 halophtic range plants such as Salsola orientalis from arid regions of Iran was evaluated. Results showed that crude protein and ash content of chenopod family was rather higher than the other species , but the crude fiber content of these species were lower (Koocheki et al. ,1994). Davletshia and Yulchieva(1989) showed that , crude protein , ether extract , NFE, cellulose , ash etc.in Salsola orintalis and Kochia prostrata varied with plant age .Salsola orientalis cv. Aidarlinsk , Kochia prostrata cv.Alma- ata and Eurotia sp. were strip- sown on desert rangelands . Results indicated retention of these species was 98, 25 and 84.7%, highest productivity up to 1.61t DDM/ha , occurred in the 7 th – 11th year of stablishment (Alimaev and Pryanishnikova ,1989) .

Materials and Methods: In this research, habitate characteristics , phenology, morphology, and factors affecting on salsola orientalis regeneration were studied. Two habitates in south east and north west of Mashhad were selected . Some plants were marked and phenology and morphological characteristics were studied in 10-15 days intervals during three years. Geological maps(1:250000) were used in order to study habitate geology and land use. Also soil samples from different habitates were collected in order to analyze and physico- chemical parameters + + 2+ such as soil texture , pH , salinity, Na , K , Ca and CaSo4.

Meteorological factors were studied using data from nearest stations .Also data layers of Jamab (Khalili,1991) were also used to provide isotherm, isohyet and climate map for M. persica. Some plants were marked in each three habitats and phenology was studied on marked plants in 10-15 days intervals. Quadrates of one square meters were used to study vegetation cover, density and frequency

Results and discussion : Topgraphy :Results showed that it’s altitude ranges in it’s habitates was between 500-1600 meter and it seems that it is not appeared in >1800 elevation .Others have confirmed.( Peymani-fard ,1983 and Sabeti,1975) . However, it’s going to be omitted, even in main habitates because of relative palatability and overgrazing. Geographical distribution of Salsola orientalis was determined using available references and field check. This species exist in all geographical orientation and slopes of 5 to 40%. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 715

Phenology: Results of 20 marked plants in 3 years and two habitates showed that vegetation growth initiated in early March. Increasing temperature in early April, latheral branches appeared and went to flowering stages in late May. Pollination ocuured 10- 15 days after apearing flags.Plant reached to 50 % flowering in late June and gradually compeletly flowerd in late August. Since it is determinate, vegetative growth continue during flowering stage. Seeds have 5 subequal wings colored red, golden to light brown. Wings of seeds appeared in late August. Seed setting initiate from early September and gradually ripen in late november and then shed. Figure 1 showed that vegetative and reproductive overlaped during plant growth. Morphological Chatracteristics: Mean annual growth of branched increased gradually until flowering, from 2 Cm in early April to 22 Cm in late May (Fig 2). Number of leaves per branch also ranged between 12 to 24 (Fig 3). Plant canopy also varied 1000 to 3000 square centimeter in 50 % flowering time. Above 3 parameters compared in clipped plants in last growth season, results showd that in clipped plants, annual growth of branch, number of leaves and canopy increased compared to control plants flowering, however, occurred in same time. Meteorology & Climatology: Salsola orientalis mostly grow in Irano-turani regions so precipitation and temperature considerably affected on it’s distribution. Analysis of meteorological stations data according to Jamab data layers showed that, precipitation ranged 150-400 mm in it’s habitates. Annual mean temperature varied 10 –17.5 degrees centigrade. 82 percent of habitates are located in cold desert arid climate. Soil & Land use characteristics: Physico-chemical characteristics of soil samples showed that this species is observed in deep soils with coarse to medium texture and pH=7-8. Tolerance of Salsola orientalis to salinity is less than other Salsola species Rechinger(1984) suggested this species is most common on fine and coarse textured, usually slightly saline semi-desert soils of slops and plains; a subordinate or sub dominate component of different semi-desert community. This plant have not good production in saline regions. (Sheidai, 1978). This species is more ferequent on quaternary and alluvial sediment especially on losses. On the base of Korassan land use, more than 40 % of habitates located in units 3.2 , 2.3, and C1. Also 20% of habitates belong to 2.4 and 3.4.These showed existence of gypsum layers in deep soils. Associated plant: This plant was not observed as a dominant species in it’s habitates. The most important plant type were mainly Artemisia diffusa , Artemisia sieberi, Poa bulbosa and Salsola spp. Seed viability & longivity:Seeds have high viability after gathering but they lose viability during storage. There are considerable difference between seeds with/ without wings (Fig 4). So it is recommended dry seed storaged with wings in propper conditions and it is better to sow as soon as possible after gathering if storaged condition (temperature & relative humidity) is not propper Regeneration & propagation: Salsola orientalis generates with seed, the existance of emerged seedlings in plant canopy indicated that they have good regeneration. However, this species gardually omitted because of continous drought. Results showed that direct seeding in habitates was not successful. So it seems that proper temperature and water availability in planting time is necessary for good germination and stablishment.Also, soil bank was reduced because of overgrazing in dry year. Results also showd that established seedling percentage decreased 50 % after 3 month . Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 716

References: 1-Alimaev, II, and S.N. Pryanishnikov. 1989. Creation and use of rangeland grophytocenoses in the desert of northern kazakhstan. Problems of Desert Development . No. 2, 84-87. 2-Davletshina, M.N. and M.T.Yulchieva, 1989. Chemical and mineral composition of kochia prostrata (L).and salsola orientalis S. G. Gmel. Problems of Desert Development. No. 5, 70-72. 3 Khalilli, A.1991. Integrated project on water in Iran. Climatic identification of Iran (JAMAB)(1-4). Power .ministry of Iran. 4-Khassanove, O.KH. ;R.S. ;T.V. Rakhimova ;T.T. Rakhimova ; S.F.Tadzhiev ; V. Makhmudov and A. Rakhimova. 1986. Results of plant reclamation studies on rangelands of the fergana adyrs of uzbekistan. Problems of Desert Development. No. 2 : 75-79. 5-Khassanov, O.KH. T. Rakhimova and S.F. Tadzhiev. 1994. Biological characteristics of newly cultivated fodder plants for pastures of the arid zone in Uzbekistan. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 41:3,125- 131. 6-Koocheki, A., M.N. Mohalati, V.R. Squires. 1992. Feed Value of some halophytic range plants of arid regions of Iran. Proceedings of the international workshop on halophytes for reclamation of saline watelands and as a resource for livestock problem and prospects, Nairobi, kenya, 22-27. 249-253. 7-Oshanina N.P. and T. Azimova. 1975. Changes in contents of nitrogen containing compounds in assimiliating oragns of same desert plant under conditions of soil moisture deficit and high temperature. 8- Peymani-fard, B.;B. malakpour and M. faezi.1983. Introducing of the most imoprtant range plants and it’s cultivation methods. Iran Forest & Range Research Institute 9-Rechinger K.H.1984. Flora Iranica, Akademi che Druck. U. Verlagsans talt Graz-AUSTRIA 10- Sabeti , H. 1976. Forests, Trees and shrubs of Iran .Agriculture & Natural Resources organization

5 VG

4 IF

3 P

2 WP

1 SR

50 Mar 3125 Mar 25 50Apr 2075 May 13100 Jun 9 Jul125 3 150Aug 28175 Aug 22 Sep200 17 Oct225 11 Nov250 6 275Dec 31 Dec300

11- Sheidayi, G.1978. Ecological and botanical studies for improvement and development of Iranian rangelands.Forest & Rangeland Organization 12- Zakirov, P.K. ; N.S. Limachev and G.M. Shermatov. 1989. Fodder resources of natural rangelands in Iraq. Problems of Desert Development. No(4), 58-63 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 717

40 40

35 Control plants 35 Control Plants

30 Cut Plants 30 Cut Plants

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10 Number of leaves per branch leaves per of Number 5 5 Mean Annual Growth of Branches (Cm)

0 0 20 May 20 June 20 March 20 Apri 20 July 20 March 20 April 20 May Months Months

Figure 2 :Mean annual growth of Branches Figure 3:changes of number of leaves in growth season in growth season

100 Without Wings Wings 80 60 40 (Percent)

Seed Viability Viability Seed 20 0 023 Years After seed Gathering

Figure 4:Viability in seeds with /without wings Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 718

The relation of plants length growth and abiotic factors in the rangeland ecosystems of desert regions

Gh. A. Dianati Tilaki Assistant Professor of Tarbiat Modaress University, Natural Resources and Marine Sciences college, Department of Range management, Noor - Iran, P.o. Box 64414-356, Fax 6253499, E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The growth properties and phytomass forming in the arid ecosystems are directly resulted by drought conditions. This properties consist of low vegetation cover of the soil surface, seasonal growth of different life form, relatively low production of phytocenosis and quantity fluctuation of production from one year to next year. According to the mentioned factors, determination of the rate of usable parts of plants is necessary for each year which is a big problem in the arid ecosystems. Phytomass is formed by length growth of young buds, density of plants in the surface unit and re-growth of the current year. The density of perennial plants change a little yearly, but height growth of buds depends on ecological conditions including: rainfall, soil humidity, etc. The data of climatology station in the arid regions of Uzbekistan and Iran and the data of length growth young buds are analyzed by statistical methods and finally, the regression relation of ecological factors including sum rainfall of December-May, the volume of soil humidity of different horizons and effective temperature with maximum height growth of young buds, were compared. The correlation coefficient is between %90-98 and the error rate was not exceed of %2-11.The results indicated that the rate of rainfall in some special year was effective factor on the formation of the humidity supply of the soil. This factor with the effective temperature were the main ecological factors which effect the formation of rangeland vegetation production and length growth of young buds.

Keywords: Length growth, Rangeland plants, Abiotic factors

Introduction One of the most important parameters of the vegetable covering that distinguishes the production rate and conditions of rangeland plants, is the through calculation of current – year length growth of shoots or the height of growth. It is also sometimes called length growth of young shoots.In the natural conditions, the growth of living forms of plants are influenced by the complicated environmental conditions and ecological factors that will influence on their production rate. Humidity rate of soil is one of the most important limiting factors in the rangeland ecosystems of desert zones that influences on the growth Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 719 of vegetable covering and formation of phytomass, and causes transience and fragility of such ecosystems (Dianati and Gringof, 2003). Gringof and his colleagues, studies during 1990-1999 showed that changes of perennial accumulation is meaningless, while the changes of the height of growth or length growth of shoots have significant difference. The ecological conditions and the type of plants are greatly similar in the Central Asia and dry land zones of Iran. So the above – mentioned method can be a basis for calculation of production of rangeland plants.\

Materials and methods The measurement height of growth ( in the gramineae family ) or length growth of current-year shoots ( semi-shrubs and shrubs ) has been done by the selection of 20 kinds of index shrubs randomly in different life form, ( according to the methods of Samochkina and Gringof, 1982). During the vegetation growing season the measurement length growth of shoot and abiotic factors are carried out 3 times per month. the data obtained by the current meteorological stations of the regions about the current – years rainfall and etc. Total moisture measurement at different soil layers was conducted by "Termostat-Weighting" method. Then soil saved moisture in soil was calculated by formula Wz = 0.1dh(w-k), (Instryktsia, 2001). The obtained data was analyzed by the SPSS soft ware.

Results The Tab.1 obtained results from the analysis of correlation coefficient with relation to the length growth of current-year shoots with the factors of sum rainfall and saved moisture rate of the soil, the obtained coefficient is between 81-90 %, with the error rate of ±1,8 to ± 16,2 (cm) from the maximum length growth of young shoots or the height of grasses. The coefficient correlation is between 80 to 94 % with the error rate of ±3,5 to ±4,5 (cm) in the semi-shrubs and between 94 to 99 % with the error rate of ±1 to ±3,4 (cm)in the shrubs. The least amount of correlation coefficient between the above –mentioned factors is in grasses and the most amount of it, is about growing form of shrubs. 42 relationships also obtained for range plants in the different growing forms that 12 kinds as the sample in this article. The figures 1…6 shows the general regulation in length growth of current – year vegetable shoots in the relation with the dead ecological factors that is S – like curves. The length growth of shoots are slow at first growth. Then the acceleration of their growth will be increased. This acceleration of growth in perennial plants are more, but less in shrubs.

Discussion The obtained results show that the length of current – year shoots among shrubs, semi- shrubs and the height of vegetable growth of grasses has a close relationship with the ecological conditions like rainfall rate and the saved moisture in the different depth of root growth in soil at the period of vegetable growth. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 720

While the length growth of shoots in every year or the height of vegetable growth. Shows the production rate in rangeland ecosystems of desert zones, and also with regard to the studies of Gringof, Samochkina and others, it can be said the influential factors in the increase or decrease of length growth of current –year shoots, are also influential in the production rate of these living forms.

References 1. Dianati Tilaki GH.A., Gringof I.G., 2003, Effect on ecological condition on the production of rangeland plants in the arid ecosystems, MCXA, Tom. 3, P: 49-59

2. Gringof I.G., Belobarodova G.G., Meteorological condition and production of rangeland plants, 1984, Tashkant.

3. Instryksia, Determination of soil moisture,2001,Ins.Meteorology, Moscow, p:100- 124.

4. Somochkina A.B, Gringof I.G., 1982, study on phenology of rangeland plantsin the center Asia, CARNIGMI., p: 144-163.

Table:1. The statistical relation between length growth of shoots in the rangeland plants index with abiotic factors.

Name of Plant Equation Coefficient Error rate of Corelation (r) equation (SH)

(cm)

2 Carex physodes Hmax=2.82 ΣRxii-v-0.01ΣR xii-v-65.48 0.90±0.06 ± 1.84

Hmax=0.78™Rxii-v + 25.5 0.84±0.1 ±2.3

2 Aristida karelinii Hmax= -0.003 ΣRxii-v + 0.0006ΣR xii-v +20.26 0.81±0.12 ± 16.2

2 Heliotropium arguzioides Hmax= 0.633ΣRxii-v -0.002ΣR xii-v -14.006 0.84±0.11 ± 3.5

2 3 Artemisia kemrudica Hmax= -1.77Wiv-v +0.2W -0.0051W iv-v +7.5 0.84±0.1 ± 3.7

Hmax= 0.21™R xii – v +9.22 0.82±0.1 ±4.45

Mausolea eriocarpa Hmax= -25.16logΣRxii-v -77.77 0.82±0.14 ± 4.6

Hmax= 0.27™R xii-v +9.25 0.82±0.13 ±4.5 2 Astragaalus longipetiolatus Hmax= 3.53Wv -0.14W v +24.78 0.90±0.08 ± 3.4 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 721

Salsola gemmascens Hmax= 7.81 logW(0…50)v +14.59 0.94±0.04 ± 3.2

Calligonum setosum Hmax= 20.52 logWv +14.11 0.96±0.02 ± 6.2

2 3 Calligonum rubens Hmax= 2.04Wv +0.47W v -0.02W v +19.4 0.99±0.004 ± 2.7

2 3 Salsola richteri Hmax= 1.78 Wv + 0.41W v -0.017W v+20.67 0.97±0.016 ± 1.0

2 3 Salsola arbuscula Hmax= 16.06Wv -1.52W v + 0.043W v 0.95±0.03 ± 3.8

2 3 Aellenia subaphylla Hmax= 28.14Wv -2.67W v +0.07W v 0.96±0.02 ± 2.0

Where:

Hmax- Length growth of shoots (CM)

Rxii-v – Sum of rainfall (mm) from December to may

W(0…50)- The Mean of soil stored moisture in various horizons of soil

Fig. 1…6 The relation between length growth of shoots with sum of rainfall and the mean soil storage moisture High growth of plants (cm) plants of growth High

Fig.1 Sum of rainfall (mm) Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 722 Length growth of shoot (cm) shoot of growth Length

Sum of rainfall (mm) Fig. 2. Length growth of shoot (cm) shoot of growth Length

Sum of rainfall (mm) Fig.3

Salsola gemmascens Length growth of shoot (cm) shoot of growth Length

Fig. 4 The mean of soil storage moisture in various horizons (mm) Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 723 Length growth of shoot (cm) shoot of growth Length

Fig. 5 The mean of soil storage moisture in various horizons (mm) Length growth of shoot (cm) shoot of growth Length

Fig. 6

Sum of rainfall (mm) Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 724

Investigation of Some Ecological Characteristics of Ferulago angulata in Dena Protected Area

Erfanzadeh R.1, R. Omidbeigi2 and M. Abrazeh3 1- Member of scientific board, Department of Range management, Faculty of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modarres University, Noor, Mazanderan. Iran, Tel.No:0122 6253101-3, Fax: 0122 6253499 ([email protected]) 2- Associate Professor in Agriculture College of Tarbiat Modarres University 3- Expert of Natural Resources Office, Charmahal-o-Bakhtiari Province

Abstract Ferulago angulata is a perennial medicinal-industrial plant that wildly grows in some rangeland of Iran especially in Zagros regions. This plant is endemic in Iran and any ecological study had not done about it in our study area. The aim of this study was to precisely investigate of its ecosystem and measurement its density, weight, and their changes in aspect, slope and variant altitude. Also active substances of plant (Secondary metabolites) and type soil were studied. Result show that density, weight of Ferulago angulata are more in north, west and north – west aspect, in slope 12-30 percent and in altitude more than 2000 meter. Amount of essential oils of Ferulago angulata in flowering stage is %1.8 plant dry weight that the most important of them are %24.7 Į - Pinene, %18.9 ȕ- z – Ocimene, %17.2 Sabinene and %6 Ȗ –Terpinene. On the basis of soil analysis, Ferulago angulata prefers sandy loam soils. Meanwhile from between studied factors, pH and EC are the most important of factors in germination and growth of Ferulago angulata.

