Exploring the Lessons from an International Rural Environmental

Exploring the Lessons from an International Rural Environmental Project in a Developing Country through Observations of the Community: A Case Study of the ‘Conservation of Biodiversity in the Central Zagros Landscape’ Project

M Elyas Karim BA (Hons), MA (Newcastle)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy (Environmental Sciences)

The School of Environmental and Life Sciences The University of Newcastle Australia

November 2019

Statement of Originality

I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo.

M Elyas Karim

Signature: ......

Date: ...... 12/11/2019......

Dedication

My beloved mother

Environmentalists, suffering the present barriers.

Acknowledgment

First of all, the main characters which enabled my research progress. I candidly appreciate my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Salim Momtaz, I could not progress adequately without his effective supervision and priceless supports. Also, I am grateful to my co-supervisor Professor Michael Mahony, whose supervision is a prestigious asset, and he contributed supportively in all of the main steps. Besides, I appreciate my mother, who prayed for me every day and encouraged me.

Secondly, supportive individuals. I appreciate Professor Frances Martin, the Assistant

Dean – Research and Training of science faculty because of her close supports and backing me as a UON HDR student. I am genuinely grateful to the entire Graduate

Research team members for their strong supports in my journey, and their student peer- advisors for the constant followings. I appreciate the University staff, especially Anna

Honeysett, Nicole Day and Pam Steenkamp for all of their warm cooperation. I appreciate the University’s Human Ethics community, especially Ruth Gibbins, for their supports. I also appreciate the supportive academicians, especially Dr Henry P

Huntington for the research advises and Dr Ami Eidels for the Human Ethics guidelines. Last but not least, I am grateful to my excellent team colleagues:

Mohammad Nashir Uddin, Md Faruk Hossain and Hoang Dung Ha, for their encouragements and supports.

Thirdly, the organisations and institutes. I am genuinely grateful to the University of

Newcastle and its executives. I also appreciate the Australian government and the

Department of Home Affairs specifically, for their valuable and effective supports. I am grateful for the supportive approaches by the International Section of Universities

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Australia, Council of International Students Australia (CISA), the current rural governance of Isfahan province, and the Semirom’s rural farmer cooperative.

Abstract

Climate change is a developing global phenomenon as a critical disaster to the life of the human being. Air, water and other natural resources are being affected by that destructively. There is a range of climate change impact samples on the planet amongst the various social, economic, and environmental sections. As a result, the global community has created a variety of the international climate change adaptation contracts from 1992 Rio Earth Summit to 2016 Paris Agreement (as the main one), and still addressing the formation of new agreements. Further, the international community has started launching global climate change adaptation projects. However, many of these projects failed to achieve their objectives, while the developed countries are planning to supply about 100 billion USD for climate change adaptation projects from 2020 to 2030 in developing countries based on the Paris Agreement.

On the other hand, developing countries, the Middle East and rural areas are more vulnerable in terms of climate change effects, compared to developed countries, other world regions and urban areas, respectively. Consequently, this research aimed to investigate an International Rural Environmental Project (IREP) in the Middle East.

Considering the fact that Zagros mountain range is the most significant environmental zone of the Middle East, as it balances the region's climate, and the Conservation of

Biodiversity in Central Zagros Landscape (CBCZL) project is the main IREP implemented in the Zagros area so far, this study explored the lessons from the CBCZL project. It was aimed to know what the advantages of and barriers to the CBCZL project are, how the community observations of the project compare with the SDGs

13 and 15, and what the major lessons learnt about the effects of the CBCZL project on the community are. The study utilised a mixed-method and a case study approach,

through analysing the collected data from the secondary and primary resources

(including the experts’ opinion and local rural community’s observations).

Finally, it is discovered that: 1) the CBCZL project was more successful in the community aspects; 2) air pollution and drought are the main problems; 3) experts and public have dissimilar recognitions on the ecosystem conditions; 4) project discontinuation is a challenge; 5) the project failed to mainstream; 6) further public awareness is necessary; and 7) the implementation barriers are in the tactical levels rather than technical. It is recommended that further researches investigate the causes of dissimilarities between the perception of experts and the community. Besides, the environmental management characteristics, barriers, and resolutions must be studied before the implementation of the next projects. It is also significant that current/next project managers utilise strategic consultations. Public awareness must be further studied and improved for similar IREPs.

Table of Contents

Statement of Originality ...... i

Dedication ...... ii

Acknowledgment ...... iii

Abstract ...... v

Table of Contents ...... vii

List of Figures ...... xv

List of Tables...... xvii

List of Photos ...... xviii

List of Appendices ...... xix

Acronyms and Abbreviations ...... xx

Glossary of Terms ...... xxii

Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1

1.1. Background ...... 1

1.2. Significance of the Study ...... 4

1.2.1. Global Environmental Context ...... 5

1.2.2. Climate-Based Migration and Food Security ...... 5

1.2.3. Regional and Local Economic Context...... 6

1.3. The Research Aim and Objectives ...... 7

1.4. Chapters Overview ...... 9

vii

1.5. Chapter Summary...... 11

Chapter 2 Literature Review ...... 12

2.1. Introduction ...... 12

2.2. Sustainable Development and Climate Change ...... 12

2.2.1. Historical Overview ...... 12

2.2.3. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies ...... 15

2.3. International Rural Environmental Projects ...... 18

2.3.1. Rural Communities and Climate Change Adaptation ...... 18

2.3.2. IREPs in Developing Countries ...... 20

2.3.3. Contributions by International Organisations ...... 22

2.3.4. Review of Lessons from Similar IREPs Case Studies ...... 24

2.3.4.1. FAO Global Climate Change Adaptation Projects ...... 24

2.3.4.2. Mainstreaming NAPAs in Lesotho ...... 25

2.3.4.3. Biidi 2 Project in Burkina Faso ...... 25

2.3.4.4. CSA-PF in Mali ...... 26

2.4. Major Environmental Projects in the CZM Region ...... 27

2.4.1. Overall Approach ...... 27

2.4.2. UNDP and GEF-Small Grant Programme ...... 27

2.4.3. CBCZL Project ...... 28

2.4.3.1. Project Description ...... 28

2.4.3.2. The Project’s Activities ...... 30

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2.4.4. C+SD Program ...... 31

2.4.4.1. Project Description ...... 31

2.4.4.2. The Project’s Activities ...... 31

2.4.5. Available Lessons from the Projects in CZM ...... 32

2.4.5.1. UNDP-GEF SGP ...... 32

2.4.5.2. CBCZL Project ...... 33

2.4.5.3. C+SD Program ...... 35

2.5. The Research Gap ...... 36

2.6. Chapter Summary...... 37

Chapter 3 Research Methodology ...... 39

3.1. Introduction ...... 39

3.2. Research Plan ...... 39

3.3. Research Design and Approach ...... 40

3.4. Selection of the Case Study Site ...... 41

3.5. Secondary Data Collection ...... 43

3.6. Primary Data Collection ...... 43

3.6.1. Household Survey ...... 43

3.6.2. Focus Group Discussion ...... 44

3.6.3. Key Informant Interview ...... 45

3.6.4. Information Statement and Consent Form ...... 46

3.6.5. Researcher Observation ...... 46

3.7. Data Analysis ...... 47

3.7.1. Quantitative Analysis ...... 48

3.7.1.1. Procedure ...... 48

3.7.1.2. Weighted Average Index ...... 48

3.7.2. Qualitative Analysis ...... 49

3.7.2.1. Procedure ...... 49

3.7.2.2. NVivo ...... 50

3.8. Validity and Reliability ...... 51

3.9. Ethical Considerations ...... 52

3.10. Study Limitations ...... 52

3.11. Chapter Summary...... 53

Chapter 4 Research Settings ...... 54

4.1. Introduction ...... 54

4.2. Central Zagros Mountain Region ...... 54

4.2.1. Geographical Context...... 54

4.2.2. Local Environmental Features ...... 56

4.2.2.1. Weather and Climate...... 56

4.2.2.2. Water Resources and Wetlands ...... 58

4.2.2.3. Biodiversity ...... 59

4.2.2.4. Forests and Rangelands ...... 59

4.2.3. Rural Livelihoods and Natural Resources...... 61

4.2.4. Agricultural Context ...... 63

4.2.5. Socio-Economic Context ...... 64

4.3. Study Site ...... 65

4.3.1. Geographical Setting ...... 65

4.3.2. Environmental Features ...... 66

4.3.3. Social Context ...... 68

4.4. Observation of the Study Site ...... 70

4.5. Chapter Summary...... 71

Chapter 5 Community Perceptions on the CBCZL Project ...... 72

5.1. Introduction ...... 72

5.2. Demographic Results of HHS Participants ...... 72

5.2.1. Gender ...... 74

5.2.2. Education Level ...... 74

5.2.3. Age Range ...... 75

5.2.4. Marital Status ...... 75

5.2.5. Major Occupations ...... 75

5.3. Observed Climatic Events ...... 76

5.3.1. HHS Results ...... 76

5.3.2. FGDs Results ...... 77

5.4. Community’s Perception of the Environmental-Related Conditions ...... 79

5.4.1. HHS Results ...... 79 xi

5.4.2. FGDs Results ...... 82

5.5. Advantages of the CBCZL Project ...... 86

5.5.1. HHS Results ...... 87

5.5.2. FGDs Results ...... 88

5.6. Barriers and Challenges to the CBCZL Project ...... 90

5.6.1. HHS Results ...... 90

5.6.2. FGDs Results ...... 91

5.7. Alternative Implementation Approaches to Achieve Higher Efficiency ...... 93

5.7.1. HHS Results ...... 93

5.7.2. FGDs Results ...... 94

5.8. Community View and Participation ...... 97

5.8.1. Community View on the CBCZL Project ...... 97

5.8.2. Community Participation in the CBCZL Project ...... 98

5.9. Conclusion ...... 99

Chapter 6 Experts’ Perceptions on the CBCZL Project ...... 100

6.1. Introduction ...... 100

6.2. Professional Background of the Key Informants ...... 100

6.3. Advantages of the CBCZL Project ...... 101

6.4. Barriers and Challenges of the CBCZL Project ...... 103

6.5. Necessity of the CBCZL Project for the SDGs ...... 106

6.6. Requirements for Global and Domestic Supports ...... 107 xii

6.7. Alternative Implementation Approaches to Achieve Higher Efficiency ...... 109

6.8. Conclusion ...... 111

Chapter 7 Discussion and Conclusion ...... 112

7.1. Introduction ...... 112

7.2. Discussions ...... 112

7.2.1. Perceptions of the Community on the Climatic Events and Changes .... 113

7.2.2. Perceptions of the Community on the Environmental-related Conditions

...... 116

7.2.3. The Necessity of the CBCZL Project for the UN SDGs ...... 117

7.2.4. Community View of and Participation in the CBCZL Project ...... 118

7.2.5. Community-Based Advantages of the CBCZL Project ...... 118

7.2.6. Barriers and Challenges to the Success of the CBCZL Project ...... 119

7.2.7. Requirements for Internal and External Supports ...... 120

7.2.8. Alternative Implementation Approaches to Achieve Higher Efficiency 122

7.3. Explored Lessons ...... 124

7.4. Research Questions and Answers ...... 129

7.5. Key Findings ...... 131

7.5.1. Failure in Mainstreaming Due to Inadequate Corporation at Management

Levels ...... 131

7.5.2. Different Community Perceptions on the Environmental Conservation

Due to Lack of Public Awareness and Engagement ...... 132

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7.5.3. Internal and External Funds and Budgeting Management as a Tactical

Requirement for the Success of the Project ...... 133

7.6. Implications and Recommendations ...... 135

7.7. Study Limitations and Future Research Directions ...... 136

References ...... 137

Appendices ...... 160

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List of Figures

Figure 1-1 Location of Zagros Mountains in the Middle East ...... 3

Figure 1-2 Regional Damages from Selected Climate Change Impacts ...... 6

Figure 1-3 Illustrative Model on the Rationale of Implementation of IREPs in Zagros

...... 7

Figure 2-1 International Sustainable Development Agreements Timeline ...... 13

Figure 2-2 Climate Change and Biodiversity Conservation ...... 16

Figure 3-1 Research Design ...... 41

Figure 4-1 Map of the Central Zagros Mountain Region ...... 56

Figure 4-2 Landscape Units Coloured according to Changes in (a) Deforestation

Sensitivity and (b) Connectivity Sensitivity ...... 60

Figure 5-1 Distribution of HHS Participants by Education Level ...... 74

Figure 5-2 Distribution of HHS Participants by Age Range ...... 75

Figure 5-3 Distribution of HHS Participants by Occupation ...... 76

Figure 5-4 Observed Climatic Events by HHS Participants ...... 77

Figure 5-5 Overall Status of Environmental-Related Conditions – HHS Results ..... 81

Figure 5-6 Overall Status of Environmental-Related Conditions – FGDs Results .... 83

Figure 5-7 The CBCZL Project's Advantages – HHS Results ...... 88

Figure 5-8 Barriers to the CBCZL Project’s Success – HHS Results...... 91

Figure 5-9 Alternative Implementation Approaches – HHS Results ...... 94

Figure 5-10 Alternative Implementation Approaches – FGDs Results ...... 95

Figure 6-1 Advantages of the CBCZL Project – KIIs Results ...... 102

Figure 6-2 Barriers and Challenges of the CBCZL Project – KIIs Results ...... 104

Figure 6-3 Alternative Implementation Approaches – KIIs Results ...... 109

Figure 7-1 Barriers and Challenges to the Success of the CBCZL Project ...... 120

Figure 7-2 Inter-agency Cooperation ...... 122

Figure 7-3 Alternative Implementation Approaches...... 123

Figure 7-4 Effective Implementation Approaches ...... 124

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List of Tables

Table 3-1 Research Participants ...... 45

Table 3-2 Response Scale ...... 49

Table 5-1 Demographic Data of HHS Participants ...... 73

Table 5-2 Community’s Perception of Environmental-Related Conditions Before the

CBCZL Project – HHS Results ...... 80

Table 5-3 Community’s Perception of Environmental-Related Conditions After the

CBCZL Project – HHS Results ...... 80

Table 5-4 Community’s Perception of Environmental-Related Conditions Before the

CBCZL Project – FGDs Results ...... 82

Table 5-5 Community’s Perception of the environmental-related conditions After the

CBCZL Project – FGDs Results ...... 83

Table 7-1 Answers to the Research Questions ...... 130

xvii

List of Photos

Photo 4-1 Apple orchard and the owner in the study site ...... 66

Photo 4-2 Apple tree dieback ...... 67

Photo 4-3 Two indigenous nomad households living together in the site ...... 69

Photo 4-4 Field Observation: A rural residential design for the farm worker’s family with in-house permaculture capability (left), A branch of irrigation (right) ...... 71

Photo 5-1 The rural fishery unit (left), Trout fish farming (right) ...... 78

Photo 5-2 The honey producers beside the colonies in the site (left), The local organic honey scaling and packing section (right) ...... 85

Photo 5-3 Farmers selling the fresh produce on-site (left), Agricultural farm (right) 87

Photo 5-4 Herders grazing their livestock (left), Herders group in the production unit

(right)...... 89

xviii

List of Appendices

Appendix 1. Questionnaire for Household Survey………………………………...160

Appendix 2. Questionnaire for Focus Group Discussions…………………………162

Appendix 3. Questionnaire for Key Informant Interviews…………………………163

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

C+SD Conservation and Sustainable Development

CBCZL Conservation of Biodiversity in the Central Zagros Landscape

CMA Catchment Management Area

CSA-PF Climate-Smart Agriculture Prioritisation Framework

CZM Central Zagros Mountains

DoE Department of Environment

EFC Eastern Fertile Crescent

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

FGD Focus Group Discussion

FNL Forest Nationalisation Law

GEF Global Environment Facility

HHS Household Survey

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IREP International Rural Environmental Project

KII Key Informant Interview

LMOI Literacy Movement Organisation of Iran

MCPP Municipal Climate Protection Programme

NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action

NGO Non-Government Organisation

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

SGP Small Grants Program

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

WAI Weighted Average Index

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Glossary of Terms

Adaptation:

‘Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected

climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial

opportunities’ (IPCC 2001, p. 982).

Biodiversity:

‘The numbers and relative abundances of different genes (genetic diversity),

species, and ecosystems (communities) in a particular area’ (IPCC 2001, p.

983).

Climate Change Adaptation:

‘Actions taken to help society, communities, and ecosystems moderate, cope

with, or take advantage of actual or expected changes in climate conditions.

Adaptation can reduce vulnerability, both in the short and long term’ (Flower

et al. 2013, p. 87).

Climate Change Mitigation:

‘Anthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of

greenhouse gases … The concept of limiting or controlling emissions of

greenhouse gases, so that the overall accumulation is limited’ (IPCC 2001, p.

990).

Conservation of Biodiversity:

‘The preservation, maintenance, sustainable use (conservation), recovery and

enhancement of the components of biological diversity, where:

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 Conservation—is the sustainable use of resources and encompasses

protection as well as exploitation and;

 Preservation—is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep something

without altering or changing it’ (Mutia 2009, p. 4).

Sustainable Development:

‘Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (IPCC 2001, p. 994).

‘A balance between the environment, development and society that results in

sustainable development’ (Mutia 2009, p. 5).

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

In 2015, the United Nations (UN) adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Development, which comprises 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at addressing global challenges for achieving sustainable economic, social and environmental development (UN 2015). Of interest here are goals 13 ‘Climate Action’ and 15 ‘Life on Land’, which focus on climate action and sustainable use and management of natural resources, respectively (UN 2015). Climate change has been identified as a global priority demanding urgent action. This requires consideration of the multiple dimensions of climate change, including degradation of ecosystems; vegetation loss; reduction of plant productivity; food insecurity; drinking water shortages, with significant associated health consequences; and economic decline

(Sitch et al. 2007; UN 2009; Wheeler & Von Braun 2013).

The viability of nations depends strongly on sustainable rural development (UN 2009), which in turn is reliant on the implementation of climate change adaptation practices.

In developing countries, the agricultural sector provides 61 per cent of employment and contributes 14 per cent to the gross domestic product (Henson & Loader 2001).

Considering the importance of rural communities in global sustainability (Savage et al. 2009), it is important that they apply sustainable environmental and agricultural practices, to address climate change effects. Moreover, empowering rural communities through active participation in the management of their social, economic and

environmental needs and goals is an effective way of promoting involvement in climate mitigation actions, while at the same time enhancing these communities’ livelihoods (UN 2009).

Studies examining the role of rural communities demonstrate that the necessity for empowering rural communities has been increasingly recognised by government and non-government organisations (NGOs), resulting in the implementation of socio- environmental projects across the globe, especially within developing countries

(Hughes et al. 2016). The objectives of these projects include:

1) using the capability of rural communities to engage in environmental

protection and land care activities

2) using the contribution of rural communities in agricultural modernisation,

based on sustainable practices (Hughes et al. 2016).

Although climate change is an issue for all nations, due to the interrelationship of geographical zones, it is more destructive for developing countries (CEEweb for

Biodiversity 2008). The fields of environment and development have international dimensions, necessitating international cooperation in developing and implementing management solutions to achieve sustainable results (CEEweb for Biodiversity 2008).

This includes through the implementation of projects in rural areas, here referred to as

International Rural Environmental Projects (IREPs).

This research investigates the interrelationship between environmental sustainability and livelihoods through a case study examining the perspectives of villagers living in rural communities in a significant environmental zone: the Zagros Mountains. The

Zagros Mountains cover an area of over 500,000 square kilometres, extending from

Azerbaijan Province in north-western Iran to south-eastern parts of the country (DoE

2016, p. 7), while the northern parts of the range are in south-eastern Turkey and north- eastern Iraq (see Figure 1-1). This region has been identified as vulnerable to climate change (Verisk Maplecroft 2016) and plays a critical role in local, regional and global socio-environmental conditions.

Figure 1-1 Location of Zagros Mountains in the Middle East

(Source: Developed by the author based on maps-of-the-world.net) A strategic IREP, the Conservation of Biodiversity in Central Zagros Landscapes

(CBCZL) project, was undertaken from 2005 to 2017, with the aim of combatting the effect of climate change (UN SDG 13) within the Zagros region via the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable resource usage (UN SDG 15) (Navajas & Farahani Rad

2016). The international community sponsored the CBCZL project through triad cooperation between the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the Global

Environment Facility (GEF) and local environmentalists—from both government and

NGOs—alongside parallel funding from the Iranian Department of Environment

(DoE). The goal of the CBCZL project was to develop the socio-economy of the region, and to support biodiversity restoration and conservation. The main objective of the project was ‘mainstreaming conservation of the biodiversity and the landscape within the central Zagros landscape conservation zone’ (Hunnam 2011; Navajas &

Farahani Rad 2016).

Successful implementation of IREPs in the Zagros mountain range has the potential not only to improve the Middle Eastern climate but to have global effects. Evans and

Alsamawi (2011) claim that the Zagros Mountains balance the temperature and precipitation in the Middle East, affecting the climate of an area of approximately

1,500,000 square kilometres in that region (Evans & Alsamawi 2011; Zarrin et al.

