sign in sign up
<<
Home , Bakhtegan Lake, Central Iran, Golestan National Park, Hamun Lake, Lake Parishan, Northern Iran

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 Research Article Open Access

Holocene Vegetation and Climate Changes in

Sahar Maleki1, Ghasem Azizi2, Homa Rostami*,Reza Shahbazi4 1Ph.D. Candidate in Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of , Iran 2Professor of Faculty of Geography University of Tehran, Iran 3Ph.D. Candidate in Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran,I ran 4Ph.D Natural resources and engineering, Director Management of Geohazards, Engineering and Environmental Geology. *Corresponding author: Homa Rostami, Ph.D. Candidate in Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran; Email: [email protected] Citation: Homa Rostami (2019) Holocene Vegetation and Climate Changes in Iran: Nessa Journal Geology & Earth Sciences. Received: 6th September 2019; Accepted: 11th September 2019; Published: 4th October 2019 Copyright: © 2019 Homa Rostami et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Abstract

There is not much information about the characteristics of the paleoclimate in Iran. Most studies are often scattered and mainly focuses on places in the west and northwest also many researches have also been written in Persian. This review focuses on the Iran's vegetation and climate changes over the last 20000 years, by using results of Persian and English scientific papers and thesis about paleoclimate of Iran. Understanding the interaction between climate and environment requires a nuanced, multidisciplinary understanding of the past. According to studies conducted in the north and west of Iran during glacial periods, there were cold and dry climate conditions and during the interglacial periods there was warm and humid climate. Steppe vegetation indicates cold and dry conditions and increase in trees represents an increase in moisture during interglacial periods. The transition from glacial to interglacial and changing atmospheric systems has led to different vegetation ecosystems in different parts of Iran. In general, the cycles and known events in different parts of the world have not been well identified in Iran, and our knowledge of the paleoclimate and paleoecological conditions of Iran is not enough. In order to arrive at a precise and comprehensive cognition of the paleoecological conditions of Iran, various proxies, especially for the central, eastern and southern parts of Iran, are needed. Palynological information obtained from sedimentary cores and tree rings helps identify the state of Iran's paleocology.

Keywords: Paleoclimate, tree rings, geochronology, pollen, sedimentary core.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 1

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

Introduction

Vegetation in each region is affected by climatic and geographical conditions and human, therefore, the study of vegetation changes over time provides useful information on past climate change. Palynology is the most important tool in reconstructing of vegetation and the paleo environment. It is also widely used in taxonomy, genetics and evolution, climate change, archeology, geology, allergology, and jurisprudence (Fægri, and Iversen, 1989). Many palynalogical studies have been conducted in different countries, especially North America and Europe and history of vegetation during the Quaternary period have been reconstructed. Leroy & Arpe (2007) have examined potential habitats for green summer trees in Europe and Southwest Asia during the last glacial period (LGM). In their studies, they introduced small regions of southern Europe such as Spain, Italy, Greece and parts of northern , the eastern shores of the Black Sea and southern regions as green summer tree shelters. The Fertile Crescent, its hilly flanks and surrounding drylands have long been a critical region for studying human societal change, first, as being an initial stepping point out of Africa for the first anatomically modern humans (Bae, Douka, & Petraglia, 2017; Hershkovitz et al.,2018), and then as a center for some of the earliest agricultural villages (Barker, 2009; Willcox, Buxo, & Herveux, 2009) and cities (Lawrence, Philip, Hunt, Snape-Kennedy, & Wilkinson, 2016; Ur, 2017). Since these early developments, the region has been the scene of many further social, technological and economic changes and exchanges (Jones et al., 2018).This review focuses on the eastern parts of Levant on the region from present day Iran especially . The last 20,000 years witnessed one of the most dramatic global climatic changes (glacial/interglacial transition), but also includes the full scope of Holocene climatic variability. This time period also includes the development of agriculture. The frequency of Ouercus pollen, Pistachio, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Grasses and pollen of other dominant plants has been used to determine temperature and precipitation variations (Horowitz, 1971. Van Zeist & Bottema, 1991. Roberts& Wright, 1993. Rossignol-Strick, 1995). Zaribar Lake is one of the first places to be studied in the Middle East. From this lake, several sedimentary cores were taken from 1961 to 1970. Quaternary paleoecological studies in Iran more focused on lake sediments in western and northwestern Iran. Djamali et al. (2008) about Urmia lake and Rmezani et al. (2008) about southern Caspian forests have done paleoecological studies.

Lake Mirabad (at Lorestan province) is the other sites of Paleoecological Zone of Zagros, which have been investigated in various ways, such as palynology (Van Zeist & Bottema, 1977). Ostracoda (Griffiths et al.2001), and stable isotopes (Stevens et al.2006). Palynological studies about lake Neor (in Ardebil province) done by Azizi et al. (2013), Akbari (2011) and Salmani (2013). Ponel et al. (2013) have been studied on pollen and insects fossils of Neor lake. Lashkari et al. (1989) has reconstructed the paleoclimate changes based on clay mineralogy evidences.

Paleoclimate studies shows that Holocene period following the melting of the glaciers in the late glacial period and warming of climate, began about 11000 years ago, at the same time sea level rose, also conditions were favorable for the growth of trees and the expansion of forests. The results of palynology researches have shown that in the glacial periods in the western regions of Iran, steppe vegetation especially Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae has been dominated (Djamali et al. 2008). The Pistachio and Oak trees was gradually increased from late glacial to Holocene. With the onset of Holocene, Poaceae suddenly replaced by Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae (Azizi et al., 2013). In 12,000 to

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 2

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

6,000 years ago, the Southwest Asia has had warmer and longer summer than the current conditions. Such conditions led to the disappearance of many shallow lakes and seasonal rivers, also vegetation changed. Studies conducted in north and west of Iran, the climate has changed between cold and dry climate during glacial and warm and humid conditions during interglacial periods (Horowitz, 1971). The lake sediments and the paleosol layers in the Loess deposits indicate an increase in moisture during the periods between the last glacial and the pre LGM (kehl, 2009). Studies in Iran's lakes such as Zaribar, Urmia, Mirabad and comparisons with Lake Van in Turkey indicate a roughly similar vegetation variation. Most studies have shown that the end of the Younger Dryas event and the beginning of the Holocene period have been accompanied by a sudden decrease in Chenopodiaceae (a representative of the cold and dry climate) and abrupt increase in Poaceae (a representative of the warm climate) (Davoodi et al,2014). Current condition in Iran is affected by the changes that occurred during the mid-Holocene (5,500-6,000 years ago) oak forests grew and expanded (wright et al., (1978), El-Moslimany et al.,(1986), Djamali et al., 2008, Stevens et al., 2001). The pollen diagrams of the Lake Maharlou in indicate that the walnut trees was planted in 4500 years ago at Fars province ,at the northwestern regions of Iran, however, planting of the walnut tree began a little later and started 4000 years ago (Djamali et al.,2009). Due to the fact that climate events in Iran are not well known and our knowledge of the ecological conditions of Iran is very small, this study attempts to analyze the results of paleoclimate researches and ultimately to a comprehensive understanding of Iran's vegetation changes during Holocene. Knowing the impact of paleoclimate change on plant communities and the environment makes we better predict future changes and we can prevent some crises.

Methods

In this research, the results of the Persian and English papers, thesis and the scientific researches written about paleoclimate of Iran were used. After reviewing the researches, results about vegetation in different periods separated and arranged. The information extracted was based on the name of the region, latitude and longitude, the method used, the results of the study and the results that the research gives us. We provide a multidisciplinary, multiscalar perspective on the relevance of past climate and environmental condition of Holocene in Iran. Eventually we provided a comprehensive overview of climate change and vegetation changes during Holocene in Iran. We also identified the link between change of atmospheric systems, climate change and environmental changes.

Results

We briefly review here the key terrestrial regional palaeoenvironmental archives in Iran.