Keyword: Umbelliferae, Ferulago angulata, Medicinal- Industrial Plant, Active substances (Secondary metabolites), Range, Dena

Introduction In spite of the Iranian ancient record in using medicinal plants in resent centuries, unfortunately the usage of the Iranian people from the medicinal plant productions has been remained the same traditional forms and in spite of multi usage of the Iran rangeland that is conceived viz. medicinal, industrial and grazing, the usage of rangeland is limited only to harvest forage that of course overgrazing has been caused the deterioration of the rangelands. Therefore it is more necessary to attend to cultivation and production of the medicinal plants for increasing non-oil exports and rangeland conservation. For this purpose at first must be studied and recognized the endemic medicinal plants or the plants which adopted with Iran climate condition and it will be the pace for development of the medicinal plants. In this regard Ferulago angulata species which is an important rangeland species having medicinal and industrial value in rangelands of Kohkiluyeh and Buyerahmad province has been studied in its protected area. As Ferulago angulata is a local Iran plant and with the regard of the role of this plant to product medicinal and industrial extract and establishing productive jobs and with the regard of the role of this plant in increasing income of deprivation people, is tried to precisely investigate this plant. With regard of the importance of Ferulago angulata in the medicinal and industrial, several studies have been done on this plant. A researcher has been published that this plant has 25 various components which the most of them are %13.8 Ş-flandren and %32 ß-flandren. The searching of the literatures showed that few photochemical studies have formerly been done on this species. Extraction of Flavonoide, Coumirine and Quinine from aerial parts this plant is

724 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 725 reported. But in the study area have not been ecologically and biologically well investigated on this species. The point of view forage value, Ferulago angulata is not valuable and palatable but its essence is very valuable in perfumery industry. It is used in medicine because of its disinfectant, too. The Ferulago genus is used as essences and medicinal properties in ancient times so that it is used in local medicine as a calmative, body strengthening and digestive diseases cure. The Frulago genus has 7 species in Iran and the most of them are valuable plants in the rangeland.

Materials and Methods The studied area is a part of Dena protected area located in Dena city in Kohkiluyeh and Buyerahmad province. This area has been protected since 1992 and its surface is about 17430 hectare. The altitude is varied from 1400 to 4470 m a.s.l.. The climate of the study area was determined cold-humid based on Amberejects method with the mean annual precipitation of 825.5 mm and the mean annual temperature of 15.13˚C. Ferulago angulata (Schlecht.) Boiss. is a perennial plant with 60-150 cm height. Its stem is erect, solitary, striate or grooved with paniculiform branches. Its leaf is glaucescet, oblong, glabrous or finely scabrous. Its flower is yellowish and pedicle and its fruit is mericarp 10-12 * 6 mm . In order to determine density, production 192 quadrates of the size 25m2 (5*5m) were located based on systematic-random method. In order to determine soil physical and chemical factors viz. N, P, Ca, C, EC, pH, texture and organic matter 15 soil profiles were dug in three different altitudes. Extraction of essential oils was done by helping Cleuenjer apparatus based on hydro distillation. Essential oils were analyzed with GC/MS. Analysis of data was made using the ANOVA and by the help of Dunkens test.

Results Density and production of Ferulago angulata in various aspects have been showed in table 1. Density and production of Ferulago angulata in various slops have been showed in table 2. Density and production of Ferulago angulata in various altitudes have been showed in table 3. Essential oils of Ferulago angulata plant have been showed in table 4.

Discussion Based on the results of the study, Ferulago angulata is one of perennial and medicinal-industrial species from umbrella family that has grown in the research area (Dena). The results of studying density and production in various aspects showed that plant studied in northern, western and northern-western aspects, considering intended factors have the most amounts. Ferulago angulata in these aspects has maximum growth especially in altitude upper 2000 meter. This plant has significantly more growth in %12- %15 and %15- %30 slops than other research slops. In fact can be say the most important habitat of this plant is in northern, western and northern-western slops in altitude higher than 2000 meter in research area. The results of phenological stages study showed timing of germination, flowering and seeding in various altitude is relatively 20 March- 3 April, 22May- 4June and 30June- 15July respectively. The results of study soil factors showed that Ferulago angulata prefer the sandy loamy texture, the soil contains 1.71 EC and 8.4 pH micro mohs in centimeter.

725 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 726

The results of the study on the effective material of Ferulago angulata showed that the amount of the existing extract in growing body of Ferulago angulata is very considerable (%1.8 dry weight) which twenty compounds existing in it were identified. This result in comparison with result of other researchers (Sedaghat & et al) can be derived that the amount of the extract, the number of its component existing in extract will be different in various habitats. As Ferulago angulata has valuable material, can be reproduced this plant with a suitable plan to increase people income. Study on limiting factors of spreading of Ferulago angulata, estimating the amount of effective material of Ferulago angulata in different habitats, study on diseases and pest of this species is proposed.

Reference: 1- Anonymous, 1980, British Pharmacopedia. Vol.1, Majesty,s Stationery Office, London, 9uop. 2- Demiridi, F., Can, G., Guven, K., Krmer, N., Demirci, B., 2002, Antimicrobial Activities of Ferulago Essential Oil, Faculty of Sciences. Biology Department, Anadola University, 26470 Eskiehir, Turky. 3- Ghahreman, A., 1988, Flora of Iran, Ministry of Reonstruction Jahad, No. 2048, cod 091.062,005. 4- Gahreman, A., 1993, Choromophytes of Iran, Vol.2, 1th ed, The Center of University publication. Iran 5- Sedaghat, S., Rustaiyan. A., and Khosravi, M., 2001, Chemical Composition of Essential Oils from the Umbeliferae family: Frulago angulata Boiss., North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University.

Table1: Density and production of Ferulago angulata in various aspects Aspects Density (ha) Production (kg/ha)

Northern 20800a 4160a

Southern 5900b 1180b

Eastern 5300b 1060b

Western 19700a 3940a

Northern-Eastern 6500b 1300b

Northern-Western 19200a 3840a

Southern-Eastern 5100b 1020b

Southern-Western 6500b 1300b

726 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 727

Table2: Density and production of Ferulago angulata in various slops Slops(%) Density (n/ha) Production (kg/ha)

0-2 4800g 960g

2-5 7800c 1560c

5-8 3000f 600f

8-12 2700f 540f

12-15 15000d 3000d

15-30 21000a 4200a

30-65 1500b 300b

65‹ 8000c 1600c

Table3: Density and production of Ferulago angulata in various altitudes Altitude Density (n/ha) Production (kg/ha)

‹1700 200c 40c

1700-2000 3900b 780b

2000‹ 22000a 4400a

Table4: Extract component of Ferulago angulata Number Effective Amount (%) Number Effective Amount (%) Material Material 1 Ş-Thujene 1.2 11 Limonene 4.9 2 Ł-Pinene 24.7 12 Ǻ-Z- Ocimene 18.9 3 Camphene 0.83 13 Ǻ-Ş-Ocimene 3.9 4 Sabinene 17.2 14 γ-Terpinene 6 5 ȕ-Pinene 1.7 15 Linalool 0.7 6 Myrcene 5.3 16 Terpinene-4-ol 0.6 7 Ş-Phellandrene 2.6 17 Borneol 2.2 acetate 8 ¨-3-Caren 3.7 18 Methyl eugenol 0.5 9 Ł-Terpinene 0.83 19 Bycyclo 0.5 germacrene 10 ȇ-Cymene 1.5 20 Terpinolene 1.3

727 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 728

Study on forage quality of two Poaceae species in three phenological stages Erfanzadeh R1. and A. Ebrahimi2 1- Member of scientific board, Department of Range management, Faculty of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modarres University, Noor, Mazanderan. Iran, Tel.No:0122 6253101-3, Fax: o122 6253499 ([email protected]) 2- Ph.D. Student at Ghent University, Department of Biology, Terrestrial Ecology Unit, Krijgslaan 281-S8, D3.32, B-9000, Gent, Belgium, Tel:0032.9.264.85.43, Fax:0032.9.264.85.99 e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract In the present research, two Poaceae species viz. Avena flavescens and Bromus pinnatus were selected and cut in three phenological stages of vegetative growth, flowering and seeding in ten replications in Ramsar. Different factors of forage quality viz. Crude Protein, Total Energy, Acid Detergent Fiber, Digestibility and Metabolizable Energy were determined during lab experiments. Variance analysis and T-test of data made by the help of SPSS software showed that Total Energy was having irregular variation and therefore could not be resulted in a statistical format. Crude Protein was decreased from the first towards up the late stage and the forage quality consequently was declined. Other quality factors were almost constant during the different phenological stages for both species. Digestibility and Metabolizable Energy of Avena flavescens species were more than another species, therefore, the forage quality of Avena flavescens species were better in the area in comparison to another species.

Key words: Forage quality, Digestibility, Metabolizable Energy, ADF, Crude Protein, Avena flavescents, Bromus pinnatus, Ramsar, Iran

Introduction Rangeland is the first and the most important of forage production resource for rural and tribal animal in Iran. The surface of rangeland has been cited 90 million hectare in Iran which produces 10 million ton dry forage in year. In addition to the forage quantity, recognition the forage quality is necessary to be known for proper planning of rangeland management and forage produce. The forage quality of different plant species depend on various factors such as phenological stages, climatic condition, adaphic factors and plant species (Angell & et al, 1990; Cogs Well and Kamstral, 1976; Garza and Fulbright, 1988; McDonald & et al, 1996) which the phenological stage is one of important factors. Many different factors have been studied for determining of forage quality by investigators. Garza and Fulbright (1988) and Rhodos and Sharrow (1990) appointed Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) as an indicator for evaluation of forage quality while Arzani (1994) have used Energy Metabolizable (EM), DMD And Crude Protein (CP) for forage quality estimation. The aim of this study is determination and evaluation of forage quality of two gramineae in three phenological stages by measuring Crude Protein (CP), Total Energy (TE), Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF), Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) and Metabolizable Energy (ME).

Materials and Methods The studied area has located in a part of Mazanderan province in Iran named Javaherdeh of Ramsar. This area is located between (50 25 – 50 38 W) and (36 49 – 36 55 N). The annual Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 729 precipitation and evaluation of the research area are respectively 700 mm and 2500m above sea level The soil texture is sandy loamy having a shallow depth. Two gramineae species named as Avena flavescence L. (syn. Trisetum flavescens) and Bromus pinnatus L. (syn. Brachypodium pinnatum) were selected in three phenological stages i.e. vegetation growth, flowering and seeding. The sampling was randomly done with 10 replications in each stage for each species. The weight of each sample was proximately 500 gr in field. Samples were then kept in the paper bags, coded and ultimately transferred to the lab. In the lab, the samples were completely dried in the Oven on 67 degree centigrade for 24 hours and then grinded. The amounts of crude protein, total energy and acid detergent fiber were respectively measured using Kjeltec Analyzer Unit, Bomb Calorimeter and Fibertec System. The per cent of nitrogen (N) was calculated by the help of equation No 1 and DMD was estimated by the help of equation developed by Oddy & et al (1983) as given No 2. ME was also estimated by the help of equation presented by Agricultural Standard Committee (1990) as given No 3. %CP = %N * 6.25 (1) %DMD = 83.58 – 0.824 (%ADF) + 2.625 (%N) (2) ME/D = 0.17 (%DMD) – 2 (3) Where: ME/D is the amount of ME in 1 kg dry forage in Mj. The data analysis of forage quality factors during three different phenological stages of each species was made using the ANOVA and by the help of Dankens test. For comparison data of two species, independent sample T- test was used.

Results The results of comparison analysis as followed in ANOVA showed that TE in the two species was having irregular variation so that there is no significant difference in TE amount in Bromus pinnatus among phonological stages while there is significant difference between seeding stage with two other stages in Trisetum flavescence (table 1 and table 2). The results of variation analysis and Duncans test showed that significant difference three phenological in CP per cent in both two species within which the CP were decreased from the first to the last stage (table 3 and table 4). In Trisetom flavescence species, means of CP per cent in vegetative growth, flowering and seeding were respectively 12.7, 8.04 and 4.64. The results of variance analysis showed that there is no meaningful difference among three phonological stages in both species in other factors of forage quality (table 5, table 6, table 7, table 8, table 9 and table 10). In Trisetom flavescence species, means of CP per cent in vegetative growth, flowering and seeding were respectively 12.7, 8.04 and 4.64. The results of variance analysis showed that there is no meaningful difference among three phenological stages in both species in other factors of forage quality (table 5, table 6, table 7, table 8, table 9 and table 10). The T-test result showed that DMD, ADF and ME of Trisetom flavescence species were more than another species but there was no significance difference in CP and TE values between studied species.

Discussion Since there are one positive relationship between crude protein and forage quality, the results of the study manifested that in both species the forage quality decreases from vegetative growth stage toward seeding stage. It can be because of decreases crude protein rate from the first Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 730 phenological stage toward the late phenological stage. In the other hand, the forage quality factors such as crud protein decreases progresses made in phenological stages as it has been denoted by researchers such as Cogs well and Kamstra (1976) and McDonald et al (1996). It therefore verified that the most suitable grazing time of studied species is the vegetative growth stage as the forage quality is concerned, especially in these two species within which palatability is strongly decreased in the end stages. The forage quality Trisetom flavescence species was more than another due to less ADF, DMD and ME rate in Bromus pinnatus in comparison another species. Total energy had irregular variation and therefore could not be isolated in statistical format and could not be used for estimating of forage quality.

References 1- Angell, R. F., Miller R. F., and Haferkamp, M. R., 1990, Variability of crude protein in crested wheatgrass at define stages of phenology. Journal of Range Manag., Vol. 43: 186- 189 2- Arzani, H., 1994, Some aspects of estimating short term and long term rangeland carrying capacity in the Western Division of NSW. PhD Thesis, University of NSW, Australia 3- Cogs Well, C., and Kamstra, L.D., 1976, The stage of maturity and its effect upon the chemical composition of four native range species. Journal of Range Manage. Vol. 29: 460- 463 4- Garza, A. JR., and Fulbright, T. E., 1998, Comparative chemical composition of armed saltbush and furrowing saltbush, Journal of Range Manage. Vol. 41: 401- 403 5- McDonald, P., Edwards, R. A., Greenhalgh, J. F. D., and Morgan, C. A. 1996, Animal Nutrition. 5th ed. Longman, Londan 6- Oddy. V. H., Robards, G. E. and Low s. G., 1993, Prediction of In- Vivo digestibility matter from the fiber and nitrogen content of a feed, Common Wealth Agricultural Bureaux, Australia, pp. 395- 398 7- Rhodos, B. D., and Sharrow, S. H., 1990, Effect of grazing by sheep on the quantity and quality of forage available to big game in Oregons coast range, Journal of Range Manage. Vol. 43: 235- 237

Table 1: ANOVA of total energy in various phenological stages in Bromus pinnatus Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 48291.06 24145.50 2.68NS Within Groups 27 243292.04 9010.81 Total 29 291583.10 NS: Non Significant

Table 2: ANOVA of total energy in various phenological stages in Trisetom flavescence Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 347376.00 173688.00 3.1825* Within Groups 27 1473565.27 54579.49 Total 29 1820941.27 * Significant in 5% level.

Table 3: ANOVA of crude protein in various phenological stages in Bromus pinnatus Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 470.282 253.13 254.41** Within Groups 27 24.95 0.92 Total 29 495.21 ** Significant in 1% level. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 731

Table 4: ANOVA of crude protein in various phenological stages in Trisetom flavescence Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 284.25 142.12 95.52** Within Groups 27 41.03 1.51 Total 29 325.28 ** Significant in 1% level.

Table 5: ANOVA of ADF in various phenological stages in Bromus pinnatus Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 235.27 117.63 0.79NS Within Groups 27 4018.60 148.84 Total 29 4253.86 NS: Non Significant

Table6: ANOVA of ADF in various phenological stages in Trisetum flavescence Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 38.47 19.23 0.23NS Within Groups 27 2246.20 83.19 Total 29 2284.67 NS: Non Significant

Table 7: ANOVA of DMD in various phenological stages in Bromus pinnatus Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 19.23 9.61 0.097NS Within Groups 27 2674.15 99.04 Total 29 2693.38 NS: Non Significant

Table 8: ANOVA of DMD in various phenological stages in Trisetum flavescence Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 6.83 3.43 0.06NS Within Groups 27 1554.60 57.58 Total 29 1561.46 NS: Non Significant

Table 9: ANOVA of ME in various phenological stages in Bromus pinnatus Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 0.55 0.28 0.097NS Within Groups 27 77.28 2.86 Total 29 77.83 NS: Non Significant

Table 10: ANOVA of ME in various phenological stages in Trisetum flavescence Source DF Sum. of Sq. Mean Sq. F ratio Between Groups 2 0.20 0.10 0.06NS Within Groups 27 44.93 1.66 Total 29 45.13 NS: Non Significant Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 732

Possibility of Shallow Tillage in the Irrigated Wheat Of Fars, Iran

Ali Esehaghbeygi1 and Ali Khosravani2 1 - Farm Machinery Dept., Shahrekord University, Iran. Tel-Fax: 4424428 Email: [email protected] 2 - Researcher, Fars Agricultural Engineering Research Center, Zarghan, Iran.

