Fire today ManagementVolume 71 • No. 4 • 2011
Firefighter Development
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Tom Vilsack, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
Thomas L. Tidwell, Chief Monique Nelson, EMC Publishing Arts Forest Service Managing Editor
Tom Harbour, Director Mark Riffe, METI Inc., EMC Publishing Arts Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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November 2011
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Fire Management Today 2 Fire Management today Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011
On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point: Aligning Fire Dynamics and Land Management— What Does It Mean and Why Is It Important? ...... 4 Tom Harbour
Leading in the Wildland Fire Service: The First 10 Years. . . . . 6 Jim Cook and Larry Sutton
The Fire Crews at Schenck Job Corps Civilian Conservation Center ...... 10 Carly Allen
The Southwest Conservation Corps, Veterans Fire Corps Helps Vets Transition Into the Civilian Veteran’s Fire Corps program leverages the military leadership Workforce ...... 14 experience of veterans returning Amy Foss from Iraq and Afghanistan to meet pressing conservation needs on Visualizing Post-Fire Landscapes: Notes From the Field. . . . . 18 public lands. Peter Goin and Megan Berner
The Exposure Index: Developing Firefighter Safety Performance Measures...... 24 Dave Calkin, John Phipps, Tom Holmes, Jon Rieck, and Matt Thompson
Fatigue Management During Emergency Operations...... 28 Peter H. Lawrence
Long-Term Interagency Fire Safe Council Commitment to Fire-Adapted Communities: Lessons From the Bull Fire . . . . 34 The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation J. Keith Gilless, Rachel C. Smith, and Derrick Davis Management Staff has adopted a logo reflecting three central principles of wildland fire management: • Innovation: We will respect and value Short Features thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of those that challenge the status quo while Evolution in Position Qualifications...... 5 focusing on the greater good. • Execution: We will do what we say we Contributors Wanted...... 33 will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing Wyoming State Forestry Division Supports targets are essential to our credibility. Wildland Firefighters...... 38 • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Cathy Lujan Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. Success Stories Wanted...... 39 Beyond Fire Behavior and Fuels: Learning from the Past To Help Guide Us in the Future...... 40 Martin E. Alexander
Guidelines for Contributors...... 42 Firefighter and public safety Photo Contest Announcement ...... 43 is our first priority.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 3 by Tom Harbour Anchor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service, Washington, DC
Aligning Fire Dynamics and Land Management— What Does It Mean and Why Is It Important?
early a year ago, I outlined the key themes to the future Fire managers and resource managers have never Nsuccess of Fire and Aviation been positioned as well as we are today to develop a Management—building the National Cohesive Wildland Fire common understanding of the role of fire in shaping Management Strategy, continu- the patterns of vegetation on the landscape. ing implementation of doctrine and risk management, develop- ing a professional organization, dynamics and land management, ing the patterns of vegetation on the maintaining our role as world lead- and why this alignment is so vital landscape. ers in wildland fire management, to our stewardship of the National continuing with our leadership Forest System. Why Is It Important? in the Quadrennial Fire Reviews, Both land managers and fire and better aligning fire dynamics What Does It All with land management. In the past managers must deliberately plan three issues of Fire Management Mean? for realistic outcomes that are Today (FMT), I’ve covered three If we align our resource manage- based upon the potential of the of the six—the National Cohesive ment objectives with the natural landscape to achieve our resource Wildland Fire Management fire dynamics of the land, we will objectives. If we align our land Strategy and how it will ultimately create a foundation that allows us to management strategies with the help us to come together, regard- respond effectively and efficiently to dynamics of the fire regime, we less of agencies or jurisdictions, to wildfire. Our current efforts to revise stand a better chance of success in solve America’s wildfire problems our land management plans and the managing landscapes to meet the across all lands (FMT winter 2011); development of the cohesive strategy needs and priorities of the Nation. the importance of fire doctrine and provide us with the opportunity to Understanding our landscapes and risk management to safe and effec- do just that. Three decades of eco- the role of fire in shaping them is tive wildfire management, and the logical research provides us with vital; if we choose to ignore them, importance of applying those two the analytical tools and knowledge we will continue to experience the factors in everything we do, every that was unavailable at the inception catastrophic fires we’ve seen over time we do it (FMT spring 2011); of our land management planning the past decades. and, in the last edition, about what efforts in the 1980s. Fire managers it means to professionalize wildland and resource managers have never As fire professionals, it is our duty fire management (FMT summer been positioned as well as we are not only to engage in emergency 2011). This issue, I’d like to dis- today to develop a common under- management activities with the fire cuss the alignment of natural fire standing of the role of fire in shap- services but also to engage land management planners and com- munity leaders in a science-based Our profession requires us to be not only ecological dialogue. Our profession requires us not only to be excep- exceptional emergency responders, but excellent tional emergency responders, but natural resource managers as well. excellent natural resource manag- ers as well.
Fire Management Today 4 Evolution in Position Qualifications Progressive workforce develop- use the 0462 Forestry Technician ment is a cornerstone of Forest series for certain positions within Service, Fire and Aviation certain grade levels. For positions Management (FAM). In March that require leadership in both 2011, representatives from the natural resource management and National Federation of Federal emergency management, the agen- Employees–Forest Service cy will use the 0301 Administrative/ and 2003/2005 Cache Manager. Council (NFFE-FSC), Forest Managerial occupational series. Significant work must be com- Service Human Resource Use of the 0401 Natural Resource pleted before recommendations Management, and FAM drafted a Specialist series for other positions are made to OPM, and target new occupational series plan. This will continue. This series is appro- dates for the recommendation plan charts the course forward to priate for positions that require have not yet been established. meet current Office of Personnel specific formal education and tech- Management (OPM) regulations nical knowledge of land manage- Professionalism remains a core and ensure that fire management ment science and principles. value of FAM. Just as entry-level skills, experience, and education positions (such as engine, heli- remain integral parts of various Meanwhile, the agency and NFFE tack, and hotshot/hand crews) career pathways in FAM. are working to develop the long- are considered foundational for term phase of the plan: a new, many positions, formal education The plan has two phases: near unique occupational series for is necessary for others. Although term and long term. The near- Forest Service wildland firefight- OPM maintains distinct defini- term phase of the plan outlines ers. This series would be consis- tions of professional, technical, an interim strategy that provides tent with OPM classified specialist and administrative positions, FAM employees viable career ladders positions in unique occupational considers all employees engaged that meet the requirements of series—e.g., 0408 Ecologist, 1712 in the management of wildland OPM regulations. Briefly, the Training Specialist, 2101 Aviation fire to be professionals in their Forest Service will continue to Program Specialist, 2181 Pilot, positions.
A jack pine seedling 5 months after the Meridian Boundary Fire on the Mio Ranger District, Huron-Manistee National Forest. Philip W. Huber, Huron-Manistee National Forest, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 5 Leading in the Wildland Fire Service: The First 10 Years Jim Cook and Larry Sutton
eadership is one of the most essential elements for success Lin the wildland fire service, and the importance of develop- ing competent and confident leaders has been echoed in many venues. The 1995 Findings from the Human Factors Workshop (Putnam 1995), the 1998 Wildland Firefighter Safety Awareness Study (TriData 1998), and the 2004 U.S. Fire Administration Firefighter Life Safety Summit (National Fallen Firefighters Foundation and U.S. Fire Administration), along with a number of accident investigations, The L-580 Gettysburg Staff Ride in 2010. More than 90 individuals who occupy command have all identified leadership devel- and staff positions on national incident management teams participated in this event. opment as an issue that wildland fire agencies need to address. For the past 10 years, the Wildland Fire With an eye to what has been learned in Leadership Development Program the past, the wildland fire service can now (WFLDP) has done so by working meet the challenge of developing future toward its mission: to promote leaders for an increasingly complex and cultural change in the workforce and to emphasize the vital impor- high-tempo work environment. tance of leadership concepts in the wildland fire service by providing educational and leadership develop- that revolved around the topics identify alternatives, and make rec- ment opportunities. of human factors, decisionmak- ommendations. Early in 2001, that ing, and leadership. However, this task group published the “Report of Recognizing the Need increased awareness regarding the the Leadership Task Group to the for Effective Leaders need to develop our next generation Training Working Team,” which of leaders was not equally pursued articulated 14 specific recommen- From 1995 to 2000, various wild- in all sectors of the wildland fire dations for leadership development land fire agencies undertook a service. in wildland fire agencies. Later number of independent initiatives that year, the newly minted NWCG In 1999, the executive board of Leadership Committee began the the National Wildfire Coordinating process of building the WFLDP. Jim Cook is the training projects coordina- tor for the Forest Service at the National Group (NWCG) began discussions Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID, and about an interagency strategy for In pursuit of the WFLDP mission, chair of the National Wildfire Coordinating developing new leaders. The fol- the committee developed three pro- Group Leadership Subcommittee. Larry Sutton is the fire operations risk manage- lowing year, an interagency task gram components: ment officer for the Forest Service at the group was chartered to analyze National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, the existing wildland fire training • A set of core values that support ID, and chair of the L-580 leadership train- ing course steering committee. curriculum for leadership content, principle-centered leadership
Fire Management Today 6 actions in a high-risk work envi- We realized that the study of human behavior is ronment, • Formal curriculum that pro- as important as the study of fire behavior. vides leadership skills training and education at all stages of an individual’s career, and Conduit: Ideas to Fire Academy, the Institute of • Nontraditional leadership devel- Action Nuclear Powerplant Operators, and opment opportunities that allow various nationally recognized lead- individuals to strive for a higher The WFLDP began as an intensive ership development consultants. performance level as a leader research effort, with the overarch- This benchmarking and adapting of through self-directed, continu- ing vision to build a high-quality, best practices allowed the wildland ous learning. integrated leadership develop- fire service to implement proven ment process that firefighters leadership development techniques Since the program’s inception in could follow from the entry level along a relatively quick timeline. 2001, most of the 14 recommended to the senior leader level. This actions have been implemented, entailed examining best practices Following this research phase, a and the program has made a from a number of organizations large network of field practitioners noticeable impact within the wild- that operate in high-tempo work was recruited to work closely with land fire service. This initial effort environments, including the the NWCG Leadership Committee has taught us much about the U.S. Marine Corps University, the and experts from outside the wild- art and science of leader develop- Wharton Center for Leadership land fire service to build a leader- ment. With an eye to what has been and Change Management at the ship development program that is learned in the past, the wildland University of Pennsylvania, the relevant to wildland firefighters. In fire service can now meet the chal- U.S. Air Force Human Factors many cases, this meant establish- lenge of developing future leaders Research Lab, the U.S. Army ing ad hoc task groups to develop for an increasingly complex and Training and Doctrine Command, the specific products within the high-tempo work environment. the National Aeronautics and WFLDP. Local units fund all Space Administration Astronaut involvement from the field level, Development Center, the National demonstrating the strong buy-in at the field level for this program.
Guiding Principles: Distilling Success From Others The initial research experience exposed the WFLDP to a wide array of techniques and provided an opportunity to distill the higher level common denominators that contribute to the success of lead- ership development programs in various organizations. Based on those common denominators, the WFLDP established six guid- ing principles that steer decisions regarding where to invest limited program resources: The WFLDP values and principles illustrate what “right” looks like to guide the actions of leaders in the wildland fire service. • Establish a set of leadership val- ues and principles to provide a model of what is right.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 7 • Invest early in development opportunities for junior leaders. • Provide formal training that is relevant and gives firefighters an opportunity to practice and develop decisionmaking skills. • Recognize that risk and human error are an integral part of working in the wildland fire service and prepare leaders for those decisionmaking chal- lenges. • Foster a student-of-leadership attitude by providing self-direct- ed development resources. • Work with and learn from out- side organizations.