2011). Moreover, these mountains influence the atmosphere and Earth’s overall climatic situation (Evans & Alsamawi 2011).

1.2. Significance of the Study

The Zagros Mountains are the most extensive mountain range in the Middle East and significantly balance the region’s climatic conditions (Evans & Alsamawi 2011). In addition to moderating the temperature and precipitation in the Middle East, they also influence Earth’s climate (Evans & Alsamawi 2011; Zarrin et al. 2011). Successful implementation of IREPs in the Zagros Mountains has the potential to improve the

Middle Eastern climate and have global effects. Accordingly, environmental protection of the Zagros Mountains and managing climate change effects in the Zagros region are key strategies as part of global climate change adaptation. Failure to implement effective climate change adaptation in the Zagros Mountains could result 4

in significant climate change consequences for the Middle East and beyond (Evans &

Alsamawi 2011; Zarrin et al. 2011).

1.2.1. Global Environmental Context

Climatically, the Middle East is classified as an arid zone, which in the absence of ecosystem management, are predicted to operate as hotspots for heat absorption from solar radiation (Evans 2010), with implications for climate warming. Moreover, the ecosystems of the Middle East provide habitats for a variety of endemic species of flora and fauna, many of which are already threatened with extinction. The region is also vital for the many species that pass through during their migration (DoE 2016).

1.2.2. Climate-Based Migration and Food Security

Climate change-based hazards in the environmentally vulnerable Middle East are associated with the decline of agriculture, which in turn leads to evacuations of rural residents (Lelieveld et al. 2016). These changes unbalance the human settlement system inside these countries and eventually fuels mass migrations towards other regions, such as America, Australia and Europe (Lelieveld et al. 2016). At the same time, the rising human population brings an increased demand for food. Food production and supply in the Middle East has not expanded in step with population growth, driving up food prices and intensifying food insecurity (Wenzlau 2013).

Figure 1-2 Regional Damages from Selected Climate Change Impacts

1.2.3. Regional and Local Economic Context

The overall economic damage due to climate change is predicted to be considerably higher in the Middle East in comparison to both many other regions and the global average (see Figure 1-2). This is particularly concerning considering the immense value of the Middle East from a global heritage perspective; the degradation of its environment would represent a significant loss for humanity (Hobbs 2017). Further, and crucially, most local livelihoods in the Zagros region rely directly or indirectly on natural resources; climate change effects could add fuel to existing conflicts and the instability in the region (Stang 2016).

Figure 1-3 Illustrative Model on the Rationale of Implementation of IREPs in Zagros

(Source: Developed by the author based on literature)

Sustainable rural development within the Zagros region must include environmental stability. Implementing IREPs is a key action for promoting adaptation to climate change as part of the push towards sustainable rural livelihoods in the region and global sustainable development more broadly (see Figure 1-3). To achieve this, the existing social capabilities within rural communities should be used. Rural communities, as leading agricultural producers, are susceptible to climate change effects, including pollution, rising heat, ecosystem damage and fire risks. Consequently, they need to be empowered to undertake adaptation works through a variety of projects, including conservation of local ecosystems and reforestation (Memmott et al. 2013).

1.3. The Research Aim and Objectives

Even though the CBCZL project was completed in 2017, it remains unclear whether it achieved its objectives with respect to the sustainability of local rural communities.

This knowledge gap stems from the lack of comprehensive research addressing the socio-environmental aspects of the project. As such, further research is required to study the challenges and outcomes of the project, to identify lessons for future efforts.

To be effective, such a study should focus on rural livelihoods and the sustainability of rural communities through both examining the perspectives of residents and analysing expert opinions on the challenges and outcomes of the CBCZL project as an

IREP.

Four reports provide some assessment of the conservation and sustainable development projects implemented in the Central Zagros Mountains (CZM) region

(DoE 2016; Hunnam 2011; Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016; UNDP-GEF SGP 2011); however, these focus on professional management issues and tactical approaches. The gap in knowledge of the CBCZL project is in understanding the observations and experiences of the villagers themselves. Since the rural communities of the Zagros

Mountains are directly reliant on the local environment for their sustainability, and are in close relationship with that ecosystem, their views of the CBCZL project and its socio-environmental effects on the ecosystem and their lives are an essential component of understanding the outcomes of the initiative. It would also be beneficial to compare the community-observed results of the CBCZL project with UN SDGs 13 and 15, to identify ways to improve the efficiency of similar projects in other developing nations. This research aims to fill these gaps by analysing the observations of rural residents on the effects of the CBCZL project on agriculture, air quality, water resources, the ecosystem and livelihoods in the Zagros region, which are affected by local environmental conditions and sustainable development plans.

Therefore, the objectives of this study are to:

1) identify the advantages of and barriers to the CBCZL project as an IREP for

rural communities in the Zagros region

2) understand community members’ observations of the CBCZL project and its

effects, and compare the result with the UN SDGs 13 and 15

3) explore the major lessons learned about the effects on local communities of the

CBCZL project.

Based on the research objectives, this study addresses the following research questions:

1) What were the advantages of and barriers to the CBCZL project as an IREP for

rural communities in the Zagros region?

2) How do community members’ observations of the CBCZL project and its

effects compare with the UN SDGs 13 and 15?

3) What are the major lessons learned about the effects on local communities of

the CBCZL project?

1.4. Chapters Overview

This thesis comprises seven chapters, with Chapters 2 to 7 outlined as follows.

Chapter 2 reviews relevant literature, to provide a background for this study. First, it presents a brief historical review of the terms ‘sustainable development’ and

‘sustainability’, along with a timeline of international sustainable development agreements and significant events. Next, the chapter discusses climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in relation to biodiversity conservation. This is followed by an overview of IREPs aimed at implementing climate change adaptation strategies for local communities in developing countries, including discussion of the lessons arising from similar projects. Finally, the major environmental projects undertaken in the region are described, including their activities and lessons, as

extracted from available project reports. Finally, the current research gap in this field is identified.

Chapter 3 explains the research methodology used for this study. The chapter describes the research plan, research design, selection of the study site and the methods of data collection and data analysis. Several methods were selected and used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data for this research. These methods include household surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and researcher observations. This chapter also describes how the collected data were analysed to validate and verify the results.

Chapter 4 provides an overview of the study area, to give the reader a better understanding of the geographical and socio-economic status of the study area. The geographical and environmental features and local livelihoods of the study region are outlined, and the current environmental situation of the study site is explained. This chapter also presents the relevant demographic information.

Chapter 5 presents the findings on the community’s perception of the CBCZL project.

Using household surveys and focus group discussions, it investigates the advantages of and barriers to the project as an IREP for rural communities in the Zagros region.

The chapter also analyses the community’s perspective on the status of agriculture, air quality, water resources, the ecosystem and livelihoods in the region before and after implementation of the CBCZL project. Finally, it presents the participants’ views voiced in the four focus groups.

Chapter 6 analyses the experts’ perceptions of the CBCZL project. The successes and failures of, and barriers faced by, the project, from the perspective of the experts, are

described. Discussion then moves to consider the experts’ opinions on how the project could have been implemented more effectively.

Chapter 7 provides a discussion on the results from the data collected through all three methods of HHS, FGD and KII. It then elaborates the main learned lessons from the implementation of the CBCZL project, based on the experts’ and local community’s opinion. This chapter demonstrates the importance of climate change adaptation strategies for biodiversity conservation in the study area and how the local communities are benefitting from the results. Finally, the effects of the CBCZL project for the community are compared to UN SDGs 13 and 15 to emphasise the value of

IREPs such as the CBCZL project for meeting these goals. The chapter concludes the thesis with a summary of the key findings in relation to the research questions.

Recommendations are also made to improve the strategies used by environmental organisations when implementing such projects in the future. Finally, this chapter briefly discusses the contribution and limitations of the study and suggests avenues for future research.

1.5. Chapter Summary

This chapter has introduced the background and significance of this study on the

CBCZL project. The aim and objectives of the research have been stated, along with the related research questions. Finally, the chapter briefly outlined the remaining chapters of the thesis.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature in the fields of sustainable development, climate change adaptation and rural communities’ livelihoods. In the first section, a brief historical background of the terms ‘sustainable development’ and

‘sustainability’ is given, followed by a timeline of the major relevant international events and agreements, and a discussion of the climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies related to different aspects of biodiversity conservation. Next, the chapter provides an overview of IREPs aimed at implementing climate change adaptation strategies for rural communities in developing countries, which have involved international organisations such as UNDP and GEF. Then, the section reviews similar IREP case studies, to provide some lessons from the literature. Finally, an overview of the major environmental projects and related activities in the region is provided, gleaning further lessons from these projects through available reports.

2.2. Sustainable Development and Climate Change

2.2.1. Historical Overview

The term ‘sustainable development’, emerging in the context of environmental concerns, made its first appearance in the 1982 World Charter for Nature. These environmental concerns were again reflected in the 1987 Brundtland report, known as

Our Common Future (Hák 2016). Our Common Future offered long-term strategies to

achieve environmentally sustainable development, and it recommended common objectives for countries with different economic and social levels to support people, environment, resources and development (Brundtland 1987). The Brundtland report introduced the term ‘sustainability’ and the conceptual cornerstones of contemporary development policies: the three pillars of economic growth, social development and conservation of nature (Kates et al. 2005). The report raised universal issues related to balancing human requirements with responsible management of natural resources on the global and national scale, such as better international cooperation and raising awareness about the environment among politicians and the public (Gerasimova

2017). The timeline in Figure 2-1 outlines the major international agreements and events that have occurred since 1896 with significance for IREPs such as the CBCZL project.

Figure 2-1 International Sustainable Development Agreements Timeline

(Source: Developed by the author based on Creech 2012)

In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development took place in Rio de Janeiro, with all nations effectively committing to tackle their common environmental problems (Keating 1992). However, subsequently, a shortage of capacity at the national level to achieve this led to the establishment of a global program funded by the GEF. The Paris Agreement, within the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was adopted on 12 December

2015 (UN 2015) and as at July 2018, has been signed by 195 UNFCCC members. The long-term goal of the agreement is to hold the increase of the global average temperature to well under 2°C, and to limit it to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. In this regard, scientific assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) provide necessary information for political decisions based on science, such as economic, technological and feasibility assessments, by determining the effects, vulnerabilities and risks associated with different goals (Schleussner et al. 2016).

In 2015, the UN General Assembly approved the SDGs, which include 17 goals and

169 targets to stimulate activities over the next 15 years in fields of vital significance for humanity and the planet (UN 2015). The SDGs follow from and expand on the

Millennium Development Goals, which were agreed to by UN members in 2000 (Hák

2016). On 8 October 2018, the UNFCCC Secretariat approved a new summary for policy-makers, produced by the 48th session of the IPCC, held in Incheon in the

Republic of Korea. This new scientific finding suggests that even a 2°C increase in the world’s temperature would be catastrophic. Accordingly, the global community must ensure the temperature rise is less than 1.5°C by 2100. This was a strategic input for the Katowice Climate Change Conference, held in Poland in December 2018 (IPCC

2018).

2.2.3. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

More than 100 countries have signed the Paris Agreement, adopting a global warming limit of 2°C, to mitigate global climate change risks, impacts and damages

(Meinshausen et al. 2009). The evolution of Earth’s climate depends on the amount of greenhouse emissions withdrawn from the atmosphere via the ocean and land carbon cycles. However, coupled climate–carbon cycle models indicate that global warming can act to limit the land-carbon sink. Combined with the fact that fuel- and biomass- related emissions have almost doubled the world’s mean tropospheric gas concentration (Sitch et al. 2007), it is increasingly likely that the world’s temperature will warm by more than 2°C in the near future. Accordingly, it is important to move beyond thinking about the vulnerabilities to and impacts of climate change and onto adaptation actions. Working in the adaptation field and focusing on the underlying issues is challenging; all societies must integrate adaptation actions into their policies and practices. As part of the pathway of response and change, re-conceptualising adaptation increases the focus and emphasis on this issue (Wise et al. 2014).

Climate change adaptation seeks to manage the vulnerability of social and biological systems, to offset the effects of global warming and climate change (see Figure 2-2).

The trend of emissions expansion is embedded, and climate change and its effects are predicted to last for many years (Reiter et al. 2017). Therefore, it is essential to promote regional- and local-level action towards adaptation to global warming, to enable adjustment to the climate change effects (Reiter et al. 2017). Figure 2-2 illustrates the impacts and damages of climate change on the natural environment and human societies, emphasising the importance of mitigation and adaptation action to reduce

these effects. One such action is the implementation of IREPs, including the CBCZL project in the Zagros region.

Figure 2-2 Climate Change and Biodiversity Conservation

(Source: Ministry of Environment 2016)

The term ‘adaptation’ has been used by biologists to describe the evolutionary process of natural selection for many years. It means that populations of organisms change over time to adjust to other organisms and changes in the environment (Mawdsley et al. 2009). Some of the climate change effects on species and ecosystems include: changes in the distributions of species; reductions in population size; extinction of restricted and endemic species; direct loss of habitat due to sea-level rise, increases in

fire-bush frequency, changes in climatic patterns and warming of some habitats (such as mountainous areas); and spread of wildlife diseases (Mawdsley et al. 2009).

Below, climate change adaptation strategies are grouped according to the aspect of biodiversity conservation to which they relate.

Strategies related to land and water protection and management: 1. Increase the extent of protected areas; 2. Improve representation and replication within protected- area networks; 3. Improve management and restoration of protected areas to facilitate resilience; 4. Design new natural areas and restoration sites to maximise resilience; 5.

Manage and restore ecosystem function rather than focusing on specific components;

6. Improve the matrix by boosting landscape permeability to species movement.

Strategies related to direct species management: 1. Focus conservation resources on flora and fauna that might become extinct; 2. Translocate species at risk of extinction;

3. Establish captive populations of endangered flora and fauna; 4. Decrease pressures on the environment from sources other than climate change.

Strategies related to monitoring and planning: 1. Evaluate and enhance monitoring programs for wildlife and ecosystems; 2. Incorporate predicted climate-change consequences into the environment and land-management programs, plans and activities; 3. Develop effective landscape conservation plans; 4. Consider wildlife and biodiversity needs as part of the broader societal adaptation process.

Strategy related to law and policy: Review and modify existing laws, regulations, and policies regarding wildlife and natural resource management (Mawdsley et al. 2009).

2.3. International Rural Environmental Projects

2.3.1. Rural Communities and Climate Change Adaptation

Climate change adaptation is critical to sustainable development in rural communities, as it is predicted that climate change will increase the vulnerability of local livelihoods and their subsistence, which depends on the local environment (Agnoletti 2007;

Nadolny 1998). Accordingly, as part of efforts to address issues related to climate change, it is essential that the livelihood strategies of rural communities be improved as a form of social adaptation. Wang et al. (2013) contend that local governments, public institutions and markets play key roles in facilitating and shaping adaptation strategies for local livelihoods. They believe that government policies need to be implemented that facilitate pasture and grassland resource management through supporting sustainable development and empowering local communities (Wang et al.

2013).

In rural areas, the quality of relationships and communications within and between social and institutional networks will affect the ability of rural communities to cope with and recover from natural disasters such as are already intensifying under climate change. Keogh et al. (2011) believe that communities in regions with an increased risk of natural disasters require scientific monitoring and modelling based on quality baseline information, to improve residents’ awareness and understandings, and detect the early warning signs, of natural disasters. In this respect, government agencies have a significant responsibility to protect their residents and must ensure that the adaptation strategies adopted are adequate (Keogh et al. 2011).

Community engagement and support is another effective way to boost adaptation practices. Buys et al. (2012) argue that there is limited knowledge of how the term 18

‘climate change’ is conceptualised by rural communities: rural communities appear to have diverse understandings of this term and have engaged in various activities in response to climatic issues. Thus, it is necessary to collect and analyse these communities’ understandings of climate change issues, to better understanding the levels of importance they attribute to this global phenomenon (Buys et al. 2012).

The climatic vulnerability of rural communities and residents requires a conceptual framework if it is to be understood and addressed by policy-makers (Nelson et al.

2010). Measuring the climatic vulnerability and adaptation capacity of rural communities requires external supports to effectively reflect the importance of these two concepts for the political sections (Nelson et al. 2010). A study by Ofoegbu et al.

(2017) shows that the effectiveness of rural residents’ adopted adaptation practices strongly relates to their socio-economic and demographic characteristics. Further, forest use and management capabilities affect the vulnerability of rural communities to climate change (Ofoegbu et al. 2017). Thus, any climate change adaptation plan should seek to improve the livelihood of rural communities and reduce their vulnerability to climate change challenges (Ofoegbu et al. 2017).

It is important to ensure that communities and households can sustain their adaptation skills in the long term. Thus, an understanding needs to be gained of the linkages between exposure to climatic risk, coping practices and the adaptive capacity of households in rural areas (Ofoegbu et al. 2017). Ofoegbu et al. (2017) further argue that certain issues, including those related to poverty, population growth, unemployment, poor healthcare services, and lack of forest use and management capacity, will affect the vulnerability of rural communities to climate change.

Consequently, such issues need to be considered when designing and implementing

any climate change adaptation plans to prevent maladaptation (Ofoegbu et al. 2017).

Two distinct factors affect the climatic vulnerability of both ecosystems and rural communities: unsustainable forest use and farming practices. As such, sustainable forest management practices need to be ‘mainstreamed’ and incorporated into adaptation plans and policy-making options (Ofoegbu et al. 2017).

An in-depth analysis of community members’ responses to the effects of climate change needs to be undertaken to understand the vulnerability status and adaptive capability of mountainous rural communities (Pandey & Jha 2012). It is essential that the social-ecological resilience and livelihoods of rural community members be improved. Additionally, a reorientation in respect to agricultural production and natural resources needs to occur, to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources in rural mountainous regions (Pandey & Jha 2012). Over the centuries, the resilience of the rural poor has developed due to improvements in their adaptation capacity for environmental change. Notably, the rural poor have made changes to their cultivation strategies, begun growing new and diverse agricultural crops and products, and have modified their patterns for using natural resources. Mountainous rural communities should receive support and/or subsidises for any environmental practices and activities that they adopt that lead to climate change adaptation (Pandey & Jha

2012). Infrastructure development (in the areas of transportation, communication and amenities) would also strengthen the adaptive capabilities of these communities

(Pandey & Jha 2012).

2.3.2. IREPs in Developing Countries

The useful exploration and exploitation of accessible resources and the purposeful use of developmental plans provide opportunities for environmental development (Opara

& Uwakwe 2016). However, in developing countries, environmental management has various limitations and drawbacks. Developing countries face significant environmental challenges due to rapid urbanisation, population growth, an inability to address climate and environmental risks, inefficient governance and environmental management, and the prevalence of corruption and investment shortages (Ameen &

Mourshed 2017). Consequently, such countries continue to struggle with the challenges of climate change and its effects on food security, population increases, pest infestations, communicable diseases, pollution, contamination and environmental sustainability (Opara & Uwakwe 2016).

Given that climate change presents development threats to municipalities, governments need to prioritise adaptation interventions over mitigation interventions in local areas (Roberts 2008). This idea emerged from the development of the

Municipal Climate Protection Programme (MCPP) in South Africa (Roberts 2008).

Based on her MCPP experiences, Roberts (2008) argues that if the concept of climate change is to be embedded in governmental activities, the global debate must be made more locally relevant and presented within a broader social and environmental justice framework. This would ensure that governments’ development and climate protection agendas become linked. Roberts (2008) contends that it is better to spend donor money on educating people about climate change adaptation issues than to only support mitigation projects for climate change. This would also mean that climate protection concerns would affect decision-making processes and resource allocations at the local level. Action at the local level is critical, as municipal innovations could have a significant effect on the activities undertaken by provincial and national governments

(Roberts 2008).

The socio-environmental goals of environmental projects in developing countries include:

 Improved sanitation, with subsequent benefits for the health and wellbeing of

the inhabitants of local communities, through improved service provision as a

result of partnerships involving local governments, the private sector and civil

society

 Empowerment and involvement of women in social participation in sustainable

development plans

 Improved awareness among all stakeholders (including policy-makers) of the

rights and entitlement of local inhabitants to a clean environment

 Enhanced capacity among indigenous authorities to engage in public–private

partnership development, particularly involving the less formal private sector;

strengthening the managerial, technical and organisational abilities of

municipalities and addressing statutory limitations will help achieve this

 Improved linkages between developing countries and networking between

partners and associates to increase learning, information dissemination,

consensus-building and advocacy skills with which to influence policy-makers

(Sholarin & Awange 2015).

2.3.3. Contributions by International Organisations

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) works in approximately 170 regions and countries to alleviate poverty and reduce inequalities and exclusions. It assists countries to develop policies, leadership skills, partnering abilities, institutional capabilities and the resilience needed to sustain development results. The UNDP focuses on assisting countries to build and share solutions in three primary areas: 1)

sustainable development, 2) democratic governance planning and peacebuilding and

3) climate and disaster survival (UNDP 2018a).

The UNDP is one of the founding agencies of the GEF, a partnership of governments, conducting agencies and civil communities that have provided over USD 12.5 billion in grants to 3,690 projects in 165 countries to address global environmental challenges.