Abstract Every year the degradation of agricultural soils increase due to improper tillage operation. The main objective of this study was evaluation and comparison of surface and conventional tillage methods by measuring wheat yields and its components. The study was conducted in three consecutive years with two treatments and four replications. Conventional tillage method inclusive of moldboard plow, disk harrow, leveler and planting with grain drills. Surface tillage method inclusive of disk harrow in the depth of 6 to 8 cm after removing residuals, disk harrow in the depth of 12 to 15 cm in the fall and spike tooth harrow and planting with grain drills. Experiments were arranged in randomize complete block design as split plot with four replications. The year of experiment was assumed as a main plot and two tillage treatments as a sub plot. Results showed that conventional tillage was better than surface tillage in terms of grain yield, number of heads in unit area, number of grain in the head, weight of 1000 seeds and straw and harvesting index. But some replications had significant difference. The average of yield of conventional tillage was about 1.07% (227 kg/ha) higher than surface tillage. This difference might be due to higher plowing depth that causes root development and better residual buried with moldboard plow and better performance in grain drills. Since the farmers in Iran cultivate at least two times a year, the time for preparing soil will be short. Conventional tillage needs more time, energy and causes more implements depreciation analogues to surface tillage. As soil preparation with surface tillage will be faster and there is no difference between the yields of two methods, the surface tillage will be recommended in the irrigated wheat of Iran. If consuming energy, wasting time and expenditure is not important, using moldboard plow will be suggested.

KEYWORD: Shallow, Surface tillage, Wheat, Yield

Introduction Although most farmers are exceptional stewards of the land and soil, many of our agricultural production practices have been destructive to this resource. Not only does soil erosion harm the producer, but also harms the environment in the way of non-point source pollution. It is becoming increasingly important to reduce or eliminate the movement of soil, water, nutrients, and pesticides from the field on which they were applied. If the soil is properly managed, profitability can increase and negative environmental effects of producing crops reduced or eliminated. Tillage is very destructive to earth worms and other beneficial soil organisms. Tillage also destroys root and soil organism channels that encourage good root growth for the next crop and translocation of water, oxygen, and nutrients. Soil quality is improved by leaving crop residue and roots intact. A layer of mulch on the surface built up from continuous no-tillage also provides a “cushion” for equipment and helps prevent future compaction. Minimum tillage system are associated with conservation tillage, which is defined as a tillage and planting system that maintains at least 30% of the soil surface covered by residual at the time of crop emergence (Dick et al., 1989 and Parsch et al., 1993). Different management practice results in varying costs of production. Webber et al., 1987 noted that no-till production system reduce soil erosion, decrease overall fuel consumption, equipment Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 733 costs and conserve soil moisture. Although no-till generally saves fuel, labor and machinery costs, total costs may be higher due to increased herbicide expenditure as compared to conventional system (letey et al., 1984). The main objective of this study was to compare two tillage systems, conservation tillage with moldboard plow and surface tillage with disk harrow, on the yield of irrigated wheat and its components.

Materials and Methods This study was conducted at the Fars Agricultural Research Center, located 35 km north of Shiraz, Iran. The soil texture for the entire depth (0-30 cm) was silt clay sand with 41.9% silt, 34.3% clay and 23.8% sand. Experiment were conducted on 10*50 m plots with row spacing 2m, arranged in a randomized complete block design as split plot with four replications. Tests were carried out in a total of 8 plots inclusive of two treatments in there years. The year of experiment assumed as a main plot and treatment as sub plot. Mean effects were compared with Duncan multiple test 5%. Seeds were wheat, M-70-8 with area density of 400 seeds in square meter. Chemical fertilizer was added to soil as ammonium phosphate 200kg and ammonium nitrate 150kg before planting, plus ammonium nitrate 150kg after planting as surplus in tillering phase. To control weeds, 2-4-d was used as 2 lit/ha. Treatments were: 1- Conventional tillage inclusive of plowing with moldboard plow, disk harrow, leveler and planting with grain drill. 2- Surface tillage as light disk harrow in depth of 6-8 cm after removing residuals, disk harrow in depth of 12-15 cm, spike tooth disk harrow and planting with grain drill. Yield per hectare measured with three 1*1 m frame and compare with experimental combine harvesting. The number of head per meter, seed per head, weight of 1000 seed and straw and harvesting index were measured as variables. Harvesting index was determined by weight of seed divided by weight of seed plus weight of straw.

Results Results showed that an average wheat yield were 3245 and 3473 kg/ha for surface and conventional tillage respectively. The analysis of variance indicated that there are no significant effects between two treatments, but the yield of conventional tillage procedure was higher. The effects of year and interaction of year and treatments had significant effects for all measuring variables. So tillage experiments should be repeated more years. There is no significant difference between treatments for head cluster per meter and harvesting index. There is significant difference between treatments at 5% level for the number of seed per head, weight of 1000 seeds and weight of straw. The amount of variables for conventional tillage procedure was higher than surface tillage procedure (Table 1).

Discussion As the results showed, conventional tillage procedure will be better than surface tillage procedure for those variables. Primary tillage especially in heavy soils cause better root development and burring residuals that causes better performance in grain drills. Also in dry and semi dry area, residuals decay will be more difficult and there will be no good contact between seed and soil particles. Because of difference in raining, weather temperature, soil moisture content and spatial variability of soil nutrient with water movement in each year, more years need to do tillage experiments to better comparing of tillage methods. For instance, Karlen and Gooden, 1987 Catizone et al., 1990 Hemmat and Asadi, 1998 and Khosravani et al., 2001 reported that moldboard plow increased the yield of wheat per hectare, compared with other tillage methods. But Platonov et al., 1992 Unger, 1977 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 734

Larwrence et al., 1994 and Lindwall, 1995 stated that surface tillage or minimum tillage was suitable for wheat. Most of this research was done in a dry farm with good raining. Strong wheat tillering, capability of root development and no competition between seeds may be causes that wheat be independent of quality of seedbed. Gill and Aulakh, 1990 stated that tillage procedure had significant effects on wheat seed weight, but there is no significant effect on the weight of 1000 seeds and height of plant. As conventional tillage needs more energy, time and expenditure and as timeliness in planting is very important in economic evaluation, surface tillage may be preferred. It seems that using chisel plow instead of moldboard plow is economizer than moldboard plow in a same yield, researcher State. The expenditure of using disk harrow instead of moldboard plow in Iran is half and in some area there is two or three cultivation in a year, so time is very important and surface tillage may be preferred. Also grain drill with disk coulters has better performance on residual than drills with knife coulter or other type. Using additional disk coulter in front of planting rows of grain drills can prevent obstructing in seed dropping tubes. Surface tillage can not suggest every year, especially in clay soil in spite of weeds and plow pan compaction. Using deep tillage is necessary after two or three years. If the amount of yield is not important and energy, timeliness, soil erosion and expenditure is very important, using surface tillage or chisel plow instead of moldboard plow will be suggested.

References 1. Allen RR, Musick JT, Wiese AF (1976). Limited tillage of furrow irrigated winter wheat. Trans. of the ASAE 19: 234-236, 241. 2. Carter MR, Rennie DA (1985). Spring wheat growth and 15N studies under zero and shallow tillage on the Canadian prairie. Soil and Tillage Res. 5: 273- 285. 3. Catizone P, Tedeschi M, Baldoni G (1990). Influence of crop management on weed populations and wheat yield. Symposium on integrated weed management in cereals. Proceeding of EWRS symposium, Helsinki, Finland. 4. Dick WA, Rosenberg RJ, McCoy EL, Edwards WM, Haghiri F (1989). Surface hydrologic response to soil in no tillage. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53: 1520-1526. 5. Dickey EC (1983). Yield comparison between continuous no-till and tillage rotation. Trans. of the ASAE 26: 1682-1686. 6. Gill K, Aulakh B (1990). Wheat yield and soil bulk density response to some tillage systems on anoxic-soil. Soil and Tillage Res. 18(1): 37-45. 7. Hargrave WL (1982). Influence of tillage practices on the fertility status of acid soil double- cropped to wheat and soybean. Agron. J. 74: 684-687. 8. Hemmat A, Asadi A (1998). The effects of direct drilling, no moldboard and conventional tillage on irrigated wheat yield. J. Agri. Sci. Iran. No. 1, p: 19-33. 9. Karlen DL, Gooden DT (1987). Tillage systems for wheat production in the southeast Coastal plain. Agro. J. 79: 582-587. 10. Khosravani A, Zareiyan S, Afzalnia S (2001). The effects of tillage methods on water wheat yield. J. Agri. Sci. Iran. No. 2, P: 269-277. 11. Larwrence PA, Radford BJ, Thomas JA, Sinclair DP, Key AJ (1994). Effect of tillage practices on wheat performance in a semi-arid environment. Soil and tillage Res. 28: 347-364. 12. Letey J (1984). Relationship between soils physical properties and crop production. Soil Sci. 1: 277-294. 13. Lindwall CW, Larney FJ, Carefoot JM (1995). Rotation, tillage and seeder effects on winter wheat performance and soil moisture regime. Can. J. Soil Sci. 75: 109-116. 14. Mielke LN, Wihelm WW, Richards KA, Fenster CR (1984). Soil physical characteristics of reduced tillage in a wheat- fallow system. Trans. of the ASAE 27: 1724-1728. 15. Parsch LD, Crabtree NS, Oliver LR (1993). Economics of no-till and conservation tillage for soybean crop rotation. Proc. South. Soy. Conf. 2: 109-114. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 735

16. Patterson DE, Chamen WCT, Richardson CD (1980). Long-term experiments with tillage system to improve the economy of cultivation for cereals. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 25: 1-35. 17. Platonov IG, Manolii GG, Mironyehev KA (1992). Productivity of a cereal-grass rotation depending on tillage, liming and mineral fertilizers. Izvestiya, Timiryazevskoi, Sel Skokhozyaistvennoi, Academia. No. 3: 25-35. 18. Tessier S, Peru CA, Campbell CA, Zenter RP, Dyck FB (1990). Conservation tillage for spring wheat in semi-arid Saskatchewan. Soil and Tillage Res. 18: 73-90. 19. Unger PW (1977). Tillage effects on winter wheat production where the irrigated and dry land crops are alternated. Agro. J. 69: 944-950. 20. Webber CL, Keff HD, Gebhardt MR (1987). Interrelations of tillage and weed control for soybean production. Cultivate Weed Sci. 35: 830-836.

Tabel 1- Mean values for surface tillage and conventional tillage Harvesting Weight of Weight of No. of seed No. of Yield, kg/ha index, % straw, kg/ha 1000 seeds, in head head/ m2 gr S C S C S C S C S C S C Year 38.3ab¶ 37.3b 6125ab 6800a 28.2c 28.3c 60a 55.9a 380b 360a 3397.5abc 3164.4bc one Year 36b 35.5b 3875c 5410b 29.5c 33.2b 30.2b 38.2b 309b 77.8b 2465c 3023.3bc two Year 41.8ab 46a 5980ab 5470b 33.4b 37.8a 28.5b 36.5b 468.8a 384b 3880ab 4230a three S = Surface tillage C = Conventional tillage ¶Same letter in each column, means no significant difference, Duncan 5% Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 736

Study of Effects of Time and Temperature on Eurotia ceratoides Germination

Majid Mohammad Esmaeili Gonbad Agricultural Faculty,Shahid fallahi St,Gonbad kavoos, Iran-Phon 01722225021-3,Fax 01722224060 Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Conservation and protection of range species especially key species and palatable plants is inevitable for improvement and development of rangelands. One of the successful projects in range improvement and development is applying seeding methods. Having technological knowledge about temperature and appropriate time of storage in barn and its relation with the germination is very important. It is mentioned that the best temperature for determining germination of Eurotia ceratoides is at 30 °C within average of 5.25 days. The best methods in establishing percent of plantation have been plow, disk, and hole-seeding. The most established species in all the methods were planted in the middle of both December and January. After gathering seeds within the site and separating litters and defect seeds they are kept in oven at a temperature 30°C and when their moisture reaches about 7-8 percent we take them out. We take 44 plastic container and fill each one with 150 random seeds then we put them in four different treatments(0-5,5-10,15,20 °C)then we put every eleven containers in separate storage areas and in different intervals of 0,3,6,9,..30 month.We take one container from each group and measure their germination with germinator. Results show that all of the temperatures have a significant difference (p<= 0.01) and maximum ratio of germination is achieved at 0-5 °C during 9 months. An interaction between temperature and time of storage shows that by storage of seeds till 9 months in temperatures 0-5 and 5-10 °C, the percentage of germination increases and then decreases. But in treatments 15 and 20 °C with an increase in time of storage, the germination of Eurotia ceratoides decreases. It seems that temperature is one of the factors that decreases the dormancy period but this factor in a short time has a severe effect on the germination of Eurotia ceratoides. Seeds of Eurotia ceratoides can sustain more than 50% of their germination at temperatures 0-5 and 5-10 °C during 2 years.

Key words: Eurotia,germination,range ,seeding

Introduction It is unavoidable for projects of rangeland improvement and development to use palatable plants, compatible, endemic, and key species(Mohammad Esmaeili1996,Zare2001) That’s why it increases the percentage of success in executive programs and it economizes costs. One of the successful projects for range improvement and development is to use seeding .If it is done completely with technical knowledge, we will have double success in poor rangelands that are located in arid and semi-arid regions (Rasti Ardakani1992,Moghimi2001,Aliamaev1989) Success of seeding rangelands needs to regard the important matters like selection of health and wholesome seed, resistance against drought and salinity, high palatablity, considerable forage production, and also the use of seeds including proper germination.One of the most important cases in this study is having proper technical and scientific knowledge for keeping seeds in the way that would have the least decrease in their germination during the preservation time, because changes in precipitation of arid regions have significant influences on the production of seeds of rangelands plants(Mesdaghi1993).Thus gathering seeds in good weather years and preserving them in Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 737 proper temperature would play a basic role in preserving the germination and we can use these seeds for rangeland improvement and development every time. Eurotia ceatoides is one of the endemic species of steppeic and semi-steppeic rangelands and has a vast distribution in Iran(MohammadEsmaeili1996,Zare2001)This plant for having a shrub formation, resistance against drought, high percentage of protein, easy reprodution and etc, is one of the endemic desert plants that have a considerable importance in these regions(Bagheri1999,Filekesh et al1995,Moghimi2001,Booth1988)According to the experiments the best method for improvement of desert and semi-desert rangelands is to plant perennial plants like Eurotia ceratoides (Tarasenko1980)Results show, in the first year the production were 450 kg/ha, the next year it got to 1980 kg/ha and this shows the economic importance of seeding with this species (Moghadam1998) The most important factors that affect the seed’s lifetime are seed moisture and temperature of the environment. Besides, the relative moisture can affect the seed moisture and temperature of the barn. Both of these factors are closely related to each other.Many of the agricultural seeds get defected at moisture 80%and temperature 25-35 °C. If these seeds are preserved at relative moisture 50% and temperature 5 °C they can remain healthy for ten years or more (Sarmadnia 1996, Latifi1991)The best temperature for determination of the germination of Eurotia ceratoides invitro is performed with treatments 0,5,10,15,20,25,30,35 °C in random plans with four repeats and eight treatments.Result showed the temprature 25,30,35 °C during 4,5.25, and 8.25 days were the best in Eurotia ceratiodes germination (Rasti Ardakani1992).It is better that seeds not to be seprated from tricho for preservation and be kept at 0-8 °C with 7-8% of moisture. There is after ripening in seeds and after 4-6 weeks after harvest, they are capable of germinating. At 13 °C the after ripening is gets over . The seeds of Eurotia can be preserved for 1.5 to 2 years with out any decrease in germination (Moghimi2001). The best time of planting Eurotia in Sabzevar is done under split plot plan .Results showed that the best way of planting Eurotia were plough (more) and hole and mound (less).Planting in the middle of Dec and June lasts long and the most stability will be in the middle of Dec which is done by the disk and plough method( Filekesh et al 1995) In this project we try to find some solutions to decrease the fall of germination in the period of maintaining seeds in the different temperatures in order to give scientific strength this kind of the sowing.

Materials and Methods We went to Shahkooh – one of the natural rangelands - which is located in southern slops of Golestan province.We gather seeds of Eurotio in order to exhibit Eurotia ceratoides germination.The seeds were collected when their trichos color were cream and leaves were almost drying up (Mohammad Esmaeili1996,Moghimi2001)We had to collect seeds at this time because they might be premature before this time,and after this time,the wind might scattered the seeds and we might not be able to collect them. Then, the seeds were sent to the lab and after separating scratched,deformed or defective seeds, we measure the moisture of them in this stage. The moisture of the seeds were about 25 present and for drying the seeds, we put them under the temperature of 30(°C)in two stages into the oven and when the moisture of the seeds got to 7-8 present the seeds were brought out of the oven(Rastegar1997,Moghimi2001)In order to have less impact of the ratio moisture of the maintaining circumstances on the seeds and having same condition for whole maintaining treatments,we take 44 plastic containers covered and filled each one with 150 random seeds,then we put them in four different treatments(0-5,5-10,15,20 °C ) then we put every eleven containers in separate storage areas and in different interval of 0,3,6,…30months.We take one container from each group(the number of 150 seeds in each containers were divided in to 3 petridish of 50 seeds)and after 6 days measure their germination,with germinator.In this study temperature in germinator was about 30°C. This examination lasted for 30 months Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 738 and germination of seeds were elected (Rasti Ardakani1992)This project randomly was analyzed with the method of 4 * 11 factorial with SAS statistic software.