Tree rings

In low latitudes, including over SW Asia (St. George & Ault, 2014), tree growth is typically more sensitive to moisture availability than temperature. Trees are large-scale integrators of both changes in water supply and demand; they themselves are key parts of the hydrological cycle and are typically better indicators of soil moisture and/or hydrological drought (Jones et al., 2018). Outside of the humid tropics, trees typically put on a single ring of growth every year, allowing precise annual dating of records using cross-dating, as first described by Douglass (1941). Due to the precisely dated nature of these records, they can be calibrated using instrumental climate observations to develop

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 3

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 quantitative reconstructions of specific climate variables (Jones et al., 2018). Over SW Asia specifically, the availability of tree-ring chronologies is limited by the extreme aridity in much of the region (precluding growth of trees) and the long history of human settlement and occupation (which can make it difficult to find old, undisturbed trees). In Iran there are some papers and thesis about reconstruction of paleoclimate using tree rings.

Table 1.Resaults of tree ring researches in Iran

Title Site location Results

Reconstructing Over a (Central Comparing the minimum monthly temperature of Century of Minimum zagros) the cold seasons to the reconstructed data of the Monthly Temperature of previous century, it was found that the coldness of Cold Seasons from Quercus the cold months has been decreased to some extent. Persica tree Rings in Zagros Forests (s. Movahedi, 2016)

Reconstructing Over a Dena(Central Reconstruction of precipitation using tree rings Century of precipitation zagros) showed that precipitation in the last 30 years was using Quercus Persica tree about 4 % higher than 500 years ago. Rings in Zagros Forests (Jalilvand et al., 2013).

Reconstruction of maximum Kermanshah In this paper the lowest maximum temperatures temperature changes using province reconstructed during the years1982, and 1973, Quercus Infectoria tree rings 1957, 1950, 1940, 1890, 1885, 1876, 1874, 1864, (Arsalani et al.,2012) 1858, 1848, 1842,1992 occurred. Also, the highest maximum temperatures during the reconstructed period are at least one degree1984 and 2009, 1960, 1948, 1944, 1871, Celsius Difference to the mean, in 1847 It happened.

Reconstruction of warm Dena(Central The restoration of more than 500 years of average season’s temperatures using zagros) seasons of the year showed that the average May / Quercus Persica tree Rings September temperature in the Dena region has in Zagros Forests (zarean, increased in the last 30 years. 2015).

Precipitation variations in central Zagros Dry conditions prevailed in the 1840s, 1850, 1870s,

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 4

the central Zagros Mountains 1880s, 1900s, 1920s, 1940s, 1960s, 1980s and Mountains (Iran) since A.D. 1999–2003. In comparison to wet periods, the 1840 based on oak tree rings number and the intensity of dry periods have (Arsalani et al., 2013). increased during the 1840–2010 study period. Many of the reconstructed wet years coincided with major El Niño events. Inverse association between the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and the reconstructed precipitation during the common period (1877–2010) revealed that the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) plays an important role in regional precipitation variability.

Lakes and

There is a relatively long history of palaeoenvironment research from lake archives from west and North West of Iran but there is not more information about Lakes of other regions of Iran.

Table 2.Resaults of lake researches in Iran

Lakes and Location Coordination Elevati Duration References wetlands on(mas l)

Neor Ardabil 37 59' N-48 2500 13000 BP Ponel et al. (2013); Province(NW 33'E Sharifi et al. (2015) Iran)

Urmia 37 42'N-45 1267 200000B Djamali et al. (2008); province(NW 19'E P Stevens, Djamali, Iran) Andrieu-Ponel, and de Beaulieu (2012)

Zarivar or Kurdistan 35 32' N-46 1300 42600BP Stevens, Wright, and Ito Zeribar province(W Iran) 07' E (2001); Wasylikowa and Witkowski (2008); Wasylikowa

et al. (2006)

Mirabad Lorestan 33 05' N- 47 800 9300 BP Griffiths, Schwalb, and

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 5

province(W Iran) 43' E Stevens (2001); Stevens, Ito, Schwalb, and Wright (2006)

Parishan Fars 29 28' N-51 823 3900 Djamali et al. (2016); M. province(Kazeru 53' E D. Jones et al. (2015) n)

Hashilan Kermanshah 34 58'N-46 1130 22000 Safaei et al. (2019). province(W Iran) 89'E

Hamun & 30 50'N-61 463 13000 Hamzeh et al., (2017). Balouchestan(SE 40'E Iran)

Caves

No Iranian caves have been investigated for paleoecology reconstruction because most of the known caves in Iran have become amusement places before being scientific examined. While there is a lot of valuable information from the caves of Jordan, Saudi Arabia and other nearby areas. There is one paper about reconstruction of paleoclimate using guano bat at a cave in Kurdistan Iran.

Table 3.Resault of Cave studies researches in Iran

Title Site location Resaults

Reconstruction of environment Divandareh, The results showed that in the period changes using Guano bat and Kurdistan- from 5513 to 5814 years ago the Kuletarique Cave sediments, Kuletarique cave climate at that region was warm and Divandareh, Kurdistan from mid humid. The climate was warm and dry to late Holocene (Darabad et in 5513 to 4400 years ago. As the al.,2017). better climate conditions bats have settled in the cave since about 4,399 years ago. The highest amount of guano-bat accumulation in the cave dates from 1122 to 608 years ago, which represents a warm and humid climate (MCA). Between 380 and 191 years ago, at the same time Little Ice Age, the bats' population in the cave

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 6

declined significantly.

Most of the research done in the field of paleoclimate reconstruction of Iran has showed that vegetation cover has been affected by various climate systems, including Siberian high pressure activities, western low pressures and southwest monsoons. Due to the fact that diverse vegetation in Iran is associated with its various climatic characteristics, at first we should examine the climatic features of Iran. In dividing Iran into major climatic regions, it is necessary to base the ruling factors. The frequency of precipitation and high relative humidity in the northern regions of Iran have made the Caspian region a unique climatic zone. Warm winter and high relative humidity in the regions adjacent to the Oman Sea and the Persian Gulf in southern parts of Iran are characterized by semi-arid climatic conditions. Between these two different climatic zones, a large part of the area has very dry summers and cold winters. This is a continental climate that has dry summers, although it looks like a Mediterranean climate, it has a lot of temperature differences. The accumulation of snow on high mountains and their survival for several months represents the steppe climate, with the difference that the summer is much drier in those areas. Rabiee (2012) has divided the present vegetative regions of Iran into five regions based on climatic characteristics, which every region has a smaller sub region (Table1. Rabiee, 2012).

Table 4: Division of current vegetative regions of Iran based on climatic characteristics

Zone Range Annual Characteristics Precipitation

1-Europe Located on 600- 5 million hectares, Lack of real dry period, decreases of Siberia the 2000mm precipitation from west to east; temperate and humid climate, with zone northern potential for production of massive forests, in terms of altitude from barrier of sea level including three epochs. Iran, from the north to the Caspian Sea and from the south to the northern slopes of the Mountains.

1-1. Lower The height from the sea level is between 800 and 1000 meters, The

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 7

geobotany most dominant tree species include Querches castaneaefolia, Carpinus betulus, Parrotia persica, the main habitat of Buxus hyrcana species is in Sisangan plains.

2-1. Height between 1000 to 2000 meters, Fagus orientalis, Acer and Middle Fraxinus excelsior, Perennial rangeland species are more dominant. geobotany

Upper Height between 2000 to 2700 meters ، its climate is cool and similar .3-1 geobotany to the high steppe pastures. Areas with an altitude greater than 2700 meters have Cushion formations such as Quercus macranthera.

2- Sahara- The Based on 151 million hectares (more than 85 percent of Iran's area), With Sandy southern rainfall, it is annual plants, Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata,Phoenix Zone slopes of divided into dactylifera, Prosopis spp. Acacia spp. Ziziphus nummularia, the Alborz 5 regions Calotropis procera, Salvadora persica. mountains and the Zagros slopes and all the plain areas of

3-Iran- The Based on 151 million hectares (more than 85 percent of Iran's area). Climate, Turanian southern rainfall, it is Geomorphology, soil, elevation and vegetation has high diversity. slopes of divided into Artemisia sieberi and Astragalus are dominant. the Alborz 5 regions mountains and the Zagros slopes and all the plain areas of Central Iran

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 8

3-1-Semi- The average Relative humidity is low and salt of soil is high .Vegetation of this desert annual region are; Chenopodiaceae, Common Chicory, Leguminoseae and region precipitation graminea families and Plants of dry areas. is less than 100 mm.

3-1-1- Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halostachys belangeriana, Kalidium Halophytes caspicum,,Salicornia europaea, Salsola spp., Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Suaeda spp.,Tamarix spp.

3-1-2- Calligonum (Smirnoria), Syperus and Aristida, are included in this Sand- category gravel or sand- resistant plants

3-1-3- the species of Salsola and Anabasis, setifera, Ephedra intermedia, Chalky Hammada salicornica, Seidlitzia rosmarinus plants

3-1-4- The species of Amygdalus. Goose, Grasshopper, Scab, Goat, Drought- Rhubarb, Amygdalu. tolerant plants

2-3- Average of This region is adjacent to the desert area but it has more moisture, Steppe annual The most important plant species in this area are: Chenopodiaceae, region precipitation Chicory, Matthiola incana,Artemisia, graminea, Artemisia sieberi, is 100-230 Ephedra spp., Poa bulbosa, Stipa spp., Stipagrostis mm spp.,Zygophyllom eurypterum.

3-3-Semi- Average of Dominant vegetation is Artemisia and Leguminoseae, Artemisia steppe annual aucheri Boiss Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Antirrhinum region precipitation majus,Brassicaceae, Leguminoseae and graminea, In this region The is 230-450 calimax vegetation is pistachio,This area has temperate climate. mm.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 9

3-4- Annual Dryland forests located in within the Zagros mountains from Dryland precipitation Kurdistan to Fars and located on the altitudes of Azerbaijan and also forests more than the slopes of the Alborz to the eastern parts. Height is between 800- 400 mm 2600 m. There was Quercus persica forests, Pistachio, Amygdalus spp. In the case of a sufficient rainfall, this area has the potential for forestry.

3-5- The average It is in height 2700 m or more. Due to low air temperature, length of Highland of annual plant growth is short. The dominant vegetation are forests precipitation Astragalus,Acanthophyllum,Acantholimon,,Onobrychis,Onobrychis, area is 400 to Dactylis,،Agropyron, Prunus ،Lonicera ،Daphne،Amygdalus , Rosa 500 mm or and Juniperus excels in 3200 m height. more.

Figure1: Iran's Botanical Map (Authors, 2019)

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 10

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

Climate

Iran has a variable climate. In the northwest, winters are cold with heavy snowfall and subfreezing temperatures during December and January. Spring and fall are relatively mild, while summers are dry and hot. In the south, winters are mild and the summers are very hot, having average daily temperatures in July exceeding 38 °C (100.4 °F). On the Khuzestan Plain, summer heat is accompanied by high humidity. In general, Iran has an arid climate in which most of the relatively scant annual precipitation falls from October through April. In most of the country, yearly precipitation averages 250 mm (9.8 in) or less. The major exceptions are the higher mountain valleys of the Zagros and the Caspian coastal plain, where precipitation averages at least 500 mm (19.7 in) annually. In the western part of the Caspian, rainfall exceeds 1,000 mm (39.4 in) annually and is distributed relatively evenly throughout the year. This contrasts with some basins of the Central Plateau that receive ten centimeters or less of precipitation (Fig.2).

Figure 2: Iran's climate zones (www.irimo.ir)

Most studies have shown that Iran has had a lot of warm, humid, and dry periods in the Quaternary. Evidences of glacial valleys in Kerman, alluvial fans, playas around the desert of Messilah and Damghan desert, aeolian sediments, alluvial valleys in central Iran, evidences of Pistachio remnants, Oak and Pine trees in central Iran, forests and settlements ruined around Lut, ancient civilizations around the desert areas, moraine evidences at the Alborz and Zagros mountains, all approve the sequences of warm, humid, dry periods.

Vegetation Change of Iran before Holocene

The climatic conditions during the transition period from the Pliocene to the Late Pleistocene were more humid than the present conditions (Bobek, 1963). Huber (1960) studied the brown salty layers and clay layers of playa and concluded that these sediments were deposited in seasonal and shallow lake environments, these sediments have

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 11

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 eroded in subsequent periods such as Younger Dryas by wind erosion in the Lut desert. Probably the upper part of the Masileh desert that consists of brown to green salt and clay has been deposited by the end of the last glacial period (Vurm). Salty margins in the Playa environment are formed in warm and dry climates while the subsequent layers are formed in colder periods (Bobek, 1963: Krinsley, 1970). The climate change in the Middle Pleistocene is also evident in the northern Iranian deposits of loesses (Kehl et al., 2005a; Frechen et al.2009) (Image 3).

Figure 3: Sequence of Nowdeh Loesses at north of Iran approximately 30 meters high. Indicates climate change between cold and dry conditions during glacial periods (no weathered Loesses S1SS3, S2,) and warm and humid periods during the glacial periods. Probably S1SS1, S1SS2 and S1SS3 profiles has correlation with 5c, OIS 5b and 5e. In the lower part of the river at a depth of 20 meters, the S2 divides into three separate profiles and two types of interglacial soils (L2SS1,L2SS2) that probably it is formed during OIS6 (Kehl et al.2009).

Table 5: Vegetation changes during late glacial and interglacial period in Iran (Kehl et al., 2009)

Area Age Climate type Vegetative Type

Masileh(Qum Pliocene to the Late more Wetter than It has a brownish siliceous playa) Pleistocene present layer with a thickness of 350 transition meters

The upper part of Probably from the The salt margins in It has an intermittent sequence Masileh desert Pleistocene to the playas are formed in of salt and brownish clay end of the last warm and dry sediments. glacial (Vurm) climates.The subsequent layers indicate colder

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 12

conditions and reduce evaporation and increase lake water levels.

Loess deposits of Middle Pleistocene Non weathered loesses Decrease of vegetation during are associated with the glacial periods and steppe glacial priods and or forest vegetation during indicate dry and cold interglacial period. conditions; Paleosol profiles represent relatively warmer and wetter conditions.

Sefidrood valley Middle Pleistocene Interglacial period with Loess deposits that are and northern warmer and wetter associated with a variety of Alborz foothills conditions paleosols and characterized by clay deposits, they have developed under forest conditions.

Lake Urmia Between 7a OIS or Warmer and with more - Oak Forest Steppes Laylan Interglacial moisture. At Pre glacial - Artemisia steppes and priod. (Bonab) dry and cold grasslands climate

Gravel terraces in Early and mid- Cold climate upper parts of Pleistocene Alborz and Zagros mountains

Zaribar lake in Last Glacial Dry and Cold climate Artemisia steppe, low westerly Zagros Maximum precipitation, probably increasing snowfall in winter causes the loss of pistachio trees.

The weathered loesses are associated with glacial periods and show cold and dry conditions and dispersed vegetation, while the paleosol profiles indicates climatic conditions that are relatively warmer and wetter with steppe or forest vegetation during interglacial periods (Fink and Kukla,. 1977; Dodonov,.1991). In the Sefid Rud River valley and the

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 13

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 northern foothills of Alborz, loess deposits have different types of paleosol, which are characterized by clay sediments. These paleosols are formed in those areas where forest vegetation has been exposed. Two relatively weak paleosol horizons (brown horizons of steppe soils) are cut off with loess OIS6 sediments which are the first interglacial evidences of the Middle Pleistocene period in Iran (figure 3) (Kehl et al.,2005a; Frechen et al.,2009).Djamali et al.(2008) took 100-meter sedimentary cores from and examined pollen changes. Parts of the core that had a high percentage of arboreal pollen have been associated with OIS 7a, 5e, 5c, 5a. Low percentage of arboreal pollen and high percentage of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae are related to glacial periods (Image3). Correlation based on two datings on depth 8 and 18.5 meters of samples was about 1034± 40퐶14 and 20024± 750퐶14 퐶14 that is not calibrated (Djamali et al.2008), these results has correlation with isotopic results from Arabian sea (Reichart et al.1997) and pollen profiles of Greece (Zidakiz,1993). According to Djamali et al. (2008), the range of Lake Urmia showed that, around Lake Urmia, the Ephedra and Quercus (Ur-C1) had disappeared during the glacial period and the steppe Artemisia has been replaced(Ur-C2).

Figure 4 Pollen percentage diagrams and AP concentrations of Lake Urmia cores BH2 and BH3. Lithology and carbonate content of core BH2 have also been displayed. PCA axis 1 explains 11.73 % of the variance in BH2 and 10.03 % BH3. Facies A: Laminated calcareous mud with abundant Artemia fecal pellets; alternation of light grey and greenish grey laminae, Facies B: Light grey to greenish grey calcareous mud with abundant Artemia fecal pellets and intercalations of carbonate crusts, Facies C: Laminated mud with gypsum layers; alternation of greenish grey and brown mud with gypsum layers with or without the organic rich laminae, Facies D: Greenish grey calcareous mud with dark colored bands and carbonate crusts (Djamali et al., 2008).

The gravel traces in the upper parts of the Alborz and Zagros are from the late and middle Pleistocene, representing cold climate conditions (Bobek, 1963). The Sefidrud, Chalous, Heraz and Talar rivers in the Alborz Mountains form

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 14

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 the tributaries of the altitudes that are located at a height of 70 to 150 meters in the valley and are related to the Vurm period (Ehlers, 1969).

Stratigraphic evidences belonging to the sedimentary data of the Zaribar Lake in Western Zagros at a height of 1300 meters above sea level and the results of pollen in this region indicates the presence of Artemisia steppe during LGM, which indicates low precipitation during this period (Van Zeist & Wright, 1963; 1977). Expanding of Artemisia steppe and the absence of arboreal pollen indicate an increase in snowfall in the winter, which may also have caused the vanishing of pistachio trees (El-Moslimany, 1986, 1987).The results of the investigation of plant macrofossils (Wasylikowa et al. 2006), cladocera (Megard, 1967) and diatoms of the Zaribar Lake (Snyder et al. 2001) confirm the LGM occurrence in Iran.

Figure5: Pedostratigraphy (Loess of the Alborz foothills and Sefid rud river,Srarvan,Nowdeh,Rostamabad).(Kehl et al.2008).

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 15

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

Fig 6: Radiocarbon dating Lake Urmia (Djamali et al., 2008), Lake Zaribar & Lake Mirabad (Van Zeist and Botema, 1991)

There are some evidences that the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in northern Iran and the Zagros Mountains was a cold and dry period. The presence of dust deposits over LGM in Neka and Aghband loesses deposits indicates the relatively dry conditions of that period in southern Caspian (Frechen et al., 2009). Glacier moraines in the Alborz and Zagros mountains also confirm that in the LGM snow line has been lower (Bobek ,1963; Prue,1964). In the last glacial maximum, the levels of Shiraz and lakes in the south of Zagros have been 2-3 m higher than the current ones (krinsley,1970). Increasing the water levels of Iranian lakes at that time indicates a decrease in temperature and thus a decrease in evaporation levels (Bobek, 1937; Krinsley, 1970; Stevens et al., 2001).

Climate and vegetation changes in Iran during Holocene

Climate and vegetation changes in north of Iran in Holocene

Palynological studies in Gomishan (located on the southeastern part of Caspian Sea) have provided significant results about vegetation changes and sea level fluctuations. Palynological studies and radiocarbon dating in Lake Neor (NW of Iran, Ardebil province) reconstructed about 12800 years ago, in the late glacial ratio of arboreal pollens has been negligible, in the transition to the early Holocene arboreal pollen and shrub vegetation such as Ephedra gradually increased. During Younger Dryas in Neur, the grasslands replaced by trees (Akbari, 2012). In early Holocene at 9800 years ago Artemisia increased in Lake Neor because it seems that there was a milder phase in the north of Iran. An increase in Quercus and herbaceous palnts such as Artemisia showed between 8000 and 9000 years ago there was wet phase in the Lake Neor basin. The presence of high amounts Alnus pollen in the north of Iran has shown that there were humid climate in the northern parts of Iran at 3000 years ago. Evidences suggest that highest levels of Caspian Sea occurred between 1900 and 2100 years ago (Leroy et al., 2013).

Table 6: Changes of Holocene vegetation in the north of Iran

Area Region Date Characteristics

1.Gomishan wetland Late Pleistocene- The Caspian Sea was at its lowest level at Late early Holocene Pleistocene and was at its highest level 10600-7200 BP. Grass pollens were more abundance (Leroy et al.,

2013).

2. Lake Neor 12800 BP, Younger There were humid climate at 9800 years ago, Arboreal

North Iranof Dryas event-8000 pollens have decreased, The proportion of Artemisia years ago increased to Chenopodiaceae and also Poaceae increased to Artemisia. 9400 years ago, a dry climatic phase occurred. In the 9,000-8,000 years ago, climatic

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 16

conditions became wetter. Arboreal pollens such as Quercus increased (Akbari et al., 2012).

3.Veisar(Mazandaran) 1500-900 BP 900 years ago, Pterocarya fraxinfolia trees of the area due to Mediaeval Climatic Anomaly were reduced. At that time, the northern regions of Iran had a warm and humid climate. Increasing the trees of beech, alnus and Carpinus betulus (Khakpour et al., 2011).

4.Mouzidarbon 1000 BP Coincides with Mediaeval Climatic Anomaly wetland (near (Ramezani, et al.2007). Noshahr)

5. Tappeh Kalar 850 BP Coincides with Mediaeval Climatic Anomaly, peatlands,Mazandaran Increasing Forest Trees, (Ramezani et al., 2013).

Vegetation and climate change in Holocene in the west of Iran

According to evidence of pollen and the results of Van Zeist et al.,(1963) in Lake Zaribar, Griffith et al. (2001) in Lake Mirabad and Safai Rad (2016) in Hashilan wetland, it can be concluded that in 40000-22000 BP In the western regions of Iran, , plant cover was scattered trees. At the end of late Pleistocene (about 22 to 14 thousand years ago), Type of vegetation was dry steppe to semi-desert steppes, almost without trees, indicating a cold and dry climate, Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia increased and Gramineae decreased. At 10000 to 6000 years ago (Holocene) Gramineae increased and Prunus amygdalus and Pistacia atlantica grew. Such a change in vegetation indicates an increase in precipitation. The prevalence of pistachio trees in the Zagros Mountains was 7200 years ago, showing a moderate temperate climate. Evidence from Quercus trees dating back 14,000 years ago in indicates an increase in temperature in area, while precipitation has been low throughout the last glacial maximum and early Holocene. In the late Holocene, the winter precipitation of the region was higher than summer precipitation, and also there were high evaporation rates. In the Mid Holocene (6000 BP), climatic conditions were suitable for the growth of Quercus forests. in the western regions of Iran most of the trees appeared in the middle Holocene, as well as evidences of pollen show that the Chenopodiaceae decreased during that period, indicating warm and humid climate conditions, However, due to the decrease in Quercus forests and the increase in pistachio and almond trees, it can be said that in the Late Holocene, duration of the warm seasons was less than the mid Holocene. The geology study of the two 100- meter sedimentary cores related to Lake Urmia showed that in the glacial periods vegetation cover was steppe of Artemisia and Gramineae, and Chenopodiaceae has dominated in the high and low saline ecosystems (Djamali et al.2008). In middle of the LGM the water level of Lake Urmia increased, in transition between last glacial to Holocene in the west of Iran, dominant plants were ephedraceae, Pistachio, Quercus, Juniperus excels and Betula alba. Until 9000 years ago dominant plants in Urmia basin was Artemisia steppes, in this basin, forests has been developed between 8000-9000 years ago. Pollen analyzes used to reconstruction the environmental conditions of the late Holocene have shown that in the 1600 to 1200 years ago, arboreal pollen such as Quercus increased (Talebi et

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 17

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 al., 2015). Also, the presence of Reilla spores and low magnetic susceptibility and calcium carbonate levels indicate that Lake Urmia water level was higher and had less salinity. At 1200 to 900 years ago water level in Lake Urmia decreased, on the edges of lake, Halophytes increased. The semi desert steppes developed in area. Increasing in pollen of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae, Senecio vulgaris, chamomile and Acantholimon indicate dry and cold climate. At 650 to 450 years ago level of Lake Urmia increased. Pollen of Juniperus represents a cold and dry climate in this region (Talebi et al., 2015). In the late Pleistocene and Younger Dryas period, the south Zagros had a cold climate with steppe vegetation (Davoodi et al, 2014). Davoodi et al (2014) concluded that beginning of Holocene in was about 10200 years ago and lasted to 8170 years ago. In this period Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae have decreased and Geraminea have increased. So we can conclude that the humidity in Spring and Summer have increased but it was not enough to grow Quercus trees, of course Almond and Pistachio trees grew at that time. Precipitation required for the growth of almond and pistachio forests is about 300 mm but for Oak forest it is 500 mm. In 8170 to 7570 years ago Gramineae vegetation decreased around Lake Parishan and cold resistant plants such as Cousinia, Umbelliferae and Cichorioideae has increased (Walter,1971). In this period dry climate has dominated and summer precipitation has decreased. In 7570 to 5600 BP Oak forests expanded also Almond trees and Asparagus trees increased around the southern Zagros, in this period in western and southern parts of Iran humid climate was dominated. In 5600 to 2700 years ago Climate was warm and humid. Increasing Chenopodiaceae and reducing arboreal pollen in 2700 years ago indicates rising precipitation in winter and the presence of more dry summers. Oak trees declined dramatically during that period, but there were pistachio and almond trees. (Djamali et al., 2009).

Table 7: Vegetation changes during Holocene in the west of Iran and Central Zagros

Site location Dating Characteristics

Lake Zaribar -Kurdistan(Van Zeist 40000 1. At 40000-22000 BP there were scattered trees around and write,1977) BP the lake.

2.22000-14000 BP at the same time as the Younger Dryas cold event dominant vegetative cover was steppe.

3.10000-6000BP there was dry climate.

4.6000BP Oak forests growth, climate was warm and humid.

Lake Mirabad –Fars (Grifith et 11000 1. The lake water level in the late Holocene was al.,2001) BP low.

2. Up to 7200 BP Pistachio trees grew, precipitation increased and summer precipitation

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 18

was more than winter precipitation.

3. 6000 BP: Humidity increased and Oak forests grew.

Hashilan wetland – Kermanshah 14000 1. At Late Pleistocene there was cold and dry (Safai rad et al.,2014) BP climate; Chenopodiceae and Artemisia were dominant vegetation covers.

2. Early Holocene: relative increase in temperature and precipitation, there was a cold, wet season and a long dry and warm season, increasing evaporation relative to precipitation. The vegetation was changed from steppe to savanna, Pistachio and oak trees were scattered.

3. Middle Holocene: More humid climate, Oak forests expanded.

Lake Urmia (Djamali et al.,2008) 14000 1. Transition between the late glacial to early BP Holocene, plants such as Ephedraceae, Pistachio and Oak expanded.

2. 9000 BP: Artemisia steppes increased.

3. 8000-9000 BP: The vegetation of the region was similar to the current condition.

4. 2500-1500 BP: Climate conditions were relatively dry, pollen of Artemisia increased and arboreal pollen decreased.

5. 1600-1200 BP: Climate was humid, the water level of Lake Urmia increased and water salinity decreased. Oak pollens increased, Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae pollens decreased.

6. 1200-900 BP; Dry and cold climate, Oak pollens decreased, Pollen of Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Chamomile and semi desert steppe vegetation increased.

7. 900-650 BP: 900-650 years ago, Lake water

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 19

level increased, in the north of Iran climate was warmer and more humid, oak forests increased.

8. 650-450 BP; Little Ice age, Lake Urmia water level increased, Climate was cold, evaporation decreased.

Lake Parishan (Davoudi et 12000 1. In the late Holocene climate was warm and al.,2013) BP humidity in warm season was more than cold seasons, there was not enough moisture to grow trees like Oak but Pistachio and almond trees grew, Geraminea increased.

2. 8170-7570 BP: Precipitation in cold seasons increased, humidity increased, Chenopodiaceae increased around the Parishan lake and Geramineae decreased.

3. 7570-5600 BP: Climate was warm and humid, oak forests, Almond trees and Asparagus trees increased, Pistachio trees decreased.

4. 5600-2700 BP: Warm and humid climate; Increase in Almond and Oak trees.

5. 2700 BP: Winter precipitation increased, increasing Pistachio and Almond trees and decreasing Oak forests.

The vegetation and climate change of southern and southeastern Iran in Holocene

Distribution of grain size, petrographic characteristics and chemical measurements of sedimentary cores showed that in the late glacial to Early Holocene there was a full of water lake in Sistan basin. MLW (Mid Latitude Westerly currents) and ISM (Indian Monsoons) precipitations has fed the area. In Early Holocene to Mid Holocene ITCZ moved to the south so ISM weakened, as a result, dry periods started in Sistan basin. High pressure gradient between Sistan depression and Mountains caused severe and persistent dust storms. In mid Holocene to late Holocene hydro climate regime in Sistan basin has controlled by MLW precipitations. The frequent fluctuations in the water level of Lake represent the unsustainable climate in early Holocene to middle Holocene. There are not enough information about pollens in the south-southeast of Iran and we can only reconstruct vegetation 1900 years ago. Results show that 910 years ago in this region plains turned into deserts. During the medieval climatic anomalies (1145-910 years ago), the vegetation was severely affected by desert conditions, xerophytes grew in south and

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 20

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 southeast of Iran. The presence of Impagidinium paradoxum in the Oman Sea is an indicator of the non-evacuation of water to the ocean at that time.

By using pollen data and sedimental cores Miller et al. (2016) reconstructed vegetation in south of Iran. At 1857-1099 BP Artemisia and Amaranthaceae formed the dominant vegetation in ; also the proportion of Carex and Cereals was higher than Caryophyllaceae and Asteraceae. At 1099-863 BP Caryophyllaceae and Artemisia increased which indicates the cold and dry conditions of the climate, but at 863 BP once again, cereals and Carex were abundant.

The prevalence of cereals indicates relatively mild conditions during the Sassanid Empire in southern Iran. The increase of Caryophyllaceae also shows that climatic conditions were more drought than in the Little Ice Age, but was more humid in comparison with the middle Ages.

Table 8: Vegetation changes during Holocene in southern and southeast of Iran

Area Site Dating Characteristics

Lake Hamun - Last - Hamun was a water-filled lake Glacial with a relatively stable level, there Maximu is no pollen studies for this region. m

- In this period, the semi-arid

conditions dominated at the northwest of Himalaya and also in - Early- the Sistan region, dust storms Mid began. Holocene - Hydroclimatic regimes of Sistan

South and Southeast of Iran of Southeast and South basin and northwest of Himalaya - Mid-Late were controlled by MLW Holocene precipitation.

Oman seashores 1857-1099 BP - The presence of evidences of pollen from plants such as

Artemisia and Amaranthaceae, 1099-863BP Pine, Scenobia, and Calligonumr show that climatic conditions have

been dry. 863 BP - Caryophyllaceae and Artemisia increased which indicates the cold

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 21

and dry conditions of the climate.

- There was humid climate and cereals and Carex increased.

Konar 3951 BP 1. Around 4000-3800 BP droughts Sandal(Jiroft)(Djamali occurred et al.,2018) 2. Declining Artemisia and shrubs indicate milder climate at 3800- 3400 and 2800-600 BP.

Figure7: Comparison of Magnetic susceptibility changes sedimentary core H1 Lake Hamun (a) as a sign of increased wind sediment with other Holocene climate proxies in the northern hemisphere associated with Indian Ocean Monsoon, Westerly Winds and Siberian High pressure Changes includes: the abundance of dolomite percent in the Kl- 74 Arabian Sea Core sediments as indicative of Indian monsoon (Siroko et al., 1991 b). Changes in the magnetic susceptibility changes of Arabian bed bases (Siroko et al., 1991 c). Frequency of dust changes based on changes in

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 22

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2 titanium concentration in Lake Neor sediments (Sharifi et al.,2015d). Changes in the ion K + concentration in the Greenland GISP2 ice cores reflect the intensity changes of the Siberian High Pressure Center (Mayewski et al.1997 e). The variations in the thickness of the sedimentary layers (mm) in Lake Elk at Minnesota indicate the intensity of westerly winds in mid-latitudes of the northern hemisphere (Bradbury et al.1993F). Reconstructing the water surface temperature in the southwest of the Arabian Sea by mathematical functions derived from the magnesium to calcium ratio (Mayewski et al.2004 H) and the amount of sunlight in 30°N (Berger and loutre, 1991). The arrows indicate an increase in the severity of each climatic factor and the dots indicate the average variation. The time of this data has been compared with the glacial expansion periods at the semi-arid parts of the northwest Himalayas. The blue ribbons represent glaciers that were affected by the Monsoon precipitations, and yellow bands show glaciers affected by the Mediterranean and westerly winds. Numbers 1 through 9 represent periods of rapid climate change (wet to dry) in the northern hemisphere (Bond et al.1997). The overall climate change from top to bottom represents a change from dry to wet conditions.

Conclusion

In the late Pleistocene, due to glacial conditions, the water level of Iranian lakes was high. The presence of calcium carbonate in the sedimentary cores of the Lake Urmia, Zaribar, Hashilan and Mirabad shows that in the 20,000 years ago, due to low evaporation, water surface of lakes was higher (Bobek, 1937; Krnsley, 1970; Safaei et al, 2019). The dominant vegetation in Iran was the steppes of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae. With the start of the Holocene the temperature rose. The sedimentary cores of the lakes indicate an increase in organic matter and a sharp drop in calcium carbonate, indicating favorable conditions for plant growth. At the same time, in the southeast of Iran, the water level of the Lake Hamun was very low and began (Hamzeh et al, 2017). In the 10,500 to 7,800 BP, which included the early Holocene, the climate was relatively dry, and the level of lake water was reduced and steppe vegetation was dominant. In 7,800 years ago, climatic conditions were moderate and humid. The sedimentary cores of the Hashilan wetland and other lakes indicate that organic plant material has increased the trees of pistachios and almonds grew. In 7800 years ago, Indian monsoon systems were weakened and moved to lower latitudes (Fleitmann et al., 2008). With the weakening of Indian monsoons, the climatic conditions in the region were dry and the winds and dust storm intensified (Hamzeh et al.,2017).In 6,000 BP, climatic conditions were warm and humid in most parts of Iran. Poaceae grew and Oak forests developed in the western regions of Iran (Van Zeist et al., 1963; 1977). )In 4500 years ago, climatic conditions in the southern regions of Zagros were favorable for the planting of walnut trees (Djamali et al.,2009).Climatological and vegetative evidences shows that cold periods in Iran have been accompanied with increase in air aridity. Probably in cold and dry periods Siberian anticyclone was strengthened and led to weakening and southward shift of monsoons. Due to the vastness of Iran's land, this country has always been affected by various atmospheric systems; different climatic conditions have created different vegetation coverings. Eastern, northeast, and southeastern parts of Iran need to be explored more closely to understand the paleoenvironment of Iran.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 23

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

References

1. Akbari, T. (2011). Reconstruction of the vegetation history and paleoclimate in the western Talish Mountains -Eastern Azerbaijan (Iran) during the Late-glacial – Holocene. PhD thesis in physical geography (climatology), University of Tehran, Geography faculty, supervisor: Ghasem Azizi. [in Persian].

2. Alley, R.B.; Mayewski, P.A.; Sowers, T.; Stuiver, M.; Taylor, K.C. and Clark, P.U. (1997). Holocene climatic instability: A prominent, widespread event 8,200 years ago. Geology, 25: 483-486.

3. Azizi, Gh.; Akbari, T. and Hashemi, H. (2013). Vegetation and climate change during the late- Glacial- Holocene in Iran; a case study from Lake Neor in NW Iran. Environmental Research. 4(7): 3-12. [In Persian].

4. Bae, C. J., Douka, K., & Petraglia, M. D. (2017). On the origin of modern humans: Asian perspectives. Science, 358(6368), eaai9067. https://doi.org/10.1126/science. aai9067.

5. Barker, G. (2009). The agricultural revolution in prehistory: Why did foragers become farmers? Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

6. Bintliff, J.L, and van Zeist, W. (1983). Paleoclimates, paleoenvironments and human communities in the eastern Mediterranean region in later prehistory, BAR international series 133. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

7. Bobek, H. (1937). Die rolle der Eiszeit in Nordwestiran. Z. Gletscherk, 25: 130-183.

8. Bobek, H. (1969). Zur Kenntnis der südlichen Lut. In: Mitt. Österr. Geogr. Ges. 111: 155-192.

9. Bobek, H. (1963). Nature and implications of Quaternary climatic changes in Iran. Changes of Climate, 20:403-413.

10. Bottema, S. (1986). A late Quaternary pollen diagram from Lake Urmia (northwestern Iran). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 47: 241-261.

11. Bronger, A. (2003). Correlation of loess-paleosol sequences in East and Central Asia with SE Central Europe:towards a continental Quaternary pedostratigraphy and paleoclimatic history. Quat. Int., 106/107: 11-21.

12. Connor, S.E.; Thomas, I.; Kvavadze, E.V.; Arabuli, G.J.; Avakov, G.S. and Sagona, A. (2004). A survey of modern pollen and vegetation along an altitudinal transect in southern Georgia, Caucasus region.Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 129: 229-50.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 24

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

13. Davoudi, M.; Azizi, G. and Maghsoodi, M. (2014). Reconstruction of Holocene changes in Southern Zagros: Evidence of pollenology and charcoal in Lake Persichan sediments. Quantitative Geomorphology Researches.3 (1): 65-79. [in Persian].

14. D.Jones,M.;Abu Jaber. N.; AlShdiaft, A.; Baird.D. I.Cook, B.;O.Cuthbert, M.; R.Dean, J.; Djamali,M.; Eastwood,Warren.;Fleitmann,D.;Haywood,A.;Kwiecien,O.;Larsen,J.;A.Maher,L.;e.Metcalfe,S.;Parker,A.; A.Petrie,C.;Primmer,N.;Richter,T.;Roberts,N.;Role,J;Tindall,J. and Unal-Imer,E.(2018). 20,000 years of societal vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in southwest Asia.WILEY,DOI;10.1002/wat2.1330.

15. Djamali, M.; De Beaulieu, J.L.; Andrieu-Ponel, V.; Berberian, M.; Miller, N.F.; Gandouin, E.; Lahijani, H.; Shah-Hosseini, M.; Ponel, P.; Salimian, M. and Guiter, F. (2009a). A late Holocene pollen record from Lake Almalou in NW Iran: evidence for changing land-use in relation to some historical events during the last 3700 years. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36: 1364-1375.

16. Djamali, M.; de Beaulieu, J.; Campagne, L.P.; Andrieu-Ponel, V.P.; Ponel Leroy, S.A.G. and Akhani, H. (2009b).

17. Modern pollen rain–vegetation relationships along a forest–steppe transect in the , NE Iran. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 153: 272-281.

18. Djamali, M.; De Beaulieu, J.L.; Miller, N.F.; Andrieu-Ponel, V.; Ponel, Ph.; Lak, R.; Sadeddin, N.; Akhani, H. and Fazeli, H. (2009c). Vegetation history of the SE section of the Zagros Mountains during the last five millennia; a pollen record from the Maharlou Lake, Fars Province, Iran. Veget HistArchaeobot, 18: 123-136.

19. Djamali, M.; de Beaulieu, J.L.; Shahhosseini, M.; Andrieuponel, V.; Ponel, P.; Amini, A.; Akhani, H.; Leroy, S.A.G.;Stevens, L.; Lahijam, H. and Brewer, S. (2008). A late Pleistocene long pollen record from Lake Urmia. Quaternary Research, 69: 413-420.

20. Dodonov, A.E. (1991). Loess of Central Asia. Geo Journal. 24: 185-194. doi:10.1007/BF00186015.

21. Dresch, J. (1976). Bassins arides iraniens. In: Bull. Assoc. Géogr. Franc., 430: 337-351.

22. Ehlers, E. (1971). Südkaspisches Tiefland Nordiran und Kaspisches Meer. Beiträge zu ihrer Entwicklungsgeschichte im Jung- und Postpleistozän. Tübinger Geogr Stud 44. Tübingen.

23. Ehlers, E. (1969). Das Chalus-Tal und seine Terrassen. Studien zur Landschaftsgliederung und Landschaftsgeschichte des mittleren Elburs (Nordiran). Erdkunde 23: 215-229. doi:10.3112/erdkunde.1969.03.07.

24. El-Moslimany, A.P. (1987). The late Pleistocene climates of the Lake Zeribar region (Kurdistan, western Iran) deduced from the ecology and pollen production of non-arboreal vegetation. Vegetatio. 72: 131-139.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 25

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

25. El-Moslimany, A.P. (1986). Ecology and late-Quaternary history of the Kurdo-Zagrosian oak forest near Lake Zeribar, western Iran. Vegetatio, 68: 55-63.

26. Fægri, K. and Iversen, J. (1989). Textbook of pollen analysis. John Wiley and Sons, 328 p.

27. Feurdean, A. and Willis, K.J., 2008. Long-term variability of Abies alba in NW Romania: implications for its conservation management. Diversity and Distributions, 14: 1004-1017.

28. Fink, J. and Kukla, G.J. (1977). Pleistocene climates in Central Europe: at least 17 interglacials after the Olduvai event. Quat. Res., 7: 363-371.

29. Frechen, M.; Kehl, M.; Rolf, C.; Sarvati, R. and Skowronek, A. (2009). Loess chronology of the Caspian Lowland in Northern Iran. In: Quat Int., 198: 220–233. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2008.12.012.

30. Fürst, M. (1970). Stratigraphie und Werdegang der östlichen Zagrosketten (Iran). Erlanger Geol. Abh. 80. Erlangen.

31. Griffiths, H.; Schwalb, A. and Stevens, L.R. (2001). Environmental change in southwestern Iran: the Holocene ostracod fauna of Lake Mirabad. The Holocene, 11(6): 757-764.

32. Hamzeh, M.A.; Mahmudy Gharaie, M.H.; Alizadeh Ketek Lahijani, H.; Djamali, M.; Moussavi Harami, R. and Naderi Beni, A. (2015). Holocene hydrological changes in SE Iran, a key region between Indian Summer Monsoon and Mediterranean winter precipitation zones, as revealed from a lacustrine sequence from Lake Hamoun. Quaternary International: 1-15.

33. Horowitz, A. (1971). Climate and vegetational developments in northeastern Israel during upper Pleistocene-Holocene times. Pollen et Spores. 11: 78-255.

34. Hosseini, Z. (2011). Investigation of climatic variations using oxygen isotopes of lake sediments in the late Pleistocene to Holocene in Arjan Plain. MSc., Faculty of Geosciences, Shahid Beheshti University. [in Persian].

35. Huber, H. (1960). The quaternary deposits of the Darya-i-Namak. Tehran.

36. Iranian wildlife species red-listed by Environment Department Archived 2015-05-20 at the Wayback Machine. (February 28, 2014) Radio Zamaneh via Payvand Iran News. Retrieved April 04, 2014.

37. Lashkarri, H.; Amirzadeh, M. and Hosseini, Z. (2013). The analysis of the climatic analysis of Arjan plain basin with an emphasis on the frequency of straccades. Geography and Environmental Planning. 24(51): 24-15. [in Persian].

38. Lashkarri, H.; Atoalebi Jahromi, F. and Mizadeh, M. (2010). A study of climatic changes in Bakhtegan Lake in final Holocene using clay mineralogy. Fourth Regional Climate Change Conference, Tehran, Iran Meteorological Organization. [in Persian].

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 26

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

39. Lateef, A.S.A. (1988). Distribution, provenance, age and paleoclimatic record of the loess in Central North Iran. In: Eden, D. N. and Furkert, R.J. (eds.): Loess– Its distribution, geology and soils. Rotterdam: 93-101.

40. Lawrence, D., Philip, G., Hunt, H., Snape-Kennedy, L., & Wilkinson, T. J. (2016). Long term population, city size and climate trends in the fertile crescent: A first approximation. PLoS One, 11(3), e0152563. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152563.

41. Kazanci, N.; Gulbabazadeh, T.; Leroy, S.A.G. and Ileri, Ö. (2004). Sedimentary and environmental characteristics of the Gilan-Mazenderan plain, northern Iran: influence of long- and short-term silvicultural applications (case study: Mashalak forests). PhD Thesis, University of Tehran. 132 p.

42. Kehl, M. (2009). Quaternaryclimate change in Iran, the state of knowledge. Erdkunde, 63(1): 1-17.

43. Kehl, M.; Sarvati, R.; Ahmadi, H.; Frechen, M. and Skowronek, A. (2008). Zur Pedostratigraphie nordiranischer Lösse. Abh. Geol. B.A. 62: 159-163.

44. Kehl, M.; Frechen, M. and Skowronek, A. (2005a): Paleosols derived from loess and loess-like sediments in the Basin of Persepolis, Southern Iran. In: Quat. Int. 140/141: 135-149.

45. Kehl, M.; Sarvati, R.; Ahmadi, H.; Frechen, M. and Skowronek, A. (2005b). Loess paleosol-sequences along a climatic gradient in Northern Iran. In: Eiszeitalter u. Gegenwart, 55: 149-173.

46. Khakpour, M.; Ramezani, A.; Siab ghadasi, A.; Zare, H. and Hans-Justin (2013). Palynological reconstruction of 1500 years of vegetation history of Veisar (N Iran). Plantronics. 2(14): 135-148. [in Persian].

47. Krinsley, D.B. (1970). A geomorphological and paleoclimatological study of the playas of Iran. US Geol. Surv., Contr. No. PRO CP 70-800. Washington, D.C.

48. Leroy, S.A.G.; Kakroodi, A.; Kroonenberg, S.; Lahijani, H.K.; Alimohammadian, H.; Nigarov, A. (2013). Holocene vegetation history and sea level changes in the SE corner of the Caspian Sea: relevance to SW Asia climate. Quaternary Science Reviews, 70: 28e47.

49. Leroy, A.G.S. and Arpe K. (2007). Glacial refugia for summer-green trees in Europe and south-west Asia as proposed by ECHAM3 time-slice atmospheric model simulations. Journal of Biogeography, 34: 2115- 2128.

50. Megard, R.O. (1967). Late Quaternary Cladocera of Lake Zeribar, western Iran. Ecology, 48: 179-189. doi:10.2307/1933099.