Communication: Information Is Power Discussion time at a South Canyon Staff Ride. There are multiple staff rides conducted at this site every year, including this one with the Redding Hotshot Crew, the Redmond The WFLDP has utilized the power Hotshot Crew, and the Prineville Hotshot crew in 2008. of the Web since the program’s beginning in order to reach out running about 150,000 hits and entry level to senior leader level. directly to the primary audience, 15,000 visits each month. In addi- For young firefighters coming into wildland fire field operators. The tion, the WFLDP supports a “Blog the business, the L-180 and L-280 key communication resource is the About Leadership” feature and has courses challenge individuals to Web site
• Designing and maintaining What duty do you have toward other firefighters the “Leadership Toolbox” as and toward your organization? Do you respect an online resource providing a wide variety of leadership self- your subordinates, and do you put their needs development tools for use by before your own? Do you act with integrity when individuals at their home unit; you encounter conflicting expectations?
Fire Management Today 8 • Sponsoring the Paul Gleason own? Do you act with integrity Lead by Example award that when you encounter conflicting annually recognizes leaders expectations? from the field who exemplify the WFLDP’s three leadership The wildland fire service doesn’t core values—duty, respect, and appear to be confronting fewer or integrity; less-complex problems with the • Coordinating with wildfire passage of time. Most people agree academies and training centers that it is just the opposite: the chal- around the country to provide Firefighters engage in a tactical decision lenges we face have never been high-quality L-course cadres; game using a sandtable as the delivery greater. Excellent leadership skills platform. • Providing national train-the- will be required at many different trainer events to assist all NWCG • Partnering with the NWCG levels in order to meet those chal- agencies in their efforts to use Distance Learning Unit to design lenges. We now accept as truth tactical decision games and the entry-level L-180 course as that the development of leaders is sandtable training techniques, an online platform to provide a critical function supporting the to improve simulation design access to a wider audience of effectiveness and sustainability of capability, and to support high- wildland fire personnel. any organization. As we seek to be quality local L-280 courses; world class in how we prepare our • Promoting the after-action Leading: Into the people for leadership roles, it will review concept and developing be important to emphasize to our the supporting training package Future agencies that they need to continue in cooperation with the Wildand Where do we go from here? Are to make adequate resources avail- Fire Lessons Learned Center; leader development efforts ever able to support this goal. In times • Establishing the Staff Ride as a really “done”? At some point in the of declining budgets and shifting premier educational technique last couple of decades, we realized priorities, it would be unwise to within the wildland fire service; that the study of human behavior lose sight of the need for a vibrant • Assisting with the NWCG is as important as the study of fire and effective leadership develop- refresher training project; behavior. Leadership is all about ment program. It is in times like • Assisting with the Advancing human behavior for both leaders these that good leadership is need- Fire Training for Rural and followers. The focus on lead- ed the most. Departments initiative to help ership has also become a way to secure leadership training fund- address some of the ethical issues References ing and to provide train-the- associated with wildland firefight- Putnam, T. 1995. Findings from the trainer cadres for non-Federal ing, issues that are often not Wildland Firefighters Human Factors fire agencies; addressed elsewhere. What duty do Workshop. 12–16 June 1995; Missoula, MT. Tech. Rep. 9551-2855-MTDC. • Publishing the “Leading in the you have toward other firefighters Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Wildland Fire Service” book to and toward your organization? Do Missoula Technology and Development articulate a concise and univer- you respect your subordinates, and Center. 74 p. Available at:
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 9 The Fire Crews at Schenck Job Corps Civilian Conservation Center Carly Allen
he Schenck Job Corps Civilian Conservation Center is located Unique to Schenck is the Davidson River Tin the heart of the Pisgah initial attack crew, the only advanced fire National Forest in western North Carolina. It is 1 of 28 Job Corps management training program of all Job Centers managed by the Forest Corps Centers in the country. Service in 18 States to provide education, job training, and career opportunities to more than 6,000 mission is to provide field units, petitive—each year the number economically disadvantaged young such as ranger districts, inter- of applications greatly exceeds Americans each year. The students agency hotshot crews, helicopter the number of positions available. training at Job Corps Centers have crews, and other fire organizations, Candidates must submit a profes- diverse interests, but many are with a group of individuals who are sional resume, records of meeting dedicated to some of the most vital well qualified, highly motivated, academic standards, an essay stat- work of the Forest Service—wild- and possess a strong foundation in ing their personal goals and objec- land firefighting. Like many other fire, all-risk, and land management tives, and recommendations from Job Corps Centers, Schenck has a practices. staff members at their home Job type II fire crew trained and ready Corps Centers. All applicants must for action. Unique to Schenck is the The application process for the complete their trade and education Davidson River initial attack crew, Davidson River crew is quite com- requirements from their previous the only advanced fire management training program of all Job Corps Centers in the country.
The Davidson River Initial Attack Crew The Davidson River initial attack crew is composed of a diverse group of 20 students selected from Job Corps Centers across the country. The primary motivation driving the Davidson River initial attack crew is to provide quality training and exposure to the environments of wildland fire, prescribed fire, fuels, all-risk assignments, and land man- agement to highly motivated Job Corps students who seek a career with the Forest Service. The crew’s
Carly Allen is the liaison specialist at Schenck Job Corps Civilian Conservation Davidson River crewmembers hold the west flank of the Sam Knob Prescribed Fire, Pisgah Center in Pisgah Forest, NC. National Forest, NC. Photo: Anthony Conte, Acting Crew Superintendent, 2009.
Fire Management Today 10 Job Corps Centers and must be The crew maintains a Wildland fire and all-risk train- eligible for Federal employment 15-minute dispatch time ing for the Davidson River crew before applying to the program. is broken up into fall, spring, and After the selection panel reviews during regular working summer phases and lasts 9 to 12 applications, they interview each hours and a 2-hour months. applicant and choose the 20 crew- dispatch time after members. regular duty hours and Fall Training on days off. In the fall, each student goes A High Level of through basic wildland fire train- Physical Fitness ing, physical training, and field The job of a Davidson River crew- run in 10.5 minutes. In addition, training, which includes 80 member is very demanding and crewmembers are required to pass National Wildfire Coordinating requires a lot of stamina; thus, one the arduous duty work capacity Group training hours. Following of the crew’s highest priorities is test (pack test) every year, which training, the students also work on physical fitness. All students are consists of a 3-mile (4.8-km) hike local and regional assignments. expected to be in top physical condi- with a 45-pound pack in 45 minutes tion and meet strict physical fitness or less. Most Davidson River crew- Spring Operations requirements in order to maintain members surpass all the physical In the spring, students officially a safe and productive work envi- fitness requirements. During the become members of the Davidson ronment. Before reporting for the training period, their daily physical River fire crew, a fully recognized first day of work, crewmembers are training regimen consists of 3- to Forest Service initial attack crew expected to be able to do 7 pull-ups, 5-mile (5- to 8-km) hill runs, physi- that meets all Fire and Aviation 25 push-ups in 1 minute, 45 sit-ups cal training hikes with full line gear, Management standards. From in 1 minute, and a 1.5-mile (2.4-km) weight training, and stretching.
A Davidson River crewmember conducts ignition operations on the Compartment 27 Prescribed Fire, Apalachicola National Forest, FL. Photo: Anthony Conte, Acting Crew Superintendent, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 11 January to May, the crew is avail- able nationally for wildland fire, prescribed fire, project work, and all-risk assignments, on which crewmembers gain valuable on- the-job training. When an incident occurs, the Davidson River crew will get orders to report to the incident from either the regional or local dispatch center. All crew- members are expected to be avail- able 24 hours a day while the crew is on board. The crew maintains a 15-minute dispatch time dur- ing regular working hours and a 2-hour dispatch time after regular duty hours and on days off. It is vital for each crewmember to have his or her equipment ready and be prepared for dispatch at any time.
Davidson River crew photo following the Unit 3 Prescribed Fire at Kings Bay Nuclear The Davidson River crew takes on Submarine Base, St. Marys, GA. Photo: Schenck Job Corps, 2010. all types of assignments and priori- tizes assignments to ensure that ments, and the crew fights more training needs are met, that the During the spring than 20 wildfires every operational crew is available for national wild- period. land fire or all-risk dispatches, and operational period, that they can complete prescribed the crewmembers go The majority of the crewmembers’ fire and project work for requesting on approximately 40 work is on Federal land, but that is units. Local, regional, and national assignments across not always the case. For instance, fire suppression; all-risk assign- the country. the Davidson River crew returned ments; and prescribed burns are the in the spring of 2011 from fighting first priority at all times. Project wildfires on private land in Texas. work, such as trail construction For this assignment, the crew was or maintenance, site preparation 3 prescribed burns and wildfire called up by the National Incident on prescribed burn units, facility assignments in western North Management Team and was 1 of 30 maintenance, and hazardous fuels Carolina. other Forest Service crews fighting reduction, is a lower priority, but is the Texas fires. still very important. In 2009, the Davidson River crew worked on two special projects The Davidson River crew is also During the spring operational peri- with the U.S. Department of available for all-risk assignments. od, the crewmembers go on approx- Defense. The crew was assigned In the past few years, the crew imately 40 assignments across the to two prescribed burning assign- worked on search and rescue cases country. Since 2008, crewmembers ments, one at Kings Bay Naval on national forest land, on hur- have traveled to more than a dozen Submarine Base in Georgia and ricane assignments for Hurricane States, including New Mexico, the other at Tyndall Air Force Base Gustav and Hurricane Ike, and on California, Minnesota, Florida, in Florida. Crewmembers burned one tornado assignment in Florida. Virginia, and Texas. In the past more than 2,000 acres (800 ha) for The crew works long and hard year alone, crewmembers worked each assignment. On average, the within the constraints of the wild- more than 35 prescribed burns and Davidson River Crew covers more land fire work and rest policies. In wildfire assignments in Florida, than 30,000 acres (12,000 ha) per an average year, each crewmember Virginia, and Texas, and at least year on prescribed burning assign- will work 700 hours of overtime.
Fire Management Today 12 Summer Assignments All of the students who successfully completed In June, crewmembers leave the the program have obtained full-time employment, Davidson River crew and spend the and 98 percent of these graduates are working summer training phase on tem- in forest or fire-related positions. porary duty assignments with the Federal Government, State govern- ments, or private companies. Most crewmembers gain Student Career Schenck’s Type II Training), S-190 (Introduction to Experience Program (SCEP) or Fire Crew Fire Behavior), I-100 (Introduction Student Temporary Employment to ICS), L-180 (Human Factors Program (STEP) assignments with In addition to the advanced fire on the Fireline), and IS-700 NIMS the Federal Government. Upon management training program, (National Incident Management completion of these programs, Schenck Job Corps Civilian System). The students must also crewmembers become eligible for Conservation Center also has a type pass the arduous duty pack test permanent fire positions. Since the II fire crew composed of students and various field exercises on the advanced fire management train- in various vocational trades at the mountain. ing program started in 2008, the center. At this time, Schenck Job program has trained approximately Corps has 25 type II fire crewmem- Students that are members of the 70 students. All of the students who bers. type II fire crew are eligible to go successfully completed the program out on wildfire assignments, pre- have obtained full-time employ- Students on the type II fire crew scribed burns, and all-risk assign- ment, and 98 percent of these must pass many of the same train- ments, such as assignments for graduates are working in forest or ing standards as the Davidson River Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane fire-related positions. crew, including S-130 (Firefighter Rita. Schenck’s type II crew can be expected to be called up from February to late fall on local, regional, and national assignments. Schenck’s type II fire crew provides local assistance throughout the year to the Pisgah, Uwharrie, and Croatan National Forests in North Carolina. They also assist in local search and rescue efforts with the Brevard Rescue Squad and con- duct trail maintenance with Forest Service ranger districts.
The staff and students at Scheck Job Corps are proud of their con- tributions to wildland fire man- agement. This program is one of many ways the Forest Service trains and develops the fire manag- ers and wildland fire leaders of the future. For more information on Job Corps, visit
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 13 Veterans Fire Corps Helps Vets Transition into the Civilian Workforce Amy Foss
he Veterans Fire Corps is a life by leveraging their military veterans, these programs helped collaborative initiative of the leadership experience to meet local land managers meet their TU.S. Department of Agriculture pressing conservation needs on yearly quotas for acres thinned and (USDA), the U.S. Department of public lands. From 2009 to 2011, treated. Initial corps projects were the Interior (DOI), Veterans Green the Forest Service, Rocky Mountain split between fuels mitigation, trail Jobs, and various conservation Region, awarded the Southwest maintenance, and construction. corps that engage recent-era vet- Conservation Corps, in partner- Although all the projects were suc- erans on priority hazardous fuels ship with Veterans Green Jobs, cessful, the highest priorities were projects. The program builds upon identified as fuels mitigation and the knowledge, leadership, experi- the retention of veterans on these ence, and training of military veter- The continued crews. ans, retraining them and refocusing their mission to protect our public development and In the summer of 2010, the lands from the threat of wildfire. implementation of the Southwest Conservation Corps, in The conservation corps that oper- Veterans Fire Corps partnership with San Juan Public ate Veterans Fire Corps programs vision—engaging and Lands (Forest Service and BLM) recruit, hire, and train the crews and Shawna Legarza, Columbine and provide insurance, tools, and training veterans on District fire management officer, gear. Federal agencies (from USDA meaningful projects piloted a Veterans Fire Corps pro- or DOI) provide funding, help with while training them gram that trained and prepared vet- training, and coordinate fire assign- to replace an aging erans specifically for future oppor- ments and interaction with local tunities as wildland firefighters. agency crews. workforce—will leave Veterans enrolled in the program a strong legacy for all received all the mandatory training Brief History involved. and equipment to become certified as type 2 wildland firefighters. They The Veterans Fire Corps program worked on thinning projects, pile- has been referred to as the “minor burning projects, and prescribed league hot shots” for Federal more than $900,000 to operate burns. The local fire managers, wildland firefighting. In 2009, the 13 Veterans Green Corps crews, led by Legarza, quickly realized Southwest Conservation Corps providing jobs to more than 100 the value of having this extra help partnered with Veterans Green veterans. The Bureau of Land on the forest and the potential for Jobs to launch a series of Veterans Management (BLM) followed suit the participants to become strong Green Corps programs intended in 2010 with awards of $350,000 for candidates for future positions as to help veterans (primarily those fuels mitigation work in Arizona, Federal wildland firefighters. recently returning from Iraq and Colorado, and New Mexico. Afghanistan) transition to civilian It quickly became evident that The Current Program there was a strong match between In 2011, the Forest Service allo- Amy Foss is the executive director of inter- regional initiatives with the Southwest veterans looking for post-military cated $1.5 million to expand the Conservation Corps in Durango, CO. She job opportunities and the employ- Veterans Fire Corps program to worked as a logistics coordinator and ment needs in fuels mitigation and a national demonstration proj- as program director with the Southwest Conservation Corps before moving into her wildland firefighting. In addition ect. Demonstration projects will current position. to providing training and jobs for occur in the Forest Service Rocky
Fire Management Today 14 Mountain, Southwest, and Pacific In a recent example of a win-win possesses technical skills attractive Southwest (California) regions. situation resulting from the pro- to employers, but will likely never These regions will partner with the gram, staff from the San Juan replicate the level of responsibility Southwest Conservation Corps, the Public Lands realized they had a he had as a program manager of a Student Conservation Association, great opportunity to assess poten- $200 million Afghan Army infra- and the California Conservation tial future employees after working structure program. These people Corps to accomplish priority proj- closely with the Veterans Fire Corps and other veterans can capitalize on ects and train veterans via Veterans participants on fuels projects on their military experience and use it Fire Corps programs. the forest. Managers encouraged in their civilian work setting, but the program participants to apply they must have the right guidance The Need for jobs on their crews and engines and training opportunities. and hired all qualified program The Veterans Fire Corps addresses graduates who wanted positions. two major issues currently facing The Model The San Juan Public Lands staff public land management agencies: The Veterans Fire Corps firefighter were grateful to know that they (1) the need for highly qualified and leadership development program were hiring trained, qualified squad well-trained future employees and focuses on providing incrementally members who were well adjusted to (2) the need for additional resourc- more challenging experiences for the nature of the work. es to complete priority hazardous program participants. The cur- fuels projects. riculum, made up of three 12-week Transferring Military training tiers, was carefully The program helps land manage- Experience to a Civilian designed to build upon established ment agencies meet the 2009 Job skills so no individual is put in a Presidential Executive Order that Veterans have served the country situation for which he or she is not directed agencies to assist veterans and sacrificed for others abroad; prepared. in securing employment and help- once they return stateside, they are ing with their re-entry into civilian looking for meaningful employ- The first tier focuses on introducto- life. The program also meets the ment that fits their interests and ry fuels reduction work, leadership need for Federal agencies to hire backgrounds. For veterans who training, and minimum exposure to employees with experience. are interested in careers in the fire fire suppression. The two advanced management industry, the Veterans tiers include increased levels of Fire Corps program provides that fire response, additional leadership training and opportunity. training, higher level certifications, and additional time spent on fire- Recent-era veterans have tremen- specific assignments with local fire dous and varied experience; howev- crews. The tiered model allows for er, military training and experience gradual exposure to challenging does not always translate well into situations and allows individuals to the civilian sector. Veterans need self-select in or out of circumstanc- training to help enable a successful es according to their comfort level. re-entry into civilian life, as evi- denced by the backgrounds of past One important component of participants. the model is interaction between Federal land management agency For example, as a former Army staff and crews and the Veterans medic, Sarah Castinada jumped out Fire Corps program. In the 2010 of planes into drop zones with the pilot program, the San Juan Public 82nd Airborne. Tony Lagouranis Lands Columbine District hand served in difficult conditions as crew worked directly alongside the an Army interrogator in Iraq. Lew Veterans Fire Corps participants on thinning projects and a few Tony Lagouranis, Veterans Fire Corps Sovocool was an officer with the participant, lights fuels on a prescribed U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and pile-burning assignments. This was burn. San Juan National Forest, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 15 a critical component for veteran training and development. It was equally important for the current Federal employees, as they were able to recognize the high levels of ability and competence of the veterans working next to them. These interactions were incredibly important in the hiring process of the Veterans Fire Corps participants for 2011 positions on San Juan Public Lands and helped the pilot program participants gain employ- ment on local fire squads for the upcoming fire season. This interac- tion between participants and land management agency partners will be critical to the continued success of the program.
The Participants To date, there have only been two female participants in the A Veterans Fire Corps member looks on during a prescribed burn assignment. program; however, the program San Juan National Forest, 2010. actively recruits males and females. Participants receive a small living stipend while in the program, but Veterans have served the country and sacrificed it is generally not enough to sup- for others abroad; once they return stateside, port more than one person. Thus, the most successful participants they are looking for meaningful employment that do not enter the program with any fits their interests and backgrounds. significant family or financial com- mitments. Lagouranis also addressed a more The Summary and The veterans have a strong con- serious issue shared by his crew Future nection to each other. During their members. “Most combat vets have military service, these men and problems,” he said bluntly, “and The Veterans Fire Corps program women may have served in differ- being with other vets helps.” It provides training opportunities for ent places, but they all understand is this connection that kept one reentry into civilian life while com- each other. This understanding former Marine Corps sniper in the pleting important project work on allows the crew to coalesce into an program. He had a six-figure job our public lands. The program pro- efficient working team and helps offer in the oil drilling industry but motes veteran employment, builds form a bond of trust formulated chose to join the Veterans Green future fire management leaders, by past experience. “We ‘get’ each Corps program in 2009. He spent and accomplishes priority hazard- other,” said Mike Bremer, a mem- the summer working on trails for ous fuels mitigation. ber of the Veterans Fire Corps. His $300 a week because he realized words are often echoed by other that his anxiety around post-trau- Looking forward, there are many participants. “Vets speak a common matic stress seemed to fade the lon- veterans who will be looking to language,” said Tony Lagouranis. ger he spent living with his “com- find meaningful employment in the “They are given a responsibility and rades” among trees and streams. civilian sector to find a new way they do it.” to serve our country. The Veterans
Fire Management Today 16 Meet the Veterans Green Corps Descriptions of the corps’ experi- landed a job on a fire engine for the “The majority of our project work ence as explained by past partici- upcoming season and plan on mak- was in fuels reduction/fire miti- pants best describe the impor- ing wildland firefighting my career. gation. I got really interested in tance of the program: I do owe a lot to the program and how all of the many factors work will forever be grateful for the time, together to influence the make- Ross Schumacher: Lightwheel effort, and money everyone at the up and structure of our forests mechanic and combat water Southwest Conservation Corps has and how they have changed since survival instructor in the put forth into our projects.” people have moved in and began U .S . Marine Corps, deployed settling areas that had previously twice to Iraq . Lew Sovocool: Combat Engineer been left to natural influences. I’ve been researching graduate “The Veterans Fire Corps has in the U .S . Army, deployed twice school programs and decided to helped me out in many ways. to Iraq and once to Afghanistan . work for a few years as a wild- Since being hired on the crew in “I knew from experiences during land firefighter to gain more on March 2010, I have obtained college that I wanted to pursue the ground experience. I’ll be many classes that include S-130, work in the natural resources field working on the handcrew for the S-190, S-212, S-211, S-131, after I separated from the Army, but Columbine District of the San S-133, I-700, S-290, L-180, and I didn’t know which track to fol- Juan National Forest this season. L-280. In addition to this, the low. After being involved with the The opportunities provided contacts I have made through- Veterans Green Corps/Veterans Fire through the program opened my out the wildland firefighting Corps program for the last year, I eyes to different careers within world have been outstanding. now have the training, credentials, Federal land managing agencies With the combination of all the experience, and exposure to make a and gave me the tools to success- classes, contacts, and [my tough well-informed decision about which fully apply and get hired so that I stamina and perseverance], I have career to begin transitioning to. can pursue those interests.”
Fire Corps program helps these vet- erans redefine their mission here at home, retraining them to serve our public lands, communities, and each other. As public land manage- ment agencies look to complete priority projects, it is evident that the Veterans Fire Corps program can meet a variety of needs while providing a meaningful experience for all involved. The continued development and implementation of the Veterans Fire Corps vision— engaging and training veterans on meaningful projects while training them to replace an aging work- force—will leave a strong legacy for all involved. Veteran Fire Corps members and Forest Service personnel pause for a picture on a prescribed burn assignment. San Juan National Forest, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 17 Visualizing Post-Fire Landscapes: Notes From the Field Peter Goin and Megan Berner
n June 24, 2007, in the vicinity The objective of this project was to other changes around the Angora of Seneca Pond, located near present, for the first year, a digi- Fire site. This will allow investiga- ONorth Upper Truckee Road tal database of a minimum of 24 tors to evaluate the photographs in the Angora Lakes area at Lake rephotographs at a minimum of individually or collectively as a time Tahoe, CA, unnamed persons failed 10 sites. This would provide both sequence. A selection of five sites to supervise an illegal campfire. individual photographs and a time- will be printed as digital pigment The result was a wind-driven fire- based merge of each site’s rephoto- prints, showing the first image, a storm punctuated by a rapidly mov- graphs. For the second year, from middle sequence, and an ending ing crown fire. This conflagration June 2009 to June 2010, we moved sequence. These will be printed in a destroyed 254 homes, caused $140 the photography schedule to once panorama format for visual display, million in property damage, and according to the highest standards scorched 3,100 acres (1,300 ha). of archival permanence. The fire threatened the watershed I want students to of Lake Tahoe, and the consequenc- understand that the The Value of a es remain under investigation. fine arts is not an Visual Study Description of the isolated, rarified field It is surprising how few resources are dedicated to evaluating post-fire Project by Peter Goin considered nonessential landscapes. The visual ramifica- In 2008, Research Associate Scott by the general public, tions of fire are obviously evident, Hinton and I proposed a project to but instead a vital field yet rephotographed post-fire land- present a time-based, visual study of study employing scapes are rarely presented in sci- of the Angora post-fire landscape a complex visual entific journals or within the popu- development. It was funded by the lar media. This proposal initiates a University of Nevada, Reno (UNR) language ideally suited solution; that is, to present a visual Academy for the Environment, and for interdisciplinary study of post-fire development on work on the project continues to collaboration. the Angora Lake Fire. An important this day. We selected 10 sites in the sidebar—it is extremely rare for post-fire landscape on which to dig- visual artists to join in the inves- itally photograph the same vantage a month. Starting June 2010, we tigative process of landscape man- points over a period of multiple moved the photography schedule to agement, a domain usually reserved years, providing investigators and every other month: June, August, for quantitative scientists. This the general public with an opportu- October, December, February, April, project, while modest on many lev- nity to assess post-fire change and and June. On February 12, 2011, els, initiates a process of including development. Scott Hinton completed the 39th the refined visual language of the survey of the Angora Fire, which visual arts (photography) in evalu- brought the project total to 390 ating landscape change. The under- photographs. lying premise of this secondary Peter Goin is a foundation professor of art advantage is that art does, indeed, at the University of Nevada, Reno. Megan The team has been compiling addi- matter. I know from my work Berner is an artist, writer, and educator. tional folders of images that are conducting the project, Stopping She spent a year working for the Nevada Time: A Rephotographic Survey of Conservation Corps combining photog- not of the specific sites, but detail raphy and conservation efforts in Lake plants, construction, water, and Lake Tahoe (1992 University of New Tahoe.
Fire Management Today 18 Mexico Press) that scientists are in Documenting this evolution should spring to capture seasonal activity, need of a visual baseline for future provide a dramatic visual analysis and less frequently in winter. All analysis. I still receive multiple useful beyond the structure of the photographs were taken in color requests for the use of historical collaboration. The visual database with advanced digital technology, and contemporary comparative will be made available for reputable and each site was rephotographed views. Our collective point is that researchers, any other governmen- from its own, exact vantage point. visual analysis of post-fire land- tal entity, and the media and gen- During one phase of the project, scapes is sorely needed, and there eral public. An exhibit of panels of two advanced photography stu- are currently no published, dedi- the photographs will be prepared. dents from UNR, Richie Bednarski cated, skilled, professional visual and Kathy Gordon, were employed comparative views of post-fire rede- I supervised the site selection and to assist with the field photogra- velopment in the Tahoe Basin. the digital rephotography. Research phy and final project assembly. Associate Scott Hinton supervised This was a great opportunity for The hypothesis is visually simple. the fieldwork, and Megan Berner them to gain experience in a pro- The Angora Lake Fire landscape served as a team leader (her field- fessional environment. During is currently undergoing consider- notes follow this section). Sites subsequent summers, students able change from decisive rede- were rephotographed more fre- from the Research Experience for velopment to passive regrowth. quently in summer, early fall, and Undergraduates program (funded
A
B
Site of the Angora fire viewed from the Angora Ridge fire lookout on (A) September 5, 2008, and (B) June 24, 2009. Note the rapid redevelopment in the valley, plus spring green-up in the valley meadows and understory vegetation creeping up the hillsides beneath the burned forest. Photographs by Richie Bednarski and Kathy Gordon.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 19 in part by the National Science While the images appear to be straightforward, Foundation) participated in Angora Fire rephotography as members of they reveal a lot not only about the post- our fieldwork team. fire landscape but also about history, natural phenomena, and culture. This type of project is a corner- stone of my teaching and research. I commonly work with disciplines study. As an artist, opportunities took place is fairly developed, mixed from history to geography to urban to work on projects like these are with neighborhoods, open space, studies to landscape architecture. rare because most scientific-based and recreational land. The repho- I want students to understand that research projects don’t include tographic sites were chosen stra- the Fine Arts is not an isolated, rar- visual artists in the process. tegically to show different views of ified field considered nonessential Participating in this project allowed the area—some focusing more on by the general public, but instead me to use my photography and close-up views of redevelopment, a vital field of study employing a visual expertise and to engage some focusing on areas of tree and complex visual language ideally with it in a different way than I other flora regrowth, and others suited for interdisciplinary collabo- previously had. It also illuminated focusing on the combination of ration. The benefits to the greater the significance of the visual arts the two. It was interesting to see northern Nevada community, within the scope of interdisciplin- how in one spot, a large number of including Lake Tahoe, are rooted ary collaboration, research, and homes had been destroyed, while in in historical documentation and beyond—something that is often some areas only one house among public education. Collectively, the not considered or is easily dis- many was no longer there. The pat- community should see what is hap- missed. This visual research has terns of development and fire both pening in post-fire development, the potential to open new doors for have an impact on this landscape, and the results of this study will future collaborations between art- and led me to think about the way be available for the media, via pub- ists and scientists—ones that can humans had developed, controlled, lished articles, and through dedi- lead to beautiful discoveries and and interacted with the landscape cated Web-based sites. The visual ways to present information to the up until now. Over the course baseline offers an opportunity for general public in a more universal of the year, I was able to observe future rephotography, providing way. changes reflecting how humans the groundwork for greater analysis continue to interact with the land- and more significant funding. As an artist, I am always looking at scape. things and thinking about how to Notes From the Field present them to others so they can During the summer, most of the by Megan Berner see them from an artist’s perspec- rephotographic sites for this proj- ect were relatively easy to access. Starting in the summer of 2010, tive. This may not seem important The roads were open and clear I had an opportunity to work in a project that appears to be of snow, paths were visible, and in a unique position as visual straightforward and visually simple: landmarks—such as rocks and research associate for the Nevada to present the change happening in stumps—were easy to locate to Conservation Corps (an Americorps a post-fire landscape through pho- aid in positioning the camera in program) and the Great Basin tography. Surprisingly, some of the relation to the landscape. Just 2 Institute. The position was created visual subtleties became the most years after the fire, some major to allow a trained artist to teach interesting parts of the project. changes had already taken place photography classes and work in in the area. Most obvious was the the field on special projects in the In June 2009, 2 years after the rebuilding that was happening in UNR photography department. Angora Fire in South Lake Tahoe, I first visited the 10 rephotographic the neighborhoods damaged by the fire. These areas had a more rapid One of the projects I spent my survey sites with a research group pace of change than the areas that time working on over the course of from UNR. Initially, I was struck were further from the immediate my year with Americorps was the with the seeming randomness of vicinity of human development. Angora Lake Fire landscape visual the fire. The area where the fire
Fire Management Today 20 In fact, over the course of the year A that I was photographing the sites, one of the views became completely obstructed by a house that was rebuilt. Although, at that point, the site was no longer useful as a tool for tracking change, it was 1 of the 10 sites that changed at a very dra- matic pace. Many of the other sites had much subtler rates of change that had more to do with natural processes unrelated to human intervention. The subtle changes for me were perhaps the most strik- ing.
Some sites would be virtually no different from month to month B except for a shift in light depending on time of day and weather. Some months, noticeable changes would have taken place. For example, a tree may have toppled over or lost a limb or, in the more developed areas, houses would spring up sud- denly and portable toilets would migrate. In summer, wildflowers in an empty lot planted for erosion control would be so tall they would be visible in the photograph, while in winter, snow blanketed every- thing and the tree line remained relatively unchanged. C The photographing experience changed every month. When I started in the summer, I spent more time in the car getting to each site and the short walk to Seneca Pond was easy to navigate. In the summer, comparing previous views and setting up the camera based on meticulous instructions from those who had previously documented the sites was relatively easy: Find this mark on the road, line up the left tripod leg with this rock, and lens height should be 67 inches from the ground. Once in a Some photograph points were slow to change, but others, like this one taken at Lookout while, landmarks would move and Point Circle, changed drastically from year to year. Seasonal differences in vegetation are all of these changes were noted, evident in the backgrounds of these photographs, but human development overwhelms the site. Photograph A by Richie Bednarski and Kathy Gordon September 5, 2008; taken in as part of the experience, Photograph B by Richie Bednarski and Kathy Gordon June 24, 2009; Photograph C by Scott Hinton, February 16, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 21 but the days were also shorter and A time and light were more of an issue. Snow has the ability to make everything look more uniform; on one visit, I actually got off track and wandered around for an extra half-hour looking for the outlet to where I had parked my car. More than once, I saved the hike up Angora Ridge for last and barely made it back down before sundown. Some days I would rotate the order that I rephotographed, resulting in completely different light from the previous month’s photograph.
The road up to Angora Ridge remained closed through May. I B probably spent most of my time during that year of rephotograph- ing hiking up and down that ridge. The rephotographic site from the fire lookout on the ridge was one of my favorite spots. It is a sweep- ing view of the valley below, look- ing down toward Seneca Pond. The rephotograph consisted of two panels that are stitched together in a panorama (the first photographs presented in this article). Upon hik- ing to the top of the ridge, I would spend some time just sitting and observing the skies and the light. In the winter, storms would some- Sometimes the most striking difference between rephotographs is the lighting. Here, times form at the southwest end on Mt. Diablo Circle, the low autumn light in Photograph A, taken on September 5, of the valley, moving northeast. 2008, contrasts with the bright light of summer in Photograph B, taken June 24, 2009. Sometimes the wind would whip Photographs by Richie Bednarski and Kathy Gordon. through the trees and blow cumu- lus clouds across the sky. Some though often they are invisible in for positioning were also obscured, days, it was completely still and the photographs. and new strategies had to be found clear save for a jet contrail evapo- for framing the rephotographs. rating in the atmosphere. As spring When the winter came, everything came and summer approached, the changed. With the first big snow Everything slowed down in the light lingered longer. Snow started came road closures and more dif- winter. It took longer to get to the to melt and underbrush began to ficult access to the more remote sites, and change happened at a grow. sites. The rephotographic site on much slower pace. But, because I Angora Ridge Road that had once had to spend more time at each site One of the most interesting arti- been an easy, 20-minute drive setting up, I became more obser- facts from my year in the field was round trip became a hike with vant of what was going on around the notebook that was passed on snowshoes that took a little less me. Not only was planning research to me when I started photograph- than 2 hours. Many landmarks used trips around weather essential,
Fire Management Today 22 ing the fire sites. It contained the A notes and instructions for framing the rephotographs, positioning the camera, and finding the landmarks used. Some of the landmarks were stumps or rocks; other times it was a marker that had been placed by construction workers or the Forest Service, such as a fire hydrant, a plastic fence, or a metal plant hang- er that was left charred by the fire. Some of these landmarks remained in place; others were moved or removed, and the snow covered almost all of them in the winter, making them useless as tools for locating. The notes changed as we found new landmarks. Personal B observations were interspersed in various scribbled notes among more fact-based information. And then, there were different printed versions of photographs from each site to aid in accurately reframing the image. As changes took place in the landscape each month, we added new layers to the printed photographs—perhaps a circle around a tree with a note that it had fallen, an arrow pointing out that a post was no longer in place for positioning purposes, or a note that a new house was now in the background, changing the points At the end of the first warm season following the Angora Fire (Photograph A), to pay attention to when refram- homeowners were well on their way to rebuilding their homes, as shown in this view ing. The notes tell a story about of Elk Point Drive and Lookout Point Circle from September 5, 2008. Early in the next the experience of being in the field, summer on June 24, 2009 (Photograph B), homes neared completion, dead trees were removed, and home site preparation continued. Photographs by Richie Bednarski and another layer of the time spent Kathy Gordon. observing and photographing. That’s when the subtle differences not only about the post-fire land- For me, some of the most inter- in light and sky, color and mood scape, but about history, natural esting discoveries came while really appeared. To me, that is one phenomena, and culture. The visual editing the rephotographs on the of the most beautiful side effects of has the ability to convey informa- computer. While being in the field this project. The different rates of tion in an immediate, visceral way. offered an incredibly unique experi- change happening in each image While these photographs serve a ence, the impact of that experience create an intense layering of com- scientific purpose, I imagine that grew from being able to look at the plexity. While the images appear to they can and will be viewed in multiple rephotographs together. be straightforward, they reveal a lot many different contexts.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 23 The Exposure Index: Developing Firefighter Safety Performance Measures Dave Calkin, John Phipps, Tom Holmes, Jon Rieck, and Matt Thompson
cornerstone of effective insti- dangerous endeavor and that the the ratio of CFP to TPC, as shown tutional learning and account- more time firefighters are exposed below. A ability is the development, to the inherent danger of the fire- CFP tracking, and analysis of informa- line, the higher the likelihood of EI = tive performance measures. In a an injury or fatality. The research TPC previous issue of Fire Management underway is part of a broader body Today (“A New Look at Risk of work undertaken by the National EI is an integrated measure of Management,” Winter 2011), a Fire Decision Support Center fire both the relative productivity of series of articles highlighted the economics team to inform deci- resources in building fireline and importance of organizational sionmaking and ideally to improve the relative effectiveness of fireline safety and risk management and wildfire risk management. in containing the fire. For instance, the challenges of balancing safety, fireline may be burned over or the efficiency, and effectiveness in the built contingency line may not wildfire management environment. “Reduced firefighter intersect with a final fire perimeter. Assessing risks to firefighter safety exposure to Thus, resources could work at full can be difficult, especially in the productive capacity yet have an complex, uncertain, and dynamic unnecessary risk EI less than 1.0. Alternatively, if environment of active incident during fire incidents a wildfire is allowed to burn itself management. Programmatic evalu- continues to guide fire out on a portion of the fireline, the ation of firefighter safety is like- management decisions portion of the contained perimeter wise difficult. Additional concerns that did not have built fireline will regarding efficiency and escalating and anchors our still contribute to EI, and thus EI wildfire management costs pose actions.” could potentially exceed 1.0. challenges for the Forest Service. - Jim Hubbard, March 30, 2011 How the Exposure In this report, we briefly review Index Works ongoing work to establish a per- formance measure that directly What Is the Exposure We obtained data to estimate relates to firefighter safety, effi- Index? exposure levels for individual fires by identifying daily levels of all ciency, and effectiveness. The mea- Exposure Index (EI) is a quantita- ground-based resources identi- sure is termed “Exposure Index,” tive measure comparing the con- fied in incident status (ICS-209) recognizing that firefighting is a tained fire perimeter (CFP) to the reports for fiscal years (FYs) 2003 total productive capacity (TPC) of to 2010, which describe the inci- Dave Calkin and Matt Thompson are the assigned firefighting resources. dent location, weather, projected research foresters at the Forest Service, CFP is equal to the overall length Rocky Mountain Research Station in spread, firefighting resources, and of the final fire perimeter, while Missoula, MT. John Phipps is associate dep- other critical incident information. uty chief, Forest Service, State and Private TPC represents the cumulative Many of the fire events were miss- Forestry in Washington, DC. Tom Holmes capacity of assigned resources for ing daily entries, and we excluded a is a research forester at the Forest Service, the duration of the fire event calcu- Southern Research Station in Research number of fire events because too lated as the sum of total daily pro- Triangle Park, NC. Jon Rieck is a biologi- many dates were missing. However, cal scientist with the Forest Service, Rocky ductive capacity. EI is calculated as Mountain Research Station, in Missoula, if there appeared to be sufficient MT.
Fire Management Today 24 information with a small number Exposure Index Trends, cent), and a median value of 0.21 of missing days, we interpolated 2005 to 2010 (21 percent). We note that mean daily resource use based on use and median values are higher than information from neighboring Figure 1 provides average EI by annual averages due to lower EI days. Suppression resources likely fiscal year. The annual EI is calcu- values for large fires, which carry conducting mop-up operations and lated as the sum of CFP for all fires more weight in the annual average fireline rehabilitation assigned after divided by the sum of TPC on all computations due to larger CFP the event was declared 100 per- fires for the identified year. EI was and TCP values. A total of 54 fires cent contained were not counted highest in FY 2005 (approximately (11 percent of fires in our sample) towards TPC. In total, we identified 18 percent) and then trended had EI values greater than 1.0. 483 Forest Service large wildfires downward to a low point in FY (fires larger than 300 acres [120 2009, at 6 percent, with a modest Related Studies and ha]) with data quality suitable for recovery in FY 2010. Total EI over Future Work calculating EI. the 8-year period was computed to be 10.6 percent and indicates that In 2010, we conducted a research To compute resource produc- the total productive capacity of study to estimate daily productivity tive capacity, we used production ground-based firefighting resources for individual firefighting resources rates provided by George Broyles was roughly 10 times the amount using ICS-209 data for 46 fires of the San Dimas Technology of fireline constructed along the that burned during FY 2008. In Development Center. Production final fire perimeter. particular, we estimated the param- rates vary by fuel model. To iden- eters of a well-known economic tify the dominant fuel type (brush, Figure 2 presents EI for indi- production function (known as the grass, timber), we cross-walked vidual fires, plotted against final Cobb-Douglas production func- ICS-209 reports with the fuel model fire perimeter size (in chains). This tion), and then used the parameter recorded within the National Fire figure demonstrates that large fire estimates to compute the produc- Occurrence Database. events are typically characterized tivity of ground-based firefighting by relatively low EI values, whereas resources. Although these estimates Final fire perimeters were not avail- EI values on smaller fire events differ from the EI estimates in that able for all fires within the sample, appear to be highly variable. Across they allocate overall productivity so we estimated final perimeter all fires and across all years, EI for to specific resources, the results length statistically. Fire perimeters individual fires had a minimum are generally consistent with the are not smooth and, in many cases, value of 0.02 (2 percent), a maxi- EI analysis. In particular, resource are quite rough or convoluted. mum value of 14.77 (1,477 per- productivity estimates from the In a related study, we developed a cent), a mean value of 0.49 (49 per- Cobb-Douglas model suggest that statistical regression model that links final fire perimeter to final fire area, and the parameters of the model provide estimates of the frac- tal dimension, or roughness, of fire perimeters. For the EI study report- ed here, we ran this model using 461 large Federal fires between the years 2005 and 2009. Because we had data on final fire area for all fire events, we were able to use the parameter estimates from the regression model to estimate final fire perimeters (CFP) for the 483 wildfires in this dataset.
Figure 1—Average exposure index (EI) by fiscal year.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 25 the productivity of suppression resources ranged from 8 percent (engines) to 51 percent (helicop- ters) of the San Dimas produc- tion estimates (fig. 3). Handcrew productivity in the Cobb-Douglas model was about 19 percent of the San Dimas production estimates, and dozer productivity was about 13 percent of the San Dimas esti- mates. Results from this study are currently being prepared for pub- lication in a peer-reviewed journal (preliminary results are available from the authors).
Also related to these efforts, we conducted a field study in 2010 with additional data collection scheduled for 2011 to estimate daily resource productivity at the division level for large wildland fires. This study is unique because it allows us to estimate the amount of fireline constructed relative to the productive capability as well as the proportion of built fireline Figure 2—Exposure index (EI) versus fire perimeter, in chains, for individual fires in that actually engages the final fire fiscal years 2003 to 2010. Eighteen fires with EI exceeding 2.0 were removed to allow for perimeter. The analysis will include improved resolution for the majority of the data. One chain equals 66 feet or 20 meters. spatial and temporal measures of how different types of firefight- ing resources are deployed on a large wildland fire in terms of the terrain, fuels, weather, and fire progression. By matching resource assignments from the daily shift reports with the fire perimeter and developed firelines, the productivity and effectiveness of resources can be measured. Beyond measuring productivity and efficiency, geo- spatial analyses allow for enhanced evaluation of exposure of firefight- ers to fireline dangers. Figure 4 demonstrates how we estimated wildfire efficiency for the Tecolote Figure 3—Resource efficiency estimates from the Cobb-Douglas production model Fire on the Santa Fe National as compared to production rates estimated by Broyles (San Dimas Technology and Development Center). Note: all rates are for a single resource. Broyles’ estimates for crews Forest in New Mexico. and helicopters are for type II resources. In the Cobb-Douglas production model, all crew and helicopter types were aggregated. One chain equals 66 feet or 20 meters.
Fire Management Today 26 increase in the efficiency of ground- based resources will translate into a lower level of exposure of these resources to fireline hazards as they will be engaging the fire for a lesser amount of time, thus reducing annual injury and fatality rates.
An important caveat to the EI mea- sure is that production rates for aviation resources on large wild- fires are not available. Thus, our initial results leave out two impor- tant factors: (1) aviation resources can be quite productive at building fireline relative to other resources, and (2) aviation is potentially the most dangerous component of the wildfire suppression enterprise. We maintained count data on aviation resources assigned to individual fires; however, incorporation into the existing EI model is currently not feasible and will require addi- tional research.
Ensuring that firefighter exposure is justified by the values protected from suppression efforts remains a key objective for wildfire man- agement. Our expectation is that higher EI values would indicate Figure 4—Mapped fireline and perimeter for the Tecolote Fire on the Santa Fe National enhanced firefighter safety, in that Forest in New Mexico. Productive efficiency of resources in producing fireline was fewer firefighters would be exposed estimated at 17 percent. Total fireline built was approximately 2.4 times the total fire to the harms of travelling or direct perimeter, resulting in an overall efficiency rating of 6.9 percent. or indirect line building. It is rea- sonable to expect that there are dif- pression resources be deployed for The Value of ferent relationships between level point protection), or operational Understanding EI of exposure and injury and fatality constraints, such as extreme fire rates for the different categories of Although EI is a relatively simple weather or difficult terrain and firefighting resources. We recog- value to calculate, interpretation access. However, we propose that nize that fire complexity and other can be more complicated. Low EI EI is a useful aggregate measure of concerns will limit our ability to values could indicate relatively firefighting resource efficiency and increase EI significantly and that unproductive use of resources, exposure to hazard. Initial results on a case-by-case basis, low EI ineffective fireline construction, suggest that ground-based firefight- values may be entirely defensible. or both. Such results could imply ing resources currently operate at Nevertheless, in general, reducing unnecessary expenditures and have around 11 percent efficiency when unnecessary exposure should result budgetary implications for nonfire considering the theoretical produc- in higher EI and lower aggregated programs. Alternatively, a low EI tive capacity of all assigned resourc- fatalities. Future work could expand could be driven by the complexity es relative to the final contained fire this investigation into issues con- of the fire environment (e.g., values perimeter. A working hypothesis cerning aviation exposure. at risk requiring that extensive sup- driving our research is that an
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 27 Fatigue Management During Emergency Operations Peter H. Lawrence
Risks From Fatigue nyone who has been a wild- Firefighters need to recognize that fatigue does land firefighter for any period not affect your ability to make decisions; rather it Aof time has experienced the affects your ability to make good decisions. effects of fatigue first hand. From the complete lack of sleep when engaged in the often-times chaotic pilots who have missed their des- abnormal circumstances and take initial attack on a major fire to tinations because they had fallen longer to reason correctly” (EHS the seemingly never-ending night asleep. Today 2007) shifts on a campaign fire and the fitful daytime sleep that comes with The lack of proper sleep takes its Closer to home, the wildland fire it, fatigue starts to take its toll on toll on the ability to make deci- community saw four of its own firefighters the moment the alarm sions and has played a part in sev- killed and several other firefighters goes off. In the best-case scenario, eral major disasters in the United charged with criminal offenses fol- the assignment ends with no one States. The Three Mile Island lowing the 2001 Thirtymile Fire on getting injured, and normal sleep nuclear accident and the Exxon the Okanogan-Wenatchee National patterns eventually return. In the Valdez tanker accident and oil Forest in northeastern Washington. worst-case scenario, bad things spill are notable examples of situ- While a significant number of happen and people are injured or ations where fatigue experienced people have focused primarily on killed. Poor outcomes are most by several of the participants was a the decision to file criminal charges often not due to incompetence, lack root cause of the accident. Several against some of the incident leader- of training, or bad leadership skills, years ago, in an accident that had ship, more important in my mind but from a combination of factors, a major role in bringing to light is the fact that high fatigue levels many of which can be traced back the issue of fatigue in the chemi- were cited in the investigation to fatigue and the effects it has on cal and refining industries, a cloud report as playing a major role in decisionmaking abilities. This is not of hydrocarbon vapor exploded the poor decisionmaking during just a fire service issue. The news at British Petroleum’s Texas City, the events leading up to the entrap- media has been filled lately with TX, refinery, killing 15 workers ment. Even today, many firefighters stories of air traffic controllers who and injuring more than 180 oth- feel that fatigue is just another fac- have fallen asleep in the control ers. When the Chemical Safety and tor that comes with the territory of tower, tour bus drivers who crash Hazard Investigation Board released fighting wildland fires. Hopefully, after driving too many hours, or its report on the incident, they when these same firefighters read Pete Lawrence is currently an operations identified fatigue as a major factor the section of the findings in the battalion chief with the Oceanside Fire explaining why otherwise compe- report that states “the single over- Department in southern California. As a tent workers could not recognize whelming physiological factor that strike team leader and division supervisor, Lawrence has been involved in many of and mitigate the events preceding impacted upon this mishap was the significant wildland-urban interface the explosion. The effects of fatigue fatigue caused by sleep depriva- fires that have struck southern California on decisionmaking abilities were tion,” they will realize that fatigue over the past two decades. Additionally, summed up nicely when the report must be managed during all phases Lawrence has traveled extensively through- out other regions of the country as a stated “ ... it is common for a per- of the incident if personnel are to member of a Federal type II incident man- son experiencing fatigue to be more avoid repeating these same mis- agement team since 1999. He chairs the rigid in thinking, have greater dif- takes. California FIRESCOPE Communications Specialist Group. ficulty responding to changing or
Fire Management Today 28 The Effects of Fatigue Firefighters need to recognize that In an effort to quantify the effect fatigue does not affect the ability fatigue has on decisionmaking One of the worst things about to make decisions; rather, it affects ability, several researchers have fatigue for firefighters is the higher the ability to make good decisions. performed studies on fatigued possibility of poor decisionmaking In the Missoula Technology and individuals and how fatigue affects that comes from being fatigued. Development Center’s (MTDC) their cognitive abilities and reac- When the National Institutes for Fatigue Awareness program, the tion times. The U.S. Air Force Occupational Safety and Health list of the effects of fatigue on deci- developed a testing method com- (NIOSH) published Plain Language sionmaking include spatial disori- bining known sleep length with About Shiftwork back in 1997, entation concerning the proximity future sleep amounts in order to one of their findings was “the risk and location of hazards, escape predict the ability of its aircrews to from fatigue is not simply a matter routes, and safety zones; a loss of function at a certain point in time, of falling completely asleep. After vigilance leading to an impair- such as during a bombing run or sleep loss, it is possible to have very ment of self-preservation behavior landing after a long mission. This brief periods of sleep that last only and reduced situational awareness; testing method was applied to the a few seconds. Most people may and errors in workload monitor- sleep patterns of the main play- not even realize these short sleeps ing leading to miscalculating task ers assigned to the Thirtymile Fire are happening. During those few requirements (MTDC 2008). Other before the entrapment occurred. seconds of sleep, they are not pay- reports have associated firefighter ing attention at all.” If that “brief fatigue with an inability to focus, With a cognitive performance level period of sleep” occurs while driv- reduced communications skills, of 90 percent reflecting the point ing or while listening to radio traf- degraded cognitive functions, and at which an individual should nor- fic or a briefing, that lapse can have slowed reaction times. mally be expected to cease work disastrous results.
Understanding Both Sleep and the Lack of It While everyone in the fire ser- The average adult should get chronic sleep deprivation will vice has a tremendous amount between 7 and 9 hours of sleep not erase the debt or the effects. of experience with sleep, few per night. Anything less than A Walter Reed Army Institute really understand the dynamics that is considered a “sleep debt.” of Research study showed that of sleep. There are two types of Sleep debt results in acute and individuals performing strenuous sleep: nonrapid eye movement chronic sleep deprivation. Acute duties and receiving less than 8 (NREM) and rapid eye move- sleep deprivation is defined as less hours of sleep for each of 7 days ment (REM). NREM should occur than 4 hours of sleep in a 24-hour took more than 3 consecutive full each night in four stages that get period. Chronic sleep deprivation nights of sleep to recover their progressively deeper the longer is defined as decreasing sleep time cognitive performance. that you are asleep. REM sleep by 1 hour per night for multiple follows each stage of NREM sleep nights in a row. Acute and chronic Wildland firefighters typically and is the stage when dreaming sleep deprivation can be correlated experience acute sleep depriva- occurs, emotions are processed, to each other in that studies have tion when involved with initial and memories consolidated. The shown that one week of consecutive attack activities, and they will REM stage is important for both chronic sleep deprivation is equal often suffer from chronic sleep learning and well-being. The to staying up for 24 hours straight deprivation when involved in typical person alternates between once a week (USCG 2008). multiday assignments on extend- the NREM and REM stages while ed attack incidents. Both types asleep, and both are required in Just as the accumulation of a sleep of sleep deprivation pose risks to order to get quality sleep. debt does not occur over a single firefighter’s health and decision- night, simply getting one good making capabilities. night’s rest following a period of
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 29 and begin sleeping, the results “My mind clicks on and off. I try letting one eyelid close showed that the cognitive effective- at a time while I prop the other open with my will. But ness of the assigned supervisors on the effect is too much, sleep is winning, my whole body the Thirtymile Fire was between 65 argues dully that nothing, nothing life can attain is quite percent and 78 percent at the time so desirable as sleep.” of shelter deployment (USDA Forest Service 2001, pages 80–86; U.S. Air —Charles Lindbergh writing about fatigue encountered during his 1927 transatlantic flight Force 2001). This level of “impair- ment” explains why these firefight- ers failed to put all of the various Unfortunately, many firefighters crews and personnel between day pieces of information together to are regularly exposed to these long and night shift without losing pro- determine that they were in a very periods of wakefulness in situations ductivity, once a crew is assigned dangerous situation and were mak- where they are not only driving, to a particular shift, they tend to ing poor decisions. working, and operating dangerous remain on that shift throughout equipment, but are doing so under their assignment to the incident. Another group of researchers found the added stress of doing all three For crews who work prolonged that there are similarities in the in the already dangerous environ- night shift assignments, their natu- decline in cognitive function due to ment of a wildland fire. Clearly ral sleep cycles (circadian rhythms) sleep deprivation and the decline in then, it is incumbent upon the will be turned upside down and rest cognitive function due to alcohol individual firefighter and incident periods will take place during times consumption. In their research leadership personnel to realize that that they normally would be awake. paper on “Fatigue, Alcohol, and after long periods on the line, deci- In 2008, the MTDC identified in Performance Impairment,” authors sionmaking degrades due to lack of their Fatigue Awareness training Dawson and Reed (1997) found sleep and fatigue. Armed with that program that “it takes weeks for the that there were striking similari- recognition, all three groups need body to adjust to the night shift” ties between the cognitive perfor- to gain a better understanding of (slide 19). mance of fatigued individuals and the root causes of fatigue and the the performance of individuals who measures that can be taken to miti- The National Institute for had been consuming alcohol. Their gate therm. Occupational Safety and Health research involved individuals who (NIOSH) has spent a great deal of were subjected either to set periods time studying shift work and the of sleep deprivation or consumed Night Shift Issues effect it has on fatigue and accident alcoholic beverages and then had For emergency responders, espe- rates. In their publication “Plain their blood alcohol content (BAC) cially wildland firefighters, fatigue Language About Shiftwork” (2007), measured. management is a serious issue NIOSH researchers found that when deployed on long-duration “crews assigned to night shifts will Both sets of individuals performed incidents. Due to established work- have the opportunity for approxi- the same tests designed to measure rest guidelines, Federal incidents mately 8 hours of sleep time per reaction time and cognitive per- tend to be run on 12-hour opera- day, but will only receive between formance. The researchers found tional periods with a day and night 5 and 6 consecutive hours on aver- that after long periods of sustained shift. Since it is difficult to transfer age.” Further, they have found wakefulness, cognitive performance could be compared with a measured BAC. A 17-hour period of sustained wakefulness correlated to a BAC Many firefighters are regularly exposed to these of .05 percent. After 20 hours, the long periods of wakefulness in situations where BAC equivalent rose to .08 percent, they are not only driving, working, and operating and 24 hours of wakefulness pro- duced a cognitive performance level dangerous equipment, but are doing so under equivalent to an individual with a the added stress of doing all three in the already BAC of .1 percent. dangerous environment of a wildland fire.
Fire Management Today 30 that “sleep after night work usu- 36 percent above the first night” of situational awareness. Wildland ally is shorter and less refreshing (Folkard and others 2005). While firefighters working on emergency or satisfying than sleep during the these studies mainly involved man- incidents are subjected to 12 of normal nighttime hours” and that ufacturing and service sector work- these endurance risk factors, and “day sleep also is lighter (less REM) ers, supervisors need to be aware of 7 of the 12 relate directly to sleep than night sleep.” Even if given the potential for accidents or errors or fatigue issues. Research con- enough time off between shifts to not just as the incident goes on, ducted by the U.S. Coast Guard and get adequate rest, NIOSH research- but also in the first couple of days Walter Reed Army Hospital found ers found that “workers beginning following a crew being assigned to that individuals receiving only 6 a series of night shifts generally night shift work. hours of time in bed for a 14-day sleep poorly following each of their period showed “…steady perfor- night shifts.” This lack of quality As part of its Crew Endurance mance degradation throughout the sleep for night shift personnel has Management System (CEMS) 14 days with levels comparable to implications for accident rates. program, the U.S. Coast Guard 2 days without sleep in the last 5 Researchers have found there is a has identified 15 Crew Endurance days of the study period” (Rivera “ ... higher accident rate observed Risk Factors in the maritime work 2008). Based on the NIOSH stud- with each successive night shift environment. All of these factors ies concerning the amount of sleep worked…” to where “... by the have been found to be root causes night shift workers actually receive, fourth night the risk is increased of fatigue and a concurrent lack incident personnel need to moni-
How Federal Agencies Manage Fatigue in Wildland Firefighting Larry Sutton
Wildland firefighters have long this does not translate to “8 hours Management Today, issue 71(1)), recognized the heavy burden that of sleep” it is a vast improvement fire managers and crew lead- fatigue places on their cognitive over the debilitating long shifts that ers also feel more empowered abilities, but, in the past, had few were all too common in the past. to manage fatigue. For example, options other than to tough it The policy allows firefighters to after a number of consecutive out. During a busy fire season, work longer than 16 hours in one 14-day assignments, it is now an long shifts with no days off were shift, but they must subsequently accepted practice for a crew to be the norm. meet the 2:1 work:rest ratio. provided more than 2 consecutive days off. This assists not only with After the Thirtymile Fire in 2001, Night shift operations have seen managing fatigue from sleep, but significant changes were made to a steady decline over the years, with recuperation of the other Federal policies on fatigue man- for a variety of reasons. Many aspects of body and spirit that can agement in wildland firefight- incident managers recognize the accrue from extended firefight- ing. Current policies include a challenges associated with disrup- ing campaigns. After all, fatigue 2:1 work:rest ratio and a 14-day tion of circadian rhythms and the due to sleep deprivation is not length-of-assignment limitation. logistics of providing adequate day the only recognized human factor Typically, the 2:1 work:rest ratio sleeping facilities. It is also widely that can adversely impact fire- means that if a firefighter works recognized that while fire behavior fighters’ decisionmaking abilities. 16 hours, he or she must receive may moderate at night, there are a Recent research has shed more the next 8 hours off. Although number of other hazards unique to light on the role that fitness, diet, nighttime operations. and hydration play in firefighter Larry Sutton is the national safety fatigue and performance. officer for the Forest Service, Fire and With the advent of fire manage- Aviation Management, at the National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID. ment doctrine in 2005 (see Fire
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 31 On initial attack incidents, incident commanders effects of sleep inertia when he or she wakes up that it takes too long and division supervisors should re-evaluate their to recover sufficiently to react to resource needs by 22:00 to see if resources changing conditions. already on the line can be rested or released for rollover to the day shift. Conclusion The issue of sleep deprivation and the effect it has on firefighters and tor their night shift personnel to Even if resources cannot be com- their decisionmaking abilities is ensure they are receiving adequate pletely released from their line an important topic. However, as rest. operations during initial attack aptly identified in the preface of the incidents, simply allowing person- International Association of Fire Fatigue Management nel to take controlled and coordi- Chiefs’ study on sleep deprivation Strategies and nated naps can be an effective way (Elliot and Kuehl 2007), the fire- fighting “culture” ingrains in all of Considerations to mitigate fatigue and maintain a higher level of cognitive perfor- us from the first day we show up at Once the effects of sleep loss and mance. Studies have shown that 6 a fire station that we are supposed fatigue, as well as the dynamics of hours of sleep in a day, augmented to “keep working until the job is sleep itself, are understood, super- with a nap, can partially mitigate done.” The fire service is a proud visors and incident leadership per- the lack of a full night sleep (MTDC culture that places the strongest, sonnel can take measures to miti- 2008). However, unless you control the best, the most productive, the gate them. Recognizing that fatigue the naps taken by your crews, you most experienced, and the busiest is caused by both acute and chronic may not achieve the maximum at the top. No one wants to be the sleep deprivation, mitigation mea- benefit or may even create other person to tell a line supervisor or sures need to be applied to both ini- problems. To begin with, shorter incident leader, especially one from tial attack and extended attack inci- duration naps of approximately 20 another agency, that they are tired dents. On initial attack incidents, minutes, or longer duration naps and need to rest. That is seen by incident commanders and division of approximately 90 minutes, are many firefighters, especially the supervisors should re-evaluate their best to avoid waking during the younger ones, as being weak. I have resource needs by 10 p.m. to see if deeper stages of NREM sleep. Have found this to be especially true resources already on the line can someone on each crew or strike in agencies that do not adhere to be rested or released for rollover team manage the napping times the 2:1 work-rest ratio and where to the day shift. While incident to stay within these timeframes. 24-hour shifts are the norm. But leadership often want to keep all of Additionally, if your crews are going I have even seen it among crews their resources working through- back to emergency operations after from the same agency, maybe from out the cooler and often less active their nap or may have to be awo- a different forest or district, who nighttime, unless one is working ken during their nap if conditions are working alongside each other in an area with lots of available change, limit their naptime to no on a line assignment. Dropping the resources or those resources are more than 2 hours. An individual stigma associated with admitting ordered early, sufficient quantities who naps for periods of more than one is fatigued and speaking up is of resources might not arrive the 2 hours may be so groggy from the precisely what needs to happen if next morning in time for relief. If sufficient relief does not arrive in time the next morning, crews that “Unfortunately for the fire service, our drive and desire, have received some rest or were combined with a culture that says keep working until the rolled over to day operations before job is done, can create situations where we don’t take midnight will be much more capa- care of ourselves under the pretext of helping others. ble of continuing to perform until This tendency can extend to the amount of sleep that the needed resources do arrive than we get.” will units who were awake continu- –From the preface to the IAFC’s “Effects of Sleep Deprivation on ously through the night. Firefighters and Other EMS Responders”
Fire Management Today 32 we are to ensure our personnel are References guage about shiftwork. NIOSH Report prepared to make the best decisions 97-145. Available at:
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Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 33 Long-Term Interagency Fire Safe Council Commitment to Fire-Adapted Communities: Lessons From the Bull Fire J. Keith Gilless, Rachel C. Smith, and Derrick Davis
he Kernville, CA, network of shaded fuel breaks is the result Tof years of interagency collabo- ration and the efforts of local stake- holders all working through the Kern River Valley Fire Safe Council (KRVFSC). A crew from Kern County Fire Department (KCFD) had nearly completed the 35-acre (14.2 ha) Burma Interagency Extension fuel break, extending a prior Forest Service fuel break to create one that ran, uninterrupted, along the western boundary of the community of Kernville, when the Bull Fire ignited on the afternoon A Forest Service firefighter ignites a backburn during the 2010 Bull Fire, Kern County, of July 26, 2010. Weather and CA. Photo: Casey Christie, The Bakersfield Californian. fuel conditions prompted extreme fire behavior, allowing the fire to near Kernville with no loss of life The Kernville area experiences escape early containment efforts or infrastructure. some of the highest fire danger by jumping a dozer line. By the indices in the United States each time the Bull Fire was fully con- A Fire-Prone Geography year, and, since 1990, four large wildfires have burned in the local tained on August 9, 2010, it had The community of Kernville area. Encouraging the development consumed 16,442 acres (6,654 ha) is roughly 160 miles (257 km) of fire-adapted communities is an and destroyed 14 structures. The north of Los Angeles in central important priority throughout the Governor of California, Arnold California, situated in the moun- fire community and was identi- Schwarzenegger, declared a county- tains of the State’s third largest fied as one of three national goals wide state of emergency. But, even county. According to the 2010 U.S. in the National Cohesive Wildland incomplete, the upper Kernville Census, the town of Kernville has Fire Management Strategy (USDA network of fuel breaks effectively 1,072 dwellings and a population of and DOI 2011). As found in Kern halted the advance of the Bull Fire 1,395, a number that swells during County, interagency partnership summers as a result of tourists vis- with local fire safe councils can sig- iting the picturesque south Sierra nificantly curb fire losses (Everett Keith Gilless is a professor of Forest Nevada community. Economics and Management and Dean and Fuller 2011). of the College of Natural Resources at the University of California, Berkeley. Rachel Smith recently completed her Ph.D. at the University of California, Berkeley. A Even incomplete, the upper Kernville network of fuel 2011 Presidential Management Fellow, she began work for the Forest Service in the breaks effectively halted the advance of the Bull Fire Southern Region in the summer of 2011. near Kernville with no loss of life or infrastructure. Derrick Davis is a captain in the Wildland Division of Kern County Fire Department.
Fire Management Today 34 The KRVFSC was formed in 2000, Area agencies representing county, State, and and area agencies representing county, State, and Federal interests Federal interests have been significantly involved have been significantly involved with the Kern River Valley Fire Safe Council. with the council from the start. The KCFD represents both local and State interests, as it is under During the KRVFSC’s 2009 annual the Burma Interagency Extension contract to the State of California project planning meeting, the Fuel Break. They noted that the to provide initial attack in areas of interagency group considered the project would offer direct protec- State responsibility. The Bureau of proposal of a shaded fuel break tion to 135 homes, 405 community Land Management (BLM) and the extending the Burma Segment members, and $30.9 million worth Sequoia National Forest are also across private lands. The group of at-risk property (Kern River partners significantly involved with ranked the proposed Burma Valley Fire Safe Council 2009). the KRVFSC. Extension project as its second Matching contributions pledged by most important priority for 2009. KCFD and the KRVFSC strength- Working with agency partners and That same year, KRVFSC proposed ened the grant request. KRVFSC’s area stakeholders, KRVFSC com- funding the Burma Extension grant proposal was approved and pleted a pioneering Community through a community protection funded, and in 2010, a KCFD crew Firesafe Plan in 2002. One of the grant, reasoning that the com- contracted by the Fire Safe Council areas of concern identified in the pleted shaded fuel break would began work on the fuel break (Kern plan was the town of Kernville, better protect both the community River Valley Fire Safe Council located in an area with heavy fuel of Kernville and the surrounding 2011). The establishment of the loading. It was noted in the plan wildlands from wildfires. Kernville shaded fuel break network that, aside from several areas expe- reflects an enduring commitment riencing smaller fires, the steep KRVFSC applied for grant fund- to inclusive fire risk planning. slopes adjacent to the town had ing from the National Fire Plan not burned in nearly 80 years, and through the California Fire Safe By July 2010, the majority of the a suggestion was made to create a Council to support the creation of work on the Burma Extension network of shaded fuel breaks.
With the endorsement of KRVFSC, Forest Service representatives from the Sequoia National Forest developed a plan to create shaded fuel breaks in upper Kernville. Work began on the Forest Service’s Burma Segment Hazardous Fuels Treatment Area after the environ- mental compliance process was completed in 2005. KRVFSC’s com- munity wildfire protection plan (CWPP), formally certified by KCFD and BLM in 2008, included men- tion of continued risk in the upper Kernville area. Forest Service crews completed the Burma Segment in 2009, and it was expected to be maintained by KCFD crews con- tracted with KRVFSC to execute National Fire Plan-funded projects. Kern County Fire Department fire crews conduct fuel abatement as part of the National Fire Plan-funded Kern River Valley Fire Safe Council grant project in 2010. Photo: Derrick Davis, Kern County Fire Department.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 35 project had been completed. The crew had removed all dead and down material to a width of 150 to 200 feet (46–61 m) in the Burma Extension fuel break area and pruned live trees to a height of 6 feet (1.85 m), creating 50 brush piles prepared for a proposed winter prescribed burn.
Test by Fire First reported at 2:30 p.m. on July 26, 2010, the Bull Fire spread quickly, burning through flashy fuels with heavy fuel loading. Though the cause of the fire is still under investigation, it is likely that the ignition was human-caused.
Spurred by extreme weather con- ditions, including low humidity and erratic gusting winds (USDA Forest Service 2010), the Bull Fire resisted early suppression efforts by both ground and aerial resources. It grew quickly as it moved down a steep slope into the Bull Run Creek drainage. Intense downslope wind conditions drove the fire east toward the town of Kernville and northeast toward the smaller, unincorporated community of Riverkern. Firefighters sought to halt the eastern spread of the blaze, putting in dozer lines at the top of A Kern County Fire Department helicopter attacks the 2010 Bull Fire, Kern County, CA. an adjacent ridge, but the wind- Photo: Casey Christie, The Bakersfield Californian. driven blaze jumped the dozer lines and crested the ridge. piles scheduled for prescribed burn- other structures, providing the ing during winter 2010 caught fire, defensible space firefighters needed By 4 p.m., as the eastern flank of increasing the Bull Fire’s inten- to work safely and effectively. The the fire approached the network of sity, but the brush piles had been Kernville network of shaded fuel interagency fuel breaks protecting deliberately constructed far away breaks, together with the firefight- Kernville, the already low humidity from homes and property and did ers’ direct suppression efforts and had dropped to 9 percent. As the not pose a problem for suppression aerial attack from helicopters mak- leading edge of the fire approached, forces. ing strategic water drops, stopped firefighters from KCFD, BLM, and the eastern spread of the Bull Fire the Forest Service prepared to While the Burma Interagency at the fuel break with no loss of life defend the town at the shaded fuel Extension Fuel Break was not or property. Elsewhere that after- break, building hand and dozer completed by July 26, crews work- noon, the fire burned eight homes fireline near outlying homes. Inside ing on the project had prioritized and six outbuildings, but the long- the Burma Interagency Extension clearances adjacent to homes and term, collective efforts of Federal, Fuel Break’s perimeter, 50 brush
Fire Management Today 36 State, and county agencies and Although 70,000 communities in Kern River Valley Fire Safe Council. 2011. local stakeholder groups all worked the wildland-urban interface are Kern River Valley fuel reduction projects January 2011. Available at:
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 37 Wyoming State Forestry Division Supports Wildland Firefighters Cathy Lujan
tilizing the Federal Excess Together, WSFD and FEPP ensure dous asset when fighting rural fires Personal Property (FEPP) pro- that fire departments across the where water is scarce. Ugram, Wyoming State Forestry State have the necessary equipment Division (WSFD) re-manufactures to fight fires. Once WSFD acquires With input from Wyoming com- and paints excess military trucks the vehicle through the FEPP pro- munities, Steve Stowe prepares a for firefighting use and builds fire- gram, the WSFD mechanic shop needs list for the counties state- response packages for the vehicles. provides a full-scale overhaul of the wide. From this list, equipment is WSFD also provides field service, military vehicle. “These trucks are distributed where it is most needed, training, and parts to Wyoming all ready to fight fire right out of but otherwise not affordable. counties to maintain this fleet of the door,” said FEPP Manager Steve “When a wildfire is reported, the fire suppression equipment. Stowe, WSFD. A key feature on the first firefighters on the scene are truck is a 750-gallon (2,839 L) fire- usually from volunteer fire depart- Cathy Lujan is a public information officer fighting package. This is a tremen- ments. The initial attack role those for the Wyoming State Forestry Division in Cheyenne, WY.
A newly arrived surplus truck in preparation for rebuilding. Wildland engines travel in rugged terrain in rural Wyoming, often in areas that lack a natural water supply.
A re-manufactured truck is ready for delivery.
Fire Management Today 38 fire departments play in fighting All parts of FEPP trucks Wyoming wildfires is significant,” are inspected and rebuilt as necessary. said Stowe. “The cost savings from this program reaches out to all counties and, most importantly, to small communities across the State that have limited funds.”
FEPP fire trucks help protect 3.6 million acres (1.45 million ha) of State Trust land and 25.5 million acres (10.3 million ha) of private land. The primary function of the rugged wildland fire engine is to be a first responder and for water sup- ply. During 2010, 541 fires burned The Wyoming State 67,062 acres (2,712 ha) of State Forestry Division mechanic shop is and private land in Wyoming; 98 outfitted to remodel percent of the fires were contained wildland engines. within the first burning period.
Reliable equipment such as the refurbished vehicles helps volun- teer firefighters across the State protect people and resources. The FEPP has helped extend the capa- bility of firefighters throughout Wyoming.
Success Stories Wanted! We’d like to know how your work has been going! Provide us with your success stories within the state fire program or from your individual fire department. Let us know how the State Fire Assistance (SFA), Volun- teer Fire Assistance (VFA), the Federal Excess Personal Property (FEPP) program, or the Firefighter Property (FFP) program has benefited your agency. Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length; short items of up to 200 words.
Submit articles and photographs as electronic files by email or through traditional or express mail to:
USDA Forest Service Attn: Monique Nelson, Managing Editor 1400 Independence Ave SW Yates Building 3 Central Washington DC 20250 Tel. 202-205-1547 Fax 202-205-1012 email:
If you have any questions about your submission, you can contact one of the FMT staff at the email address above or by calling 202-205-1547.
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 39 Beyond Fire Behavior and Fuels: Learning From the Past To Help Guide Us in the Future Martin E. Alexander
he third installment in the International Association of TWildland Fire’s (IAWF) Fire Behavior and Fuels Conference series was held in Spokane, WA, October 25–29, 2010, and com- memorated the 100th anniversary of the 1910 fires in the Northern Rocky Mountains. The theme of the conference was appropriately titled “Beyond Fire Behavior and Fuels: Learning From the Past to Help Guide Us in the Future.”
The 1910 fires were a precedent- setting event and have since had far-reaching implications on how the wildland fire community and society as a whole views and deals with wildland fires regionally, nationally, and internationally. According to Bramwell (2010), “the The War Eagle Mine in northern Idaho, where Ranger Edward Pulaski and his crew of 42 men rode out the “Big Blowup” of August 20–21, 1910. Photo: J.B. Halm, Forest Service. 1910 fires killed all debate over whether or not to fight fires and It seemed only fitting that on the expounded upon by Karen Cerulo, loosened Congress’ penurious fund- 100th anniversary of this historic Department Chair and professor ing of the agency responsible for event that we reflect on lessons of Sociology at Rutgers University. protecting the country’s forests.” learned from the past as we imple- She presented three cultural pat- ment innovative and contemporary terns that firefighters have been The 1910 fires were the impetus for best practices with managing wild- socialized to that may keep them the Forest Service fighting wildfires land fires in the future. from using all they can from the with every resource available. historical fire. These three patterns The conference featured a special according to Cerulo are: panel discussion specifically related to its theme. A report summarizing 1. Our culture is future oriented. Marty Alexander is an adjunct professor of wildland fire science and management in the panel discussions entitled “Can 2. Our culture rewards a type of the Department of Renewable Resources history help guide our fire man- ingenuity that is free of history. and the Alberta School of Forest Science agement future?” was produced by 3. Our culture values speed in and Management at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. the Wildland Fire Lessons Learned problem solving, which is He served as the program committee Center (Keller 2010). Some of the incompatible with history. chair for the International Association of key obstacles to leveraging knowl- Wildland Fire’s 3rd Fire Behavior and Fuels edge gleaned from history were Conference.
Fire Management Today 40 This conference encouraged par- Fuels Conference was held a year Bramwell, L. 2010. Dark days in August. ticipants to pay attention to history later in Destin, FL, in March 2007 Wildfire. 19(3): 20–24. Butler, B.W.; Cook, W., comps. 2007. and mine it for all it’s worth as we and focused on innovations in tech- The Fire Environment—Innovations, step into the future of firefighting. nology, management, and policy Management, and Policy: Conference Panel member Steve Pyne, Regents related to the wildland fire environ- Proceedings. 26–30 March 2007; Destin, FL. Proceedings RMRS-P-46CD. Fort Professor in the School of Life ment. The proceedings from both Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Sciences at Arizona State University of these conferences were published Mountain Research Station. 662 p. in Tempe, said that the art and craft by the Forest Service (Andrews CD-ROM. Keller, P., ed. 2010. Can history help guide of history is not unlike the art and and Butler 2006; Butler and Cook our fire management future? A summary craft of science. “You’ve got a dif- 2007). Contact the IAWF (
Proceedings of International Association of Wildland Fire’s 11th International Wildland Fire Safety Summit Available Now!
The International Association of Wildland Fire’s (IAWF’s) 11th installment of the International Wildland Fire Safety Summit series was held in Missoula, MT, April 4–8, 2011. The conference theme was “Promoting the Story of Wildland Fire Safety … From the Local to the Global.”
The summit proceedings contain a total of 35 written contributions resulting from the various oral and poster presentations. The CD-ROM of the proceedings also includes copies of the proceedings from all of the previous wildland fire safety summits.
Contact IAWF at
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 41 Guidelines for Contributors
Editorial Policy captions (subject and photographer’s help readability. As a general rule of name and affiliation) should be in- clear writing, use the active voice (e.g., Fire Management Today (FMT) is an cluded at the end of the manuscript. write, “Fire managers know…” and not, international quarterly magazine for Charts and graphs should be submitted “It is known…”). Provide spellouts for the wildland fire community. FMT wel- along with the electronic source files or all abbreviations. Consult recent issues comes unsolicited manuscripts from data needed to reconstruct them, any (on the World Wide Web at
Fire Management Today 42 Fire Management today
Announcing the 2011 Photo Contest!
he Fire and Aviation Management branch of the Guidelines for contributors and the mandatory USDA Forest Service began conducting photo release form can be found on the FMT Web site: Tcontests in 2000 for its quarterly publication,
Winners in each category will receive the following awards: • 1st place: One 20- by 24-inch framed print of your photograph • 2nd place: One 16- by 20-inch framed print of your photograph • 3rd place: One 11- by 14-inch framed print of your photograph • Honorable mention: One 8- by 10-inch framed print of your photograph
Volume 71 • No. 4 • 2011 43 To fax your orders: 202-512-2104 To phone your orders: 202-512-1800 or 1-866-512-1800 For subscription cost and to Order on Line: http://bookstore.gpo.gov
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