Results As considered in table1- Eurotica ceratoides’s seeds in all preservation temperatures have meaningful differences(p<= 0.01) The highest percent of germination is to preserve at 0-5(°C) with the average of 57.3,and the lowest percent of germination is 20(°C) with average of 24.09. The preservation temperatures 5 -10 and 15 (°C) with the average of 52/9 and 36/6 percent of germination are between the two above extents. Moghimi(2001) has mentioned that the temperature of 0-8(°C) is the best preservation temperature on Eurotia ceratoides seeds. However, the results of this examination show preservation temperatures reduce the germination of the seeds and preservation temperature 0-5(°C) and 5-10(°C) statistically has a significant difference (p<= 0.01)Table2-shows average of germination without temperature factor.As we see in this table, the best time for preservation of seeds is 9 months with the average of germination 56%,after that period of 6 months with average of germination 55.41 and the priod of the 3 month with the average of germination 55 %.These three levels of preservation times, statistically doesn’t have meaningful difference(p<=0.01).Table3-shows preservation time,preservation temprature and interaction between them.They have meaningful difference (p<= 0.01).Table4-shows the maximum of germination in temprature of 0-5(°C)in preservation time of 9 month with average 75.33 and germination in the preservation time of 12 month74% statistically don’t have meaningful difference(p<= 0.01) An interaction between temperature and time of storage shows that by storage of seeds till 9 months in temperatures 0-5 and 5-10 °C, the percentage of germination increases and then decreases.Moghimi(2001) has mentioned that the seeds in the period of 1.5 -2 years are storable in a suitable temperature with out falling of germination, which differs, from the results of this study.If we consider 0-5,5-10(°C) as the suitable temperature,seeds Preservation in temperature 0-5,5-10°C for 2 years will have the fall of %15 and %25 in the germination of the seeds,statistically has a significant difference (p<= 0.01). Table- 4 shows that there is a short dormancy in the seed of plants also maximum of germination is in preservation temperature 0-5,5-10 °C during the 9 months and maximum of germination is preservation temperature 15,20°C during 3 months.So increasing the temperature in maintaining circumstances is one of the factors which can decrease the lengh of the period of dormancy. Seeds preservation in temperature 15,20°C is not economical,because they have severe fall in germination in short time.the best preservation temperature for Eurotia’s seeds is 0-5,5- 10 °C,because seeds of Eurotia can sustain more than 50% of their germination at temperature 0- 5,5-10 °C during 2 years. One non-linear model was used with SAS statistic software because of the meaningful interactive effects and its parameters for each temperature was analyzed. Germination of the seed will be determined for each of the preservation temperature according to the following model. For example in figure1- preservation temperature of 20°C is shown.It indicates maximum and minimum of germination.

Discussion and suggestions 1-Eurotia ceratoides is one of the endemic, palatable plants, and resistant to salinity species.It can be used for development and improvement of most of Iran’s rangelands that are mostly located in arid and semi-arid regions 2-The best temperature of germination for this plant is 30°C that gets completed during 5 days Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 739

3-According to this research the best temperature for preverving Eurotia seeds germination for a long time( 2 years) is 5-10°C . 4-preserving seeds for 2 years at 5-10 °C can cause 25% decrease in germination. 5-The harvested seeds will have a little germination,If we preserve Eurotia seeds for 9 months at 0-5 and 5-10 °C. It will result in their maximum germination. 6-Preserving seeds at high temperatures(15 and 20 °C) will cause a severe decrease in germination but if we put these seeds in these temperatures just for 3 months,they will get the maximum germination. 7-There is a short dormancy in these seeds and a severe increase in temperature is one of the factors that can decrease this sleep period so a increase in temperature will severely decrease the germination. 8- By using nonlinear model we can determine the germination percent at all of the preservation temperatures, whenever we need. 9-Considering that this species grow in many regins in the country with arid and semi-arid weather but there were little attention to this plants.So we suggest handling of a complete research on different parts of the plant including root, stem,leaves, seed and etc.

References 1-Alimaev I, Pryanishnikov I (1989) creation and use of rangeland agrophytocenoses in the desert of northern Kazakhstan : problems of desert development No 84-87 2-Bagheri Najafabad A(1999) investigation of salinity and drought on three rangeland species:Natural Resources Faculty of Tehran University,Ms.C student project 3- Booth D (1988)interfat diaspore morphology:jor lnal of rangemanagement ,41(4):351 4- Filekesh E et al(1995)Determination of the best time and method of planting on Eur Eurotia in Sabzevar region 5-Latifi N( 1991)Techniques in seed science and technology:publications of Gorgan Uni 6- Mesdaghi M(1993) Range management of Iran: publication of Astane quods 7-Moghadam M( 1998) Range and Range management:publication of Tehran University 8-Moghimi J( 2001)a proper plant for improvement of arid and semi-arid rangelands:publication of forest and rangelands Organization 9-Mohammad Esmaeili M(1996) Aut ecological investigation on Eurotia ceratoides in Gorgan and Gonbad regions:Tarbiat Modares university ,Ms.C student project 10- puppala N,Fowler L,Poindexter M ,hardwaj H(1999)valuation of salinity tolerance of canola germination.P.251-253.In:J.Janick(ed):perspectives on new crops and new uses.ASHS press;Alexandria.VA 11-Rastegar M(1997) seed control:Brahmand publications 12-Rasti Ardakani M, Mohajeri A(1992)Proper temperature for determining of germinati for two rangeland species:journal of pajohesh va sazandegi 13-Sarmadnia GH(1996) seed technology:publication of Jehad Daneshgahi mashhad 14-Tarasenko I,Svistul GE (1980)Trial results of establishing Calligonum aphyllum and Eurotia ceratoideson the lower desert sands:Lesovodstvo Agrolesomlioratsiya ;No 57:26-66 15- Zare M(2001)Investigation of potential resistance to grazing stress ,drought ,salinity on Eurotia ceratoides Esfehan university, Ms.C student project Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 740

Table1-The average of germination in defferent temperatures of preservation germination (%) Temperature(°C) 57.3030 a 0-5 52.9697 b 5-10 36.6667 c 15 24.0909 d 20 a.b.c showing significant d i f f e r e n c e

Table 2- The average of germination in deferent times of preservation Germination (%) Time (month) 56.00 a 9 55.4167 a 6 55.00 ab 3 54.0833 b 12 50.8333c 15 49.4167 d 18 43.6667 e 21 39.8333 f 24 37.1667g 27 28.9167h 30 0.00 i 0 a.b.c. showing significant difference at (p<= 0.01)

Table 3-Analyzing the variance of preservation temperature*preservation time

PFM.S S.S D.F. S.V 62470.2424 131 total --- 0.0001 5092.17** 7715.4141 23146.2424 3 temperature 0.0001 2204.72** 3340.4909 33404.9090 10 time 0.0001 127.29** 192.8585 5758.7575 30 Time*temper- ature 1.5151 133.3333 88 error - - % C. V = 2.8788 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 741

Table 4-The average interaction of preservation temperature*preservation time on E u r o t i a c e r a t o i d e s g e r m i n a t i o n

Average Time(month) Temperature Average(%) Time(month) Temperature (%) (°C ) (°C) 45l 3 20 75.33ª 9 0-5 42.3 m 30 5-10 74ª 12 0-5 41.7 mn 12 15 72 b 9 5-10 40.3 mn 15 15 71 b 18 0-5 40 no 6 20 70.03 b 12 5-10 39.7 no 18 15 70 b 15 0-5 38 o 21 15 65 c 15 5-10 30.3 p 12 20 64 cd 21 0-5 30 pq 24 15 63 cd 6 5-10 30 pq 27 15 62 de 6 0-5 29.7 pq 9 20 62 de 3 15 28.0 qr 15 20 60.3 e 18 5-10 26.7 r 18 20 60.3 e 24 0-5 19.7 s 21 20 58 f 3 5-10 19 s 24 20 56.7 fg 6 15 18.7 s 27 20 55 g 3 0-5 18 s 30 15 53 h 21 5-10 8 t 30 20 51.3 hi 27 0-5 0 u 0 0-5 50 ij 24 5-10 0 u 0 5-10 48.7 jk 27 5-10 0 u 0 15 47.3 k 30 0-5 0 u 0 20 47 k 9 15

Noncommon letters show the significance at (p<= 0.01) Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 742

60 y = 14.6 x for x<=x0

y = 43.8 - 1.09 x for x>x0 40

20 Germination

0 010203040 Duration (months)

figure 1-The 2nd repetition of preservation temperature in 20 °C y= b1.x for x<=x0 y=(b1 .x)-(b2 .x) for x>x0 b1 : The rate of germination in per month preserving in the barn. X0 : The maximum rate of germination. b2 : The rate of decrease in seed germination in per month preserving in the barn. X: Time of preservation in the barn.

Table 5- Parameters of preservation temperature and preservation time in presenting a linear model

The average of b1 x 0 b 2 preservtion temprature°C 1-2.5 9.69 9.53 1.44 2-2.5 9.72 9.67 1.56 3-2.5 9.45 10.23 1.57

1-7.5 19 4.09 1.08 2-7.5 19.77 3.95 1.09 3-7.5 19.33 4.19 1.24

1-15 20.54 3 1.31 2-15 20.33 3.04 1.33 3-15 20.51 3 1.29

1-20 14.39 3 1.03 2-20 14.61 3 1.09 3-20 14.65 3 1.09 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 743

The Effect of Planting Distance on Growth of Populus nigra L. subsp. Nigra Ghadiripour, Pedram1. Esmailzadeh, Omid2 1. M.Sc. of Forestry, Gorgan Univ., Iran.2. Ph.D. Candidate of Forestry of Tarbiat Modarres University, Noor, Iran. Tel: 0098 122 6253101-3 Fax: 0098 122 6253499 ; E- mail:[email protected]

Abstract The plantation of "Populus nigra L. subsp. Nigra" as a fast growing species in the east of Hyrcanian forests, at Shastkolateh in Gorgan, were considered in this research. This investigation was performed in 15 years age plantation of this species with two planting distance of 3*5m and 6*5m in Gorgan with 240 elevation, 920 mm precipitation, clay- sandy soil texture with pH of 7- 7.5 and temperature range of -4 to 35 0C. For performing this investigation two stand, whichever, including 1278 and 960 m2 surface in dense and sparse stand respectively were measured completely. Diameter at breast heigh (DBH) and total height of trees was recorded. The soil was studied by taking one soil profile in each stand. The results show the mean of DBH is 18.20 cm in dense stand and 22.9 cm in sparse stand. The mean of total height is 16.6m in dense stand and 16.5m in sparse stand. The comparison between means was performed by independent samples T-test that indicates statistical significant difference in diameter but does not in height. The surface under curve and H/D ratio in 3*5m stand is more than another. The annual volume growth in dense stand is 8.17 m3 in hectare per year and in sparse stand is 7.66 m3 in hectare per year. The results show the good adaptability of this species with this area and better growth of 3*5m planting distance in compare of 6*5m planting distance. Keywords: Populus nigra L. subsp. Nigra, plantation, Hyrcanian forests, Gorgan, Iran.

Introduction The rapid demographic evolution of the human population has increased on forest areas and the demand for forest products. This pressure on natural forests is partly alleviated by the 120 million ha of plantation forests in the world. These plantations are potentially able to produce 370 million m3 of round wood per year, and represent about 25̃ of the global round wood production (1995 FAO statistics, cited in Whitman and Brown 1999). From the same source, it has been estimated that the world demand for wood and wood products could increase by 25̃ over the period 1996-2010, requiring another 120 million ha of forest to be planted during the same period. The expected tendencies would, therefore, be to move more away from natural forest towards forest plantation and non-forest supply sources. An increasing consumption of energy in the industrialized nations, the dramatic rise of CO2 concentration, and global warming of the atmosphere also characterize the whole context. The increasing anthropic pressure and the rapid changes in physical environment justify more plantation forests using fast growing species, to improve wood production and carbon fixation. Having forests with an area of nearly 12.4 mil ha (7.4% of the country total area) which only Hyrcanian forests with an area 1.9 mil ha have commercial wood productivity, that the considerable part of this region including 600000 ha surface is destroyed, necessitate plantation of fast growing trees such as poplar for supplying some of these mentioned needs in Iran. The black poplar (Populus nigra) as a fast growing species is historically a significant tree in Iran and once played a substantial role in local economies and culture. This species has many advantages such as fast growth, easy reproduction by cutting, good sprouting ability, wood for many uses and for these properties is used in short rotation plantations (USDA forest service Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 744

1980), however, in this research 15 years age plantation of this species with two planting distance of 5*6m and 6*5m were considered in Gorgan area.

Study area This study was conducted at Shastkola research forest, which is located at the east of Hyrcanian forest in Gorgan, Iran. Mean annual temperate range between –40 and +350C, average annual precipitation is 920mm. The soil is clay- sandy with pH of 7- 7.5 and the elevation from sea level is 240m.

Method Data is used in this study was taken from two Populus nigra stands including first stand with 1278 m2 surface and planting distance of 3*5m and the second stand with 960 m2 surface and 5*6m planting distance. Within each stand diameter at breast height (d.b.h) and total height were completely measured at the end of the growing season. From the basis of obtained data mean d.b.h, total height, H/D ratio, basal area and standing volume were separately computed. With theirs annual growth was computed. Moreover the characteristics of mean annual d.b.h growth, mean annual height growth with the annual growth of basal area and standing volume were also calculating. The comparison between mean was performed by independent sample T-test.

Results 3-1- D.B.H- Height curve Fig. 1 shows the diameter- height curve and correlation function model in two considered stands. 21 y = 0.0107x2 - 0.147x + 15.67 20 R2 = 0.3235 19 18 17 16 y = 0.0314x2 - 1.226x + 27.929

Total height (m) 15 R2 = 0.4741 14 12 17 22 27 D.B.H (cm)

Poly. (3*5) Poly. (6*5)

Fig. 1. Diameter- height curve of two considered stands

The upper curve belongs to dense stand and the lower is related to sparse stand. This fig shows that dense stand because of more H/D ratio, which is caused by more light competition between its trees in contrast sparse stand has upper curve. This fig also shows the correlation between d.b.h and height of the trees in each stand that conducted by a binomial function model.

3-2- Diameter at breast height In even aged pure stands, stand density; site classes and species affect the diameter growth. In this study, as the site class and the species are constant, stand density directly affect the diameter growth. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 745

Fig. 2 shows frequency of trees in diameter at breast height classes in 3*5m planting distance stand. As this fig shows the most of trees are in class 18 cm diameter. The mean of d.b.h was computed 18.20 cm that this amount in the period of 15 year represents 1.21 cm annual d.b.h growth. 40

30

20

10 Std. Dev = 2.14 Mean = 18 N = 71.00

Frequency 0 16 18 20 22 24

D.B.H (cm)

Fig. 2. Tree distribution in total height classes in dense stand

Fig. 3 shows frequency of trees in diameter at breast height classes in 6*5m planting distance stand. As this fig shows the most of trees are in classes 22 to 26 cm. For this planting space the mean of d.b.h was computed 23 cm that show 1.53 cm annual d.b.h growth. This amount of annual diameter growth is very considerable and more than of dense stand.

14

12

10

8

6

4 Std. Dev = 2.30 2 Mean = 23

requency N = 32.00

F 0 20 22 24 26 28 30

D.B.H

Fig. 3. Tree distribution in total height classes in sparse stand

The statistical comparison between means of d.b.h by independent T- test shows the mean of d.b.h has statistical significant difference in 99̃ level. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 746

3-3- Stand mean height Fig. 4 and fig. 5 show tree distribution in total height classes at 5*6m and 6*5m planting distance stand respectively. As these fig show total height of each two stand have normal distribution that the most of trees are in class of 17 m in dense stand and 16 m in the sparse stand.

30

25

20

15

10

Std. Dev = 1.03 5 Mean = 17

requency 0 N = 71.00 F 14 15 16 17 18 19

Totatal height (m)

Fig. 4. Tree distribution in diameter classes in sparse stand

The mean of total height in 3*5m planting distance stand reach 16.6 m that shows 1.13 m annual height growth. But in 6*5m planting distance stand the mean of total height reached 16.5 m with 1.1 m annual height growth.

16

14

12

10

8

6

4 Std. Dev = .98 2 Mean = 17

requency 0 N = 32.00 F 15 16 17 18 19

Total height (m)

Fig. 4. Tree distribution in diameter classes in sparse stand The comparison between means of total height by independent sample T- test shows the mean of total height in sparse stand have no significant statistical difference. 3-4- Basal area and volume growth Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 747

The result of basal area calculating in two 15 egad stand show 14.61 and 13.83 m2/ha in dense and sparse stands respectively that represent .974 and .922 m2/ha per year annual basal area growth in dense and sparse stand respectively. Standing volume during15 year period was equaled to about 122.5 m3/ha in dense stand and 114.87 m3/ha in sparse stand. In fact mean annual volume growth was 8.17 m3/ha per year in dense stand and 7.66 m3/ha per year in sparse stand. Thus it is concluded the sparse stand with 6*5m distance planting had a lower annual basal area and volume growth than anyone. 3-5- H/D ratio This ratio applied to compare the stability of two considered stand. This ratio in dense stand was 91.98 and between 75 and 109.69 with standard deviation of 8.13. Whereas in sparse stand was 72.49 and between 64.2 and 84.4 with standard deviation of 5.6. So it is concluded the sparse stand is more stable than dense stand.

Discussion Totally, interpretation of the achieved results reveals that adaptability and success of Populus nigra in this site is promising. Therefore Populus nigra can be a very good suitable species for planting in this situation and similar condition. Both of two planting space have good growth but in order to pay attention to more production 3*5m planting space has better growth and more wood product than 6*5m planting space because the annual volume growth is 8.17 m3/ha per year in dense stand and 7.66 m3/ha per year in sparse stand. Finally we suggest that due to high wood production in Populus nigra cultivation in this site or another similar sites the planting space must be less than 3*5 meter.