Under the Small Grants Programme (SGP) implemented by the UNDP, the GEF has also made more than 16,000 small grants (totalling USD 653.2 million) to civil society and community-based organisations directly. In the last four years, the UNDP has assisted over 120 countries to access more than USD 1.9 billion from GEF-managed finance to address environmental challenges via sustainable development. The UNDP believes that the GEF is a critical instrument for funding sustainable development in developing countries. The UNDP’s delegation to the sixth GEF Assembly advanced its belief that environmental sustainability is vital to poverty eradication, enhanced resilience and holistic and sustainable growth. This is reflected in the areas of work set out in the UNDP’s new strategic plan, which is also fully aligned with the GEF’s four- year programming strategies document for 2014–2018 (Martínez-Solimán 2014).

The UNDP promotes holistic and sustainable growth and works to decrease poverty in all its dimensions by:

1) Assisting governments in the development of planning strategies that include

interventions to improve inclusive sustainable development

2) Providing policy advice and instruments to fight exclusion and marginalisation in

fields such as social protection and job production

3) Advocating for enhanced public investment and economic governance, to ensure

that everyone has access to vital public services to overcome exclusion and

marginalisation

4) Improving the productive potential, sustainable consumption and production

models of developing countries, to enable them to better integrate into the

international economic system in a manner that prioritises sustainable development

and reduces poverty and inequality (UNDP 2018b).

2.3.4. Review of Lessons from Similar IREPs Case Studies

Many IREPs similar to the CBCZL project have been implemented in developing countries. These are now discussed in turn in relation to their relevance and lessons for the current study.

2.3.4.1. FAO Global Climate Change Adaptation Projects

Climate change is a complex issue that requires innovative project management and design policies in the field. Adaptation and mitigation plans need to be tackled holistically to address climate change (FAO 2011). A study of 12 major FAO international projects reveals the need for a mechanism to document and follow the lessons learned from previous experiences. Such lessons, combined with the development of adequate capacity in related institutions to support their application, would benefit farmers, governance institutions and future projects. Accordingly, the

FAO (2011) aims to improve the documentation of these lessons to better advance them (FAO 2011).

2.3.4.2. Mainstreaming NAPAs in Lesotho

The lessons learned from ‘mainstreaming’ National Adaptation Programmes of

Actions (NAPAs) into the national development plans for Lesotho are of particular interest for the present study, as ‘mainstreaming’ the conservation of biodiversity is the main goal of the CBCZL project.

NAPAs were launched to address the limited capabilities of least developed countries to adjust to the destructive effects of climate change (Gwimbi 2017). This is achieved by focusing on the contributions of local communities, which are both significant information resources and the principal stakeholders. Gwimbi (2017) explains that implementing NAPAs is challenging in the developing-country context of Lesotho, with the main challenge being the successful ‘mainstreaming’ of the actions.

Compounding factors include the lack of (adequate) climate change policies and the heterogeneous relationships between the NAPAs and domestic projects (e.g., in relation to strategies to alleviate poverty) (Gwimbi 2017).

2.3.4.3. Biidi 2 Project in Burkina Faso

The Biidi 2 Project in Burkina Faso is an example of a highly successful project.

Reasons for this success include the appropriate partnership between the development staff and the local rural community; the fact that the assisting parties included trusted local agents, with no conflicts among the project sponsors and managers; and the satisfaction of the villagers with the materials they received to construct their granaries and the finance they received to adapt to the effects of the drought (Nielsen et al. 2012).

Moreover, the engagement of local people with the sustainability projects provided a source of employment and income, further explaining individuals’ satisfaction with this project at the grassroots level. However, it should be noted that since the

implementation of this project, the situation on the ground in Burkina Faso has deteriorated, with some communities, due to demographic, historical, socio-cultural and political diversities, blaming the development policies and food strategies of local governments (Nielsen et al. 2012).

2.3.4.4. CSA-PF in Mali

The Climate-Smart Agriculture Prioritisation Framework (CSA-PF) in Mali sought to examine evidential decisions to discover the investment priorities of the CSA.

Approximately 30 decision-makers, including members of local governments, district executives, academics, donors and members of global and domestic research institutions and NGOs participated in the project (Andrieu et al. 2017).

Four significant lessons were learned from this project:

1) The CSA-PF implementation is applicable to countries in which there are

institutions and sectors with knowledge of climate change and genuine interests in

adaptation plans.

2) The CSA’s investments reach their targets when they are run by local stakeholders.

3) Scientists are required to assess the process and minimise facilitator bias.

4) The efficiency of the CSA’s indicator assessments not only enable outcome

evaluations, but also create analogies between practices and advance discussions

about priorities (Andrieu et al. 2017).

2.4. Major Environmental Projects in the CZM Region

2.4.1. Overall Approach

The biodiversity of the CZM region and its surroundings has reached a crisis point in recent decades (DoE 2016; UNDP 2017). Population changes, shifts in socio- economic parameters and a lack of appropriate land management have created a trend towards unsustainable development in the CZM region (DoE 2016). If the land-use practices and consumption of natural resources do not become sustainable, many plant and animal species will continue their trajectory towards extinction. Several relevant organisations in the region have conducted studies to identify and implement the activities required to ensure sustainable development (DoE 2016). Since 2002, contributions from the UNDP, GEF and the DoE have led to the implementation of numerous IREPs in the CZM region.

2.4.2. UNDP and GEF-Small Grant Programme

The UNDP-GEF SGP covers a broad range of focal areas in the CZM region and includes many small regional projects (each of which adopts their own approaches to achieve their goals). A total of 35 projects were identified in the UNDP-GEF SGP

(2011) report. The results of each project were evaluated from different perspectives based on the specific climatic zones and principal activities of the project. The majority of GEF climate change, biodiversity and land degradation projects are aimed at: 1) conserving oak forests, 2) protecting endangered native species and 3) establishing green energies and ecotourism (UNDP-GEF SGP 2011).

2.4.3. CBCZL Project

2.4.3.1. Project Description

The CBCZL project is the main project implemented in the Zagros mountain range.

This project aims to conserve biodiversity within the ‘Central Zagros Landscape

Conservation Zone’, which extends across four provinces. The CBCZL project works with the agriculture, forestry, rangelands, water and business enterprise sectors, to achieve positive outcomes for biodiversity conservation. The involvement of these sectors means that conservation and ecological sustainability measures are being incorporated into the policies, programs and practices of these sectors (Navajas &

Farahani Rad 2016; UNDP 2017). The project’s pre-implementation study was undertaken between October 2002 and March 2004 and was based on a contract between the UNDP, GEF and the DoE. The project was approved in June 2005 and was originally scheduled to terminate in June 2010; however, following a mid-term evaluation and recommendation by Hunnam (2011), the project was extended until

December 2016 (Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016).

The goal of the project was that ‘the Zagros Mountains socio-economy develop successfully and support biodiversity restoration and conservation’, with the objective of ‘mainstreaming conservation of the biodiversity and the landscape within the central

Zagros landscape conservation zone’ (Hunnam 2011, p. 11; Navajas & Farahani Rad

2016, p. 22). The project had three ‘planned outcomes’:

1) ‘A national institutional and policy framework that is fully supportive of

mainstreaming biodiversity into the development of the Central Zagros

Mountain (CZM) region;

2) Sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity integrated into economic and

sector programs and government practices at the conservation zone level; and

3) Successful, sustainable, financially replicable models of village designed and

driven approaches to increasing income generation and conserving biodiversity

in biodiversity rich areas’ (Hunnam 2011, p. 11; Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016,

p. 23).

The final evaluation report by Navajas and Farahani Rad (2016) measured the results of the project against the above three planned outcomes. Based on the evaluation criteria, the report rated the effectiveness of the project as ‘moderately satisfactory’.

The report indicated that the whole project only reached the third planned outcome with satisfactory results during its final two years and suggested that the Conservation and Sustainable Development (C+SD) program be implemented to provide important progress towards the second planned outcome (Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016).

Based on the report, this project had some success in promoting sustainable farming practices, the production of handicrafts, ecotourism and green grant initiatives, and had a broader environmental impact and influence on regional biodiversity levels. The project also established the cultivation of high-altitude medicinal plants with financial and environmental benefits as an alternative income source to livestock husbandry and grazing, and empowered community-based entrepreneurs and organisations, such as women’s groups, community councils and farmers’ associations. However, little progress has been made towards mainstreaming the biodiversity conservation actions to government agencies (Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016).

2.4.3.2. The Project’s Activities

The three planned outcomes of the project, listed above, correspond to the national, provincial and local administrative levels, respectively. According to the evaluation reports, only the third outcome was completely achieved through the project. Activities designed and conducted to reach this outcome included:

1) Studies and planning: watershed management studies and planning for tourism

2) Training: water conservation (horticulture) training, solid waste management

training, integrated pest management training, the biological control of orchard

pests and organic farming training

3) Landscape management: planting of native trees for hillside stabilisation and

construction of dams

4) Village infrastructure: construction of village infrastructure (e.g., paving,

signage and lighting), installation of natural gas supplies for domestic use (e.g.,

heating and cooking), improved drinking water supplies and car park

construction for tourists

5) Development activities: construction of green houses, development of

livestock feed pens, installation of water pumps and pressure irrigation system

for orchards, selling of native tree seedlings, orchard development grants

(seedlings), wild boar control and fencing, construction of kiosks to sell

products to national protected-area visitors, development of fish farms and

cultivation of handicrafts, herbs and medicinal plants (Hunnam 2011).

2.4.4. C+SD Program

2.4.4.1. Project Description

The C+SD program in the CZM region was designed and developed in 2016 to maintain biodiversity conservation and sustainable development of water resources

(including surface and underground water), forests, agriculture and tourism within the region through the participation of local communities and other relevant stakeholders.

In other words, this program aimed ‘to ensure protection from exploitation and encourage sustainable use of all biodiversity, renewable natural resources and ecological processes’ (DoE 2016), as well as to integrate biodiversity conservation into any infrastructure and socio-economic development plans. The programme’s management plan was designed to strengthen the livelihoods of the beneficiaries of natural resources and to develop the economy. The program developed a practical structure and plan for government and NGOs at the national and provincial levels to achieve biodiversity conservation and improve the livelihoods of local communities

(DoE 2016).

2.4.4.2. The Project’s Activities

One of the strategies of the C+SD program was to establish and improve the regional planning and development of management tools based on the potentials of the mountains. In this respect, the following activities were conducted:

1) A risk management plan was prepared to ensure compliance with climate

change, drought management and the development of implementation

capacities.

2) Management information and dissemination systems were prepared,

established and activated.

3) The effects of climate change and drought on the region were identified and

adaptation strategies were implemented to reduce the effects on biodiversity

(DoE 2016).

The Capacity Development Plan was designed for the CZM Management System through this project. The management toolkit was developed to incorporate regional planning for the CZM region. This toolkit included sustainable resource-use guidelines for different aspects of agriculture, water, aquaculture, rangeland, forest, land-use capability, solid waste and tourism. The management requirements of the conservation and sustainable development plan were based on the toolkit. The toolkit represents a shift towards the internalisation of the biodiversity of the region in an applicable way

(DoE 2016). Major green initiatives were also developed as sustainable resource-use programs, including Sustainable Life of Nomads, Green Village, Green Forestry,

Green Rangeland, Green Tourism and Green Agriculture (DoE 2016; UNDP 2017).

2.4.5. Available Lessons from the Projects in CZM

Four review reports are available that set out lessons from the implementation of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development projects in the Zagros mountain range. These reports were produced at different times, following the commencement of the projects in the region.

2.4.5.1. UNDP-GEF SGP

In the report entitled ‘Zagros Profile’, which investigated the UNDP and GEF Small

Grant Programme, inclusive of 35 projects implemented from 2002 to 2011, the following lessons were identified:

1) The mountaineers had no experience of the participatory approach to perform

the activities based on sustainability. However, one of the projects required

close cooperation with local community members to determine which

opportunities and approaches would provide them with an improved

knowledge of the roles of the ecosystem and natural resources in the

community’s livelihood.

2) Despite knowledge of and previous experience in communications with local

communities, the land-management plans faced problems in the participatory

management of some projects (e.g., Khafr project). These difficulties delayed

the identification of the primary requirements of villagers and the recognition

of the roles of ecotourism and natural resources in the local community’s

livelihood.

3) To communicate with locals, their trust must be acquired; however, this does

not guarantee their approval of development projects. Such projects need to be

supported by adequate training before the involvement of, and after clarifying

the communication strategies of, the project teams.

4) Holding pre-planned events, encouraging stakeholders to exchange

experiences, organising group visits to sites by project teams and conducting

occasional assessments of the project achievements were found to create

trusting relationships between project managers and the local community

(UNDP-GEF SGP 2011).

2.4.5.2. CBCZL Project

Hunnam’s (2011) mid-term evaluation report suggests that the project’s goal and planned outcomes (see Section 2.4.3.1) were not adequately achieved. He argues that

many of the output statements were not appropriate objectives. He also noted that there were no focused descriptions of the proposed outputs in the project brief or its appendixes and that the meaning of the terms and the facts of how they might be acquired were not explained. The lack of detailed objective statements made it difficult for the project management team to know how to implement the project properly

(Hunnam 2011).

Commissioned by the UNDP, GEF and DoE, the project terminal evaluation report by

Najavas and Farahani Rad (2016) was released in December 2016. The report represents the final evaluation of the entire project and set out eight separate lessons

(Najavas & Farahani Rad 2016, pp. 77–79):

1) More projects that ‘propose integrative models and practices’ are needed to

mainstream biodiversity conservation among government sectors.

2) The project lacked ‘a brief inception phase’; such a phase could be used to

organise the project, ‘raise the level of national preparedness’ and ‘develop a

shared vision’.

3) Any project strategy needs to align with ‘provincial and county government

planning’ and ‘budgeting frameworks’.

4) The Planning and Budgeting Office was the main organisation to implement

the ‘mainstreaming’ aspects of the project with sector agencies at the

‘provincial and county government levels’ in approving sector plans, budgets

and projects.

5) Building links to other projects (e.g., the MENARID project by UNDP-GEF)

and being closely aligned to sector priorities could result in more effective

‘mainstreaming’ at the provincial level.

6) The overall performance and progress measures need to be considered to

ensure the better effectiveness and efficiency of projects.

7) ‘Cost-sharing arrangements’ and ‘modality’ by the UNDP-GEF are other

options that could be used to facilitate the administration and management of

donor funds in projects implemented by the government.

8) The concept of ‘sustainable rangeland management’ needs to be re-thought and

more effective approaches need to be established and accepted by ‘nomadic

groups’ that have more impact on local communities more broadly.

2.4.5.3. C+SD Program

The lessons from the evaluation of the C+SD project mainly related to the catchment management areas (CMAs) and the designing and selecting of CMAs in the CZM region. These lessons included:

1) The CMAs should not be selected across two catchments or two provinces

(unless they are small parts of sub-catchments).

2) Each catchment should be divided into a small number of CMAs. The area and

total number of CMAs need to be reasonable to increase the efficiency of the

program’s management and operations in terms of conservation and

development control issues.

3) Each CMA should include more than one county government area. To ensure

cooperation and collaboration between counties and sector agencies,

management system and programming needs to be considered (DoE 2016).

2.5. The Research Gap

To ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of environmental projects in the Zagros region, consideration must be given to the community-related lessons from implemented projects before any new projects are launched. IREPs (such as the

CBCZL project) mainly focus on local rural communities and are an important part of climate change adaptation and mitigation plans in developing countries; however, the available literature does not provide sufficient cohesive and conclusive evidence about the effects of project outcomes on people’s lives. Further, villagers’ perceptions of the benefits brought by the programs are unknown. Taken together, there is a need for further research to gain access to this knowledge.

In this regard, it is important to examine different aspects of sustainable development at the social, economic, political and environmental levels, to allow project activities to be planned in a manner that addresses local demands. The implementation of such projects would reinforce social mobilisation and empower community members and stakeholders to deal with local government and educational authorities in terms of reaching the UN SDGs.

In view of the above research gap, this study examines the CBCZL project (a strategic

IREP), using research questions (see Section 1.3) designed to:

1) identify the major community-based advantages of the CBCZL project

2) identify the main barriers affecting the implementation of the CBCZL project

3) provide an overview of the status of the local agriculture, air quality, water

resources, ecosystem and livelihood of the community from the perspective of

the rural community before and after the CBCZL project

4) compare the rural community’s observations of the effects of the CBCZL

project on UN SDGs 13 and 15 within the local community

5) outline the main lessons learned from the implementation of the CBCZL

project by assessing the local rural community’s observations.

At the time of writing, four considerable reports have already partly discussed, studied or monitored environmental projects in the Zagros region: DoE (2016), Hunnam

(2011), Navajas and Farahani Rad (2016), and UNDP-GEF SGP (2011). However, these studies have not analysed these projects in the broader conceptual context of

IREPs or in relation to the SDGs. Further, to date, no research has adopted an approach that uses local villagers’ observations on these projects. The current study addresses these issues. Finally, while a number of papers provide reports and expert evaluations on different aspects of IREPs in Zagros, these papers cannot be considered adequate holistic resources as they do not examine the project’s effects on sustainable rural livelihood development. Thus, new findings and hypotheses need to be developed based on the perceptions of members of the local rural community, necessitating new studies, such as this one.

2.6. Chapter Summary

The aim of this chapter was to review the existing literature on sustainable development and climate change adaptation strategies for rural communities in developing countries. This chapter also discussed the importance of IREPs involving international organisations for improving rural communities’ livelihoods, and reviewed the lessons learned from such projects that may relate to the CBCZL project.

Finally, an overview of the projects implemented in the CZM region and their related activities was provided, from which the research gap emerged. The next chapter 37

discusses the research methodology, along with the data collection methods used for this research.

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter outlines the research methods and approach used to collect and analyse the data to assess the effects of the CBCZL project in the CZM region. In the first section of this chapter, the research plan is explained, followed by a discussion on the strengths of a mixed-methods research design incorporating case study for such a plan.

The criteria by which the study site was selected, and its characteristics are then discussed, and the data collection methods used for the field study to evaluate the local community and experts’ perceptions on the CBCZL project are explained. Next, the qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods and process are described, after which the strategies for ensuring the validating and reliability of the study are outlined.

The last three sections of the chapter present the ethical considerations, limitations of the study and, finally, a summary of the chapter.

3.2. Research Plan

To address the research objectives outlined in Chapter 1, this research began by conducting an extensive review of the available secondary data and literature on

IREPs, specifically the CBCZL project. This extensive and continuous literature review included academic literature produced by experts, organisations and governments, to gather information on the effects of these projects on local rural communities and the role of these communities in the success of these projects.

Additionally, primary data were gathered through field surveys: the researcher

conducted an investigation on IREPs in the CZM region as a case study to examine community members’ perceptions on the results of the CBCZL project.

To gather the primary data, semi-structured interviews were conducted at the case study site with relevant stakeholders, including local rural community members (the main resource), knowledgeable people, DoE staff and any related government and

NGO staff. Other interested stakeholders (e.g., activists and volunteers) were also approached by the researcher. Next, the field observation was arranged at a selected site to examine the effects of the CBCZL project from the viewpoint of members of the local rural community. Both qualitative and quantitative survey interviews were conducted with rural community members to gather the required data, which were inclusive and reflective in the coverage of interviewees from a range of ethnic, cultural, economic and educational backgrounds. Finally, based on the analysis of the results, the findings and recommendations were developed. These findings have relevance to other similar international projects that involve rural communities in developing countries seeking to adapt to the effects of climate change.

3.3. Research Design and Approach

This study employs a mixed-methods research design, selected because it combines and uses the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Further, information obtained using a mixed-methods approach can be triangulated. In the case of this study, due to timing constraints, the qualitative and quantitative data were gathered concurrently (Creswell 2009; Creswell & Clark 2017). The other approach used here is case study. This approach brings a real-life setting to the study and enables in-depth and multidimensional explorations of complex issues (Hansen 2009). Figure

3-1 shows the framework of the research design developed by Hansen (2009) for conducting case study research using a mixed-methods approach.

Figure 3-1 Research Design

(Source: Hansen 2009)

3.4. Selection of the Case Study Site

Due to limited financial and time resources, and in keeping with the research framework, one rural site in the CZM region was selected for consideration by this study. This site needed to be representative of the diverse ecosystems, demographics, economics, culture and social differences characterising this region.

To ensure the best possible site was selected, several criteria were devised:

1) The site had to have been included in the CBCZL project.

2) A large proportion of the population at the site needed to be reliant on the

Zagros environment for their livelihoods. That is, the selected site had to be

among the most rural locations in the CZM region with respect to population

demography.

3) The site needed to be near the lowlands (i.e., geographically, the site had to be

located between the two climates of mountainous zone and arid flatland). The

rationale for this is that climate change–related flows (e.g., winds, droughts,

temperature fluctuations and precipitations) are likely to be more tangible to

residents living in such areas, compared to in the centre of a climatic zone.

4) The site had to be safe and easily accessible.

Based on these selection criteria, a village in the Semirom area of Isfahan Province was selected from several potential sites.