51. Miller, C.S.; Leroy, S.A.G.; Collins, P.E.F. and Lahijani, H.A.K. (2016). Late Holocene vegetation and ocean variability in the Gulf of Oman. Quaternary Science Reviews, 143: 120-132.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 27

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

52. Moore, P.D.; Webb, J.A. and Collinson, M.E. (1991). Pollen analysis. Blackwell Science Publishers, 216 p.

53. Ponel, Ph.; Andrieu-Ponel, V.; Djamali, M.; Lahijani, H.; Leydet M. and Mashkour, M. (2013). Fossil beetles as possible evidence for transhumance during the middle and late Holocene in the high mountains of Talysch (Talesh) in NW Iran, Journal of Environmental Archaeology, 18(3): 201-210.

54. Paluska, A. and Degens, E.T. (1980). Das Quartär des Kaspischen Küstenvorlandes– Kartierung im Iran. Mitt. Geol.- Paläont. Inst. Univ. Hamburg, 49: 61-134.

55. Preu, C. (1984). Die quartäre Vergletscherung der inneren Zardeh-Kuh-Gruppe (Zardeh-Kuh-Massiv), Zagros/ Iran. Augsburger Geogr. H. 4. Augsburg.

56. Rabiei, M. (2012) Identification of pasture plants. Payame Noor University. [in Persian].

57. Ramezani, A. (2013). Palynological reconstruction of late-Holocene vegetation, climate, and human impact in Kelardasht (, N Iran). 21(1): 48-62. [in Persian].

58. Ramezani, E. (2009). The Holocene development of the Caspian forests: a palynological study with silvicultural applications (case study: Mashalak forests). PhD thesis, University of Tehran, 132 p.

59. Ramezani, E.; Marvie Mohadjer, M.R.; Knapp, H.D.; Ahmadi, H. and Joosten, H. (2008). The late- Holocene vegetation history of the Central Caspian (Hyrcanian) forests of northern Iran. The Holocene, 18: 305-319.

60. Reichart, G.J.; Dulk, M.; den Visser, H.J.; Weijden, C.H. and van der Zachariasse, W.J. (1997). A 225 kyr record of dust supply, paleoproductivity and the oxygen minimum zone from the Muttay Ridge (northern Arabian Sea).Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol. 134: 149-169.Blackwell Publishers Ltd:316.

61. Roberts, N. and Wright, H.E.J. (1993). Vegetational, lake level and climatic history of the Near East and Southwest Asia, global climate since the last glacial maximum. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 194-220.

62. Rossignol-Strick, M. (1995). Sea-land correlation of pollen records in the Eastern Mediterranean for the Glacial- Interglacial transition: biostratigraphy versus radiometric time-scale. Quaternary Science Reviews, 14: 893-915.

63. Safai Rad, R.; Azizi, Gh.; Mohammadi, H. and Alizadeh Lahijani, H. (2014). Reconstructing the Holocene and Late-Pleistocene climate changes of the Central Zagros using palynological evidences of the Hashilan Wetland. Geography Magazine and Environmental Hazards. 11(3). [in Persian].

64. Safayi Rad, R. and Azizi, Gh. (2013). Palynological evidences of the Holocene climate changes in the Central Zagros, Case study: Hashilan wetland. Master's thesis, Climatology orientation, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran. [in Persian].

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 28

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

65. Salmani, D. (2013). The paleontological record of Holocene climatic change in N.W of Iran (case study: Neor Lake). thesis requirements for the M.Sc degree in physical geography (climatology), University of Tehran, Geography faculty, supervisor: Ghasem Azizi. [in Persian].

66. Snyder, J.A.; Wasylik, K.; Fritz, S.C. and Wright, H.E. Jr. (2001). Diatom-based conductivity reconstruction and palaeoclimatic interpretation of a 40-ka record from Lake Zeribar, Iran. The Holocene, 11: 737-745. doi: 10.1191/09596830195753.

67. Stevens, L.R.; Ito, E.; Schwalband, A. and Wright H.E. Jr. (2006). Timing of atmospheric precipitation in the Zagros Mountains inferred from a multi-proxy record from Lake Mirabad, Iran. Quaternary Research, 66: 494-500.

68. Stevens, L.R.; Wright H. Jr and Ito, E. (2001). Proposed changes in seasonality of climate during the Lateglacial and Holocene at Lake Zeribar, Iran. The Holocene, 11(6): 747-755.

69. Talebi, T.; Ramezani, E.; Djamali, M.; Alizadeh Ketek Lahijani, H.; Naqinezhad, A.; Alizadeh, K.; Ponel, V. (2015). The Late-Holocene climate change, vegetation dynamics, lake-level changes and anthropogenic impacts in the Lake Urmia region, NW Iran. Quaternary International: 1-12.

70. Tayebi, P. (2011). Using sedimentology indicators to describe climatic conditions in the Northern section of Gavkhooni wetland. Master's Degree, Climatology Orientation in Environmental Planning, Shahid BeheshtiUniversity. [in Persian]

71. Thomas, D.S.G.; Bateman, M.D.; Mehrshahi, D. and O’Hara, S.L. (1997). Development and environmental significance of an eolian sand ramp of last-glacial age, Central Iran. Quat. Res., 48: 155- 161.

72. Tzedakis, P.C. (1993). Long-term tree populations in northwest Greece through multiple Quaternary climatic cycles.Nature, 364: 437-440. doi: 10.1038/364437a0.

73. "Unasylva - Vol. 8, No. 2 - The work of FAO". www.fao.org. Archived from the original on 2007-09-09.

74. Van Zeist, W. and Bottema, S. (1991). Late quaternary vegetation of the Near East. Beiheftezumtubinger atlas des vorderenorints 18, Wiesbaden, Germany: reichert, 156 p.

75. Van Zeist, W. and Bottema, S. (1977). Palynological investigations in Western Iran. Palaeohistoria, 19: 19-85.

76. Van Zeist, W. and Wright, H.E. (1963). Preliminary pollen studies at Lake Zeribar, Zagros Mountains, and Southwestern Iran. Science, 68: 66-83.

77. Wasylikowa, K. & Witkowski, A. (2008). Diatom monographs, Vol. 8, The palaeoecology of Lake Zeribar and surrounding areas; Western Iran; during the last 48000 years, A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Koeltz Science books, Germany.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 29

Journal of Geology & Earth Sciences Volume 1| Issue 2

78. Wasylikowa, K.; Witkowski, A.; Walanus, A.; Hutorowicz, A.; Alexandrowicz, S. W. and Langer, J. J. (2006):Palaeolimnology of Lake Zeribar, Iran, and its climatic implications. In: Quat. Res. 66, 477–493. doi: 10.1016/j.yqres.2006.06.006.

79. Wasylikowa, K. (2005). Palaeoecology of Lake Zeribar, Iran, in the Pleniglacial, Lateglacial and Holocene: reconstructed from plant macrofossils. The Holocene ,15(5): 720-735.

80. Weise, O.R. (1974). Zur Hangentwicklung und Flächenbildung im Trockengebiet des iranischen Hochlandes. Würzburger Geogr. Arb. 42. Würzburg.

81. Wright, H.E.; Ammann, B.; Stefanova, I.; Atanassova, J.; Margalitadze, N.; Wick, L. and Blykharchuk, T. (2003).Late-glacial and early Holocene dry climates from the Balkan peninsula to southern Siberia: 127- 36. In: Tonkov,S., (Eds.). Aspects of palynology and palaeoecology, Pensoft Publishers, 281 p.

82. Wright, J. (2001). Desert loess versus glacial loess: quartz silt formation of loess deposits. Geomorphology. 36: 231.

83. Wright, H.E.; Mc Andrews, J.H. and Van Zeist, W. (1967). Modern pollen rain in western Iran, and its relation to plant geography and Quaternary vegetational history. Journal of Ecology. 55: 415-443.

Nessa Publishers| www.nessapublishers.com Page 30