Acknowledgements We wish to tank Prof. Dargahi Davod, M.Sc. Maleksha Mohammad Ali and Mirzai Mohammud Reza, for their invaluable contributions to the work. We would like to express our gratitude to the staff of Shastkola research forest, especially Tazikeh Ramazan, who facilitated data collection.

References 1- Benetka, V., Bartakova, I., Mottl, J., 2002. Productivity of Populus nigra L. ssp. nigra under short- rotation culture in marginal areas. Biomass and Bioenergy 23: 327– 336. 2- Esmailzadeh, Omid. Hosseini, S. M., 2002. The effect of planting space on growth of Paulownia fortuneii. IUFRO meeting management of fast growing plantation, Izmit- Turkey, 267-271. 3- Hedaiati, N.A., 2000, The first conference of plantation with fast growing forest tree in north of Iran. 52p. 4- Konstantinos, S,. Ioannis, T,. Dimosthenis, M,. 2002. Biomass productions from a short rotation experimental planting of ten Poplar colones in N. Greece, IUFRO meeting management of fast growing plantation, Izmit- Turkey, 43-50. 5- Tabari, M,. Kiadaliri, Sh,. Ziaei, S. F., 2002. Qualitative characteristics of Popolus deltoids in Southern plain of the Caspian sea. IUFRO meeting management of fast growing plantation, Izmit- Turkey, 96-98. 6- USDA forest service. 1980. Energy and wood from intensively cultured plantations: research and development program. U.S. Dep. of Agriculture, Forest service, North central Forest Experiment Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. No. 58, 28 pp. 7- Whitman and Brown 1999. The potential role of forest plantations in meeting future demand for industrial wood products. International Forest Review 1(3): 143- 152. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 748

Introduction of flora, life form and plant geographical distribution of Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) Stands in Vaz Forests Razavi, S. Ali1. Esmailzadeh, Omid2 1. M.Sc. Student of Forestry, Gorgan Univ., Iran. 2. Ph.D. Candidate of Forestry of Tarbiat Modarres University, Noor, Iran. [email protected]

Abstract The floristic-physionomic investigation in 2002 by 4th seasonal sequence was performed in a oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) forest of Vaz, located in southern slope of Chamestan at Noor in the Mazandaran province (north of Iran). Flora of this region includes 11o plant species belonging to 103 genera and 59 families. Families with greatest representation by individual taxa were Rosaceae (12 taxa), Labiatae (8), Compositae (6), Papillionaceae (4), Solanaceae (4), and Gramineae (3). Life form of plant species, on the basis of Runkaier classification are dominated by Hemicryptophytes and Phanerophytes and according to Suzuki-Aracane sub-classification are dominated by single stem Hemicryptophytes (HC) and Deciduous trees (DML). From viewpoint of the plant geography, this region includes 29% Europe-Siberian, 13% Poly-regional (Europe- Siberian, Irano-Touranian, Mediterranean, pontic and Irano-Anatoli), 12% Euxino- Hyrcanian, 9.5% Hyrcanian, 7.6% Euro-Siberian.- Mediterranean- Irano- Turanian, 5.7% Irano- Touranian, 5.7%Euro- Siberian.- Mediterranean, 4.8%Euro- Siberian.- Irano-Turanian and 13.7% any other bi-or tri-regional elements.

Keywords: Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky), Flora, Plant geography, Life form, Vascular plants, Hyrcanian forests, Vaz, Iran.

Introduction Iran generally divided to 9 vegetation types of botanical provinces (Parsa, 1978). Caspian applies to the wild moist coastal strip extending south of the Caspian Sea and it is the northern limit for many species of northern Iran distribution. The Alborz watershed on the Caspian coast is characterized by mesophilic forestry vegetation, originally of the tertiary, therefore very old, called the Hyrcanian zone (Parsa, 1978). This zone has discerned several levels of forest vegetation. The Caspian broadleaved deciduous temperate forests that are also called the Hyrcanian forests are located on the south coast of the Caspian Sea. The area of the Caspian forests is about 1.9 million ha. About 60 percent of these forests are commercial and rests of them are protected forests. They receive average annual precipitation from 600 to 2000 mm with a maximum in the west and a minimum in the east. From its floristic composition the level of the beech, Fagetum hyrcanicum, is linked with European forests. This level has in particular some affinities with the Beech forests of the Balkans. The main feature of this region is the lack of large conifers which would from levels of vegetation only relicts of coniferous forest exist such as Cupressus, Thuja, Juniperus and Taxus occupying restricted areas and dating from the periods of the interglaciary melting. Therefore the Hyrcanian flora is thus a relict of the tertiary flora and if there are no conifers in this zone it is because the coniferous zone could not reach it during the Quaternary period. The Hyrcanian flora represents all the characteristics of this ancient flora and has affinities with other mesophilic floras of the boreal hemisphere of the Tertiary period. Moreover paleobotanical research has proved that many of the species that had existed in central Europe before the glaciations do not exist there any longer but still growth in the Hyrcanian Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 749 zone, such as Quercus castanaefolia, Zelkova carpinifolia, Alnus subcordata, Parrotia persica, Gleditschia caspica, Albizzia jullibrissin, Lauracerasus officinalis, etc (Ghahraman and Attar, 1999). Oriental beech, Fagus orientalies Lipsky, in Caspian forest grows at the high altitude (700- 2200m.a.s.l) and altitude plays a main role in climatic differences. The precipitation decrease with increasing altitude as well as temperature, based on the Amberge climatograph, Fagus orientalies forest is located in the very humid and humid zone with cold winters (Javanshir, 1985). The effect of altitude on diameter increment considered in a case study, which has been done at three altitudes (750,1000,1250m.a.s.l), shows that with increasing altitude the average of annual diameter increment decreases from 4.36 mm to 2.24 mm (Parsapajuh, 2001). The altitude has also important effect on the flora of oriental beech forest in Caspian region, however, each altitudinal oriental beech stands have a particular flora composition and physiognomic or the growth form that show their site environmental characteristics. Furthermore information of vegetation may be required to help to solve an ecological problem: for biological conversation and management purposes; as an input to environmental impact statements; to monitor management practices or to provide the basis for prediction of possible future changes (Kent & Coker, 1992). This research, floristic- physiognomic study, is conducted to describe the Vascular flora composition and their growth forms, life forms, in Vaz forest that is a represent of middle altitude of oriental beech forest at the Hyrcanian region.

Study area 1- Location: The study area with an area 848 ha is the southern slope of Chamestan at Noor in the Mazandaran province and is located between 360 16/ 41// to 360 20/ 47// northern latitude and 510 58/ 39// to 520 2/ 29// eastern longitude In the Hyrcanian forest master plan divisions it is 2nd district of the 30th, Vaz, watershed. The altitude varies from 600 m a.s.l in the northern part to 1800 m a.s.l that is the highest elevation in southern part of the area; therefore it has generally a north aspect slope. 2- Climate: The study area is under influence of Mediterranean air mass; European-polar, Siberian-polar and Local air mass systems. According to Emberge climatograph, the study area is located in a humid and very humid zone with cold winters (Javanshir, 1985), but in this case study that carried out on the basis of 8 closest synoptically and climatologically stations (1980- 2002) is showing the cold humid and semi- humid Climate. The temperature is between –80 C to 400 C and its annual average is 15.40 C. The average of the annual precipitation is 950 mm. 3- Soil condition: In Hyrcanian forest Generally Fagus orientalis grows on forest brown soil, which occurs on the limestone, marl and sandstone bedrock. In the study area most of soils are on the sedimentary bedrock and located at high elevation. Because of the cold weather, these soils have acidic humus and microorganisms cannot completely decompose the litter and a lot of litters could be observed in such places (Habibi, 1988). 4- Flora: The forest is mainly composed of broadleaved species. Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) with maple (Acer velutinum Boiss.) occupy the major part of the forest that beech tends to extend naturally. All vascular species are named following the Flora Iranica (K. H. Rechinger, 1963-1998). The management regime used to be high forest with shelterwood silvicultural method until 1993. It was then progressively converted into high forest with close to nature silviculture. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 750

Methodology The method of this study for preparing of herbarium and recognition of plant species was the common field-walk taxonomy procedure (Kent & Coker, 1992). For this consideration in 2002 by 4th seasonal sequence in directly reference to the field, the gathering of plant species was accomplished. At the time of field referencing while the means of work were accompanying the whole kind of plant species had completely, with stem; root; leaf and if possible fruit, gathered. Also recording of ecology and growth, life, form (Raunkiaer, 1937) of every species was directly done at the field. After every field collection times every sample, plant species, by requisite equipment were compressing to would dry. Afterwards sample species were fixing on the particular cardboard and carried out in the Iranian Research Institute of forests and rangelands botanical laboratory, Noshahr, for recognition and holding. Besides the floristic survey itself, we collected information (slope, aspect and topographic position) that is registered at the label and is fixed on the cardboard in company with the scientific name. Hereafter the samples were prepare to recognize. Recognition was accomplished by the common method of plant taxonomy on the basis of: Flora Iranica (K. H. Rechinger, 1963-1998); Flora Turkey (Davis, 1965-1985); Colored Flora of Iran (Ghahraman, 1996-2000); Flora of Iran (Iranian Research Institute of forests and rangelands publications, 1992- 2002); Forest trees and shrubs of Iran (Sabeti, 1992). In meantime of recognition the life form of each species on principle Raunkiaer system with some minor modifications is given in Muller- Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) and Suzuki-Arakane system (1968) that is subdivision of Raunkiaer life form and made for Japanese temperate forest that based on the degree of protection of the bud and whether or not species are deciduous, were determined (both life form system are shown in table 1). Then biological spectrum was drowning basically two-mentioned life form system. Also the distribution area of each species, phytogeography, using the mentioned flora referencing were assigned therefore the chorology of each species on the basis of Conspectus Flora Orientalis (Zohary, 1980- 1993) were determined and finally the geographical distribution spectrum of the study area was drawn.

Table1. Raunkiaer system, with some minor modifications is given in Muller- Dombois and Ellenberg (1974), and Suzuki-Arakane system (1968), that is subdivision of Raunkiaer life form and is made for Japanese temperate forest

Suzuki- Raunkiaer life form Suzuki-Arakane subdivision of Raunkiaer life form Arakane symbol Evergreen broad leave trees EML Deciduous broad leave trees DML Evergreen Needle leave trees EMA Evergreen Needle leave shrubs ENA Evergreen broad leave shrubs ENL Evergreen deciduous shrubs DNL Phanerophytes (Ph) Semi deciduous shrubs SNL Semi deciduous shrubs with graminnate leaves SNG Evergreen shrubs with graminnate leaves ENG Evergreen climbers EL Deciduous climbers DL Semi deciduous climbers SL Chamaephytes (Ch) Creeper chemaephytes CHR Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 751

Bushy chemaephytes CHF Sclerophyle chemaephytes CHS Herbacous chemaephytes CHV Hemicryptophtes with stem and no leaf HSC Climber hemicryptophtes HSD Hemicryptophytes (He) Hemicryptophytes with single stem HC Hemicryptophytes with roset leaves HR Rhizomy cryptophytes GR Cryptophytes with rooty bud RGD Cryptophytes (Cry) Bulbous cryptophytes GB Parasity cryptophytes GP Therophytes (Th) Therophytes TH Epiphytes (E) Epiphytes E

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based 4th seasonal sequence collections made during this study, the known vascular flora of Weaver's Woods consisted of 111 species and subspecific taxa in 59 families and 103 genera. No state threatened or endangered taxa were identified (Table2). Families with greatest, which is shown in Fig 1., representation by individual taxa were Rosaceae (12 taxa), Labiatae (8), Compositae (6), Papillionaceae (4), Solanaceae (4), and Gramineae (3).

60 56

50

40

30

20 12 6 8 Number of species of Number 10 3 4 4 0

e e e e e e s ea ea ea ita ta ea llie in c c os ia ac i m na na p ab s fam ra la lio m L Ro r G So pil Co he a Ot P Famillies Fig. 1. The main family in the flora of oriental beech forest of Vaz

Life forms of the 110 taxa identified from Weaver's Woods in Raunkiaer system, which is shown in Fig 2., Are as follows: Hemicryptophytes (44 taxa, 39.6%), Phanerophytes (40, 36%), Cryptophytes (15, 13.5%), Therophytes (7, 6.31%), Chamaephytes (3, 2.7%), and Epiphytes (2, 1.8%). Life form of plant species on the basis of Suzuki-Arakane sub-classification is dominated by Hemicryptophytes with single stem (HC) and Deciduous broadleaves trees (DML) with 35.1% and 18.9 % respectively (Fig. 3). Prevalence of Hemicryptophytes and Phanerophytes at Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 752 this study area is indicative that the temperate climate with a cold winter by abundant precipitation and rather fresh summer is suitable for the forest vegetation which trees are dominance elements. From viewpoint of the plant geography, this region has been influenced by the three different phytogeographical regions, including: Euro-Siberian, Irano- Turanian and Mediterranean, therefore as it is supposed rather high proportions of bi-tri- or pulrregional elements occur in the area. In Fig 4., the proportion of the different regional elements in the area is shown. Just as the Fig 3., is showing the elements of Euro-Siberian (29%), Euxino- Hyrcanian (12%), Hyrcanian (9.5%), Irano-Turanian (5.7%), with bi-tri- or pulrregional that among them Euro-Siberian.- Mediterranean- Irano- Turanian (7.6%), Euro- Siberian.- Mediterranean (5.7%0 and Euro- Siberian.- Irano-Turanian (4.8%) are rather frequent.

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Biological spectrum 0

s s s s s s te te te te te te y y y hy hy y iph ph ph p p ph p e ro pto ro to E ma he ry ne yp a T C a icr Ch Ph m He Life form

Fig.2. Raunkiaer life form of oriental beech forest in Vaz

40 35 30 25 20 15 10

Biological spectrum 5 0

L D L L E L A B R C L H L R L C D G S N E N G H S N T N G M H E R S E H D D Life form

Fig. 3. Suzuki-Arakane sub-classification life form of oriental beech forest in Vaz Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 753

Fig. 4. The main phytogeographical regions in oriental beech forest of Vaz

This study area according to Zohary universally floristic region classification (Zohary, 1981) is situated at Holarctic Kingdom; Euro-Siberian region; Pontic sub region; Euxino-Hyrcanian province and Hyrcanian sub province.

Table 2. List, Life form and Phytochorian of plants species in Vaz forest. (Symbol’s is according to contents of table 1) Suzeki- Familly Species Runkiaer Chorotyp Arakane Aceraceae Acer cappadocicum Ph DML Exino-Hyrc. Aceraceae Acer velutinum Ph DML Hyrc. Aquifoliaceae Ilex spinigera Ph ENL Hyrc. Araliaceae Hedera pastuchowii Ph EL Hyrc. Araliaceae Hedera colchica Ph EL Euxino-Hyrc. Aspediaceae Polystichum aculeatum He GR Plurrig. Aspediaceae Dryopteris filix-mas Cry GR Euxino-Hyrc. Aspleniaceae Asplenium adiantum nigrum Cry GR Plurrig. Aspleniaceae Phyllitis scolopendrium He HC Plurrig. Athyriaceae Athyrium filix-foemina Cry GR Plurrig. Berbridaceae Berbiis vulgaris Ph DNL Euro-Sib. Betulaceae Alnus subcordata Ph DML Exino-Hyrc. Campanulaceae Campanulla odontosepala He HC Euxino-Hyrc. Campanulaceae Campanulla stricta He HC Ir-Tur. Caprifoliaceae Sambucus ebulus He HSC Euro-Sib. Medit. Ir-Tur. Caprifoliaceae Viburnum lantana Ph DNL Euro-Sib. Celasteraceae Evonymus latifolia ph DNL Euro-Sib. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album He HC Cosmopolit Compositae Bidens tripartita He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Ir-Tur. Compositae Conyza canadensis He HC Plurrig. Compositae Petasites hybridus Cry GR Euro-Sib. Ir-Tur. Compositae Taraxacum palustre Cry GB Exino-Hyrc. Compositae Lapsana communis He HC Euro-Sib. Ir-Tur. Convolvulaceae Calystegia silvatica Th TH Euro-Sib Cornaceae Cornuus australis Ph DNL Euro-Sib. Ir-An. Medit. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 754