In administering surveys to the villagers, the following process was adopted. To facilitate initial communications with the participants, the local research assistant contacted the village leaders and asked the leaders to approach villagers to ask them if they would be willing to participate in the study. Consent forms and information statements were provided to participants, who had the opportunity to decide whether to participate in the study. Thirty face-to-face household surveys (HHSs) and four focus group discussions (FGDs), each with a group of six participants, were conducted.

Most interviews were conducted in the village’s neighbourhood centre or a public venue of the participant’s choice.

3.5. Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data were gathered from a range of published or unpublished resources and online materials, including academic websites, journal articles, books, reports, local magazines, the DoE’s website and reports, and the UNDP’s and GEF’s reports and websites. Relevant organisations (governmental and non-governmental) were contacted to request access to reports and publications relevant to the research. These resources were used to assess different aspects of the study, including those related to climate change adaptation strategies and functions, international environmental projects for climate change adaptation, international sustainable development agreements and protocols on climate change, the role of the UNDP and GEF in the implementation of IREPs, and the role of rural communities in climate change adaptation projects.

3.6. Primary Data Collection

Three methods were used in this research to collect the required primary data, including household surveys (HHSs), focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs). These data were complemented by the field observation of the study site during the data collection process by the research assistant.

3.6.1. Household Survey

The primary data and information for this study were gathered at the selected study site using a mixed-methods approach. According to Kish (1965), 30 to 200 individuals are needed to participate in the research to obtain realistic results. Thus, 30 people were randomly selected to complete HHSs and were interviewed for this study (see

Table 3-1). Participants from selected households were sent invitations, asking them

to participate in the study. They were also provided with details about the study and the researcher. Face-to-face interviews were then conducted to gather in-depth information from the participants. During the interviews, a semi-structured questionnaire comprising open-ended questions was used (see Appendix 1). Before conducting the interviews, the research assistant explained the information statement to the potential participants. If they agreed to participate in the study, they were asked to sign the consent form.

3.6.2. Focus Group Discussion

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is an appropriate method for bringing together people with different backgrounds or experiences to discuss subjects. Four FGDs, each comprising six participants, were conducted with individuals from the following groups: foresters and orchardmen, fishery men, herders and farmers (see Table 3-1).

The topics discussed by the participants in the groups were directed by the research assistant, who launched the questions for discussion (see Appendix 2) and assisted the group to engage in dynamic discussion (e.g., asking questions to elicit detail, redirecting the conversation to the question for discussion).

The advantage of FGD is that it allows participants to agree or disagree with each other, generating insights into the group’s thinking on a case, the range of opinions and ideas within the group, and the irregularity and variation that exists in a specific group regarding their beliefs, customs and experiences (Hennink 2013; Stewart &

Shamdasani 2014).

FGDs can also be used to discover the meanings of survey results that may not be illustrated statistically, determine the range of opinions and views on the topic of interest, and extract a wider variety of local terms. It is important to organise FGD

series wisely by discovering the key objectives of the meeting, expanding the main questions, applying an agenda, and preparing how to register the session (Hennink

2013).

During the FGD, the key objectives of the meeting are set out, the main questions are expanded upon and an agenda is presented. It is essential that focus groups involve appropriate participants. Six to eight people per group is the ideal number for FGDs

(Hennink 2013). Facilitation is a vital principle of FGDs. The individual facilitating the FGDs must cleverly word the main questions, remain neutral and oversee the sessions to ensure that views are expressed evenly and fairly. Any observations made during the sessions must be recorded and indicated in the reports (Hennink 2013;

Krueger & Casey 2014).

Table 3-1 Research Participants Method Research Participants No. Household Surveys Rural community members 30 Key Informant Interviews Experts on the CBCZL project 11 Focus Group Discussion Foresters and Orchardmen 6 Herders 6 Farmers 6 Fishery men 6 Total Participants 65

3.6.3. Key Informant Interview

Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) KIIs are a qualitative method of data collection, whereby the researcher interviews a small number of relevant stakeholders, experts, leaders and professionals who are well informed and well connected to the community

under study. In this way, in-depth insights into problems can be gained, to inform recommendations and identify solutions. KIIs are typically conducted over the telephone or face-to-face (UCLA 2004) in a comfortable environment (Kumar 1989).

The researcher should identify the appropriate key informants to interview (Kumar

1989). In the present study, potential KII participants were identified by searching for and enquiring with relevant experts and academics. Interviewees included experts with experience of, and backgrounds related to, IREPs in the CZM region. In total, 11 experts were interviewed (see Table 3-1), using a questionnaire (see Appendix 3).

3.6.4. Information Statement and Consent Form

Before completing the interviews or focus groups, all participants were required to read the information statement and sign the consent form if they agreed to participate.

The researcher and his assistant then provided the participants with their contact details and information on the research and arranged a suitable time and comfortable place for the interviews. The research assistant also provided any explanation necessary to assist participants to complete the HHS. All communication with the participants (both spoken and written) was in their native language, and all data gathered in the participants’ native language was then translated into English. The researcher and his assistant used a digital audio recorder to record the interviews and took notes during the interviews.

3.6.5. Researcher Observation

In this research, observation was used as an additional data collection technique, to support the analysis of the data obtained by the other methods (Kearns 2000; Robson

1993). Observation helps to identify significant information not explained elsewhere

(Patton 2002), and it provides the researcher with personal experience of and firsthand

information about a setting. It also allows the researcher to be on-site, with the opportunity to discover what had happened at the site. For this research, site observation was used to collect supplementary data, to complement that collected from the HHSs, KIIs, FGDs, and relevant literature and documents.

Although the researcher was not able to attend the study site, field observation was undertaken in four ways. First, the researcher had visited the study site three times between 2011 and 2015. Second, the research assistant did attend the study site, and collected and transferred to the researcher many research-related descriptions and illustrations. Third, the research assistant provided photos and videos from the area for assessment by the researcher. Fourth, the researcher read the study site’s broadcasted news, and photographs taken by the research assistant of the study site helped the researcher in recalling what had occurred. These photos also serve to illustrate the conditions of the site when the data were collected.

3.7. Data Analysis

For this research, data were collected from HHSs, FGDs, KIIs, field observation and a literature review. The qualitative and quantitative data were analysed using appropriate techniques based on the data transformation model of triangulation design

(Creswell 2009; Creswell & Clark 2017). Here, statistical software—Excel and

NVivo—was used to analyse the data. The data gathered in the literature review were analysed using the content and contextual techniques of analysis. The HHS quantitative data were screened to improve the quality, and codes were assigned to the categorical and numerical variables using Excel. In the case of the qualitative data,

NVivo was used for the analysis. After the data analysis of the quantitative and

qualitative data, the results were generated in relation to the research questions and displayed as tables and graphs. The results were then interpreted and presented in the form of a discussion.

3.7.1. Quantitative Analysis

3.7.1.1. Procedure

Most of the data from the HHS questionnaires were analysed quantitatively. The community-based advantages of the project and the community’s perception of the barriers to the project are presented in Chapter Five. The study also compared the status of local agriculture, air quality, water resources, the ecosystem and community livelihoods before and after the implementation of the CBCZL project by calculating the weighted average index (WAI), as explained in the next section.

The researcher entered the data collected through the HHS into the computer and checked the entered data several times for any error or omission before analysing the data using Excel. The data were then analysed to generate the results of the study.

3.7.1.2. Weighted Average Index

Weighted average index (WAI) was used to convert the ordinal data from the questionnaires into scale data, to allow analysis of the perceptions of the local community on the pre- and post-CBCZL project status of agriculture, the ecosystem, air quality, water resources and livelihood in the study area.

The formula used to calculate WAI is:

5 WAI = ∑�=1 �i Fi / N

where WAI is the weighted average index (0 ≤ WAI ≤ 1), Si is the scale value assigned to its priority, Fi is the frequency of the respondents, and N is the total number of participants.

For this research, Si is the perception index to evaluate the community’s perception. It includes five levels: Very Good, Good, Fair, Poor, Very Poor (see Table 3 2).

Table 3-2 Response Scale

Scale Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor Perception Index 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0

Si S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Therefore, the formula for calculating the satisfaction index of the respondents for each element is as follows:

WAI = (1.00×f1 + 0.75×f2 + 0.5×f3 + 0.25×f4 + 0.0×f5 ) / N

where WAI is the weighted average index, 0 ≤ WAI ≤ 1; f1 is the frequency of the first scale choice; f2 is the frequency of the second scale; f3 is the frequency of the third scale; f4 is the frequency of the fourth scale; f5 is the frequency of the fifth scale.

3.7.2. Qualitative Analysis

3.7.2.1. Procedure

The data collected through the FGDs and KIIs are qualitative in nature, and must thus be analysed qualitatively to identify the results, using great care and judgement. The purpose of the FGDs and KIIs was to explore in-depth the community-based lessons learned from implementing the CBCZL project. Consequently, simple descriptive narrative analysis was deemed the most appropriate analytical approach.

The first step was to transcribe all the discussions and interviews. While the FGDs and

KIIs were recorded digitally, transcription produces a written record of the discussion and facilitates data analysis. The interviewer also supplemented the transcripts with additional data on respondents’ non-verbal and behavioural responses and gestures, which were observed and recorded as notes during the interview. The second step in the narrative analysis was content analysis: NVivo12 software was used to examine the content of the discussions and interviews and their implications in regard to the research questions, thereby generating the results.

3.7.2.2. NVivo

The recorded interviews and discussions were transcribed into a written record, which was then supplemented with the site observation data, for analysis using NVivo12. The

NVivo program is popular and simple to use (Bazeley 2007; Welsh 2002). According to Wickham and Woods (2005), using NVivo makes the analysis process more transparent and logical: systematic data analysis identifies patterns in the data, to develop and understand emergent themes. Through using the software, the transcribed interviews and field observation were coded and categorised into the themes.

Systematic data analysis by using the NVivo software provides a logical pattern of analysed data to develop and understand the themes within the research.

To analyse the data, the transcribed data were imported to the NVivo package in the form of text Word files. The data were then coded and categorised, which was the most time-consuming stage of the data analysis. Having coded the data, the software was used to organise and understand the results in relation to the aim, objectives and research questions. For the purposes of data triangulation, the qualitative findings

gained from the FGDs and KIIs and the quantitative findings obtained through the

HHSs are used to clarify and support each other.

3.8. Validity and Reliability

This research used triangulation and peer examination to ensure the validity, credibility and reliability of the study’s findings (Noble & Smith 2015, Hansen 2009). Data triangulation is an appropriate strategy to ensure validity and reliability for mixed methods research, for validating qualitative findings, and explaining quantitative findings (Jick 1979). With this in mind, data were collected from various sources, including the literature, interviews (HHSs and KIIs), FGDs and field observation.

Throughout the data collection process, the results obtained through each method (e.g., interview, observation) were compared against one another, to triangulate the data and ensure the consistency, accuracy and validity of the research findings. For instance, the obtained data through interview and observation can be triangulated to ensure that they produce the same or similar results. Consequently, the data gathered from various methods were complete and appropriate to address the research questions.

In the KIIs, each interviewee was asked the same set of questions to ensure reliability.

Further enhancing the reliability, the same interviewer interviewed all the participants

(Babbie 2007; David & Sutton 2004). Likewise, all FGDs followed the same questionnaire, with a single facilitator for all sessions. Explaining the data collection and analysis process (e.g., participant selection, questionnaire design, data analysis) also helps to ensure reliability of the results of the study (Bryman 2012). Finally, all phases of the study were examined and crosschecked by the researcher’s supervisors, acting as peer examiners.

3.9. Ethical Considerations

As is necessary when collecting data from human participants, ethical guidelines were followed to ensure that there was no harm for the participants and their rights were respected at all stages of the data collection process. All data collection methods were reviewed and approved by the University of Newcastle, Australia, Human Research

Ethics Committee (HREC). The ethics application for this study was submitted to the committee with the number: H-2018-0453 and got approved on the 18th December

2018. Participants volunteered for the study and were provided information statements at the first stage, to give them information on the study and the researcher and explain what would be required of them. They were also made aware of their right to withdraw from the research at any time. The confidentiality and anonymity of the questionnaire participants were strictly protected: they were not required to give their name on the questionnaire, and all questionnaires were coded randomly for data analysis.

The HHS and KII participants signed consent forms affirming they were participating in the research freely. The FGD participants also signed consent forms, and their consent for the sessions to be audio recorded and photographed was secured. All collected data and information obtained in this research was kept confidential and was stored in safely and securely in a locked cupboard or on a password-protected desktop in the researcher’s office. The data and related information will be handled in accordance with the guidelines stipulated by the University of Newcastle, Australia.

3.10. Study Limitations

There were two barriers to this study. First, it was impossible for the researcher to travel to the study site, due to problems obtaining insurance coverage for travel to the

study site. Therefore, it was necessary for the researcher to collect the data using a remote surveying method. Related to this first barrier, the two months spent on organising the travel plan only to have it cancelled meant that valuable time for conducting the study was lost. The time spent by the researcher communicating with and interviewing the key informants via audio or video was a further related challenge, especially considering the different local time zones. However, despite these problems, all targeted participants were interviewed successfully by the researcher.

The second limitation was that, because the project was implemented more than 13 years ago and finished in 2016, during which time climate change severely affected the region, it was not possible to assess the direct effects of the project on the local environmental conditions. This limitation was somewhat offset by drawing on the knowledge and experience of officials and other informants who were directly involved in the implementation and management of the CBCZL project.

3.11. Chapter Summary

This chapter explained the methods used in this study to review the effects of the

CBCZL in the study area. A number of methods were employed to collect the required data, including literature analysis, HHSs, FGDs, KIIs and field observation. The data collection and analysis methods and processes were also explained, as were the strategies used to control the validity and reliability of the research. The ethical considerations and limitations of the study were then discussed, before summarising the chapter. The next chapter (Chapter 4) provides information on the study area, while

Chapters 5 and 6 present the findings based on the analysis of the collected data. The findings are then discussed in Chapter 7.

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH SETTINGS

4.1. Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to present a description of the case study site and its geographical, environmental, agricultural and socio-economic settings. To understand the situation of the study area in the greater Zagros Mountains region, a brief overview of the region is provided, including its geographical context, local environmental features and environmental and agricultural situation as it affects the livelihoods and wellbeing of the local community. Information is also provided on the region’s socio- economic context. Having established the site’s regional context, the local-level situation is explored in the second part of the chapter. First, the case study site is profiled, including the geographical, environmental and social contexts of the site.

Then, the observations of the study site made by the researcher during field work are described. Finally, the chapter is summarised. Most of the information analysed in this chapter is based on secondary data extracted from academic articles and government agency websites.

4.2. Central Zagros Mountain Region

4.2.1. Geographical Context

The Zagros Mountains stretch from Azerbaijan Province in the north to the southeast of the country. The mountains are a series of parallel anticlines. The highest mountains are Zardkouh (4,571 metres) in Kohgiluyeh Province, and Dena (Dinar) (4,432 metres)

in Charmahal and Bakhtiari Provinces (UNDP-GEF SGP 2011). The CZM region, in the northwest, extends from the Khorramabad river valley to the eastern mountains of the Marvast desert, and runs north of Bakhtegan Lake and the Dalaki River in the southeast (DoE 2016). This region includes the Charmahal and Bakhtiari Provinces, a large area of Kohgiluye and Boyer-Ahmad Province, parts of five cities in Fars

Province and Semirom city in Isfahan Province. The map in Figure 4-1 shows the CZM region (coloured area) and its location within the four provinces. The CZM region is elevated, with altitudes between 830 metres and 4,416 metres above sea level. The average altitude of this region is 2,332 metres. Approximately 34 per cent of the region has an altitude of 2,100–2,400 metres (DoE 2016). The CZM region is the primary source of water for the country and contains the headwaters of the major rivers of the region. It covers an area of more than 31,000 square kilometres, which mostly includes forests and rangelands (DoE 2016).

Figure 4-1 Map of the Central Zagros Mountain Region (Source: DoE 2016)

4.2.2. Local Environmental Features

The CZM region’s diverse environmental features are what necessitated the implementation of the CBCZL project. For that reason, this section describes the region’s weather and climate, water resources, biodiversity, and ecosystems.

4.2.2.1. Weather and Climate

The climatic conditions of the CZM region have changed in recent decades. An analysis of precipitation events confirms an increase in the number of events associated with the formation of a barrier jet on the western slopes of the Zagros mountain range

(Evans & Alsamawi 2011). Evans and Alsamawi’s (2011) study revealed an increase in ‘extreme’ weather events in the region due to the barrier jet over the Zagros

Mountains, and noted that stormy precipitation events and strong dry days in between

such events could increase the frequency of natural disasters (e.g., flood-related occurrences). The current trend has also led to an increase in temperature (Evans &

Alsamawi 2011).

Presently, storm tracks are the principal mechanisms bringing precipitation to the

Zagros Mountains. However, due to the rise in the number of evaporation-based events, which are shifted over the Zagros region via the mountain barrier jet, it is predicted that these storm tracks will be replaced by upslope flows by the end of the century (Evans 2010). On the other hand, the Zagros Mountains amplify cold period frontal precipitations, especially over the west slope, and prevent moist air masses from entering the inner zones of the country (Alijani 2008). Additionally, these mountains play a secondary role in creating rainy days, as they are significantly involved in the region’s precipitation production mechanism. Thus, the absence of the current climatic function of these mountains would expand the dry climates to the west and east of the region (Alijani 2008).

Surface heat in Zagros will cause a rising motion in the air mass, associated with a low pressure on the surface of the plateau, which in turn will fuel upslope flows. As westerly winds weaken over the Zagros region, a closed plain–plateau circulation will develop. Adiabatic warming will create a thermodynamic balance over the western areas of the Middle East Plain, which will in turn cause Zagros-induced subsidence within the area upwind of the closed plain–plateau circulation (Zaitchik et al. 2007).

The continuous destructive effects of climate change in the Eastern Fertile Crescent

(EFC) region have been significantly affected by the presence of the Zagros Mountains barrier jet (Evans & Alsamawi 2011). The EFC region includes a considerable number of vulnerable natural resources and has a rural population in Mesopotamia and its

surrounding areas. Accordingly, the climatic conditions of the EFC region could affect the global climate situation (Evans & Alsamawi 2011).

4.2.2.2. Water Resources and Wetlands

The mountainous areas of the CZM region collect surface and underground water in river catchments. This water is used for drinking, and for agricultural and industrial activities. The wetlands represent an area of approximately two per cent of the whole

CZM region. The region has two major basins, the Karun and the Maharlu Bakhtegan, eight primary catchments and 33 sub-catchments. The average annual rainfall in the

CZM region is 500 millimetres, a figure significantly higher than the 40-millimetre average for the country during the rainy season. Due to the amount of precipitation, low levels of evaporation and geological location of the mountains, this region provides approximately 45 per cent of the country’s surface and underground water.

There are more than 10 wetlands and seasonal lakes in the CZM region. As both a tourist attraction and the habitat for a variety of wildlife, including numerous aquatic species, Choghakhor is the nation’s most significant international wetland registered in the Ramsar Convention (DoE 2016).

Ninety-two rivers originate from the Zagros Mountains, including the Karun, Jarahi,

Kuhrang, Kheir rood, Kor, Ardakan, Semirom, Zayanderood and Dalaki, which flow towards the south, west and centre of the country. The Zagros mountain range is integral to the sustainability of the catchment areas of these critical watersheds and rivers for the western, south-western and some central parts of the country (DoE 2016).

The mountains in the Zagros region act as a barrier against the air flow that leads to climate change, that could also help the wetlands’ microclimatic conditions

(temperature and humidity) become more appropriate for the local wildlife than the surrounding areas (DoE 2016).

4.2.2.3. Biodiversity

The biodiversity of the CZM region has global significance. The primary reason for the high level of biodiversity of this region is that the topographical relief causes considerable variations in climate, which in turn creates several different ecosystems.

These ecosystems house a diversity of organisms, including over 2,000 species of higher plants and several vulnerable and endemic vertebrate species (DoE 2016;

Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016). Climate change is affecting many of the native species in the Zagros region, in some cases threatening their existence (UNDP-GEF SGP

2011). Moreover, the changes in land function in the region have led to the destruction of habitats and natural resources, with adverse effects for plant and animal species numbers (UNDP-GEF SGP 2011).

4.2.2.4. Forests and Rangelands

Rangelands cover approximately 56 per cent of the CZM region, while forests cover a further 20.2 per cent of the region (DoE 2016). Thus, approximately 76 per cent of the

CZM region (i.e., approximately 23,600 square kilometres) comprises rangelands and forests. Oak trees, of several different species, are the most important characteristic of

Zagros forests, with oak tree diversity being particularly rich in the northern area. As such, the northern Zagros forests are classified as national property and are managed for their conservation value. Rural communities, whose livelihoods are strongly livestock-based, are historically and culturally dependent on the region’s natural resources, including the forests. In the Zagros region, a long history of exploitative land-use practices has affected forest structure and species composition (Habibi 2016).

Climate change has also come to play a significant role in the degradation of the Zagros forests. Investigations of long-term trends in meteorological parameters (i.e., air temperatures, precipitation, relative humidity and evapotranspiration) have revealed a relationship between changes in these parameters and a decline in the prevalence of oak trees in the forests (Attarod et al. 2016). Further, meteorological studies have shown that, in the last 15 years, the annual rainfall has decreased in Zagros; and in the last four years, the temperature has increased significantly (Habibi 2016). In view of this, the Zagros mountain range is vulnerable to deforestation, which in turn has implications for landscape connectivity (Khalyani & Mayer 2013; see Figure 4.2).

Figure 4-2 Landscape Units Coloured according to Changes in (a) Deforestation Sensitivity and (b) Connectivity Sensitivity (Source: Khalyani & Mayer 2013)

The distribution of oak tree species in the Zagros Mountains is related to differences in climate, and thus habitat (Habibi 2016). Thus, while some species of oak tree are suited to the habitats of the southern foothills, others prefer the northern and eastern foothills. Meteorological studies show that since 2001, the annual rainfall has decreased in the CZM, particularly in the 2012 to 2016; meanwhile temperature has increased (Habibi 2016). It has also been shown that there is an indirect relationship between haze and precipitation, but a direct relationship with temperature. Based on the relationship between these factors and forest degradation, Habibi’s (2016) study concludes that climate change is the most critical parameter in forest dieback.

Khalyani and Mayer (2013) claim that there has been a considerable decline in both forest area and landscape connectivity in Zagros. Consequently, there are sound reasons for the implementation of practical environmental projects, such as the

CBCZL project. However, any restoration methods need to be based on the climatic and environmental dynamics of the different elevations and slopes of the region.

Additionally, priority needs to be given to sensitive forest areas to maximise habitat connectivity (Khalyani & Mayer 2013).

4.2.3. Rural Livelihoods and Natural Resources

The considerable variation in relief (height of mountainous areas) in the region results in a varied climate that causes relatively localised ecological conditions and high biodiversity. Among the diverse terrestrial ecosystems, the mountainous ecosystem hosts a set of complex ecological processes that result in the continuous flow of products and services, with both direct and indirect influences on economic life and human livelihoods (DoE 2016). Local households benefit from the natural resources of the Zagros Mountains, which include areas for grazing animals (e.g., goats, sheep

and cattle), wood for fuel and construction, fruits for consumption and oak acorns for making into bread.

In recent decades, the Zagros region has been suffering from deforestation (Khalyani

& Mayer 2013). Landscape and patch metrics studies from 1972 to 2009 suggest that deforestation in Zagros is an increasing trend caused by climate change and the people themselves, mainly tourists from urban areas (Khalyani et al. 2013). Thus, climate change and human impact are the main factors threatening Zagros’ natural resources, on which the local community relies. Therefore, both should be considered by managers and policy-makers with reference to Zagros’ rural communities when designing projects (Khalyani et al. 2013). Moreover, deforestation studies and mitigation projects must take into account the local community livelihoods, which depend on forest resources, as has indeed been done by a number of community-based environmental projects on global climate change adaptation (Khalyani et al. 2013).

In 1963, the Forest Nationalisation Law (FNL) was introduced. This law, under which the entire forest was nationalised, led to the most remarkable natural resource management aspect of the Zagros region. Under the FNL, feudalism and other forms of private ownership were transformed to government ownership and management.

The FNL also led to several changes in the management of resources, including the prohibition of fuelwood and charcoal production by local rural communities.

Currently, the management of resources does not apply to oak trees and illegal oak tree removals continue to occur. Further, while local communities have engaged in some actions (e.g., planting seeds and trees), these actions will not be sufficient to restore the losses created by human activities (Solaymani & Jabbari 2015).

4.2.4. Agricultural Context

The CZM region is one of the top agricultural zones in the country in terms of net profit and productivity. However, the agriculture sector needs to be developed in this area, which is reflected in local policies. There are many barriers to sustainable farming; however, according to the DoE (2016), some projects, including the CBCZL project, have improved agricultural practices significantly by:

 advancing the pattern of cultivation with the participation of the beneficiaries

and based on the analysis of smart agricultural farms in the form of ecological

zones

 conducting research, training and promotional activities with an emphasis on

technology, training, empowerment and executive planning. Together these

developments provide the facilities and incentives to engage local communities

in deploying sustainable agricultural practices and reforming existing methods

 determination and establishment of cultivation pattern commensurate with the

water resources potential and ecological capability of the region

 zoning of agrarian production spots in the form of similar green zones

 environmental assessment and scanning, and the determination of economic,

social and ecological indicators for matching different layers of information

 guidance on establishing and implementing sustainable agricultural plans

 increasing government control over the consumption of agricultural inputs

such as chemical fertilisers and pesticides

 strengthening the legal framework and guaranteeing the implementation of the

rural water pricing plan

 support for the creation of associations, cooperatives and agricultural stock

companies for the integration of farming lands

 directing agricultural subsidies to production and the use of materials, agents

and biological inputs to improve crop nutrition, fertility and protection

 establishment of the certification system and standardisation of the production

process in the agricultural sector based on national health and environment

standards (DoE 2016, p. 23).

4.2.5. Socio-Economic Context

The Zagros region has a rich cultural diversity, including indigenous nomadic communities; over time, local people have adapted to the natural conditions of the region. In the past, livelihoods originating from indigenous cultures were largely consistent with the existing potentials in the CZM region; however, population growth had brought an increase in resource use, which is now unsustainable and contributing to the widespread destruction of the natural resources in the region.

Current livelihoods, such as livestock herding and agricultural activities, have altered the structure of the area’s ecosystems. For this reason, resource use as part of these livelihoods needs to be changed and reformed to fit the existing ecological capacities of the CZM region. It has been suggested that the revival of indigenous culture could provide the basis for the wiser use of natural resources (DoE 2016).

The development and use of natural resources in central Zagros should be in balance with the continuous long-term revival of resources, while also supplying local communities’ needs, dependent on the ecological capacity of the land. Conserving the environment is an integral component of the macro-economic plans, programs and activities in the region (DoE 2016).

4.3. Study Site

Semirom dates to 700 BC, and its historical record of civilisation goes back to the

Achaemenid period. Its name may be derived from the word ‘Zamiran’, to refer to the intensely cold weather characteristic of Semirom’s winters. To better understand the study site, from which the data were collected for this research, this section outlines the geographical setting, environmental features and social context of Semirom. This will serve as a backdrop for understanding the research findings.

4.3.1. Geographical Setting

Semirom city, covering an area of 5,224 square kilometres, is in southwest Isfahan

Province and is one of the tourist hubs of the province. This beautiful and traditional city is known as ‘the Roof of Iran’, having an altitude of 2,460 metres above sea level.

It is located 165 kilometres south of Isfahan city on the eastern foothills of the Zagros

Mountains, and is surrounded by numerous mountains (see Figure 4-1).

The average annual rainfall in Semirom is 517 millimetres, and the average temperature is 13.5℃. The entire Semirom region has a population of 94,125 according to the latest census in 2016 (SCI 2017). Semirom is the best city in Isfahan

Province in terms of water and natural resources and ranks first nationally in producing high-quality apples (see Photo 4-1).

Photo 4-1 Apple orchard and the owner in the study site

4.3.2. Environmental Features

The study site has the same environmental conditions as the CZM region explained in

Section 4.2.2. However, in the Semirom area, decreased rainfall and changes in precipitation from snow to rainfall over the last two decades has affected spring water flows, as many of the local springheads have become parched (Saboohi et al. 2019).

Because of the water shortage, agriculture and apple orchards in lower areas have been or are being destroyed (see Photo 4-2).

Photo 4-2 Apple tree dieback

Rangelands are the most extensive natural ecosystem in the Semirom region. They provide fodder for livestock, soil stability against wind and water erosion, and water flows to surface and underground resources. Uncontrolled and over-exploitation of the rangelands has placed much pressure on this ecosystem and caused many losses.

According to Sarshad et al. (2016), over-utilisation of the Semirom rangelands by nomadic livestock is exceeding the grazing capacity of the land, and it has consequently decreased the potential of the rangeland to control water flows.

According to another study on the Semirom rangelands conducted between 2001 and

2011, the quality of the vegetation has significantly deteriorated due to changes in the amount of rainfall and types of plant species, driven by seasonality (Moradi et al.

2013). Moreover, the decreased soil resistance of the surface and deterioration of water flow patterns are key factors decreasing the composition, stability and function of the rangelands in this area. Even when rangelands have had sufficient rainfall to support the habitat, human factors, such as over-grazing, degrade the environment and landscape (Moradi et al. 2013). 67

4.3.3. Social Context

The selected study site is home to both indigenous nomads and non-nomadic rural people. Those local people living in villages and cities have better access to facilities and services than do nomads, whose lives mainly centre on herd-based migration. The remainder of this section deals specifically with the conditions and climate change adaptation practices of the nomadic people of the Semirom region.

The nomadic livelihood in arid and semi-arid areas, such as the study site, follows a traditional style of production based on livestock, with a flexible and dynamic structure to adapt to natural disasters and unpredictable changes in climatic conditions. In this regard, the rich knowledge and experiences of indigenous tribes in range and livestock management are highly significant for identifying adaptation strategies to cope with climate change effects. The nomads of Semirom live in moveable tents (see Photo 4-

3), which are well suited to the climatic and geographical conditions of the region; the environment has a special role in nomadic life. Qashqai nomads, as the main tribe in the Semirom region, belong to one of four clans: Dare Shoori, Amale, Shesh Blocki or Farsimdan. The summer rangeland area used by the Qashqai nomads of Semirom is

508,457 ha (Saboohi et al. 2019).

Photo 4-3 Two indigenous nomad households living together in the site

According to Saboohi et al. (2019), the Qashqai nomads in the Semirom rangelands recognise that the climate is changing because of their direct connection with the environment through their lifestyle. As such, they have adapted their nomadic life to the climatic changes occurring in this region. These adaptation strategies include:

 decreasing the size of their livestock herds, especially during drought

 changing the composition of their herds to have more goats than sheep, as goats

have more benefits for them, can live in mountainous conditions with less

fodder, and require less maintenance compared to sheep

 feeding livestock with other forage resources

 having fodder and water handy for livestock

 saving water in hand-made ponds

 using gas bottles instead of wood

 changing migration routes and locations.

Indigenous nomads are familiar with the conditions and features of their land and are aware of its capabilities and deficiencies. Therefore, they have their own solutions and adaptation strategies in the face of problems, acquired from their lived experience and passed down through the generations. Importantly, the nomads understand that the

current climatic changes are different to temporary changes, and they are using strategies to sustain their nomadic life through modernisations, such as building cement-block houses and water storage ponds (Saboohi et al. 2019).

The indigenous nomads of the Semirom region also have a rich knowledge of the medicinal plants in the surrounding environment, owing largely to having lived for a long time in a manner that requires them to use herbal treatments because of lack of access to doctors. This information has been passed down from past generations, as well as through information exchange with other tribes (Safari et al. 2019).

4.4. Observation of the Study Site

The study site is in the foothills of the Zagros mountain range, about one and a half hours’ drive from Isfahan city. Semirom is one of the country’s most significant zones in terms of agricultural productivity and long-term cultural stability. The rural demography of the site comprises diverse ethnicities, including mountain tribes and settled groups. Semirom is not only a significant agricultural and natural area, it is also a famous tourist destination. There are a variety of natural attractions such as waterfalls and caves, as well as historical attractions such as ancient castles and mills, some more than 17 centuries old. The area is known as excellent countryside and transport infrastructure is well developed. The advantage of these attributes is increased external investment in the site and more facilities for locals. However, the disadvantages are visitor overpopulation and pressures on local ecological conditions, cultural traits and social structure. Meanwhile, the area is affected by droughts and dust storms, which most of the locals, mainly farmers and activists, complain about. Photo 4-4 is an example of the field observation of the study site received from the research assistant.

Photo 4-4 Field Observation: A rural residential design for the farm worker’s family with in-house permaculture capability (left), A branch of irrigation (right)

4.5. Chapter Summary

This chapter described the geographical, environmental and socio-economic features of the CZM region, to establish the local situation and allow an appreciation of the significance of the study for the region and beyond. The characteristics of the study site, Semirom, were then detailed, which is important for evaluating the effects of climate change on the local people’s livelihoods. This chapter aimed to show how the local community’s livelihood is dependent on natural resources. An observation of the study site was also provided by the researcher at the end of this chapter.

CHAPTER 5

COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS ON THE CBCZL PROJECT

5.1. Introduction

In this chapter, the local community’s perception is analysed to provide a part of the answer for the first research question: ‘What are the advantages of and barriers to the

CBCZL project as an IREP for rural communities in the Zagros region?’. This question will be answered through this and the next chapter. This chapter also answers research question two: ‘How do the community members’ observations of the CBCZL project and its effects compare with UN SDGs 13 and 15?’. The HHSs and FGDs were used to obtain data from the local rural community, including participants from various demographic and professional backgrounds, in the Semirom zone of the CZM region.

The results from the Excel and NVivo analyses are first presented, followed by a discussion of the findings.

5.2. Demographic Results of HHS Participants

For this research, 30 household heads were surveyed. The survey respondents varied in their occupation, age, education level and marital background (see Table 5 1), as well as number of family members and years living at the study site. According to the

2016 national census of the country, the rural population still represents about a quarter of the entire population of the country. However, the rural population decreased from

21,446,783 in 2011 to 20,730,625 in 2016, with an average annual growth of -0.68 in

2016 compared to -0.63 in 2011 (SCI 2017). These figures reflect an extreme migration trend from rural to urban areas.

Table 5-1 Demographic Data of HHS Participants

Q. Factors Number Percentage 1. Gender Male 22 73 Female 8 27 2. Age Range 18-24 1 3 25-34 5 17 35-44 8 27 45-54 10 33 55-64 5 17 65+ 1 3 3. Marital Status Single 0 0 Married 28 93 Divorced 0 0 Widowed 2 7 Separated 0 0 4. Education Level Illiterate 0 0 Read and write only 5 17 School level 22 73 University 3 10 Master/ Higher Degree 0 0 5. Number of household members Range: 2 – 10 Mean: 6 Median: 5.5 Mode: 5 6. Occupation Farmer 20 67 Handicraft 3 10 Local Government 3 10 Business 2 7 Others 2 6 7. Number of years living in the area Range: 14 – 61 Mean: 33 Median: 30 Mode: 50

5.2.1. Gender

Of the participants, 73 per cent were male, while only 27 per cent were women.

According to the national census, Isfahan Province had a balanced gender ratio of 103 in both 2011 and 2016 (SCI 2017). Two factors explain the lower participation rate of women in this survey. First, only household heads were approached for participation in the survey, many of whom are male at the study site. Second, some cultural norms allow men to participate more than women; for example, if a woman’s husband has passed away, it will usually be their son, brother or son-in-law that assumes the household head role, rather than their wife.

5.2.2. Education Level

None of the HHS respondents were illiterate, implying a reasonable level of literacy in the community. Indeed, the overall literacy rate in Isfahan Province is as high as

82.13 per cent (SCI 2017). Further, most of the participants had school experience, both in the standard schools and as participants in Literacy Movement Organisation of

Iran (LMOI) classes; only 17 per cent reported they had learned to read and write only from others or by attending limited LMOI sessions (see Figure 5-1).

Education Level (%)

MASTER/ HIGHER 0

UNIVERSITY 10

SCHOOL LEVEL 73

READ AND WRITE ONLY 17

ILLITERATE 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Figure 5-1 Distribution of HHS Participants by Education Level

5.2.3. Age Range

According to the 2016 national census, 69.9 per cent of the population of the country and 68.2 per cent of the rural population in Isfahan Province were aged 15–64 years old (SCI 2017); however, 97 per cent of the HHS respondents fell into this age range, with most aged over 35 (see Figure 5-2). This brings two main advantages: the participants in the study have a wealth of life experience and an inclusive observation record; their maturity likely makes their interview comments more logical and reliable

(Carmichael et al. 2015).

Age Range

3% 18-24 3% 17% 17% 25-34 35-44 45-54 27% 33% 55-64 65+

Figure 5-2 Distribution of HHS Participants by Age Range

5.2.4. Marital Status

Ninety-three per cent of the survey respondents were married and only seven per cent were widowed. This can be attributed to cultural factors, as marriage is more common in rural areas compared to urban areas in the country.

5.2.5. Major Occupations

Of the HHS participants, 67 per cent worked in the agricultural sector (e.g., farming, gardening, fishing and honey production); indeed, this is the main occupation in rural communities around the world. A further 10 per cent were handicraft producers, 10 75

per cent worked in local government, seven per cent worked in the business sector, and the remaining six per cent had other occupations (see Figure 5-3).

Occupation

6% 7% Agriculture 10% Handicraft Local Government 10% 67% Business Others

Figure 5-3 Distribution of HHS Participants by Occupation

5.3. Observed Climatic Events

Many of the environmentally crucial zones in the world, including the CZM region, are suffering from climate change effects. The community perception results confirm these effects have worsened over the last 15 years, from before the CBCZL project implementation in 2006 to the end of the year 2019 (three years after project implementation). Dust storms and droughts are the primary and critical environmental problems reported by the local rural community at the study site.

5.3.1. HHS Results

Among the HHS participants, all had experienced droughts, and 87 per cent had observed dust storms. This suggests that water resources and air quality are the top climatic concerns and challenges in this region. Further, 47 per cent of respondents reported observing temperature fluctuations (i.e., rising heat levels), indicating this to be another problem.

Far fewer participants (seven per cent each) had experienced floods and extreme precipitation events. This contradicts Evans and Alsamawi’s (2011) prediction that this region would become subject to extreme precipitation and floods due to climate change effects by the end of the 21st century.

Observed Climatic Events

100% 87%

47%

7% 7%

Dust Storms Floods Droughts Extreme Extreme Precipitations Temperature Fluctuations

Figure 5-4 Observed Climatic Events by HHS Participants

5.3.2. FGDs Results

All FGD participants agreed that drought was the most significant climatic disaster they have seen in the recent two decades, and fishery men, farmers and herders mentioned the dust storms as well. All groups pointed to the associated environmental changes of water resources and heatwaves in summers, and they reported a decrease in the volume and quality of their production. In addition, the farmer and herder group participants raised their problems with dry-out of their pastures and crops, increased pests and weeds and increased disease and death in their livestock. Soil erosion due to dust storms was also a problem for this group. As for the fishery group, one participant,

Akbari A, stated that:

We have five fishery ponds in this area, and during the two recent decades, we

had a severe decrease in underground water resources, by the construction of

wells, whether legal or illegal. We had a water ration of about 1,000 litres per

hour for our ponds before, but it has been decreased to 49 litres per hour.

Photo 5-1, taken by the research assistant, shows a fishery unit at the study site at the time of data collection.

Photo 5-1 The rural fishery unit (left), Trout fish farming (right)

While the participants agreed that this year (2019) had much better precipitations both in terms of rainfall and snowfall, poor water management limited how much of that water could be saved. A participant from the farmer group, Damarde, declared:

We had good precipitation this year (2019), but because of the lack of water-

saving strategies, we could not save the water. Unmanaged usage of natural

resources and decreases in underground water resources still exist.

According to the discussions, destruction of horticultural crops represents a significant loss for producers. As one orchardman group participant, Qorbani, explained:

Many of our orchards have been destroyed in their harvesting period, about

3,000 ha of our orchards. There is no tree because of the drought, and our

farmlands are dry. So, the harvested products have been severely decreased. 78

Akbari A, from the fishery group, continues:

There are many plants for medical purposes, or edible wild plants. They just

harvest these plants; they don’t replant or seed to replace the harvested plants

… Also, by mechanised systems, most of the natural resources have been

destroyed. Non-standard and irregular exploitation of natural resources …

Industrial development, but the regression of the environment.

Although the question was about their experiences of environmental disasters and changes, some participants also commented on issues such as mechanisation and industrial development and the exploitation of natural resources, which were not discussed in all groups.

5.4. Community’s Perception of the Environmental-Related Conditions

From the local community’s perspective (as per the HHSs and FGDs), climate change has affected the CZM region destructively. However, there is some indication that the

CBCZL project has supported the adaptation of livelihoods to the emerging climatic circumstances, as an overall improvement was noted for livelihood and the agricultural sector.

5.4.1. HHS Results

The HHS participants were asked about the status of agriculture, air quality, the ecosystem, water resources and livelihood before the implementation of the CBCZL project. The WAI for each element was calculated (as per Section 3.7.1.2), and the results and overall assessment of each component are shown in Table 5-2.

Table 5-2 Community’s Perception of Environmental-Related Conditions Before the CBCZL Project – HHS Results

Effects Responses (%) WAI OA Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor Agriculture 0 40 40 20 0 0.55 Fair Air Quality 0 33.33 50 16.67 0 0.54 Fair Ecosystem 6.67 46.67 40 6.67 0 0.63 Good Livelihood 0 16.67 70 13.33 0 0.51 Fair Water Resources 6.67 46.67 23.33 23.33 0 0.59 Fair Note: Very Poor = 0.01-0.2; Poor = 0.21-0.4; Fair = 0.41-0.6; Good = 0.61-0.8; Very Good = 0.81-1. OA = Overall Assessment.

Based on the HHS responses, the overall assessment for the ecosystem was that it was in good condition before the CBCZL project implementation, suggesting climate change effects were not highly tangible (at least for the community) in the area.

Moreover, livelihood, water resources and agriculture were considered to be in fair condition. The same question was asked for the conditions after the CBCZL project.

Table 5-3 shows the overall assessment for each component.

Table 5-3 Community’s Perception of Environmental-Related Conditions After the CBCZL Project – HHS Results

Effects Responses (%) WAI OA Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor Agriculture 0 60 33.33 6.67 0 0.63 Good Air Quality 0 0 33.33 66.67 0 0.33 Poor Ecosystem 0 36.67 43.33 20 0 0.54 Fair Livelihood 13.33 60 26.67 0 0 0.72 Good Water Resources 0 23.33 16.67 60 0 0.41 Fair Note: Very Poor = 0.01-0.2; Poor = 0.21-0.4; Fair = 0.41-0.6; Good = 0.61-0.8; Very Good = 0.81-1.

The perception of the participants was that air quality had worsened during the last 13 years. Accordingly, dust storms can be considered the most severe environmental

problem in the region. Rather than being attributable to the CBCZL project, which implemented a range of biodiversity and ecosystem improvement activities, worsening air quality suggests a massive, ongoing and destructive effect of climate change on the region. Further, the overall condition of water resources and the ecosystem were perceived to have worsened. Only agriculture and livelihood were reported to have improved. Figure 5-5 presents the WAI of the overall status of the environment-related conditions before and after the CBCZL project based on the local community perceptions obtained from the HHSs.

Overall Status

Agriculture 1.00 Before CBCZL After CBCZL 0.80 0.60 0.40 Water Resources Air Quality 0.20 0.00

Livelihood Ecosystem

Figure 5-5 Overall Status of Environmental-Related Conditions – HHS Results

From the above, it is evident that while the overall condition of agriculture and livelihood have improved, the overall condition of water resources, the ecosystem and air quality have worsened over the last two decades. This can be explained by participants’ observation of more droughts, dust storms and extreme temperature and heatwave events, which are symptomatic of climate change.

5.4.2. FGDs Results

The four focus groups were asked the same questions as in the HHS regarding the overall condition of agriculture, air quality, the environment, livelihood and water resources over the last two decades. The WAIs were calculated for each group, and the results are shown in Tables 5-4 and 5-5 for before and after the CBCZL project.

The overall assessment for air quality, the ecosystem and water resources was that they were in good condition 13 years ago, while agriculture and livelihood were considered fair. Both tables indicate the WAIs for each group separately, so that their perceptions can be compared. The results demonstrate that, according to the FGD participants, air quality and the ecosystem have worsened during the recent two decades (from good to poor), whereas the condition of water resources has declined slightly to fair condition, and agriculture and livelihood remain in fair condition.

Table 5-4 Community’s Perception of Environmental-Related Conditions Before the CBCZL Project – FGDs Results

Effects Responses by Groups WAI OA Farmers Herders Fishery Orchardmen men Agriculture 0.50 0.63 0.46 0.58 0.54 Fair Air Quality 0.83 0.79 0.71 0.79 0.78 Good Ecosystem 0.75 0.75 0.71 0.75 0.74 Good Livelihood 0.46 0.46 0.33 0.50 0.44 Fair Water Resources 0.83 0.63 0.58 0.67 0.68 Good Note: Very Poor = 0.01-0.2; Poor = 0.21-0.4; Fair = 0.41-0.6; Good = 0.61-0.8; Very Good = 0.81-1. OA = Overall Assessment.

Table 5-5 Community’s Perception of the environmental-related conditions After the CBCZL Project – FGDs Results

Effects Responses by Groups WAI OA Farmers Herders Fishery Orchardmen men Agriculture 0.54 0.38 0.50 0.50 0.48 Fair Air Quality 0.13 0.17 0.29 0.25 0.21 Poor Ecosystem 0.29 0.29 0.25 0.25 0.27 Poor Livelihood 0.46 0.67 0.67 0.50 0.57 Fair Water Resources 0.21 0.71 0.46 0.42 0.45 Fair Note: Very Poor = 0.01-0.2; Poor = 0.21-0.4; Fair = 0.41-0.6; Good = 0.61-0.8; Very Good = 0.81-1.

Figure 5-6 summarises the results on the perceived overall status of the discussed environment-related conditions before and after the CBCZL project. As shown, air quality and the ecosystem are considered to have severely worsened, while the condition of water resources and agriculture has somewhat worsened. Only livelihood has improved to any degree.

Overall Status

Before Project

Agriculture After Project 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 Water Resources Air Quality 0.20 0.00

Livelihood Ecosystem

Figure 5-6 Overall Status of Environmental-Related Conditions – FGDs Results

The following comments from the FGDs complement the results. Regarding livelihood condition, a participant from the herder group, Ahmadi A, indicated:

There are some expenses that we do not have because of living in tents, using

our livestock and our productions to live, having our gardens for growing

vegetables. Otherwise, our income and expenses would not be in balance. We

also live in the city sometimes, and we know how expensive living in a city is,

in addition to living as nomads. We also have some bee colonies and produce

honey as an alternative income.

Therefore, the herder group have a kind of permaculture strategy that allows them to adapt to the current situation of climate change and sustain their livelihood.

Regarding the current water resources situation, another participant from the herder group, Ahmadi B, stated:

This year (2019) we had much better honey produced because of the

precipitations we had, especially the snow, because snow will remain longer

to water the plants, especially astragalus plants that have very long roots and

can get the water from the depth of the soil, and bees like the flowers. That is

why when we have good snow, we will have good honey the following spring.

Photo 5-2 shows the bee colonies at the study site and the process used for producing organic honey.

Photo 5-2 The honey producers beside the colonies in the site (left), The local organic honey scaling and packing section (right)

Another participant from the herder group, Saedi, continued:

This year, we had a better situation because of the good rainfalls, but our

livestock got more diseases because we did not have access to good quality

medicines to cure them. Some of these diseases are also communicable between

animals and humans, some viruses that directly spread over the region.

In the orchardman group, regarding water resource management, one of the participants, Qorbani, stated that:

The government had some programs for efficient use of water resources, like

modern watering systems, but in some areas, it was inapplicable because of

the type of water resources (like spring water), unless they constructed lakes

and dams to use that water. For example, the watershed project that recently

has been done in the lake, so that we had water directly in drought seasons to

save our trees. But there are more than 30 fields in our area, and everyone

needs to have the same project in drought seasons. We have many rivers that

are flowing about 6–7 months in a year from our region, and when we need

this water, the rivers are dry, and we have missed the water. Some people have

constructed ponds themselves on their lands to save the water, but we need

something for public use as well, which will cost less, but be more beneficial

for everyone. We had no problem last year during the drought season by using

our saved water.

However, one of the participants from the orchardman group, Omidi, stated that:

These changes are mostly the effects of climate change, not the projects. When

we say air quality, it has been worsened because of global warming. We had

droughts and decreases in water, but there was also no management on using

the water. People tried to save the water by themselves. We didn't have this

much climate change effect before these projects, so the overall conditions

have been naturally worsened.

It is apparent that the participants are aware of the effects of climate change over recent decades on the current conditions of the environment and human lives. They attributed the worsening conditions—that is, the droughts, storms, heatwaves and so on— directly to climate change, rather than to any problems with the CBCZL project itself.

5.5. Advantages of the CBCZL Project

Even though, according to the terminal evaluation report of the CBCZL project, the project did not achieve its objective (Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016, p. 8), there were possibly some advantages for the environment and local community owing to the plans and programs implemented in the region. In this section, the successful aspects of the project are discussed, based on the data collected in the HHSs and FGDs.

5.5.1. HHS Results

The participants were asked to list any advantages of the project realised during the implementation period. The question was open-ended to enable them to write their own responses. The responses were then grouped by subject into four categories of improvement: livelihood, agriculture, the ecosystem and water resources (see Figure

5-7). Based on the responses, the project was successful in improving the local community’s livelihood. The majority of the respondents were satisfied that the

CBCZL project had empowered them towards a better livelihood and economic conditions through the supports and facilities provided to them.

The project was also perceived as successful in its improvement of agriculture in the region, which considering the direct and indirect economic reliance of the rural community on agriculture, is also connected to livelihood. In particular, the CBCZL project implemented agricultural supports to empower farmers and promote sustainable farming. Photo 5-3 shows the condition of a farm, and some of the agricultural products being sold at the study site.

Photo 5-3 Farmers selling the fresh produce on-site (left), Agricultural farm (right)

Although some of the respondents thought the CBCZL project had brought about improvements to the ecosystem and water resources, this view was not in the majority,

and so this is not considered a strong improvement. Specifically, one-third of the respondents believed that the ecosystem and overall condition of the local flora and fauna had been improved; while only one-fifth (or 20%) believed that water resource quality and quantity had improved.

Improvements

Water Resources 20%

Livelihood 77%

Ecosystem 33%

Agriculture 60%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 5-7 The CBCZL Project's Advantages – HHS Results

5.5.2. FGDs Results

The same question on the advantages of the project was asked in the focus groups. The participants in the farmer group did not think the project had brought many advantages.

One of the participants in that group, Pirmaramian, saw environmental protection and conservation of natural resources as the only advantage of the project. The orchardman group also thought the project had had no advantage because it was not successful on the ground in achieving its objective.

In the fishery group, the participants agreed that the project had helped the local community economically; that is, the benefit lay in the infrastructure and livelihood improvements. Some of the benefits outlined during the group discussions in this regard were dam construction to save water for cultivation in the dry season, and other 88

aids such as solar panel installation and gas supply to indigenous nomads, also supplying seeds for farmers and herders to increase their crops and fodder for their livestock.

The other group, the herders, had a different view. They believed that the plans designed at the higher level by the project managers and government were not applicable at the local level and so could not be implemented. In this regard, one of the herder group participants, Ahmadi B, explained:

There should be a balance between livestock and pasture. For example, two

years ago in our contract we had permission to have 280 head of livestock, but

they decreased it to 118 head after the droughts to make it in balance with the

pastures. However, the problem is that we cannot afford to live with less

livestock.

The condition of the herders and one of the production units at the study site are illustrated in Photo 5-4.

Photo 5-4 Herders grazing their livestock (left), Herders group in the production unit (right)

Overall, the participants did not consider the project to have had many advantages at the study site beyond providing some infrastructure (e.g., dams) and other aids (e.g., solar panels) to improve the livelihoods of local people.

5.6. Barriers and Challenges to the CBCZL Project

In this section, the barriers to and challenges of the successful implementation of the

CBCZL project, as perceived by the local community, are discussed. First, the HHS results are presented, with a discussion on each component; then the FGDs around this subject are presented, along with some representative participant quotations.

5.6.1. HHS Results

The household heads responded to the open-ended question on the barriers and challenges they believed the project had faced. The responses varied but could be categorised into four main issues: 1) inattention to the local community’s opinion, 2) lack of budget, 3) lack of coordination in implementing the project’s plans and 4) discontinuation of the project.

First, the community believed that their opinions had not been taken into account before, during or after the project’s implementation. This was the main barrier identified (see Figure 5-8), indicating the local community was not engaged and involved in the project planning. They also felt there had been inadequate direct material support, such as financial aid, equipment and services, likely due to the lack of a sufficient budget.

Another barrier outlined by the HHS respondents was lack of coordination, particularly between the project team and managers and local community members and leaders, leading to management problems. The HHS results also indicated that the community

felt the project should have been continued, to satisfactorily achieve its objectives.

Therefore, discontinuation was seen as another barrier to the project’s success.

Barriers

Discontinuation 17%

Inattention to the Local 33% Community’s Opinion

Lack of Coordination 23%

Lack of Budget 27%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 5-8 Barriers to the CBCZL Project’s Success – HHS Results

5.6.2. FGDs Results

The barriers and challenges faced by the CBCZL project were also covered in the

FGDs. Some of the barriers commented on by the farmer group included problems in the bureaucratic administration process around decision-making at the higher level; the over-exploitation and waste of natural resources; and a lack of appropriate management, leading to the destruction of natural resources. Drought and wildfire in forests and rangelands, as some effects of climate change over the last two decades, were also counted by the farmer group as barriers to the success of the project.

The fishery group participants believed that the main barrier was lack of knowledge and public awareness around entrepreneurship. They also mentioned that:

People destroy natural resources twice more than their production. For

instance, for agricultural production, they use too many toxins so as to have

more crops, but these toxins are not good for the environment and humans. So,

we need scientific experts to monitor these issues.

The participants from the orchard worker group identified the lack of attention to the community’s needs and demands as the main barrier to the success of the project. One of the participants claimed that:

They were saying that the local community is one angle of the triangle for the

success of these projects, but in practice, their needs have not been attended

to.

Other problems and challenges identified related to the geographical situation of the region and the global considerations of the country. According to one herder group participant:

Last year, there was illegal livestock trafficking that the government stopped

it. Those who did it got their benefits, but we, nomad people, have been in

trouble, they made some limitations for us. They did not permit us to transport

more that several head of sheep to the pastures. If we had more than that, they

took our livestock to the slaughterhouse. It was done during the sanctions on

the export and import of meats. Some people were trafficking livestock to

neighbouring countries in exchange for foreign currency.

From this, it is apparent that domestic and global decisions affect the livelihoods of even rural communities far from the decision-making centres.

5.7. Alternative Implementation Approaches to Achieve Higher Efficiency

The HHS and FGD participants were asked ‘how could the project be more effective and beneficial?’ This section presents the local community’s perspective on this issue.

5.7.1. HHS Results

The responses to this open-ended question could be categorised into four main topics: consultation with the local community, more equipment and support, better management and continuation of the project. In total, 33 per cent of the respondents believed that the project could be made more effective by the project team and managers consulting with local community members and leaders. A further 27 per cent thought more equipment and financial support would allow the project to be implemented more effectively. Better management was identified by 23 per cent of

HHS respondents as necessary for the success of the project. Finally, 17 per cent believed the project needed to be continued to reach its objectives (see Figure 5-9).

Based on these findings, projects like the CBCZL project could be more effective by consulting with the local community and getting them involved in the project’s plans and programs. Further, they should provide more financial supports and equipment to the local community, to increase their production and income. Improving the management of the project and extending the implementation period could also enable such projects to be more effective and successful.

Alternative Implementation Approaches

Project Continuation 17%

Counselling with the Local Community 33%

Better Management 23%

More Equipment and Financial Supports 27%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 5-9 Alternative Implementation Approaches – HHS Results

5.7.2. FGDs Results

To analyse the results from the four FGDs regarding the question of what would make the project more effective and beneficial, the discussions were transcribed and coded using the NVivo software package. In total, seven alternative approaches for the success of the project were identified from the FGD data. Figure 5-10 shows the frequency of each issue in the discussions.

Figure 5-10 Alternative Implementation Approaches – FGDs Results

Most of the participants emphasised the need for environmentally compatible plans for the projects being implemented in the region. Better management and local community involvement were the next most frequently discussed issues in the groups regarding increasing the effectiveness of the project. Improving the level of knowledge and education, and mutual cooperation between government and people; designing appropriate cultivation patterns and plans to adapt to climate change effects; and adequate monitoring of the projects by a government agency were also discussed in the groups.

For instance, one of the farmer group participants, Damarde, stated that:

One of the ways to make these projects more effective is to increase the

cooperation between the authorities, and their open-minded attitude on the

problems. They should remove the barriers for external investors because this

area is still untouched and has a unique environment. This area is also one of

the best areas to establish solar power stations. The environment has economic

benefits for the country, and there is no pollution in this area. The other way,

the governors should design some national plans that do not damage the

environment, and also create some jobs for local people. This area has the

potential to create income resources for people.

Regarding environmentally compatible plans, a fishery group participant, Akbari, added:

If they design a project, it should be appropriate environmentally. For

example, there is a yeast factory near an international wetland in the foothills

of the Zagros mountains and apple orchards below it. This factory should be

in a desert area because it has so many toxins and pollutions released to the

environment that people got eyesores because of this pollution. It also pollutes

the water. It is polluting one of the best environmental resources of the country,

so its associated losses are more than the benefits. So, we can say, designing

projects based on the local people’s abilities and capabilities, harmonised with

the environment and its potentials.

Further, social justice and inclusion were seen by a herder group participant as essential for the success of the project:

The price of our livestock is much less than what it should be, because the

drugs and medicine we buy for them are much more expensive than before, and

it is not worth it. All the other expenses have doubled. So, there should be

justice to give aids/equipment equally to all the people. For instance, they have

given nomads gas bottles to prevent them from cutting down trees and using

the wood for cooking and heating, but they didn’t give these to everybody, just

some. They should be all-inclusive aids to support everyone. There should be

more facilities in terms of making sustainable livelihoods for everyone.

Thus, in the FGDs, views on how to ensure the success of initiatives like the CBCZL project centred on the conservation of the environment and livelihood improvement by involving the local community.

5.8. Community View and Participation

The last two questions were asked in the FGDs only, and focused on the community view of and participation in the CBCZL project. While many of the responses to the previous questions also formed part of the answer to this question, the results are nonetheless summarised below.

5.8.1. Community View on the CBCZL Project

For the farmer group participants, they considered the community supported sustainable livelihood programs and activities, provided they could be successfully implemented.

As one of the fishery group participants, Akbari A, explained:

These projects had some good impacts on people’s income and livelihoods,

and accordingly, economic development. However, most of the programs were

without a comprehensive plan.

In the same regard, a herder group participant, Ahmadi M, stated:

As an example, they promised nomadic people that they would provide them

with solar panels, but they could not manage it. They gave it to our neighbours

but not to us, because we are also living in the city. They told us that they would

not give it to us, even though we requested it several times. We are still using

gas bottles and cylinders for cooking and heating purposes.

Participants from the orchardman group agreed that the community is not satisfied with the outcomes of the project, as their expectations were not met during the implementation period.

5.8.2. Community Participation in the CBCZL Project

Most of the participants from all four groups believed that the community had not participated in the project; however, they claimed that if managers or government did seek to involve the community in the project, they would participate.

In this regard, a fishery group participant, Akbari A, said:

We did not have much participation from the community before, but now by

the entrepreneurship advertisements, it has been increasing in the recent two

years. They are industrialising livestock farms, agriculture, and people are

contributing to these processes.

Another participant from the herder group, Ahmadi L, stated:

If they encourage and convince the people to participate, they will definitely

contribute. There were some aids from the government, like solar panels,

barley seeds, watering system. If nomads received an aid from the government,

they participated more in these projects, but there should be cooperation and

more assistance from the government. For example, if they only give us seeds

to plant, we also need workers to hire for planting. So, they should support us

financially as well.

By contrast, the orchardman group participants believed that local people had participated very actively in all projects implemented in the region.

5.9. Conclusion

This chapter has reported the community views on the CBCZL project, as gathered through HHSs and FGDs with local household heads and key stakeholder groups (i.e., farmers, herders, fishery and orchard men). All community respondents reported suffering the effects of climate change, which appear to have been worsening over the last 13 years. The community believes that while their livelihoods have improved during this time, the environmental situation has not. Thus, there is a capacity and need for further action in this field. The findings reported in this chapter have answered the second research question entirely, and the first question partly. The results of the KIIs are presented in the next chapter.

CHAPTER 6

EXPERTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE CBCZL PROJECT

6.1. Introduction

In the previous chapter, the community perception of the CBCZL project was presented, answering research question 2 and part of question 1. In this chapter, some remaining part of question 1 is answered by presenting the experts’ analysis of the

CBCZL project, as obtained from the KIIs.

6.2. Professional Background of the Key Informants

All the KII participants were knowledgeable about the CBCZL project and can be considered active experts and agents working towards the SDGs. Further, they all had some in-depth connection with the environment, rural community and rationale of the

CBCZL project. For example, respondent KI-3 mentioned:

I have been doing agriculture for a long time, by cultivation, livestock and

honey production. This is also my family’s professional background, as my

father is locally known as the ‘father of Semirom’s apple’ because he was the

first who brought the high-quality apple trees from northern zones to this area

60 years ago.

KI-1 is the CBCZL project’s chief executive officer (CEO) and principal manager. KI-

2 is the project’s professional consultant. KI-3 is the head of Semirom’s rural cooperative. KI-4 is the project’s strategic consultant. KI-5 is the project’s international evaluator, KI- 6 is on the professional panel staff of the DoE. KI-7 is a

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distinguished environmentalist and forestry manager in the CZM region. KI-8 is a local

NGO director, KI-9 is a CBCZL project advisor, KI-10 is a university lecturer in

Agriculture and KI-11 is a local agribusiness CEO.

6.3. Advantages of the CBCZL Project

Although most of the discussion in the KIIs focused on the barriers and challenges to the CBCZL project, there were also some proclaimed successes. As seen in Figure 6

1, according to the experts, ecosystem restoration and increased public awareness were the principal achievements of the CBCZL project, with eight key informants pointing to these as areas in which the project achieved acceptable outcomes. Five experts identified local livelihood improvement as another success. Far fewer experts thought that the project had been successful in terms of community participation, farming method improvements and ensuring cooperation between local governors and the community.

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Figure 6-1 Advantages of the CBCZL Project – KIIs Results

Quotations illustrating some of the main successes of the CBCZL project mentioned by the participants are provided below.

KI-2 mentioned:

The most significant achievement of this project was gathering all the parties

on a specific purpose. It was a great job, including everyone from the

governance sections and the Department of Environment to the local

community levels by increasing the public awareness, and then writing an

accurate plan for the ecosystem restoration and livelihood improvement

through the CBCZL project.

Moreover, KI-4 stated that some of the successes of the project included:

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Raising the public awareness on a specific ecosystem restoration issue in both

the levels of nation and leaders and mainstreaming sustainable development

values. Utilisation of national capital. Entrepreneurship in the tourism and

herbal medicine fields, towards the community livelihood improvement.

6.4. Barriers and Challenges of the CBCZL Project

Unfortunately, the CBCZL project also faced several barriers and failed in more ways than it succeeded. In this research, saying the project ‘failed’ means that the project

‘failed to reach expectations’. In analysing the options of the experts regarding what barriers and failures the CBCZL project suffered from, it is clear that management difficulties were the primary problem, as almost all KII participants mentioned this

(see Figure 6-2). The second most-cited problem was insufficient cooperation and teamwork (both in terms of capability and philosophy) among the stakeholders. Project design and planning was mentioned by six respondents, followed by budget problems and project discontinuation (each mentioned by five respondents). Lesser cited barriers are failures included lack of adequate knowledge, lack of a public sense of belonging, distrust and mistrust, lack of taking responsibility and lack of a third-party agent to independently implement the project.

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Figure 6-2 Barriers and Challenges of the CBCZL Project – KIIs Results

KI-1, a key participant in the CBCZL project, presented an inclusive illustration regarding the project’s barriers, which can be a tactically significant base for further analysis:

The first problem was a lack of coordination and cooperation among the

management levels in the state. They cannot work together. There is no

teamwork attitude in various sectors, including the budget planning instance

(the Planning and Budgeting Organisation). They cannot plan effectively to

make the connection between different departments or organisations, like the

Forestry Department, Ministry of Agriculture, or Ministry of Energy. We were

working in basin zones, the great Zagros basin. Karun is one of the rivers starts

from the CZM area to Khuzestan province, and finally reaches to the Persian

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Gulf. To protect this area, the Ministry of Energy should also get involved. The

Department of Interior that provides a sustainable livelihood for people should

get involved, as well as the Ministry of Agriculture. Only 10 per cent of the

whole 32 million hectares of the Zagros area is under 1,000 metres above sea

level. That means there is only one per cent land-usage change permission,

while there are apple orchards at 3,000 metres where the orchardman has

authority to get water for their farms to produce apples and live by selling

them.

While it is not possible to identify the causes of the CBCZL’s management inefficiency in this research, some clue may be obtained from the KIIs. For example,

KI-2 pointed out the geographical range of the project and its lack of land management focus:

The problem was having the project across a vast ecological geography in four

differing provinces involving their governances with coordination problems,

while the project should have had a focused management.

Meanwhile, KI-4, a strategic expert, criticised the idea of implementing the CBCZL project through the DoE, local governance and their sub-branches:

Our decision-making and management system in the governance levels is

weak. However, the main problem is the lack of a third-party to implement and

continue the project; this should be an independent organisation/company

trusted and coordinated by both the international sponsors and domestic

governance.

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6.5. Necessity of the CBCZL Project for the SDGs

It was determined that a main goal of the CBCZL project was to address climate change adaptation and activities, particularly with respect to UN SDGs 13 and 15.

Knowing that the CBCZL project was deemed effective by the KII participants in terms of ecosystem restoration, it was expected that they would confirm the project was guided by these SDGs.

In this regard, KI-7 stated:

This project is exactly towards the UN goals because when one part of the

Earth is getting destroyed, and the oxygen is getting low, there is no border for

it, the effects are for the whole world. As an example, the Amazon forests were

burned to have more flat fields, but these forests are lungs of the Earth. But

who cares! Anyway, in a few years all forests, pastures and water resources

will be destroyed. People thought that these natural resources are forever and

continuous, but these are now becoming finished soon. The government should

invest in this critical case. The UN did contribute some amount, but when it

finished, nobody supported or followed that further. The consequence is a

ruined future.

Further, some participants not only confirmed the importance of the SDGs but also emphasised the absolute necessity of IREPs. For instance, KI-10 mentioned:

Necessary in what regard? If you are talking about the Zagros region

specifically, yes definitely! Because Zagros has the most important ecosystem

in the Middle East and many communities and species of the region are directly

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dependent on its natural resources, and our local governance method has

failed so far to advance a proper environmental shield.

SDGs are essential for growth in the deprived regions. The rural areas are

among the most deprived areas where people rely on nature and its resources.

SDGs cover a range of targets, especially environmental sustainability and

local humanitarian rates as well. Therefore, it is evident that projects such as

CBCZL are a vital facilitative move towards the SDGs. Indeed, an improved

vegetation cover and reversing the deforestation trends can help a lot with

these projects towards climate change adaptation.

6.6. Requirements for Global and Domestic Supports

The majority of the KII respondents believed that there are only two areas of support required from the international community: finance and science and professional advice. Some believed more cooperation was necessary. For example, KI-4, who had an inclusive strategic background, stated that:

The only needed international support is funding and sponsoring.

While KI-1 acknowledged the international community’s role, they also highlighted the need for better cooperation:

There is no effective continuous cooperation, and this is the reason for the

failure of a project, even with a good plan. I organised 500 workshops at the

national, provincial, local and governor (who are involved in environmental

issues) levels. But now, when I look back at all these, after 1394 (2015) when

the plan was submitted to the government, we gathered all related ministries

through the UN, and they pledged to implement the project’s programs. But

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unfortunately, there is no cooperation between the parties, and it is the cause

of unsuccessful projects, such as MENARID, which was not successful after

13–14 years.

With respect to domestic supports, more respondents indicated a need for these compared to global supports. Many of the needed supports are at the tactical or management levels. KI-2 added:

The project should have been continued. Currently, there is not even a single

office for the CBCZL project in any of the organisations. At least, the project

should have had an office in the DoE. Because it is a significant project

covering critical instances such as water, food, agriculture, soil, employment,

tourism, rural industries, etc. The main problem regarding international

projects is that they use the resources and discontinue the project when those

resources are finished. The project is forsaken incomplete! Despite the fact that

we had made secretariats for the project in local departments, you cannot see

any sign of the CBCZL project in the local departments.

There is also a severe need for technical (on the ground) domestic supports. For example, KI-7 believed that:

We need immediate action, as Zagros is being destroyed by many factors, such

as human, road, vehicles, over-grazing, dust storms etc. However, some

factors, like honeybees, are beneficial to nature and should be supported. Also,

this is a highland where water management must be taken into account

seriously, as we have no adequate access to underground water and are

directly reliant on precipitation. The water springs and water sources should

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be rescued immediately. The local community’s role must not be excluded any

further.

6.7. Alternative Implementation Approaches to Achieve Higher Efficiency

Resolving the barriers that prevented the successful implementation of the CBCZL could help the CBCZL or similar projects be more effective in the future. Most of the

KII respondents believed that the project could have been more successful if management approaches had been improved (see Figure 6-3).

Figure 6-3 Alternative Implementation Approaches – KIIs Results

For example, KI-4 mentioned:

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Separation of the project from the government and acting through an

independent structure. Establishing small and agile decision-making and

implementing units. Because decision-making was a major issue in this project.

Also, KI-8 stated that:

As I said, trusting the people themselves, and changing the stereotypical

attitudes about the local NGOs. It really should not matter which philosophy I

follow, if my NGO has the most powerful, popular and active group on the

ground, the locals would be surprised when it is excluded from the project

implementation procedures.

According to one local expert, KI, engagement at the local level must be established:

We should all work together, beekeepers and herders and the government, in

this instance. For example, the government gives us some aids, like plant seeds,

and beekeepers with herders should collaboratively work on the pastures for

both livestock and bees. In this case, all the parties will gain some benefits.

The indirect environmental benefits of each honeybee colony are more than the

direct earnings of each, for pastures, orchards and crops through pollination

by bees. Unfortunately, some of the orchardmen say that bees eat the blooms

and destroy the products/fruits. They are not aware of the benefits of the

pollination for their products, but nowadays they have come to know more

about it. Honeybees are a factor in better production if they do their complete

pollination. The people should know about these facts and plan together.

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6.8. Conclusion

This chapter presented experts’ views on the CBCZL project. While some of the findings were similar to those reported in Chapter 4, there were also some dissimilarities, as discussed in the next chapter. The key informants who participated in the feedback and response sessions were from various professional backgrounds, lending a unique inclusive perspective to this study. They confirmed that the CBCZL project had suffered from a lack of appropriate management, and while they did note some successes of the project related to public awareness and ecosystem restoration, the barriers to and failures of the project dominated their responses. Among these barriers, the most important were management, teamwork and budget problems. This chapter has completed answering research question two, which was also partly addressed in the previous chapter. The next chapter discusses the findings reported in

Chapters 4 and 5 and discusses the lessons that can be learned from them.

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CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

7.1. Introduction

This research has explored the main lessons from the CBCZL project implementation via a new approach, through investigating the perceptions of three separate groups: local community members, rural producers, and experts. The lessons confirm that crucial IREPs such as CBCZL must be implemented with revised and highly efficient management methods; otherwise the project’s goal and objectives may either fail or be partially achieved. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals in terms of climate change and sustainable use and management of natural resources are presented in this chapter. It compares the effects of the CBCZL project to the goals 13 and 15 of the UN SDGs within the community.

This chapter is a discussion of the research findings presented in the two previous chapters (5 and 6). In the first section, the research results are discussed in a practical and rational approach through analyses and descriptions. The next section answers the research questions; the third section presents the main explored lessons of the research, followed by the last section, which discusses how well the research objectives were achieved, recommendations, study limitations, and suggestions for future work.

7.2. Discussions

In this section, findings from three sources—local villagers, rural producers, and experts—are discussed.

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7.2.1. Perceptions of the Community on the Climatic Events and Changes

The findings from the household survey interviews and four group discussions demonstrate that droughts and dust storms were the most-observed climatic event during the last two decades. However, this observation was at odds with that predicted in climate modelling. The study by Evans and Alsamawi (2011) reveals that this region is predicted to experience extreme precipitation and floods in the future. Even though extreme precipitation, mainly rainfall, was mentioned by one of the focus group participants, it was not considered as a climatic disaster, and indeed may be regarded as favourable.

These observations are similar to those of other studies in the mountainous areas of the Himalayas and eastern Tibet in that the local people had noticed drought and monsoon rainfall during the last three years (Chaudhary & Bawa 2011; Byg & Salick

2009; Vedwan 2006), as well as decrease in water flows in summer (Barnett et al.

2005). Whereas, the local community perceptions on climatic events are different to the other scientific studies that show an increase in flooding (Kundzewicz et al. 2007;

Liang et al. 2011).

The findings are based on the local community’s observations of the environmental change and generated from their experience of living in the local area, with an average of 33 years for the household participants. Therefore, these findings reflect the local community’s various experiences (Badmos et al. 2015; Taylor et al. 2014). Other studies have used the local climatic changes observed by villagers as traditional environmental knowledge to explain climate change effects (Kalanda-Joshua et al.

2011; Wolf & Moser 2011). Similar to this study, other studies have used the local people’s and the public’s understanding and perceptions of aspects of climate change

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in Mozambique, Ghana, Kenya and Uganda (Douglas et al. 2008), European and

American perspectives (Lorenzoni & Pidgeon 2006), and public attitudes in Scotland

(Hinds et al. 2002) and in the south of England (Whitmarsh 2009), and there is a general acceptance that the observations of locals validly reflect the information from meteorological observations.

There are many human-induced drivers of climate change and global warming, as reported by scientists (Cruz et al. 2007; Solomon et al. 2009), such as deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and increased energy use, which are also identified by the research participants, who described wildfires, tree cutting, over-grazing of rangelands and over-exploitation of natural resources, emissions from factories, mechanisation and industrialisation.

The findings showed that the effect of the environmental changes for the rural producers is a decline in their production, that is, crop yields for farmers, numbers of livestock and reduced products for herders, lower fish reproduction and a consequent reduction in abundance for fisheries, and reduced quality of orchard products for orchard owners. These findings are in line with those of other studies, such as Tiwari and Bauer (2015), Simelton et al. (2013), Sujakhu et al. (2016), Nguyen et al. (2016), and Banerjee (2015), that also report declines in crop yields and agricultural products and the need for sustainable water management and adaptation strategies. Other perceived environmental changes are found through this research, such as an increase in diseases and deaths of animals, an increase in weeds and pests on farms, soil erosion, and a shortage of water.

The changes that were perceived by most farmers (from HHS and FGD results) were related to changes in crops and pests, rises in temperatures, and water shortages. These

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observations are very similar to those found in other studies conducted in Ghana

(Adjei-Nsiah et al. 2010; Badmos et al. 2015), Benin (Baudoin et al. 2013), Sub-

Saharan West Africa (Ogunsola et al. 2015), Zimbabwe (Rusinga et al. 2014) and tropical Nepal (Tiwari & Bauer 2015). The findings flagged an increase in the use of pesticides and insecticides in response to the increase of pests, weeds, and diseases mostly on the farms and orchards. These contaminants ultimately enter the rivers and oceans from farm run-off and cause other problems such as polluting water resources and affecting food security, the health of humans, the ecosystem, and native flora and fauna species.

Studies have reported direct relationships between climatic change and extreme weather events, that cause drought, and decrease of the livestock populations (Ahmed

2006) and increase in deaths of farm animals and poultry (Choudhury et al. 2005). In addition to that, other studies approved the effects of climate change on agricultural production and reduction of the productivity and yields in some agriculture-based countries like Australia (Nelson et al. 2009; Gunasekera et al. 2007). The findings from these studies are similar to the perceptions of the community who perceived that the main factor of the losses is climate change.

Through this study, variations were found in perceptions of the focus group participants divided into four groups of herders, fishery men, orchardmen, and farmers—also the household survey results. For instance, farmers were more concerned about crop production and farming practices, while for herders, livestock and the rangeland were more important. The studies found that these variations are related to the rural household’s occupations and activities, the history of the area, and the technologies available to the locals (Quinn et al. 2003; Berkes et al. 2007; Ingold

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& Kurttila 2000; Nielsen & Reenberg 2010). However, other studies reveal that the community’s perceptions of environmental changes also depend on local climatic conditions and changes, as well as some cultural and socioeconomic factors (Adger et al. 2009; Byg & Salick 2009; Wolf & Moser 2011).

7.2.2. Perceptions of the Community on the Environmental-related Conditions

Considering the climatic and environmental changes perceived by the community

(villagers and local producers), the findings confirm that the overall condition of the air quality, water resources and ecosystem have worsened during the previous two decades, whereas the overall status of the livelihood and agricultural conditions have improved. However, there were variations among the perceptions of the participants on the agriculture status, as the participants from the household (who are mostly farmers) and farmer and fishery groups indicated some improvement for agriculture, but the participants from herder and orchardman groups believed that the overall status of agriculture has worsened.

These findings are consistent with the terminal evaluation report of the CBCZL project, where it was found that the project has successfully reached the third planned outcome, which was ‘successful, sustainable, financially replicable models of village designed and driven approaches to increasing income generation and conserving biodiversity in biodiversity rich areas coordination, monitoring, advocacy and adaptive management’ (Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016, p. 23). Therefore, this research confirmed the importance of adaptation strategies to optimise the agricultural productivity through water management practices, including change of irrigation systems, water conservation actions, and construction of dams and ponds, which are

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also similar to the findings of Ogunsola et al. (2015), Tiwari and Bauer (2015), and

Adjei-Nsiah et al. (2010).

7.2.3. The Necessity of the CBCZL Project for the UN SDGs

The thirteen and fifteen goals of UN SDGs might be taken into account as the fundamental principle targets of IREPs. However, the IREPs are pragmatically linked with almost all of the SDGs. Apart from SDGs thirteen and fifteen, SDG one (no poverty), two (zero hunger), three (good health and wellbeing), four (quality education), five (gender equality), six (clean water and sanitation), seven (affordable and clean energy), eight (decent work and economic growth), nine (industry, innovation and infrastructure), ten (reduced inequalities), eleven (sustainable cities and communities), twelve (responsible consumption and production) and fourteen (life below water) are all directly addressed within the strategic IREPs, such as CBCZL

(albeit with different degrees of priority).

Considering the fact that the IREP of CBCZL is a strategic operation, it is crucial to know how the experts find that necessary in strategic outcomes. The experts were asked about their views on the necessity of the project. All of the experts agreed that it was necessary to implement the CBCZL project to contribute to the UN SDGs.

Furthermore, they strongly believed that this type of project, not only useful on the local geographical setting, but also that it affects the global dimensions.

For instance, changes in agricultural productivity lead to changes in food security at national and global levels (Nelson et al. 2009; Tirado et al. 2010), as well as in the local farmers’ livelihoods. The local farmers are directly dependent on their own products and have less access to the commercial markets (Hertel et al. 2010). People in urban areas are also vulnerable to a decrease in food supply, and this would have a

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higher effect on the most disadvantaged groups such as elderly people, children, workers, and marginalised people (Gunter et al. 2008).

7.2.4. Community View of and Participation in the CBCZL Project

The participants of household surveys indicated a lack of adequate attention to the local community’s needs. It is perhaps not surprising therefore that the participants of four focus groups agreed that the community’s expectations were not met during the project. This study also found that the local community perceived that they were not involved actively in the project, as there was no motivation to participate.

Several studies have found that there are a various factors that help to encourage the community to actively participate, such as sharing of knowledge (Li et al. 2010; Hsu et al. 2007), outcome expectations (Bandura 2004), motivations (Dholakia et al. 2004), regular social activities (Morris & Mok 2011), and mutual trust (Susan & Holmes

1991; Kankanhalli et al. 2005). Other studies by Wolf and Moser (2011) and Lata and

Nunn (2012) found that individuals’ beliefs and experiences of climate change are important in their willingness to participate in adaptation activities. The way that the community perceives climate change is crucial in their responses to, and support of, the adaptation practices (Lorenzoni & Pidgeon 2006). The community’s perception and knowledge about the climate change effects and threats on the environment and their livelihood are essential for implementing long-term sustainable adaptation strategies (Van Aalst et al. 2008, Shackley & Deanwood 2002).

7.2.5. Community-Based Advantages of the CBCZL Project

Most of the community believed that the local livelihood and agriculture have improved through the project implementation. On the other hand, the majority of experts believed that raising public awareness on climate change and the local 118

ecosystem restoration are the two top achievements of the project. After that, the study found livelihood improvement as another community-based advantage of the project from the expert’s point of view.

The findings concur with the final evaluation report of the CBCZL project, that indicated the successful demonstration of the sustainable livelihood strategies

(Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016). Some of the project’s achievements in line with those of the study findings are the sustainable farming practices, production of handicrafts, cultivation of high-altitude medicinal plants, and successful empowerment of community-based entrepreneurs and organisations (Navajas & Farahani Rad 2016).

7.2.6. Barriers and Challenges to the Success of the CBCZL Project

This study showed that the majority of the community indicated management problems as the main barrier to the success of the project. The summary of findings from all data sources are categorised into four major segments (see Figure 7-1). The study found that the household participants flagged the lack of attention to the community’s needs and opinions with the highest rate of responses. Whereas, the rural producers perceived that environmental and geographical barriers were the greatest impediments to the success of the project. The key informants, however, indicated more operational management and coordination problems within the organisations.

These different responses by each of the groups and methods are mainly related to the occupations and activities of the participants that are involved.

Overall a lack of financial resources was the factor indicated by all the participants.

This outcome is similar to other studies that reported the cost of adaptation strategies, as the main barrier to implementing the adaptation plans (Deressa et al. 2009; Di Falco et al. 2011; Ndamani & Watanabe 2015), while the local community experiences a

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decrease in production and incomes. Other studies confirmed the lack of knowledge, awareness, financial resources, skilled workers and staff, and adequate communication and motivations (Becken 2005; Becken 2013; Wolfsegger et al. 2008; Eisenack et al.

2014) as the main barrier to the successful implementation of IREPs.

Lack of Adequate Monitoring and Inadequate Local Community Involvement Management and Participation •- Mutual trust and cooperation •- Public awareness and knowledge •- Team-work and coordination •- Alternative income •- Financial resources and budgeting •- Attention to the community's needs •- Taking responsibility and ownership

Barriers and Challenges

Lack of Adequate Environmental Governance Natural Disasters and Climate Change •- Over exploitation •- Droughts •- Waste of resources •- Dust Storms •- Bureaucratic administration process •- Heatwaves and extreme temperature •- Shortage of water resources

Figure 7-1 Barriers and Challenges to the Success of the CBCZL Project

(Source: Developed by the author based on the research findings)

7.2.7. Requirements for Internal and External Supports

According to the experts, the main needed foreign supports are funding and sponsoring plus professional consultation and advice. However, the majority of experts believe that there is a greater need for domestic than international supports. Following on that, it is necessary that the project’s stakeholders at the government and management levels reconceptualise their attitude to socio-environmental projects such as CBCZL and fulfil their role by making a highly efficient contribution to the project.

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Therefore, internal and external funds are needed to support these projects because the current climatic conditions are leading to decreases in agricultural productivity, which in turn require financial resources as inputs to reversing this trend. This is a challenging situation for the local community that is already affected by climate change and experiencing a loss of products and a decrease in income, as well as an increase in expenses and costs, with an average of 6 financial dependants (based on the HHS results in Table 5-1). Allison et al. (2009) similarly reported that the adaptation costs make the livelihood of locals less profitable, while they also face a decline in income.

Other requirements for successful implementation of sustainable adaptation strategies are education, training, and public awareness and practise the strategies (Hopkins &

McKeown 2002). Furthermore, the effective mainstreaming of the conservation and adaptation strategies require inter-agency cooperation among the stakeholders. In this regard, a functional model for inter-agency cooperation illustrated in Figure 7-2.

Essentially, mutual cooperation and interaction among these key stakeholders would result in proper implementation of adaptation and conservation strategies.

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DoE • Monitoring and Reviewing the Results • Operational Management and Supervision • Budget and Expertise

Governmental and International Non-governmental Organisations Organisations Inter-agency • External Funds • Internal Monitoring Cooperation • Consultation and and Management Advise • Team-work • Evaluation

Local Community • Participation in Programs and Activities • Practical Support

Figure 7-2 Inter-agency Cooperation

(Source: Developed by the author based on the research findings)

7.2.8. Alternative Implementation Approaches to Achieve Higher Efficiency

In terms of alternative implementation approaches, the results obtained through all methods of HHS, FGD, and KII are shown in Figure 7-3. Based on the results, three approaches that are indicated by all three methods are: 1) local community involvement, 2) better management, and 3) financial support and aids.

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Alternative Implementation Approaches 100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

HHS FGD KII

Figure 7-3 Alternative Implementation Approaches

This study found some effective approaches to help with the more successful implementation of conservation and adaptation strategies to cope with the climate change effects in the rural areas of the Zagros region. Based on the findings of this research, these approaches are divided into three fundamental levels, basically at environmental, community-based, and management levels (see Figure 7-4).

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Environmental Community-based Management Approaches Approaches Approaches

Comprehensive Community Involvement and Adequate Funds Environmental and Budgeting Governance Empowerment

Social Justice and Inter-agency Environmentally Inclusion Compatible Plans Coordination and Cooperation

Change of Community Bureaucratic Awareness and Team-work Administration Education Attitude Process

Figure 7-4 Effective Implementation Approaches

(Source: Developed by the author based on the research findings)

7.3. Explored Lessons

This section provides some lessons based on the findings of the study. These lessons can be categorised as ‘tactical’ (i.e., related to the strategic and management framework) or ‘technical’ (i.e., related to the operational and field work aspects), which is upon the community observations of the project’s outcomes. Seven lessons are elaborated as follows:

Lesson 1: The CBCZL project was more successful in the community aspects, compared to the environmental aspects.

This study found that the CBCZL project could achieve some successes in the community aspects (livelihood and agriculture). In terms of the SDG principles, based on the community perception, the project had considerable achievements related to the

SDGs one, two, seven, eight, nine, ten, and twelve, while, it has not tangible 124

achievements towards the SDGs thirteen, fourteen, and fifteen. Accordingly, one of the explored lessons is that international socio-environmental projects, which jointly address the social and environmental aspects, must maintain an operational balance among these two aspects; a failure in one aspect can also affect the success of another aspect in the long-term.

Lack of effective human development works in the rural areas fuels the vast rural-to- urban migration, which disables the rural community’s organised contribution in climate change adaptation plans. On the other hand, lack of effective environmental development and ecosystem restoration works, fuels the effect of natural disasters which impacts the local community and disables the human development activities.

Meanwhile, the fact that the community does not observe the restoration of the ecosystem in their surrounding environment should not be transcribed as a lack of ecosystem restoration activities, as the effects of climate change were stronger than the results of the activities.

Lesson 2: Air pollution and water scarcity are the two top environmental problems in the CZM region that the local rural community is suffering from.

Despite the crucial environmental works implemented through the CBCZL project, i.e. vegetation planting, ponds construction, sustainable irrigation designs, etc., the local community still believes that air pollution and water scarcity have worsened compared to the situation thirteen years ago, and it is affecting their life and environment increasingly.

Air pollution is a specific phenomenon in the broader region, which might need further international cooperation as studies by Hojati et al. (2012) and Zeinali and Asghari

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(2016) show that the source of dust storms in the Zagros region could be in Iraq and southern Arabian Peninsula. Air pollution is not only a threat to the community’s health, but it endangers the environment as well. Moradi et al. (2017) indicate that dust storms are the main destructive factor to the local environment because they impact all of flora and fauna and can potentially cause economic and environmental disasters.

Water scarcity and drought are phenomena in the Zagros region, which cause the temperature to rise and result in deforestation. The region’s dry weather pattern is predicted to continue for the long term (Alibakhshi, Hovi & Rautiainen 2019;

Goodarzi, Pourhashemi & Azizi 2019). Therefore, there is a crucial need for further professional investigations and projects in the CZM Region to tackle the air pollution and water scarcity problems and preserve the environment and community from emerging disasters.

Lesson 3: There is a dissimilarity between the attitudes of the experts and the local community about the ecosystem conditions that must be investigated.

The CBCZL project has unquestionably improved local livelihood. Indeed, all of the surveys of this research concur that although the community does not observe an appropriate restoration of the ecosystem in its surrounding environment, this should not be defined as having a lack of ecosystem restoration activities. This community perception might be driven by the fact that climate change has more of an effect on the surface conditions of the local ecosystem compared to the restoration activities.

Lesson 4: Discontinuation of the CBCZL project is a factor that might ruin the results of the project.

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All the participants from households, focus groups, and key informants complain about the project discontinuation. Thus, the project discontinuation is not accepted by professionals nor the community. Both the community and experts expressed disappointment that the project discontinuation has happened, which can ruin the project results.

Operationally, the project had been extended for five years beyond its original planned timetable. Therefore, the term ‘discontinuation’ in this study does not refer to the implementation completion; it actually implies the total closure of the CBCZL profile.

The experts expressed that the CBCZL project must have at least a post- implementation office in the DoE or one of the local organisations or agencies that are in charge. This way, its results and the local CBCZL-related circumstances can be tracked for use in dynamic policy-making and trend analysis. The community believed that the project’s field works are currently left on the ground, and they find it necessary for the plans related to (or harmonic with) the CBCZL project to start or resume the implementation in order to protect the current achievements of the CBCZL project and further the SDG’s works.

Lesson 5: The project has failed to mainstream.

The main support that is necessary for a project like the CBCZL is a national policy planning. After that, only two types of international support are needed: financial and technical advisory arrangements. Mainstreaming was one of the most crucial of the

CBCZL goals. Despite that, the project has not received adequate domestic attention and priority toward a highly efficient implementation. This implies a failure in the mainstreaming of this socio-environmental project.

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The proposed mainstreaming of the project needed all of the stakeholders and involved parties to consider the CBCZL project’s goals and sustainability and environmental protection in their work or programs through inter-agency cooperation (see Figure 7-

2). The involved parties vary from rural and regional individuals (i.e., farmers, fishery men, foresters, villagers, indigenous nomads, etc.) to the staff, managers, or executives of the agencies or organisations (i.e., DoE, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries

Organisation, Forestry, Ministry of Energy, NGOs, local shire councils, etc.).

If the mainstreaming is successfully launched amongst all the stakeholders, there is no need for external monitoring and evaluation plans to measure the environment, because the successful mainstreaming would create a new framework in which the stakeholders and agencies themselves justifiably play the environmental conservation role.

Lesson 6: More community climate change awareness is required.

Through these projects, the community knowledge must be adjusted to the predictive climatic models. For example, the community do not see the floods as an active peril to their livelihoods. Contrary to that, the extreme precipitations in this region have already started. In March 2019, one of the most destructive floods in the history of this region occurred.

Lesson 7: The main implementation barriers are related to the tactical levels, not technical levels.

There are no technical (operational) problems in terms of the community’s acceptance or needed implementation of resources and equipment on the ground, but the main problem is at the tactical (semi-strategic) level. The tactical level refers to the layer of

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executives and top managers that operates the implementation directions. That is, there is a need for re-conceptualisation and improvements in the management and budgeting methods, rather than investigations or improvements in the technical layers.

7.4. Research Questions and Answers

This study had three essential research objectives to address. The first research objective, ‘identifying the advantages of and barriers to the CBCZL project as an IREP for rural communities in the Zagros region’, was met by this study. After analysing the perceptions of the rural households, rural producers, and the experts, the primary and considerable advantages of and barriers to the CBCZL project became illuminated.

The second research objective, ‘understanding the community members’ observations of the CBCZL project and its effects and comparing the results with the goals 13 and

15 of the UN SDGs’, was achieved in this research. The main observations of the community on CBCZL’s results were collected and presented. The community believed that the project was partly successful with resulting in the SDGs 13 and 15, primarily through the livelihood and agriculture adaptation policies.

The third research objective, ‘exploring the major lessons learnt about the effects of the CBCZL project on the community’, was met by this study. By analysing the entire collected data, seven key lessons were discovered by this study, which include both tactical and technical lessons.

Based on the research objectives, this study endeavoured to answer the research questions, which are summarised in Table 7-1.

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Table 7-1 Answers to the Research Questions

No. Question Answer

1. What are the advantages The main advantages of the project are the improvement of and barriers to the of the local ‘livelihood’ and ‘farming’. Additionally, CBCZL project as an raised ‘public awareness’ is another advantage of the IREP for rural project.

communities in the The ecosystem restoration is also an advantage of the Zagros region? project, as the majority of experts and the minority of the community members indicated. However, the power of climate change might have affected the amount of success in the ecosystem restoration (as it is not highly tangible to the locals), but that does not dismiss the conducted efforts in this regard.

2. How do the community The community itself does not firmly believe in the members’ observations success of ecosystem restoration (which is related to of the CBCZL project SDGs 13 and 15). However, the overall information and and its effects compare signs extracted from their expressions indirectly with the goals 13 and 15 approve a crucial success of CBCZL towards the SDGs of the UN SDGs? 13 and 15. Because the CBCZL project has achieved sustainable agriculture and rural economic development, these instances have constructive and direct effects on the success of rural climate change adaptation plans based on the SDGs, notably numbers 13 and 15.

3. What are the major There are seven main lessons based on this study: The lessons learnt about the project is more successful in community aspects than in effects of the CBCZL environmental aspects; air pollution and water scarcity project on the are the main environmental problems in the region; community? there are some dissimilarities between the attitudes of the experts and the community about the ecosystem restoration conditions; project discontinuation is a

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problem; the project has failed in mainstreaming; there is a need for increased public awareness; and the implantation barriers belong to the tactical levels, rather than technical levels.

7.5. Key Findings

This section discusses the main findings of the study. The findings are then compared with similar studies elsewhere. It concludes with an evaluation of the significance of these findings and their implications. The major findings are extracted from the main areas of concern, namely, water resources, air quality, agriculture and food security, and the conservation of the ecosystem.

7.5.1. Failure in Mainstreaming Due to Inadequate Corporation at Management

Levels

Most of the activities were done by the DoE towards mainstreaming the conservation of the biodiversity in the CZM region, and other departments admitted to no mainstreaming at the national level. Moreover, the management of the project still seems to be sectoral in nature, and there are no directives for inter-agency cooperation.

Limited mention of climate change in the project plans indicates that it was not seen as an important factor in the biodiversity conservation in this region. Whereas, studies confirm that climate change awareness is an essential tool for developed and developing countries and aid agencies for reducing community vulnerability

(NCCARF 2013; ADB 2005; Norad 2009).

One of the similar studies by Saito (2013) conducted in the six least-developed countries of South Asia assessed the mainstreaming of climate change adaptation strategies at the national development levels. The study showed limited success in the

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Maldives due to a lack of funds and support from the government agencies, as well as inadequate coordination mechanisms for climate change adaptation.

This finding means looking at cooperation and arrangements for collaboration among agencies (Cuevas et al., 2015). It is found that at the management levels, there is no cohesion or established framework for inter-agency collaboration. This is significant, as studies such as those by Roberts (2010) and Moser and Ekstrom (2010) found that inadequate cooperation among the stakeholders was a barrier to climate change adaptation and, therefore, mainstreaming of the strategies.

7.5.2. Different Community Perceptions on the Environmental Conservation Due to Lack of Public Awareness and Engagement

This study found that community members perceive conservation activities differently from the experts due to lack of public awareness and community engagement in the project. Another factor that should be considered is the destructive effects of climate change over the recent years that made the community perceive a different message from the environment.

Cuevas et al. (2015) argued that the extent of the community awareness about climate change can clarify if the community underestimates climate change risks or adequately prepares for the long-term climate change effects. Therefore, public knowledge is vital to adaptation. Besides, this knowledge should be provided in a frame which the community can easily access, understand and utilise (Bryan & Behrman, 2013; Moser

& Ekstrom 2010).

This finding is important, as Moser & Ekstrom (2010) and Bryan & Behrman (2013) recognised the significance of promoting various public awareness campaigns that also

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offer a framework for conversation among the producers and consumers. Moreover,

Belle & Bramwell (2005) discovered that increased public awareness was the most functional approach toward climate change adaptation. Urgent actions are required to address the knowledge challenges and the reliability and credibility of the shared materials (Moser & Ekstrom 2010). On the other hand, the majority of the stakeholders have no clear strategies regarding public awareness, and some feel that they are excluded from the decision-making and management process. This, again, implies the lack of adequate teamwork and networking management.

7.5.3. Internal and External Funds and Budgeting Management as a Tactical

Requirement for the Success of the Project

The project mainstreaming is affected by various factors, including inadequate funds.

The findings of this study confirm that attitude and illuminate the significance of donor funding for the CZM region. It was found that financial limitations were vital barriers to climate change adaptation, with many projects suspended once funding was discontinued (Amundsen et al. 2010; Betzold 2015; Measham et al. 2011; Nambi &

Prabhakar 2011).

Betzold (2015) also worries that there are limited data on how the aids are spent and who decides that. This reflects the fact that both the governments and donors need to be more responsible and transparent over the fund usage details. Barnett (2005),

Barnett (2008), Nunn (2010), and Betzold (2015) found that the funding rules of the majority of aid agencies did not cover the local needs of regions but instead considered their own justifications. Funding agencies such as GEF have been impeached for failing to address the principal causes of various environmental disasters across the globe (Dredge & Jenkins 2007).

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This overall finding implies that a part of the core or vital regions which need immediate operation are not being addressed adequately. This is the root of the fact that mainstreaming is extremely crucial and would facilitate the efficient utilisation of these scarce resources. Basically, the GEF was launched to help developing societies by providing investment and technical support, but it was discovered very early that projects were linked to existing World Bank projects (Elliott 2004). Even the GEF’s formal evaluators in the future could not present any special environmental changes

(Elliott 2004). This finding is important because it reflects the fact that the CZM region still has a very long journey to go in the right climate change adaptation direction.

Bouwer and Aerts (2006) proclaimed that the amount of development support was declining in the world, limiting the number of capable sources of funding for adaptation plans. Although they categorised adaptation as a field for which support would be given, this was narrowed to capacity building projects instead of practical funds to implement adaptation plans (Bouwer & Aerts 2006).

The findings of this section highlight the necessity for the CZM region to mainstream adaptation among all of the development planning and decision-making procedures of the state. With narrow funds and decreasing foreign aid for adaptation, it is crucial to approach the efficient use of limited resources in planning the adaptation measures.

Also, with limited potential to continuously operate the projects after the expiration of international aid, the chance of maladaptation still remains a concern. Many projects have failed after funding stopped.

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7.6. Implications and Recommendations

Considering the findings of this study, it is recommended that further professional investigations soon be pursued by relevant experts and institutions on the air quality and water situation of the CZM region in terms of protecting the local community and their assets from air pollutions and water scarcity effects.

It is also recommended that related executives/sponsors apply a full integrated study on the environmental management characteristics, barriers, and resolutions in developing countries, including the Zagros contexts, before heading to implementation of the next IREPs, similar to CBCZL.

Knowing that management inefficiencies could be pivotal to the sustainable socio- environmental development projects in the CZM region, it is recommended that the current/next planning projects refer to the strategic and management consultations and cross-check the efficiency of the implementation methods.

The fourth recommendation is about increasing and ‘updating’ the public awareness.

Although the data and evidence imply the existence of general knowledge about climate change amongst the community, the current awareness is not adequate. As an example, the climatic models suggest an increasing trend of precipitation over the

Zagros region until the end of this century. However, the community holds its stereotypical attitude that there are no crucial concerns about the flood as the precipitation amount only will decrease. This is an alarming instance, as the extreme precipitations are already emerging. In March 2019, the country experienced one of the worst floods in its history, mainly flowing from the Zagros heights; this unexpected

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phenomenon killed and wounded hundreds of people and caused enormous property destruction which brought the state into national mourning.

7.7. Study Limitations and Future Research Directions

Time and capacity were limited due to the level and length of the study (Masters) and utilising data in two different languages when translating works. Another difficulty was remote data collection and distanced fieldwork management. Also, there were no other study samples of such kind that explored the community-based lessons out of a strategic IREP in the heart of the Middle East.

This research found that there is a gap between the perception of experts and that of the local community about the ecosystem restoration conditions in the CZM region.

The professionals believe that ecosystem restoration was nearly effective, but the household and producer villagers believe the opposite. Thus, it would be beneficial if new research applied the further-required studies accordingly.

Although CZM, being in the middle of the region, has the most effects and significance in comparison with other areas, it would be practically beneficial if the Northern and

Southern Zagros regions were also studied with a similar theme to that used in this study (socio-environmental) in order to achieve integrated data towards planning the

SDGs in the Zagros region.

It would be significant if the environmental legislations and policies of the country were studied inclusively, especially the policies that are directly or indirectly related to environmental conservation and climate change adaptation projects. The study must also include the human rights aspects of biodiversity conservation and green environment.

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Appendices

Appendix 1. Questionnaire for Household Survey

Docu ment Version 4; Dated 07/05/2019 D at e of i nt er vi e w Ar e a Reference No.

1. Gender:  Female  Male 2. Age range:  18-24  25-34  35-44  45-54  55-64  65+ 3. Marital status:  Single  Married  Divorced  Widowed  Separated 4. E d u c ati o n l e v el: Illit er at e Read and write only S c h o ol l e v el U ni v ersit y Master/ Higher Research 5. Nu mber of household me mbers: 6. Occupation: 7. H o w l o n g h a v e y o u b e e n li vi n g i n t his ar e a ? 8. What kind of cli matic events have you observed in your area?  Dust Stor ms  Floods  Droughts  Extre me Precipitations  Extre me Te mperature Fluctuations  Others: Please specify … … … 9. Please explain what changes in environ mental resources you have noticed in your area over the years? 10. What were the effects of cli mate change in your local area before the C B C Z L pr oj e ct i m pl e m e nt ati o n ? - Agriculture - Air q u alit y - Ecosyste m - Livelihood - Water resources

1 6 0

11. In your opinion, what are the major benefits of the CBCZL project in your area? 12. To what extent do you believe the CBCZL project has improved the following instances in your rural area? Extremely Worsened No Improved Highly Worsened Changes Improved Agriculture (e.g. upgraded farming skills) Air quality (e.g. frequency of respiratory diseases) Ecosystem (e.g. well-being of local plants and animals) Livelihood (e.g. rural welfare and income) Water resources (e.g. sufficiency and cleanness of water) 13. In your opinion, what were/are the challenges and problems in the implementation of the CBCZL project? 14. How could the project be more effective and beneficial?

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Appendix 2. Questionnaire for Focus Group Discussions

Document Version 4; Dated 07/05/2019

1. What kind of environmental disasters have you observed in your area? 2. What changes to natural resources have you noticed over the years? 3. What were the environmental changes in this area before the CBCZL project implementation (based on your observations) regarding: - Agriculture - Air quality - Ecosystem - Livelihood - Water resources 4. How has the CBCZL project positively impacted on the following areas? - Agriculture - Air quality - Ecosystem - Livelihood - Water resources 5. How does your community view the CBCZL project generally? 6. How has the local community contributed to the CBCZL project? 7. What are the benefits of the CBCZL project? 8. What do you think were the main barriers to the CBCZL success? 9. How do you think the CBCZL project could be more successful on the ground?

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Appendix 3. Questionnaire for Key Informant Interviews

Document Version 4; Dated 07/05/2019

Introduction Introduce myself, the research, establish ethical consent

Can you please tell us about your activities related to the International Rural Environmental Projects (IREP) in Developing Countries?

1. How do you personally contribute to IREPs? 2. How your activities contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals? 3. What are the main successes of the CBCZL project as an IREP? 4. What are the main barriers to the success of the CBCZL project? 5. Do you see IREPs as necessary and why? 6. How do you describe the function of IREPs, such as CBCZL regarding SDGs? 7. What type of global and domestic supports are crucial for success of IREPs such as CBCZL 8. Do you believe that IREPs mitigate climate change effects? If so, how? 9. In your opinion, how could the CBCZL project be implemented more efficiently?

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