Corylaceae Carpinus betulus Ph DML Euro-Sib. Crassulaceae Sempervium iranicum Ch CHS Hyrc. Cruciferae Cardamine impatiens He HC Euro-Sib. Ir-Tur. Cyperaceae Carex sylvatica He HC Euro-Sib. Dioscoreaceae Tamus communis Ph DL Medit.Ir-Tur. Euro-Sib. Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus plumosus Th TH Medit. Ir-Tur. Ebenaceae Diospyrus lotus Ph DML Plurrig. Eqisetaceae Equisetum maximum Cry GR Cosmopolit. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia amygdaloides He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Euphorbiaceae Mercurialis perennis He HC Euro-Sib. Fagaceae Fagus orientalis Ph DML Euro-Sib. Fagaceae Quercus castanaefolia Ph DML Hyrc. Gramineae Bromus sterilis Cry GR Medit. Ir-Tur. Gramineae Festuca drymeia Cry GR Euro-Sib. Gramineae Oplismenus undulatifolia He HC Medit. Ir-Tur. Hamamelidaceae Parrotia persica Ph DML Euxino-Hyrc. Hyperiaceae Hypericum androsaemun Ph DNL Euro-Sib. Ir-Tur. Hyperiaceae Hypericum perforatum He HC Euro-Sib. Hypolepidaceae Pterididum aquilinum He HC Plurrig. Juglandaceae Juglans regia Ph DML Euro-Sib. Juglandaceae Pterocarya fraxinifolia Ph DML Euro-Sib. Juncaceae Juncus infelxus Cry GR Plurrig. Juniperaceae Juniperus communis Ph ENA Plurrig. Labiatae Calamintha officinalis He HC Euro-Sib. Labiatae Lamium album He HC Euro-Sib. Ir-An. Labiatae Mentha aquatica He HC Euro-Sib. Labiatae prunella vullgaris He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Labiatae Salvia glutinosa He HC Euro-Sib. Ir-An Labiatae scutellaria tournefortii He HC Ir-An. Labiatae Stachys persica He HC Ir-An. Labiatae Teucrium hyrcanicum He HC Euxino-Hyrc. Lamiaceae Hyssophus angustifolius Ch CHV Euxino-Hyrc. Liliaceae Polygonatum orientalis Cry GR Ir-Tur. Liliaceae Danae racemosa Ph ENL Ir-Tur. Loranthaceae Viscom album E E Ir-Tur. Oleaceae Fraxinus exelsior Ph DML Euro-Sib. Onagraceae Circaea lutetiana Th TH Plurrig. Orchidaceae Epipactis helleborine Cry GR Euro-Sib. Medit. Ir-Tur. Oxalidaceae Oxallis acetosella Th TH Euro-Sib. Paoniaceae Paeonia wittmanniana Cry GR Euxino-Hyrc Papillionaceae Coronylla varia Th TH Euro-Sib. Papillionaceae Lathyrus laxiforus Th TH Euro-Sib. Medit Papillionaceae Trifolium sp. He HC - Papillionaceae Vicia crocea He HC Ir-Tur. Petericdaceae Pteris cretica Cry GR Plurrig. Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata He HR Euro-Sib. Medit. Ir-Tur. Plantaginaceae Plantago major He HC Plurrig. Podophyllaceae Epimedium pinnatum He HC Hyrc. Polygonaceae Polyganum aviculare He HSC Cosmopolit. Polygonaceae Rumex acetosella Cry RGD Euro-Sib. Polypodiaceae Polypodium vulgare E E Plurrig. Primulaceae Cyclamen coum Cry GB Euxino-Hyrc. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 755

Primulaceae Primula heterochroma He HC Hyrc. Rosaceae Mespilus germanica Ph DNL Exino-Hyrc.Ir-Tur.Medit. Rosaceae Rosa canina Ph DNL Exino-Hyrc.Ir-Tur. Rosaceae Fragaria vesca He HC Euro-Sib. Rosaceae Potentilla reptans He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Ir-Tur. Rosaceae Geum urbanum He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Ir-Tur. Rosaceae Prunus avium Ph DML Euro-Sib. Rosaceae Prunus divaricata Ph DML Euro-Sib. Rosaceae Rubus hyrcanus Ph SNL Hyrc. Rosaceae Crataegus microphylla Ph DML Exino-Hyrc.Ir-Tur. Medit. Rosaceae Sorbus torminalis Ph ENL Euro-Sib. Medit.Ir-Tur. Rosaceae Pyrus boissieriana Ph DML Exino-Hyrc. Rosaceae Cerasus avium Ph DML Euro-Sib. Rubiaceae Asperula odarata He HC Euro-Sib. Rubiaceae Galium odarata He HC Euro-Sib. Salicaceae Salix alba Ph DML Euro-Sib. Salicaceae Salix aegyptica Ph DML Euro-Sib. Saxifragaceae Saxifraga mazandaranica Ch CHV Hyrc. Scoropholariaceae Digitalis nervosa He HC Ir-Tur. Scoropholaricaceae Verbascum speciosum He HC Euro-Sib. Ir-Tur. Smilacee Smilax excelsa Ph SL Pontic. Ir-Tur. Solanaceae Atropa belladonna He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Solanaceae Solanum dolcomara Ph DNL Euro-Sib. Solanaceae Solanum kieseritskii Ph DNL Hyrc. Solanaceae Solanum nigrum Th TH Cosmopolit. Taxaceae Taxus baccata Ph EMA Euro-Sib. Tiliaceae Tilia platyphyllos Ph DML Euro-Sib. Ulmaceae Ulmus glabra Ph DML Euro-Sib. Ulmaceae Zelkova carpinifolia Ph DML Euxino-Hyrc. Umbelliferaceae Athriscus sylvatica He HC Euro-Sib.Medit. Umbelliferaceae Saniculla europaea He HC Euro-Sib. Medit. Urticaceae Urtica dioica He HC Plurrig. Violaceae Viola odorata He HR Euro-Sib. Medit.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank M. Sc. H. Zare for assistance with flora recognition, Dr. M. Tabari and Dr. Seyed. M. Hosseini for reviewing the manuscript.

REFERENCES 1- Assadi, M., 1987. plants of Arasbaran protected area, NW. Iran, The Iranian journal of botany, 129- 176p. 2- Assadi, M., Masomi, A., Khatamsaz, M. and Mozafarian, V., 1992-2002. Flora of Iran, Iranian research institute of forests and rangelands publication. 3- Akbarinia, M. and Fukushima, T. 1995. A comparative study of the vegetation structure of the fagus orientalis and fagus crenata forests in Japan, Phytogeographic and taxon. 43(1-2), 75-80 p. 4- Basinger, M.A. and P. Robertson, 1996. Vascular flora and ecological survey of an old-growth forest remnant in the Ozark Hills of southern Illinois. Phytologia 80: 352-357. 5- Ellenberg, H; H., Weber and R. Dull. Writh, V. 1974. Vegetation Sudosteuropas, Gusav Fischerverlag, 768 PP. 6- Ghahraman, A., 1996-2000. Colored Flora of Iran, Volume 1- 22, Iranian research institute of forests and rangelands publication, Tehran, Iran. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 756

7- Ghahraman, A., and Attar, F., 1998. Biodiversity of plant species in Iran, University of Thehran publication, No. 2411., First volume, 1176PP. 8- Gibson, D., 1961. The life forms of Kentucky flowering plants, Amer, Midl. Nat. 66: 1-60. 9- Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of the vascular flora of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx. 10- Habibi. H., 1984. Consideration the Fagetum Community soils, Tehran University, Faculty of Natural Resources, Karaj, Tehran, Iran. 11- Kent, M., Coker, P., 1992, Vegetation Discription and Analysis, Bel haven Press, 366 PP. 12- Khaleghi, R. et al, 1998. A profile of caspian forests, Iranian research institute of forests and rangelands publication, Tehran, Iran, 380PP. 13- Krebs, Charles, J., 1989. Ecological Methodology, University of British Colombia, Harper Collius Publication, 432 PP. 14- Kuchler, A. W., 1967. Vegetation mapping, The Ronald Press, Newyork, 427 PP. 15- Looney, P.B., D.J. Gibson, A. Blyth, and M.I. Cousens, 1993. Flora of the Gulf Islands National Seashore, Perdido Key, Florida. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 120: 327-341. 16- Lortie, J.P., B.A. Sorrie, and D.W. Holt. 1991. Flora of the Monomoy Islands Chatham, Massachusetts. Rhodora 93: 361-389. 17- MacDonald, E.S., Sr. 1937. The life forms of the flowering plants of Indiana. Amer. Midl. Nat. 18: 687-773P. 18- Mozafarian, V., 1996. Dictionary of Iranian plant species, Farhange moaser institute publication, Tehran, Iran. 19- Murrell, Z.E. and B.E. Wofford, 1987. Floristics and phytogeography of Big Frog Mountain, Polk County, Tennessee. Castanea 52: 262-290P. 20- Parsa, A., 1978. Flora of Iran, Iranian national scientific research council publication, No. 21., First volume, 506PP. 21- Parsapajuh, D., 2001.The variation of the annual rings in the Iranian beech wood, Tehran university of natural resources, Karadj, Iran. 22- Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Claredon Press, Oxford. 23- Rechinger, K. H; (Ed.), 1963-1998, Flora Iranica, Vols, 1-173, Akademish, Druck- University Verlagsanstalt, Graz. 24- Smith, E.B. 1994. Keys to the flora of Arkansas. University of Arkansas Press, Fayetteville. 25- Takhtajan, A., 1986. Floristic region of the world, University of Callifornia Press, 522 PP. 26- Weaver, G.T. and W.C. Ashby. 1971. Composition and structure of an old-growth forest remnant in unglaciated southwestern Illinois. Amer. Midl. Nat. 86: 46-56. 27- Zohary, M. et al, 1980-1993. Vols 1-8, Conspectus Flora Orientalis, An Annotated Catalogue of the Flora of the Middle East, Jerusqlem, the Israel Academy of sciences and Humanities. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 757

Succession dynamics of grasslands ecosystems of Central Mongolia

1Akbar Fakhireh, 1Peter D. Gunin, 1Inessa M. Miklyaeva

1-Department of Biogeography Faculty of Geography, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia. Mobil: +7 - 095 - 939 26 11 Email: [email protected]

Abstract During the last decades, anthropogenic impact on nature has become global, which brought about destruction, drastic transformation and change in natural ecosystems. The most drastic effect was that on grassland and steppe ecosystems favorable for human life and agriculture. The present experiment was carried out to find the individual groups of plant and indicator species at different stages of the grazing and reserve regimes in grasslands central Mongolia. For floristic analysis, complete geobotanical descriptions based on the standard technique were processed by Braun-Blanquet method. The revealed associations were grouped within a single landscape type into series of digression. The position of each sub-association in the digression series was visually identified by assessment of the vegetation state and amount of rangeland pressure. Species with a similar trend of constancy variation were merged into sets differing with respect to the response of species to livestock grazing, indicating the value of grazing pressure. The results of processing of geobotanical description data have revealed the following stage of digression I, II, III, IV and V which are correlated to data on the level of rangeland pressure. In I stage developing under virtually complete absence of livestock grazing. In central Mongolia, land not utilized for grazing isolated by railroad (about 50 years). The main indicator species in this stage dominate Stipa krylovii and Agropyron cristatum. Stage II reflects a week impact of livestock grazing. This stage develops in communities undergoing a week pressure where dominate Koeleria cristata, Leymus chinensis and Stipa krylovii. Stage III – rangelands under moderate impact of grazing. The dominants are Cleistogenes squarrosa, Stipa krylovii and Artemisia frigida. Stage IV – heavy impact of grazing. It covers areas situated near built-up areas and along transportation roads. The dominants are grazing-resistant species - Artemisia frigida and Carex duriuscula. Stage V – a very heavy impact – comprises rangelands situated around winter places and built-up areas, where dominate Atemisia dracunculus, Salsola collina and Artemisia frigida .

Key words: Succession, Grassland, grazing, Central Mongolia

Introduction During the last decades, anthropogenic impact on nature has become global, which brought about destruction, drastic transformation and change in natural ecosystems. The most drastic effect was that on steppe ecosystems favorable for human life and agriculture. As a result of multi-faceted human impact over the vast territory of Europe, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, Altai, the steppes have been replaced by anthropogenic ecosystems. The remaining parts of steppes show changes in floristic diversity, including overgrowth of rangelands with, decrease in the value of useful product, changes in the structure of community and plant cover. The investigation of the above processes of change in the vegetation type is of importance today. According to E.M. Lavrenko (Lavrenko et al., 1991), the leading expert of steppe study, the steppe vegetation includes herb communities of the northern temperate zone with a dominance of perennial, long-vegetating, mostly polycarpic xerophilic and frequently scleromorphic plants. The majority of them are represented by species of sod grasses of the genera Stipa, Festuca, Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 758

Agropyron, Koeleria, Cleistogenes, leymus, Aneurolepidium. The sod form is also characteristic of some sedge species (Carex), which play the role of dominants in steppe communities: C. humilis in the European steppes, С pediformis and C. duriuscula in Kazakhstan and Mongolian steppes, and also the onions – Allium flavescens, A. polyrrhizum and others, the most characteristic of Central-Asian steppes. In contrast to European-Black Sea steppes, a very important feature of the Asian steppes, both of the Trans-Volga-Kazakh and the Daurian- Mongolian sectors of the Eurasian steppe region is bush encroaching, with numerous species of shrubs, semi-shrubs and dwarf semi-shrubs of the genera Caragana, Artemisia, Spiraea, Armeniaca, Amygdalus, Dasiphora, etc. (Karamycheva, Khramtsov, 1995). The above gave ground to distinguish a special group of Asian steppes - shrub steppes (Yunatov, 1950; Kuminova, 1960) and even to classify shrub steppes as a particular vegetation type (Bykov, Stepanova, 1953; Karamysheva, 1961). At the same time, no quoted authors regard shrub steppes as a result of pasqual digression under the effect of wild and domestic animals. Moreover, after the studies by Yunatov, the distinguished expert of Mongolian vegetation, it is generally thought that the nomadic type of economy and the great area of rangelands in Mongolia are not conducive to wide distribution of pasqual digression. A. A. Gorshkova(1972, 1973), who was the first to prove that the existence of intensive degradation processes responsible for heavy modification of rangelands restricts the distribution of those processes only to the steppes of Southern Siberia, not including the steppes of Mongolia.

Materials and Methods The experimental fields were located at the polygon (between 107º 5ǯ 00ǯǯ and 107º 35ǯ 00ǯǯ E, 47º 20ǯ 00ǯǯ and 47º 50ǯ 00ǯǯ N) in Central Mongolia, where climate very continental, average yearly temperature is –2 – 0 º C, average temperature of the coldest month (January) is –20 º C, average temperature of the warmest month (July) is 12-16 º C, yearly precipitation is 200 - 250 mm and soil is chestnut. Altitude of experimental field is 1450 – 2000 m. For floristic analysis, complete geobotanical descriptions based on the standard technique were processed by the I. Braun-Blanquet method (Aleksandrova, 1969). The revealed associations were grouped within a single landscape type into series of pasqual digression. Tentatively, the position of each sub-association in the digression series was visually identified by assessment of the vegetation state and amount of rangeland pressure. Species with a similar trend of constancy variation were merged into sets differing with respect to the response of species to livestock grazing, indicating the value of grazing pressure.

Results The results of processing of geobotanical description data have revealed the following stages of pasqual digression: I, II, III, IV and V, which are correlated to data on the level of rangeland pressure. Stage I -the zero stage developing under virtually complete absence of livestock grazing. In Central Mongolia, lands not utilized for grazing were recorded in small-enclosed areas, in which haymaking, presumably, was not regular. This stage also included some small plots isolated from grazing by ploughlands. The grazing there could also be done during the autumn-winter season, after harvesting. The main dominants in Central Mongolia are large-sod feather-grasses Stipa krylovii and Agropyron cristatum small-sod glasses and the sedge - Cleistogems squarrosa, Poa attenuata, Carex argunensis and also the long-rhizome Leymus chinensis. Stage II reflects a weak impact of livestock grazing. In Central Mongolia, this stage develops in communities isolated from the impact of in the course of the spring-summer season and Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 759 undergoing a weak pressure in the course of the autumn-winter season. These communities occupy a small area. The communities are characterized by high floristic saturation and maximum values of the arithmetic mean of herb stand height. There communities are dominated by Koeleria cristata, Leymus chinensis and Stipa krylovii. One of the indices of the weak impact of grazing, and, according to .V. Kalinina (1954), absence of winter grazing, is abundance of dry plant remains, which in Central Mongolia, up to 60-80%. Stage III - moderate impact of grazing. Here belong ranges situated in a 3-km zone from built-up areas. The degradation of lands is manifested by decrease of production and fodder quality. The pressure to which rangelands are exposed and which is not high, is also manifested by a presence in some areas of a loose layer of plant remains, 0.5 A< thick, covering up to 35% of the area, or with a very sparse lichen cover, occupying about 5-7% of the surface. Normally, the dominants are grazing-resistant species - Cleistogenes squarrosa, Stipa krylovii and Artemisia frigida. In Central Mongolia such rangelands occupy a fairly large area. Stage IV - heavy impact of grazing. It covers areas situated near built-up areas and along transportation roads. The floristic richness, height of the bulk of herb stands, mean value of species in descriptions decline there. The dwarf semi-shrub Artemisia frigida, and also Carex duriuscula are dominate there. In the region concerned, a heavy impact of livestock grazing is characteristic of the majority of rangelands. Also belonging there are rangelands occupying negative forms of relief in an area surrounded by croplands and exposed to heavy pressure in the course of the autumn-winter season, since livestock uses negative forms of relief as a cover during the cold season, as indicated by accumulation of feces in those places. Stage V - a very heavy impact - comprises rangelands situated around winter places and built-up areas. The former are characterized by excessive pressure in the course of the autumn- winter season; and the latter, by excessive pressure throughout the year. In addition to the impact of domestic livestock, the rangelands are exposed to heavy impact of rodents. The area of such rangelands is small, where dominate Atemisia dracunculus, Salsola collina and Artemisia frigida. Thus, the bulk of the rangelands of Central Mongolia are exposed to heavy or very heavy pressure. The indication value of plant species varies with the situation in different parts of the Daurian-Mongolia sector of the steppe zone.

Impact of grazing on the life condition of dominants Abundant encroachment of semi-shrubs and shrubs on degraded rangelands brings about decline of other plant life forms. Not only their phytocenotic role, but also their condition change too.

Picture 1. Morphometric indices of Stipa krylovii Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 760

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Protected Grazing Height of generative shoots, cm shoots, of generative Height 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Height of vegetative shoots, cm

For quantitative assessment of those changes in 30 individuals of each species at a sample site of 100 m2 the diameters of sods, the height of vegetative, and generative shoots were measured. Used, as model plants were Stipa krylovii, and Artemisia frigida. Mean indices, the value of variance (dsp), mean deviations (m) were estimated. The diagrams reflect variation of those indices on grazed and reserved plots (Fig. 1, 2 ).

Picture2. Morphometric indices of Artemisia frigida

25 m

20

15

10

5 Protected Grazing

Height of generative shoots, c 0 01234567 Height of vegetative shoots, cm

Under reservation conditions, the mean height of Stipa krylovii and Artemisia frigida 37 and 20 cm respectively, on degraded rangelands, respectively, 23 and 14.2 cm.; under intensive grazing, the mean height is, respectively, 12 and 3 cm. The maximum mean indices of the sod area are recorded under reservation regime Stipa krylovii and Artemisia frigida attaining, respectively, 24.16 cm2 and 147.94 cm2, which exceeds those indices over 8 times on degraded rangelands. It is necessary to note that large-sod grasses show considerable changes in the mean number of shoots in the sod when the type of utilization is changed. In case of intensive livestock grazing, the number of generative shoots in Stipa krylovii five fold. These plants retain their capacity to develop generative and vegetative organs under constant removal of aboveground mass. They are adapted to fairly heavy rangeland pressure. Of the two species, Stipa krylovii reduces the number of generative shoots to a greater extent, which is an index of less expressed adaptation to grazing compared with that in Artemisia frigida. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 761

Impact of grazing on the productivity of Mongolian rangelands Analysis of the dynamics of productivity, both total and in terms of individual group of plants have revealed that it varies in a wide range at different stages of the succession series. In the grasslands of Central Mongolia compared with isolated plots (I stage), their production declines to a minimum as early as Stage IV of the digression. Considerable variation of productivity is observed in large-sod grasses. At Stage IV of the digression, their production declines 10-fold compared with that on isolated plots. At Stage V their production declines to a minimum, and they are virtually removed from the communities. At Stage IV, semi-shrubs and shrubs dominate in terms of production amount. The semi-shrub Artemisia frigida accounts for 50% of total production. Under intensive grazing, the grasslands considerably reduce production of large-sod grasses, consumed forbs, including onions. The production of unconsumed forbs - cinquefoil and sagebrushes (A. dracunculus, A. adamsii) — increases. In terms of production, the semi-shrub A. frigida dominates, which is a good fodder plant for small livestock.

Main conclusions

1. Intensive rangeland utilization of the grasslands of Mongolia in the course of long- term history has determined development of rangelands that can be considered to be degraded. The rangelands of Central Mongolia have been heavily modified. 2. The floristic diversity of grasslands of Central Mongolia is low, which reflects not only regional differences, but also intensive and long-term rangeland pressure in the grasslands of Central Mongolia. 3. Comparison of our findings with literature data for the entire area of the steppe zone of the temperate belt of Eurasia gives grounds to consider the conclusions by Gorshkova (1972) for the steppes of Trans-Bail Region to be applicable to wider areas, being characteristic of virtually the entire Eastern-Asian sector of the steppes. 4. In Central Mongolia, the plant cover, the saturation of species, the thickness of humus horizon and soil moisture decline proportionally from reserved plots to those impacted by heavy overgrazing. 5. In the grasslands ecosystems at digression stage IV, the production of large-sod grasses decreases 10-fold compared with isolated plots (I stage).

References 1.Aleksandrova V.D. Classification of Vegetation. Leningrad: Nauka. 1969. 276 pp. I (in Russian) 2.Bykov B.A., Stepanova E.R Shrub steppes as a type of vegetation // Izv. VGO, vol.85, vyp I, 1953, p.6 (in Russian). 3.Gorshkova, Lobanova I.N. Changes in the ecology and structure of steppe communities of the Trans- Baikal Region under the effect of rangeland regime // Proc. Institute of Geography of' Siberia and Far East. Irkutsk. 1972, p. 38-43 (in Russian). 4.Gorshkova Rangelands of the Trans-Baikal Region. Irkutsk, 1973, 157 pp. (in Russian). 5.Kalinina A. V. Stationary studies of rangelands of the Mongolian People's Republic // USSR Academy of Sciences. Proc. Mongolian Commission, vyp. 60, 1954. 128 pp. (in Russian). 6.Karamysheva Z.V. Vegetation of the northeastern part of the Central-Kazakhstan small hills // Proc. Botanical Institute, USSR Academy of Sciences, Ser. 3, Geobotany, Leningrad, 1961, vyp. 13, p. 464- 486 (in Russian). 7.Kuminova. V. The plant cover of Altai //Proc. Siberian Branch USSR Acad. Sci., 1960, 450 pp. (in Russian). Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 762

8.Lavrenko E.M., Karamysheva Z. V., Nikulina Z.I. Steppes of Eurasia //Proc. Russian-Mongolian Integrated Biological Expedition. Moscow: Nauka. vol.XXXV. 1991, 144 pp. (in Russian). 9.Lavrenko . "., Nikushina R.I. The status of dry steppes in the system of botanical and geographical zoning of the Mongolian People's Republic // Arid Steppes of the Mongolian People's Republic (Somon Unzhul). Joint Soviet-Mongolian Integrated Biological Expedition, vol.22., Leningrad: Nauka, 1984, p. 6-10 (in Russian). 10. Mongolian People's Republic. National Atlas. Ulan-Bator-Moscow.: USSR Academy of Sciences, Academy of Sciences Mongolian People's Republic. 1990. 144 pp. (in Russian). 11. Takhtajyan A; L. Floristic Regions of the Earth. Moscow: Nauka , 1978. 247 pp. (in Russian). 12. Ecosystems of Mongolia//Joint Soviet-Mongolian Integrated Biological Expedition. Vol. 39., Moscow : Russian Academy of Sciences, 1994 (in Russian). 13. Yunatov. Main features of the plant cover of the Mongolian People's Republic // Proc. Russian- Mongolian Integrated Biological Expedition. Moscow-Leningrad: Nauka, vyp. 39. 1950. 223 pp. (in Russian). 14. Karamycheva Z. Y., Khramtsov V.N. The Steppes of Mongolia. Braun-Blanquetia, N17, Camerino, 1995,70ɪ. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 763

Seed germination and emergence responses of four native cool-season grasses under water stress

A. Gazanchian Agriculture and Natural Resources Reserch Center of Khorassan, Khorassan,Iran ; [email protected]

Abstract Iran is located in arid and semiarid regions. Limited water availability in these regions reduces seed germination, seedling establishment, and maintenance of perennial grasses in renovation of pastures. A greenhouse study was conducted to determine germination, seedling emergence, and root and shoot growth responses of 4 native cool-season grasses, Elymus elongatum (Brojen), Elymus intermedium (Oromieh), Elymus elongatoformis (Gorgan), and Elymus repense (Oromieh) to 4 soil water content (FC, 75%, 50%, and 25%FC). Decrease in soil water content progressively inhibited germination of all species except Elymus elongatum. For example, decreasing soil water from FC to 25% reduced total germination from 85 to 23% in Elymus elongatum species, while seeds of the other grasses only germinated from FC to 50%. The difference in germination and emergence percentage observed in the four grasses and all of species did not emergence in 25%FC. The number of days to 50% emergence for Elymus elongatum and Elymus elongatoformis were 9 and 12d in 50%FC level. The other species no emergence occurred in this level. Decreasing soil water from FC to 50% had no effect on shoot and root dry weight in Elymus elongatum, but the other species were greatly affected by drought stress. Our results showed Elymus elongatum is a drought tolerant species in germination and emergence stage and could be useful for renoveation of pastures in semiarid regions. Key words: seed germination, drought tolerant, water stress, field capacity (FC), Elymus elongatum, Elymus intermedium,Elymus elongatoformis, Elymus repense

Introduction Iran is located in arid and semiarid regions (FAO, 2003). Grass family (Poaceae) includes approximately 397 species classified into 115 genera in Iran (Mozafarian, 1996). Perennial grasses are the key plants to the economic and environmental sustainability of pastures for livestock grazing. Seed germination and seedling establishment are crucial stages in regeneration of plant populations (Grubb 1977). Germination commences with the uptake of water by the quiescent dry seed, imbibition and is completed when radicle extends to penetrate the structures that surround it (Bewley, 1997). Low water availability in arid and semiarid regions severely limits seed germination, seedling establishment, and maintenance of perennial grasses (Hassanyar and Wilson, 1979). Johnson and Asay (1993) reported that water deficit also limits the establishment, growth and production of cool-season grasses on semiarid rangelands. Germination characteristics are important for the establishment success of grass species (Larson and Bibby, 2004). Some of the main limitations in adoption of native cool-season grasses for using in pastures are lack of knowledge about their germination water requirements and their subsequent establishment. A new method was used in our study for estimating seed germination and emergence percentage under water stress that may represent a good mimic condition of a pasture at germination time. The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the effects of water stress on germination and seedling establishment of four perennial native cool-season grasses were collected from Iran and determination of drought tolerant species.

Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 764

Materials and Methods Seeds of 4 species of perennial native cool-season grasses from Elymus genera including Elymus elongatum, Elymus intermedium, Elymus elongatoformis, and Elymus repense were collected from Brojen, Oromieh, Gorgan, and Oromieh, respectively. A pot experiment was carried out in the greenhouse at the Agriculture Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII). Effects of different levels of soil water, field capacity (FC or 100%), 75%, 50%, and 25%FC were studied on seed germination, seedling emergence, root and shoot length, dry weight and days to initial and 50% of emergence. In each pot (9cm diameter by 10cm depth) 20 seeds were planted and filled with 300 g of dry sandy loam soil (72.21% sand, 14.73 % silt, and 13.06% clay). Immediately after planting, water was added to dry soil to reach FC, 75, 50, and 25% FC or 12, 9, 6 and 3 g water / 100g dry soil, which were equal to -0.03,-0.2, -0.6, and -1.5 MPa matric potential of the soil, respectively. The pots were immediately sealed with transparent plastic bags to prevent evaporation through out the test. Greenhouse conditions were determined by 15/20 o C (night / day), natural day light and 60 to 70% relative humidity.

Measurements Emergence was monitored daily until 12 days and every other day for the following 20 days. Days to emergence initiation (T0) and days required to reach 50% emergence (T50) were determined as described by Usberti and Valio (1997). Number of germinated seeds per pot were recorded at the end. The shoot length and the longest root length also were measured from germinated seed after washing at the end of experiment. Shoots and roots were separated, oven dried (75 o C for 48 hours) and weighed. Seedling vigor index (SVI) was calculated according to Abdul-Baki and Anderson, (1973). Sensitivity index (Fernandez and Reynolds, 2000) was made based on ratio of median response of traits at 75%FC or 50%FC to median response at FC (Bayuelo-Jimenez et al., 2002).

Data Analysis The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with 3 replications. The normality of data was tested and arcsin square root transformation was used to normalize the non-normal distributions. Data were subjected to analysis of variance based on linear model using SAS software (SAS v. 6.12, SAS Institute, Inc., Cary. Nc. 1996).

Results Germination and Emergence The results of analysis of variance revealed significant differences between soil water levels for all studied characters. The soil water × species interaction was also significant (P<0.01) for all the traits. Overall mean germination percentage for the studied species at FC, 75, 50 and 25%FC levels were 67.08, 66.66, 39.08, and 7.0%, respectively (Fig. 1). The E. elongatum showed the optimum final germination percentage (95%) at 75%FC, while the other grasses had the best at FC level (Fig. 1). At 25%FC (1.5 MPa) soil water content level, average germination for E. elongatum, E. intermedium., E.elongatoformis and, E. repense were 23, 0, 0, and 5%, respectively (Fig. 1). However, no seedlings these species were able to emerge at 25%FC soil water content. It was found that a minimum soil water content of 50%FC (-0.6 MPa) is required for emergence of E. elongatum, and E.elongatoformis. species (Table 1). Water stress delayed T0 and T50 emergence up to 3.1 and 2.6 d on average all of the species, respectively. At 50%FC level, seeds both E. intermedium., and, E. repense did not reach 50% emergence at 20 d of the test (Table 1). Seedling Growth

Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 765

Water stress decreased significantly (P<0.01) both root and shoot length about 37% and 58% as compared to the control respectively. While shoot length no reduction for E. elongatum species under water stress (Fig. 1). The decline in the seedling biomass was greater for all species except E. elongatum species at 50%FC compared to the control. Estimates of the relative stability of root and shoot dry weight (sensitivity index) of the grasses were exhibited by E. intermedium and E.elongatoformis more than 80% and 60% reduction for the root and shoot, respectively (Table 1). While, at 50%FC, E. elongatum showed not only reduction in shoot and root dry weight bot also increased about 10% to 20%. The E. repense species had the highest sensitivity index (Table 1). Seedling vigor index (SVI) decreased significantly with increasing water stress about 74%. The SVI was 8.56 at FC and 2.84 at 50%FC levels for overall means the grasses. The highest SVI were obtained for E. elongatum, and the lowest for E. intermedium followed by E. repense under water stress (Fig. 1).

Discussion Seed germination and emergence depends on factors associated with genotype, maturation environment, post maturation history and germination environment (Meyer and Allen, 1999), seed dormancy and seed reserves (Forcella et al., 2000), parental environment during seed development (Fenner, 1991). This investigation indicated that the method used could effectively detect variations in seed germination and emergence of four perennial native cool- season grasses caused by soil moisture stress. The grasses exhibited high genetic diversity for germination, emergence rate and root, shoot growth under water stress condition. However each individual seed within a population has a unique genotype, and this genotype may affect the seed's response to environmental stimuli (Forcella et al., 2000). The E. elongatum species was collected from Brojen show high germination, rapid emergence, seedling vigor, and greater stability in biomass dry matter under water stress. According to Johnson and Asay (1993) early root initiation and rapid root extension can help seedlings to avoid drought. Thus, it could be a drought tolerant species. A positive correlation between seed size and seedling vigor of forage grasses has also been reported previously (Asay and Johnson, 1983). The E. intermedium, E.elongatoformis and, E. repense species with low final germination, delayed emergence, and high sensitivity index for root and shoot growth were the most drought sensitive grasses at germination and emergence stages under water stress. Our result showed that small seeded species had lower SVI and biomass dry matter. It is possible that seedling establishment under drought stress for these grasses may be improved by pregerminating or osmoconditioning of seeds as suggested by several researchers (e.g. Mueller and Bowman, 1989; Mueller, 1996; Hardegre and Van Vactor 2000; Hardegree et al., 2002). In the present case, the effect of water stress was more drastic on shoot than root dry weight , particularly at severe stress conditions for all species except E. repense Therefore, it can show that root growth may be considered as a more informative factor than shoot at germination stage of perennial cool-season grasses for evaluation of species drought tolerant. Harris and Wilson (1970) noted that rapid root elongation allows root growth to advance beyond the soil drying front so that the seedling can avoid desiccation. Mueller and Bowman (1989) also reported that greater root biomass and root length in crested wheatgrass and western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii Rydb.) should aid in establishment and survival of plants during critical early stages of seedling development. It is concluded that the species E. elongatum could be used for further understanding drought tolerance mechanisms and plant breeding programs. Using the method described in the present investigation, we were able to separate drought tolerant and drought susceptible populations. This would be important for regeneration and improvement of the pastures by introducing

Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 766 tolerant species in arid and semiarid regions. A better understanding of ecological requirements and physiological characterizations of native cool-season grasses would be also required for improving germination and seedling establishment.

ACKNOLEDGMENTS The authors wish to thank Gene Bank of Rangelands and Forestry Research Institute of Iran for providing seeds.

References Abdul-Baki AA, Anderson JD (1970) Viability and leaching of sugars from germinating barley. Crop Sci. 10:31-34. Asay KH, Johnson DA (1983) Genetic variability for characters affecting stand establishment in crested wheatgrass. J. Range Manage. 36:703-706. Bayuelo-Jimenez JS, Craig R, Lynch JP (2002) Salinity tolerance of Phaseolus species during germination and early seedling growth. Crop Sci. 42:1584-1594. Bewley JD (1997) Seed germination and dormancy. Plant Cell 9:1055-1066. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) 2003. Statistical data base. The state of Iran Agri-Food country profile. Rome. Fenner M (1991) The effects of the parent environment on seed germinability. Seed Sci. & Technol. 1:75-84. Fernandez RJ, Reynolds JF (2000) Potential growth and drought tolerance of eight desert grasses: lack of trade-off? Oecologia123:90-98. Forcella F, Benech Arnold RL, Sanchez R, Ghersa CM (2000). Modeling seedling emergence. Field Crops Res. 67:123-139. Hassanyar AS, Wilson AM (1979) Tolerance of desiccation in germinating seeds of crested wheatgrass and Russian wildrye. Agron. j. 71:783-786. Hardegree SP, Thomas AJ, Van Vactor SS (2002) Variability in thermal response of primed and non- primed seeds of Squirrel tail [ (Raf.) Swezey and (J.G.Smith) M.E. Jonse] . Ann. Bot. 89:311-319. Hardegree SP, Van Vactor SS (2000). Germination and emergence of primed grass seeds under field and simulated-field temperature regimes. Ann. Bot. 85:379-390. Harris GA, Wilson AM (1970) Competition for moisture among seedling of annual and perennial grasses as influenced by root elongation at low temperature. Ecology 51:530-534. Johnson DA, Asay KH (1993) Viewpoint: selection for improved drought response in cool- season grasses. J. Range Manage. 46:194-202. Larson SU, Bibby BM (2004) Use of germination curves to describe variation in germination characteristics in three turfgrass species. Crop Sci. 44:891-899. Meyer SE, Allen PS (1999) Ecological genetics of seed germination in Bromus tectorum L. II. reaction norms in response to a water stress gradient imposed during seed maturation. Oecologia 120:35-43. Mozaffarian, V (1996) A dictionary of Iranian plant names. Farhang Moaser, Tehran.. Mueller DM (1996) Germination and root growth of 4 osmoconditioned cool-season grasses. J. Range Manage. 49:17-120. Mueller DM, Bowman RA (1989) Emergence and root growth of three pregerminated cool-season grasses under salt and water stress. J. Range Manage. 42:490-495. SAS Inst. (1996) SAS/STAT User's giude, Relase 6.12 Edition, Cary, NC. Usberti R, Valio IFM (1997) Osmoconditioning effects on germination of Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) seeds. Seed Sci. & Technol. 25: 303-310.

Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 767

Table 1. Origin of the 4 species of cool-season grasses and the effect of soil water content on time to initiation and 50% emergence, shoot and root dry weight and sensitivity index (SI) at germination and emergence stages. Days to emergence initiation Days to 50% emergence Shoot dry weight † Root dry weight Species Origin FC 75% 50% FC 75% 50% FC 75% 50% SI 75% ‡ SI 50% FC 75% 50% SI 75% Elymus elongatum Brojen 4.33 5.67 7.67 6.81 8.48 9.07 28.00 ± 3.55 34.03 ± 3.50 30.40 ± 3.08 1.2 1.1 7.50 ± 1.67 13.27 ± 0.31 8.53 ± 1.01 1.8 Elymus intermedium Oromieh 8.33 9.67 12.50 11.71 12.43 - § 14.50 ± 1.14 15.60 ± 3.89 2.63 ± 0.32 1.2 0.2 4.87 ± 0.65 6.00 ± 1.14 1.73 ± 0.21 1.2 Elymus elongatoformis Gorgan 7.33 7.67 11.00 9.25 9.41 12.09 11.37 ± 1.22 11.07 ± 2.10 1.90 ± 0.52 1.0 0.2 4.93 ± 0.81 7.33 ± 1.27 2.23 ± 0.72 1.0 Elymus repense Oromieh 7.67 7.33 9.00 9.33 8.14 - 7.83 ± 2.05 5.67 ± 1.72 0.73 ± 0.15 0.8 0.1 2.90 ± 0.66 2.73 ± 0.42 0.70 ± 0.21 0.9 † Shoot dry weight averaged over three replications, mg per pot ± SE. ‡ Ratio of median response at 75% and 50%FC to median response at field capacity. § Seeds did not reach 50% germination at 20 d.

100 15

80 12

60 9

40 6 Shoot length (cm) length Shoot Germination (%) Germination 3 20 0 0 FC 75% 50% FC 75% 50% 25% Soil water Soil water

E.elongatum E. intermedium E.elongatum E. intermedium Fig.1 Effects differential levels of soil water content on final E.elongatoformis E. repense E.elongatoformis E. repense germination, root and shoot length, and seedling vigor index at germination and emergence stages 4 cool-season 5 14 grasses. 12 4 10

3 8 6 2 4 Root length (cm) Seedling vigor index vigor Seedling 1 2 0 0 FC 75% 50% FC 75% 50% Soil water Soil water E.elongatum E. intermedium E.elongatum E. intermedium E.elongatoformis E. repense E.elongatoformis E. repense

Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 768

Agricultural landscape soil cultivation of the Stavropol Territory, Russia. Sheboldas Olga Georgievna Docent, Dean of the Plant Protection Faculty of the Stavropol State Agrarian University,Russia. Address:12 Zootehnicheskiy pereulok,Stavropol 355017 Russia. e-mail: [email protected] ; phones: +7 8652 357679 ; + 7 8652 357680 ;Fax: +7 8652 356440

Abstract The soil cultivation intensification led to considerable increase of agricultural production, but at the same time it caused a lot of negative consequences soil degradation, pollution caused by residues of pesticides, decrease of agricultural production quality and quantity. Landscape is a territory system which consists of correlating natural and anthropogenical components. Existing for 60 years in our country system, square-rectangle cutting of fields, the placement of forest zones and field roads are in deep contradiction with natural landscapes and particularly with the relief of the area and fields. Waterpools which are natural creation appeared to be cut, divided into separate parts which led to a quick infringement of the water supply of territories, considerable negative effects onto the field’s environment. In such soil cultivation the introduction of crops different in ecology, steepness and slope exposition, temperature, water, food conditions was accompanied with unreasonable use of agricultural methods, especially plowing along the slope. All these factors caused the decreasing of the soil fertility and as a result the harvest. In the terms of fertility the fields of large scale ecologically unfriendly cultivation have suffered, for example, in the dry part of the Stavropol Territory where cultivated soils account to 70-80 % and the area of fields is susually 200-300 or more hectares. Landscape soil cultivation comprises cutting the fields not into rectangles, but by contours and the placement of forest zones should be done .Such type of cultivation will make a farmer to cultivate the soil by contours and it will prevent and bring to zero the erosion appearance All these factors create favourable conditions for water, air and food conditions of the soil and will increase its fertility. According to it each farm should start making up development plans of agricultural landscape soil cultivation, deferenciate the fields by their fertility with the choice of crops which will allow to use bioclimatic potential of a certain field. The greatest part of the lands on the Stavropol territory suffers from soil erosions. The amount of rainfalls during one year and during different years is very different. In January, February and March the territory has the minimum amount of rainfalls and warm months account two thirds of the total year rainfalls. During the summer months the rainfalls are in the form of heavy showers. The crossed landscape also causes erosion. Anti-erosion soil protection gains the primary importance and in this respect much attention is given to crops cultivated on fields. Due to it soil protection rotations should be introduced where a lot depends on the choice of crops. The relative soil protection role of using different crops for sowing can be evaluated by the length of the periods in which the soil is completely covered with crops. Perennials is a good herbage cover the soil during the whole year round. The degree of the coverage in autumn, spring and winter is not high, but the flow and washing off of soils is prevented by well-developed root system. The winter grain crops the soil during 9-11 months, the maximum degree of coverage falls on May and June. Spring ear crops protect the soil during 3months and cultivated crops protect it for just 1-1,5 months. In the Stavropol territory in all zones including the fields up to 2 degrees the most intensive for certain zones soil rotation can be used: for very dry ones- grain-fallow, for the zone of Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 769 unstable substantial moisture- grain-tilled. The general area of such land in the territory accounts 350940 hectares or 86.76% of all arable lands. There are 478580 hectares of land from 2 to 5 degrees in the territory. The main cultivation on these fields should be done by contours along with strip cultivation. The area of such fields is 12%.Its main idea is in the exception of complete crop rotation on the same field and the use of strip alternation of sowing- buffers which are resistant to erosions and deflations(even strips) with strips of crops which are non-resistant to the soil desructive wind and water ( uneven strips).n one year if only annuals are grown or if we use protection functions come to the uneven strips) them for some years ( speaking about perennials) ,The width of strips depends on the steepness of the slope: from 30 to 50 metres on the slopes with 3-5 degrees and up to 10-30 metres on steeper slopes. In regions of domination of deflation the width of strips can be from 30 to 100 metres due to mechanical composion,soil structure and other conditions which define the wind-resistance. The strips are put across existing winds. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 770

RANGE DISSEMINATION USING MOTORCYCLE SEEDER

Imanmehr, A.1, Ghobadian B.2 1- Research scholar, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. Email: imanmehr @modarres.ac.ir; 2- Assistant professor, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. Phone: 0098-21-8021091 Email: bghobadian @ aeoi.org.ir

ABSTRACT Overgrazing of the pasture lands by the range livestock has made the range lands bare, which is very dangerous for the ecology and ecosystem balance. On the other hand, keeping a suitable balance between the range cover and the flocks of goats or sheep and herds of cattle is very important in managing the ecology and ecosystem balance which is possible by scattering and disseminating the various grass and range cover plant seeds. The traditional seeders of expensive and heavy machineries such as aeroplanes and tractors can not achieve this important task due to economic and technical reasons. Considering the cost, drift, uniform seed distribution, soil compaction and range land higher slopes, the newly designed and developed idea of motorcycle seeder is superior to the traditional seeders. The speed and accuracy of motorcycle seeder is much higher than the manual scattering of the seeds which is tedious. The motorcycle extra power has been engaged in this seeder which operates a blower. The blower transfers the seeds from hopper metering unit to the distributor hoses installed at motorcycle carrier. The motorcycle seeder is therefore more efficient, cost effective and environmentally friendly for the range dissemination.

Key words: Seeder, Motorcycle seeder, Small range seeds, Range dissemination

INTRODUCTION Range land is one of the important natural resources and national wealth for every country. Over grazing of the pasture lands by the range livestock has made the range lands bare in Iran. The permanent land cover is essential for soil and water conservation and plant life which results in ecology and ecosystem balance. This means that keeping a suitable balance between the range cover and the flocks of goats or ship, and herds of cattle is very important in managing the ecology and ecosystem balance which is possible by scattering and disseminating the various grass and range cover plant seeds. The plant seeds can be disseminated with the help of centrifugal seeders, or the seeders having exits at specified interval along the hoper bottom length. These seeds are then distributed with aeroplane or helicopter sprayers[5]. The centrifugal seeders which are known as bottom port seeders have been used for quick and cheap sowing of the seeds of microlithic plants and some of the fodder crops seeds. This implement is especially applicable for the small wet fields which have not regular geometric shape or the fields consisting surface or hidden obstacles and is difficult to bring them in regular shape and adjustment. This is due to the fact that the irregular distribution of seed by centrifugal disc, the uncongenial weight and shape of seeds, wind blow and the land surface irregularities all affect the seeder’s performance[2]. Aeroplanes are especially useful for dissemination of the hill type pasture lands or the conflagration area. The rice seed dissemination in the California farms and considerable areas of other states are performed by aeroplane seeders in U.S.A these days. The seeds are disseminated either on dry lands or on the drowned lands. This method is very much limited due to certain problems such as its high application cost, drift, and required expert personnel to guide aeroplane exactly near the land surface for the accurate dissemination[5]. The traditional seeders of expensive and heavy machineries such as aeroplanes and tractors can Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 771 not therefore serve the purpose of range dissemination due to economic and technical reasons in a vast area and also in all of the countries and globally. To overcome the similar problems in the area of spraying the small land holders farms, the idea of using motorcycle power train for this purpose was proposed for the first time[4]. It was later on realized that this idea can be best utilized for the purpose of cereal crops pest and insect control(8). Finally, the idea of using the motorcycle power train to spray the farm row crops[1] and even the gardens[11] was effectively made practicable. The availability of motorcycle and its degree of manoeuvaribility in range land higher slopes forms the principle of using the motorcycle extra power for range dissemination which is the basis of the present paper.

METHODS AND MATERIALS The basic principle of the motorcycle seeders rests on the pneumatic operation of a blower, operated directly by the motorcycle engine crankshaft. A designed and developed coupling shaft connects the engine crankshaft to the blower main shaft and therefore the blower becomes active on the power transmission from motorcycle power train[1 and 8]. The motorcycle extra power was initially calculated, a suitable blower was then selected and finally the other required parts were designed, manufactured and fabricated. To determine the motorcycle extra power, it was considered on an inclined surface as shown in figure(1) to simulate the land slope, and then the rear wheel driven force(Ht) and the wheels reaction rolling resistance forces (Rr and Rf) due to tire and soil deformations were calculated.

Fig.1:Motorcycle force analysis on an inclined surface. The motorcycle extra power was obtained by the reduction of the power required to overcome the wheels rolling resistance, the power for transportation and slippage from the motorcycle break horse power [3,6 and 9]. The extra power was enough reliable to be used to operate the blower. The blower is a davice for creating current of air which is used to blow the various tiny grass and range cover plant seeds in this case. The blower is of two types, the axial flow type and the centrifugal type. The air is blown in the direction of the axis of the shaft and perpendicular to the revolving blade surface in axial flow type while in the case of centrifugal type, the air enters parallel to the shaft axis, moves axially and exits tangential to the surface of a helix shape shell[7]. The centrifugal blowers are designed for high revolutions and the air pressure created by them is related to the square of revolving speed [10], the motorcycle extra power is also created at high revolwing speeds (2000-6000 rpm). This characteristic makes it possible to select the centrifugal blower to be compatible with the motorcycle shaft speed Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 772

(Fig.2). A designed and developed transmission. shaft connects the engine crankshaft to the blower shaft using a barbed pin. The hopper of the motorcycle seeder is designed to contain the microlithic seeds. The structure of the hope should be such that the seeds com moue easily and in a specified amount in the vicinity of the air flow. To fulfil this purpose, the hopper is made to be funnel shaped while the lower portion is a cone shaped. A star wheel is fixed in the conical part which is acting as a metering mechanism. It delivers a fixed amount of seeds for a complete rotation. A curved blade wheel is used to deliver moving force to the airflow velocity of the blower via a transmission bell through the metering shaft.

Fig.2:A schematic representation of a backward inclined centrifugal blower

A helico-spiral stirrer is used to stir seeds in the hopper and facilitates their flow, though the hopper vibration during the movement of whole assembly prevents the seeds from sticking to hopper wall and also from sticking to eachother. The stirrer gets its moving force from a rechargeable electric motor. The rechargeable electric motor makes the power transmission very simple to the stirrer unit. With minor modification, the power transmission can be obtained from motorcycle electric unit in future. 2 3

4

1. Hopper 1 2. Hopper Cover 3. Stirrer 4. Rechargeable electric motor 5 5. Metering mechanism 6. Curved blade wheel 7. Venturi 6 Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 773

7

Fig.3:A schematic representation of the hopper and metering mechanism

Figure 4 shows a boom, developed and fabricated to distribute the seeds which exit from metering mechanism. The boom has two arms. Each arm diameter is reduced uniformly towards the end. The equally distance holes at the lower part of the arms allow the seeds to exit from boom for distribution over the land surface in a uniform manner. 2 3 1. Boom arms 1 2. Air flow divider 3. Flexible hoses 4. Seed exit holes 4

Fig.4:The motorcycle seeder boom

A chassis was fabricated to install the boom and hopper at the rear of the motorcycle. The boom height can be adjusted through chassis whenever necessary. The boom arms can be folded in transportation condition to reduce the width and occupy lesser space on the road. The important characteristics of holes, their diameter and interval were kept in mind when designing the boom. The air flow pressure and the air quantity discharge were also considered.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The availability of motorcycle in rural area of Iran and the degree of its manoeuverability in range land higher slopes in comparison with farm lands has made the motorcycle a suitable means to be engaged for range land dissemination. The idea of using motorcycle extra power for range dissemination resulted in the design of a motorcycle seeder. The speed and accuracy of this motorcycle seeder is much higher than the manual scattering of seeds which is tedious. The motorcycle seeder consists of a motorcycle as shown in figure(1), the force analysis of which resulted in the extra power calculation used to operate a, the backwark- inclined centrifugal blower as shown in figure(2), the hopper shown in figure(3) and the boom shown in figure(4). The centrifugal blower was selected to match with the motorcycle engine speed and gives the best result in the speed range of 2000-6000 rpm. The hopper is designed in such a way that it facilitates the Flow of seeds through the metering mechanism to come in contact with the airflow from the blower. The blower rotates the curved blade wheel which rotates the star wheel in turn and hence the seeds are delivered to the seeder boom and are dropped to the land surface trough the holes devised at the bottom of the boom arms. A chassis designed and developed helps in the height adjustment of the folding boom which can be folded during the on-road transportation of the motorcycle seeder. Proceedings of The Fourth International Iran & Russia Conference 774

CONCLUSION Considering the cost, drift, unform seed distribution, soil compaction and the range land higher slopes in comparison with the ordinary farm lands , the newly designed and developed idea of motorcycle seeder is superior to the traditional seeders. The motorcycle seeder is therefore more efficient, cost effective and environmentally friendly for the range land dissemination.

REFERENCES 1. Imanmehr, A.(2002). Optimization, Testing and Evaluation of Boom-Type Motorcycle Sprayer. Unpublished ME(Ag) Dissertation, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. 2. Hunt, D. R (2001). Farm Power and Machinery Management(Persian Translation by Behroozi Lar, M.). Tehran University Press, Tehran, Iran. 3. Liljedahl, J. B. & Carleton, W. M. & Turnquist, P. K. and Smitg, D. W. (1990). Tractor and Their Power Units(Persian translation by Saghafi, M.). Third Edition, University publication center, Tehran, Iran. 4. Jafari, A.(1996). Designing Motorcycle Sprayer. Unpublished ME(Ag) Dissertation, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. 5. Kepner, R. A, Bainer, R. and Barger, E. L.(1998). principles of farm Machinery (Persian Translation by Shafiee, S.A.). Vol.1, Tehran University Press, Tehran, Iran. 6. Anonymous(1995). The operating manual of yamaha 125 Motorcycle. Iran Docharkh Co., Iran Docharkh Press, Tehran, Iran. 7. Brooker, D. B, Bakker-Arkema, F. W. and Hall, C. W.(1992). Drying and Storage of Grains and Oilseeds. Published by Van Noatrand Reionhold, NY., U.S.A. 8. Ghobadian, B. and Jafari, A.(2002). Field Crop Pest and Insect-Control Using Motorcycle Sprayer, The 3rd International Iran and Russian Conference, Moscow, Russia, Sep 18-20 th, 2002. 9. Mckyes, E.(1985). Soil Cutting and Tillage. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., NY., U.S.A. 10. Richey, C.B, Jacobson, P. and Hall, C. W.(1961). Agricultural Engineers’ Handbook. McGraw- Hill Co., U.S.A. 11. Arshanvar, A.A.(2001), Design, Development and Evaluation of Garden Sprayer. Unpublished ME(Ag) dissertation. Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran.