Copyright by

Harry Giibert Car!son

1959 THE SWEDISH «RIKSTEATER"î A STUDY OF THE GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF A MODERN PROVINCIAL THEATRE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

HARRY GILBERT CARLSON, A. B., M. A.

******

The Ohio State University 1958

Approved by

Adviser ~ Department of Speech ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I should lik e to extend my appreciation to the many people on both sides of the Atlantic whose advice was helpful in the assembling of materials and the writing of this dissertations the officers of the American-Scandinavian Foundation, and its counterpart, Sv^eniflÆ-Amerika Stvftelsen. especially Mrs. Adele Heilborn, director, and AArs* Kid Kihlbom, secretary; the officers and members of Riksteatern. especially Professor Gbsta Bergman, managing director, Ivan Torhall, secretary, and Arne Forsberg, organization manager; Dr. Bert 11 Nydahl, secretary of the Swedish Institute (Forum) in Stockholm; Dr. Gustaf Hillestrom, warden of the Drottningholm Theatre Museum; Miss Gunnel S jolin, secretary of the 1955 Provincial Theatre Investigation; Mr. Dan Lipschutz; Mrs. Ingrid Luterkort, director of the Norrkoping-Linkoping Municipal Theatre Acting School; Mr. Bengt John, secretary of the Goteborg Municipal Theatre; Mrs. Eva T issell, and Mr. Olof Hillberg, independent theatre producers; Dr. John E. Dietrich and Miss Ruth Erlandson of the Ohio State University; Mr. Holger Lundbergh of the Swedish-American News Exchange; and most of all to my parents and my wife, Carolyn, whose insights and words of encouragement were a constant inspiration.

11 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter P art Page

I

THE SWEDISH PROVINCIAL THEATRE AND THE 1933 INVESTIGATION 1

I . INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Description of the Study Background of the Study Scope of the Study Source Materials and Definitions of Terms Used

I I . CULTURAL AND THEATRICAL TRADITIONS IN SWEDEN .... 10

Provincial Pride The Swedish Theatre as a Cultural Institution

I I I . THE SWEDISH THEATRE IN 1933 16

Subsidized Theatres in the Big Cities The Stationary Commercial Theatre The Itinerant Subsidized Theatre The Itinerant Commercial Theatre Proposed Solutions to the Problems of the Provincial Theatre Vested Interests in the Provincial Theatre

IV. THE 1933 INVESTIGATION AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RIKSTEATERN ...... 45

Sequence of Events Minister Arthur Engberg's Dictum Reactions to Minister Engberg's Dictum Formation of the Investigating Committee Reactions to the Committee Composition The 1933 Investigation Results The Establishment of Riksteatern

i i i IV

Chapter Part Page

Election and Appointment of Central Administration Members The 1933 Investigation and the Vested Interests

11

RIKSTEATERN FRCM 1934 TO 1943 ...... 72

V, GRADUAL EXPANSION ...... 75

The Central Administration The Local Societies Production A ctivities Special A ctivities Government Subsidies

V I. MOUNTING CRITICISM...... 94

February 1935— The Harry Roeck-Hansen Incident April 1935— The Rosenbad Debate May 1935— The Mayor Fant Incident June 1935—Two Critical Letters to the Theatre Council September 1936— Criticism from the National Radio Service January 1937— Riksteatern and Olof Mo|ander*s Folkteater May 1937— Criticism at the Scandinavian Theatre Conference July 1937—Criticism fran the People's Parks* Theatre February 1938— The Karl Gerhard Incident May 1938— The Federal Theatre-Riksteatern Comparison June 1940— Per Lindberg's New Folkteater November 1940— Criticism from a Local Society April 1941—Riksteatern and the Amateur Theatre May 1941— The Bergval |~0hman Letter to the Theatre Council June 1941— STF Letter to the Theatre Council Fall 1941— The Beginning of a New Era of Crisis March 1942— Formation of the Popular Movements Investigation 15 June 1942— The Theatre Owners* (TXf ) Letter 18 June 1942— The Popular Movements Investigation Results October 1942— The Branner Committee Investigation Results V

Chapter Part Page

November 1942—Rîksteatern*s Reply to the Investigations January 1943— The Theatre Council Report on the Investigations February 1943— The Riksteatern Reply March 1943— Formation of the 1943 Investigation April 1943— The Per-Axel Branner Resignation

V I I . RIKSTEATERN AND THE FOLKTEATER IDEAL ...... 134

Repertoire Audience Finances The Central Administration

V I I I . THE 1943 INVESTIGATION ...... 152

The Investigating Committee and Its Purposes The Investigation Report Reactions to the Report

111

RIKSTEATERN FROM 1944 TO 1955 ...... 159

IX. SIGNIFICANT POSTWAR THEATRICAL DEVELOPMENTS .... 161

The Encouragement of New Provincial Theatre Forms Final Disposition of the 1943 Investigation The Postwar Theatre Boom

X. RAPID EXPANSION AND CHANGING RELATIONSHIPS ...... 168

General Developments Expansion in Depth Expansion in Breadth Changing Relationships Other Aspects of Riksteatern’ s A ctivities Summary

X I. THE 1955 INVESTIGATION AND THE FUTURE...... 196

The 1955 Investigation Riksteatern and the Future VI

Chapter Part Page

X II. RIKSTEATERN'S ACHIEVEMENTS AND SIGNIFICANCE ...... 201

Riksteatern as an Organizational Form Riksteatern and the Concept of Government- Subsidized Theatre Riksteatern and the Concept of a People's Theatre

APPENDIX I ...... 212

APPENDIX II ...... 217

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 231 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. The Growth of Local Societies of the Swedish Riksteater, 1934-44 80

2. Comparative Swedish Riksteatern Local Society Ticket Prices for 1940 and 1955 82

3. Swedish Riksteatern Membership Cards Purchased, 1934-44 ••••••••••••••.*• 85

4. Lottery Monies Allotted to the Swedish Riksteater, 1934-44 ••••••••••••••••• 92

5. Swedish Government Subsidies for each Theatre Spectator, I942-43 ••••••••••••• 156

6. Lottery Monies Allotted to the Swedish Riksteater, 1944-56 ••••••••••••• 169

7. The Swedish Riksteater Local Society and Membership Card S tatistics, 1945-56 ••••••••• 171

8» Number of Places Visited by the Swedish Riksteater Tours, 1945-46 ••••••••••«••• 177

9« Types of Population Centers in Sweden Visited by Riksteatern Tours, 1954-55 •••••••«•••• 178

10, The Swedish Riksteater "A", "8" and "C" Tour Costs, 1951-52 ...... 179

11, Riksteatern*s Operational S tatistics, 1935-56 , . , 217

12, Riksteatern*s Production Sources, 1935-44 ,,,.,, 221

13, Number of Performances per Play per Local Society, 1944-57 ...... 223

14, Local Society Performance S tatistics, 1954-55 , , , , 226

15, Community Subsidies for 1943 and 1957 ,,,,,,,, 228

v i i LIST OF AAAPS

Map Page

1. Principal Cities of Sweden ...... 215

2. Location of Riksteatern's Local Societies ...... 216

viii PART I

THE SWEDISH PROVINCIAL THEATRE

AND THE 1933 INVESTIGATION

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Historical accounts of the accomplishments of individual theatrical institutions are generally concerned with such artistic aspects as detailed examinations of productions; evaluations of prominent actors, playwrights, and directors; and analyses of changing styles in staging. The contributions made by Stanislavsky, Jouvet, and Copeau in Europe, and Harold Clurman in the United States are examples of this type of documentation which is so valuable and necessary to an understanding of the art of the theatre.

Yet there is an aspect of theatre history which is often left to the social scientist: theatre as a cultural phenomenon. In certain respects, of course, such a study might lead to results which, while they are of interest to the scientist and historian, are of l i t t l e value to those who are interested in theatre as an art form. The present study has attempted to confine the investigation to those particular social and cultural problems which directly effect the

I artîStic ones. "Extra-artistic" is a term that might be applied to problems of this nature.

Professor Francis Fergusson expertly described this area of

investigation, and in addition helped to define the scope and impor­

tance of this kind of study when he asked:

What position does the theater occupy in our society? How is the art supported? What social, economic and cultural forces govern its precarious life? Such an enquiry, even if one knew enough to carry it out completely, could hardly throw much light directly upon the art of the theater. But in the present state of our theatrical culture it is a necessary preliminary. The comedy or tragedy ^ am: tll.eajl.er.*s struggle ia n life la xieriiaps a l more signifi­ cance than the oI ays themselves Qta|ics not in original] . And if we are to do justice to the achievements as well as the frustrations of our theater artists we must try to understand the wider scene in which they cultivate their a r t.l

CLaagr i pt Lon a i l i i a M udy.

The Swedish Riksteater. or national ambulating theatre, is the

specific subject of this study. The purpose was to examine the growth

and development of this institution during the twenty-odd years from

its establishment in 1933 through the 1954-55 season. In the course of

this examination the reactions of theatre people, civic organizations,

cultural institutions, and ordinary citizens are described and dis­

cussed. in so doing, an attempt was made to explore the dynamics of

one theatre's relationship to its environment, the significance (to

borrow from Professor Fergusson) of one "theater's struggle for life ."

^Francis Fergusson, The Human Image I n Dramat ic Literature (Doubleday Anchor Original; Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1957), p. 4. MgJS.Çir.Q.UÛ.'j. M. JM study

Because of its small size and often precarious geographical location, Sweden has had to steer a course in its social, economic, and cultural development which the eminent journalist Marquis Childs has described as "making haste slowly,"^ Excess in any area must be avoided in a country where a small strike might develop into a fatal national catastrophe. But neither can Sweden afford to "wait and see," for inaction could also be fa ta l. As a result, the Swedes are often described as both conservative and radical. They are conservative in the sense that they are careful about experimenting with new institu­ tions and ideas which might disturb the delicate balance of life which

Marguis Childs has eloquently described as "the middle way," On the other hand, the Swedes are swift to adopt revolutionary ideas and

institutions once the deliaate balance has been thrown out of line

and the matter becomes one of national concern.

As a consequence of being forced to walk the tightrope of the

middle way, the people allow no event of any importance to pass

unaccompanied by debate and controversy. Without losing his sense of

perspective, the average Swede learns early to be as concerned with

cultural affairs as he is with fiscal policies or international rela­

tions, He develops a sense of being able to see the significance of

events and ideas, not only in isolation, but also in larger frames of

reference.

In the early 1930*s, many Swedes became aware of imbalance in

^Marquis W, Childs, Sweden: The Middle Way. I First Pel i can Books ed,; New York: Penquin Books, Inc,, 1948), p, x i. 4

their theatrical culture. High-quality theatre was available in the

large urban areas, but was rapidly disappearing from the provinces.

In other countries, the trend toward greater centralization in theatre, which began with the introduction of the movies, has proceeded with

v irtu a lly no opposition, except from a handful of theatre c ritic s and

scholars. Abortive projects like the American Federal Theatre have

arrived and departed without exerting any real influence on general

cultural patterns. But with the Swedish tradition of interest and

concern for all problems affecting national welfare (together with

other factors which are dealt with in greater detail In Chapter I I I ,

this could not happen. After much discussion and preparation, Sweden

embarked upon a program of state-subsidized decentralization of theatre,

and Riksteatern was created as the primary instrument in the realization

of this program,

S£an£ S2l â ta ly .

As the result of a special government investigation in 1933,

the organization Riksteatern was established with the central goal of

bringing high-quality theatre to the people in the provinces. To

accomplish this goal Riksteatern undertook to organize the provincial

people interested in theatre into local Riksteatern societies in order

to help guarantee audiences for plays to be distributed by the

Riksteatern central administration. The latter then purchased produc­

tions from the stationary state-subsidized theatres already in exist­

ence, and from the few remaining reputable commercial truring companies.

In addition, Riksteatern attempted to stimulate and encourage, through 5 the disséminât ton of informative material, a greater recognition by the general public of the cultural values inherent in the theatre arts.

With the aid of the local societies and the subsidies allotted by the government from state lo tteries, Riksteatern developed, between

1933 and 1955, into a large and successful enterprise. The road to

success, however, was not an easy one, for many people thought that

Riksteatern was unable to do a competent job. Opposition to the organi­ zation grew steadily until it influenced the formation of a new govern­ ment investigation in 1943. The results of this investigation amounted

to a vote of confidence in Riksteatern’s a b ility to provide high-

quality theatre for the provinces.

By the year 1955, it was evident that Riksteatern had contri­

buted to, and was part of, a new trend in the history of the Swedish

theatre, a trend best characterized by the term "theatre boom," and a

trend which has changed Sweden into what the French theatre c ritic

Rene Hainaux has called a "theatre paradise."^

In order to examine the details of Riksteatern’ s growth and

development, the present study is divided into three phases or parts.

Part One (Chapters I through IV), entitled "The Swedish

Provincial Theatre and the 1933 Investigation," deals with the social,

cultural, and political factors which influenced the decision to

assemble the 1933 Theatre Investigation committee and with the subse­

quent results of this investigation which led to the establishment of

Riksteatern.

^Rene Hainaux, "E d ito rial," Theatre in Sweden. Special issue of World Theatre. IV 1952 , 3. 6

Part Two (Chapters V through V I I I ) , entitled "Riksteatern from

1934 to 1943," is an account of the organization’ s development in terms of growth statistics and types and forms of criticism and opposition.

This part concludes with a discussion of the results of the 1943

Investigation.

Part Three (Chapters IX through X II) , entitled "Riksteatern from 1944 to 1955," consists of a description and analysis of

Riksteatern’ s achievements in the postwar period. The history of the organization is left at the point where a new government investigation was assembled in order to rationalize the relationships between the many provincial theatre organizations that had sprung up in the period following World War II»

This study is restricted to an account of only the firs t two decades of Riksteatern’s history. The 1955 Investigation (the results of which had not yet been published as of September 1958) w ill perhaps mark a new turning point in Swedish theatrical history, as the 1933 and 1943 Investigations had done previously. As a result, Riksteatern may be entering into a new era which is considerably different from the one during which Riksteatern was born. It must be stressed that this study is a beginning one; the only proper conclusion to it is, "to be continued." It is left to a future theatre historien to determine the ultimate significance of Riksteatern’s contributions to the

international theatre scene.

Source üAaj_gr.La.S,^( P.g.f ifi,] t.iffhs. s l leriiis Masd.

Sources of the sjudy. — This study is the result of a year’ s study (September 1956 through July 1957) of various aspects of the 7 theatre in Sweden. With the aid of a fellowship from the American-

Scandinavian Foundation and a fluent knowledge of the Swedish language,

the w riter was able to v is it Sweden where he gained access to a large body of theatrical source materials and interviewed a number of people prominent in Swedish theatrical and cultural a ffa irs .

The sources used in connection with the study fa ll into five general categories: (I) Books and newspaper and magazine articles

(in Swedish and English) which focused attention upon the theatrical

and cultural aspects of the subject of the study. Of particular value were the items which reflected attitudes and opinions held by Swedes

inside, as well as outside, the theatre. (2) Public documents. These

materials included letters, petitions, and reports filed in the

archives of the Theatre Council (Teaterradet), the agency responsible

for co-ordinating, but not controlling, the many diverse aspects of the

theatre in Sweden. Also included in this category are several o ffic ia l

government investigations and parliamentary motions involving theatrical

problems or other subjects related to the theatre. These investigations

are important because they contain historical information and statistical

data unavailable elsewhere (research studies conducted in Sweden are

complicated by the fact that the nation did not possess a subject index

periodical— such as the American Reader's Guide— until the early I950’ s).

(3) Professional and institutional publications. These included

Svenska Teal erforbundets AAedlemsblad. the journal published by the

Swedish Actors* Association; Teatern. the journal published by

Riksteatern; and Seen och Sa Iona, the journal published by the People’ s

Parks* Theatre. These journals are valuable because they contain 8 material which reveals; the o ffic ia l positions held by the Institution on matters relating to policy, (4) Institutional archive materials.

Besides the Theatre Council Archives already mentioned, the

Riksteatern archives were of special interest and value, (5) Personal

Interviews, The people contacted Included officers, representatives, and members of the municipal and royal theatres, the Swedish Institute for Cultural Exchange, Riksteatern, the Actors* Association, the commercial theatre, the Theatre Council, the 1955 Theatre Investigation, and others. These people were Instrumental In guiding the w riter to source materials and In providing him with personal Insights Into many of the Ideas and events which related to the subject under

InvestIgatIon,

Definitions of terms used, —Many of the terms used In this study are English equivalents of Swedish words. However, some of these terms have connotations In English which are not Intended In Swedish, To avoid ambiguity, therefore, the following terms are defined as they are used In the text. Additional Information may be obtained from the

Glossary, Appendix I,

1, CuIture. The term Is used In two ways: (a) An area of development which Is Influenced by education, discipline, and training

(e ,g ,, theatrical culture), (bl The refinement of taste which Is acquired by Intellectual and esthetic training (e,g ,, "The theatre as an art form has cultural value,"),

2, Folkteater. This Swedish term Is used more often than Its

English equivalent, "People's Theatre," since the latter tends to be

associated. In 1958, almost exclusively with the Ideals of communism 9

(e.g., People's Democracy, People's Republic). The term refers to a theatre which has mass appeal; that is to say that its audience cuts across many class lines. Frequently used examples of people's theatres of the past are the ancient Attic theatre and the Elizabethan theatre.

3. Decentralization of theatre. The term, applied to Sweden, refers to theatrical dispersal beyond the two or three large cities

( i . e . , Stockholm, Goteborg, and Malmo), not merely beyond the capital or largest city ( i . e . , Stockholm).

4. Tb.e. provinces. The term is not used in the s tric tly English or American sense ( i.e ., the areas outside London or New York), nor does the term "provincial" connote disparagement. The provinces in Sweden are those areas which lie outside the large c itie s ( i.e ., those citie s with more than forty- to fifty-thousand inhabitants).

5. Riksteatern (or Riksteater. the a is simply the Swedish definite a r tic le ). This term is used throughout in place of its

English equivalent, "The National Theatre."

6. The state. This term is used as it is in Europe, that is to say, to indicate the central or federal government of the nation as opposed to the local or community governments. CHAPTER I I

CULTURAL AND THEATRICAL TRADITIONS IN SWEDEN

In 1935, Sweden, tn spite of the depression, was in the midst of building its widely discussed *'socia|-weIfare democracy*” The task was a big one and the Swedes even today confess that much remains to be done. As fate as 1900, Sweden was a p o litically backward country. A

Swedish writer gives us a picture of Sweden at the turn of the century:

Poverty, overcrowded housing, starvation and disease were common. . . . In contrast to this was an upper class, which in splendor and wealth raised its e lf high over the broad masses. A middle group was composed of a propertied peasant class, petty tradesmen and an incipient class of civil servants. Each of these middle groups looked down upon the others, but all were objects of contempt for the upper class and jealousy for the working class.^

Against the poverty and class distinctions the Swedes used two powerful weapons: (I) political action for social reform and (2) aid and encouragement to projects end institutions of social, educational, and cultural significance. Other nations have taken these avenues of development without the same degree of success that Sweden has enjoyed, but the Swedes themselves readily admit that th eir nation has been extremely fortunate in several ways: (I) a wealth of natural resources

— particularly iron ore and timber; (2) abundant hydroelectric power;

^Ake Elmer, ”Vagen fran fattigdomen: Den sociala utvecklingen,” trans. H. G. Carlson, De 50 aren: Sverige 1900-1950 (Stockholm: Xhlen & Xkerlunds Boktryckeri, 1950), I, 137.

10 11

(3) freedom from war for over a century; and (41 a small (about

6,200,000 tn 1933) and nearly homogeneous population. With these and other advantages the Swedes have created a highly efficient industrial machine to enable them to realize their democratic goals,^

Respect for science and the arts has been a firm tradition in

Swedish life for several centuries. But as has been noted, under­ standing and appreciation of these aspects of life did not f i l t e r down to the broad masses until well into the twentieth century. The move­ ment to bring culture to the people began in earnest in the last half of the nineteenth century with such men as the liberal politician,

Adolf Hedin, In 1868, Hedin wrote: "To those who complain of the dangers of democracy , , , we can recommend only one means of avoiding them. This means is in fa llib le , and its name is Popular Education,"^

In a newspaper a rtic le in the fa ll of 1899, the aristocrat

Verner von Heidenstam stressed that "no reform is more necessary « , , than the task of abolishing the 'mob* as quickly as possible," He encouraged the upper classes to acknowledge the working people as human beings and to give them education and the privilege of suffrage,

"There w ill come a day," von Heidenstam postulated, "when a library of perhaps f if t y books w ill be found in every Swedish home, even in the poorest,"^

in its task of educating and cultivating the people, the

2por more information about Sweden, see General Information about. Sweden, Appendix I; and Glossary, Appendix I,

^Ragnar Lund and Harry Ohisson, Adult Education in Sweden, trans, Donald Burton (Copenhagen: J, H, Schultz A/B, 1951 ), p, 221

^Elmer, trans, H. G, Carlson, De 50 Ir e n , I, 137, 12 government has been aided immeasurably by the so-called Popular Move­ ments and Public Organizations. The Popular Movements include the

Non-conformist church, labor, temperance, feminist, sports, and co­ operative movements. The Public Organizations include The Adult Edu­ cational Association; The Educational Association of Professional

Workers; The Good Templars* Educational Association; YMCA and YWCA; The

Workers* Educational Association; and many others. The Swedish historian

Ingvar Andersson sums up the importance of these groups by saying that the development of the great organizations with their "stable and far­ sighted directives . . . coincided with the final triumph of democracy,

The a c tiv itie s , aimjd at raising educational and cultural standards, in the broadest way, are referred to by the Swedes as

"folkbiIdningsarbete."

What is meant by the Swedish term folkbiIdningsarbete? "Adult education", which refers to instruction or study arranged for and carried on by adult persons, does not adequately render the Swedish term, which conveys connotations of a somewhat different nature. In the firs t place, bi Idninq implies that the pursuit in question does not consist merely of an intellectual study, but also aims to cu ltiv a te , to form the character of those who participate. Ellen Key, a famous adult educationalist in Sweden, once propounded the paradox: "BiIdninq is what remains when you have forgotten what you have learnt y ea rn e ^ ." In the second place . . . the term folk or people*s makes it apparent to Swedish readers that this cultivating and formative work . . . is primarily designed to meet the desires and needs of the broader social groups.^

With these facts in mind it is not d iffic u lt to understand how the Swedes have become a "culture-conscious" and sophisticated people.

^Ingvar Addersson, A History of Sweden, trans. Carolyn Hannay (Stockholm: Natur och Kultur, 1956), p. 430.

^Lund and Ohisson, Adult Education, p. 222. 13

The Swedish newspapers (237 in number) are able to devote far more feature and editorial space to matters of art and culture than American papers do.

££.Q^'j|g,i a.I E rU a

Throughout the history of Sweden, "the central figure in the picture, the man upon whose relationship with his environment the nation’ s welfare depended, has always been the Swedish peasant."^ Rural problems often take precedence over urban ones, for the Swede living in the countryside is just as sensitive about his rights as the city dweller, perhaps more so. Provincial pride has bong been a factor in

Sweden’ s history. This is one reason why a statement made by the

Minister of Education and Culture, Arthur Engberg, in the act of assembling the 1933 Investigation committee became something of a manifesto. He said, " It is not only the population of the capital who hove the right to enjoy the best in theatre. The rest of the nation can with justification raise the same demand."®

This political fact has done much to aid the cause of theatrical decentralization, for while all Swedes take pride in the institutions, such as the Royal family, that have developed along national rather than regional lines, these institutions have always been careful to seek regional approve I .

^Andersson, Historv of Sweden, p. x v ii.

^Sweden, Ecklesiastikdepartementet (The Department of Education and Culture), D.e fas.ta statsunderstodda teatrarna. Statens offentliga utredningar 1934:3, 1933 §rs teaterutredninos betankande. Part I (January 29, 1934) (Stockholm: Kungl. Boktryckeriet, 1934), p. 6, This reference w ill be referred to throughout the remainder of the notes as. De fasta teatrarna. 14

It was not to |J h e towns and c itte ^ • • « that the monarchy looked for a counterpoise to aristocratic faction: even Stockholm was perhaps of less importance to its possessor than was the capital of any western monarchy. In Sweden the crown's a lly , or its tool, came more and more to be the peasantry; and from Karl Knutsson to Gustav III successive rulers turned to it for support when they ran up against a major d iffic u lty .^

,?ïï,e^i,sh JheAtrg A& A Cultural Institution

King Gustav III (1747-1792) was the fir s t great patron of

Swedish theatre arts. A nephew of Prussia's Frederick the Great,

Gustav III looked to the Continent, and particularly to France, for signs of cultural progress that could be emulated in Sweden. A great admirer of the Swedish monarch, Voltaire said of him, "Jeune et digne h é ritie r du grand nom de Gustave— Sauveur d'un peuple libre et roi d'un peuple b r a v e ,"10 and the eminent Swedish theatre historian, Gustaf

Hillestrom has assessed t^e King's significance thus:

Gustav III was the firs t Swede to realize the importance of the theatre as an instrument, not only in the service of cultural development, but also for the awakening of national consciousness. . . . Through his personal interest in the management of the two royal theatres he established, the lyrical (1773) and the dramatic (1787), and as our foremost dramatist of the age, Gustav III laid the foundation on which the Swedish theatre stands today.

One of the firs t things Gustav III accomplished uponassuming the throne was to dismiss the troupes of French players, which, until his time, had dominated the Swedish theatre scene. He established an

^Andersson, Historv of Sweden, p. x v i i i .

101 bid., p. 281. "Young and distinguished bearer of the great name of Gustav— savior of a free people and king of a brave people."

llGustaf Hillestrom, Theatre and- Ballet in Sweden, trans. Anne Bibby (Stockholm: The Swedish Institute, 1953), p. 6. 15

indigenous company with a very significant title s "The Society for the

Betterment of the Swedish L a n g u a g e. " 1 2 Gustav III thus founded a tradition which is s t i l l honored: Theatre is more than an entertain­ ment medium, it is an important educational or "folkbiIdning" aspect of Swedish culture.

The following factors influenced the decision made in 1933 to further the goal of theatrical decentralization: (I) awareness of the cultural aspirations of the masses; (2) recognition of the theatre as an integral part of cultural progress; (3) the decline of the commercial ambulating theatre; (4) demands by the provinces to have th eir rights observed, and their wishes satisfied; and another factor not yet mentioned, (5) demands by various professional theatrical organizations (e.g., actors' associations) that the chaos in the provincial theatre be brought under control.

12carl Cramer, Amatorteatern i Sverige, trans. H. G. Carlson (Malmo, Sweden: Svenska KuItu r f b r Iaget, 1952), p. 67. CHAPTER I I I

THE SWEDISH THEATRE IN 1933

The year 1933 was one of crisis for the Swedish theatre in general and for the provincial theatre in particular. The depression years had taken th eir toll everywhere in reduced box-office receipts, but in the provinces, the mounting influence and power of the movies and radio were lite r a lly driving commercial theatre producers to the w all.

Government subsidies to theatre were allotted from state

lottery revenues, but these monies were almost exclusively limited for the use of a handful of theatres in the three bigest Sweden cities:

Stockholm, Goteborg, and Hajsingborg.^ The funds allotted to these

theatres came to 1,650,000 kronor (330,000 dollars) for the year 1933,

an amount which many people fe lt was excessively high, especially during a period of depression. Economic hardships had been endured by many of the Swedish people and a number of critics believed that the

lottery monies could be used to better advantage than in the form of

aid to the theatre. The newspaper Lunds Daçbladet reminded its readers p that re lie f funds were badly needed by the unemployed.

^The combined population of these c ities was 1,200,000 as opposed to 6,200,000 for Sweden as a whole.

^Lunds Daçbladet. January I, 1933.

16 17

When the Royal Dramatic Theatre came under heavy fire in 1933 for alleged mismanagement, proposals were made to c u rta il, or even eliminate, all subsidies given to theatre.^

But if the subsidized theatres in the c ities were in financial s tra its , the situation in the commercial ambulating theatre in the provinces was truly desperate. With competition from radio and the movies ever rising, the private tour leaders were forced to make financial, as well as a rtis tic , compromises. In many cases non-union actors were hired to help keep costs down, and plays were chosen primarily for their popular appeal, rather than their a rtis tic merit.^

Subsidized Thsatnss l a I L a â L a C-ities

The theatres allotted government funds in the big c itie s were of several different organizational types: (I) the royal, theatres—

The Royal Dramatic Theatre and The Royal Opera— both in Stockholm and under the jurisdiction and protection of the Crown. Direct descendants of the institutions founded by Gustav I I I , these theatres had, and have, the responsibility of representing what Is best in the Swedish theatre; (2) the municipal theatres or stadsteaters— one each in

Gotebnrg and Hè'Isingborg; and (35 the Goteborg Lyric Theatre— performing

^Sweden, Ecklesiastikdepartementet (The Department of Education and Culture), 1943 8rjs ri.kstea_terutredninqs betankande och forslag ang§ende Riks.teaterns. Omorgani.satlon M. (September 20, 1944), Statens offentliga utredningar 1944:42 (Stockholm: Linkoln Bloms Boktryckeri AB, 1944), p. 9. This reference w ill be referred to throughout the remainder of the notes as, 1943 ars betankande.

^Vilhelm Moberg, "Fore Riksteatern," Sveii^ka. DagbJ-adet. (Stockholm), October 31, 1935. 18 both opera and operetta, with emphasis on the la tte r. In 1933, only

Goteborg had a theatre of this kind.

All of these theatres, except the Halsingborg Municipal Theatre, performed primarily in the city of their origin. Occasionally a play of unusual interest would be taken on tour. Listed below is a brief description of these theatres. The figures quoted are for the 1932-33 season, and were obtained from the firs t and second parts of the published report of the 1933 Investigation,^

The RovaI Dramat ic Theatre.— The theatre was founded as an institution by King Gustav III in 1787, After being housed in several different buildings, it was moved in 1907 into its present home. The

Dramatic Theatre was set up as a Limited Liabilaiy Company in 1907 with a board of directors consisting of five men, three of which were chosen by the Crown and two chosen by the stockholders of the company,®

In 1933 the acting ensemble was composed of th irty permanent actors and five guest artists. The number of performances given totaled 280, nearly all of which were confined to the Stockholm area.

The subsidies granted by the state came to 300,000 kronor (60,000 dollars), and the ticket receipts covered approximately one-ha|f of total costs. The regular season for The Royal Dramatic Theatre extended from September throughtMay,^

^De fasta teatrarna. passim; and Sweden, Ecklesiastikdeparte­ mentet (The Department of Education and Culture), Utredninq rorande teaterforhglIandena i rik e t. Statens offentliga utredningar 1934:21, 1933 §rs teaterutredninos betankande. Part II (June 4, 1934) (Stockholm: Kungl, Boktryckeriet, 1934), passim. This reference w ill be referred to throughout the remainder of the notes as, Utredning i rik e t.

fasta teatrarna. p, I I , ^l.bi.d, , pp, 2 0 -5 6 p.a„S,S.i.iü» 19

The Royal Opera. — The Opera was founded as an institution by

King Gustav III in 1773. After being housed in several different

buildings, it moved in 1898 into its present home. The Opera was set up as a Limited Liability Company in 1898 with a board of directors chosen in the same way as the board for the Dramatic Theatre.® While recognized as a more financially sound institution than The Royal

Dramatic Theatre, the Opera was also under fire in 1935.^

The a rtists employed by the Opera numbered nearly two hundred

people in four different categories: soloists, musicians, chorus, and

ballet company. The total number of performances given in 1933 came

to 240, nearly all presented in the Stockholm area. Government

subsidies allotted to the Opera came from two sources: the state,

900.000 kronor (180,000 dollars); and the city of Stockholm,

100.000 kronor (20,000 dollars). Ticket receipts covered less than

30 per cent of total costs. The regular season for The Royal Opera

extended from September through May,^®

The Goteborg Lyric Theatre. — The Lyric Theatre was founded in

1920 as a Limited Liability Company. The building itself was erected

in 1859.

The personnel employed by the theatre totaled fifty -n in e a rtis ts ,

and 255 performances were given— 27 devoted to opera, and 229 devoted to

operetta and musical comedy. Nearly all of these performances were

given in the Goteborg area. State subsidies amounted to 225,000 kronor

8 ‘l-bLd. , p. I I . » P• 57.

^°lb id .. pp. 57-83. 20

(45,000 dollars), and 45,000 kronor (9,000 dollars) was allotted by the city of Goteborg. Ticket receipts covered approximately 55 per cent of the total costs, and the regular season for the Lyric Theatre was from

September through May,^^

The Lorensbera Theatre.— (After the erection of a new theatre building in 1934, the teeatre's name was changed to the Goteborg

Municipal Theatre.) The Lorensberg Theatre was built in I9Id , and was constituted as a Limited Liability Company in 1918.

All together, twenty-three actors and actresses were employed by the theatre in 1933, and the number of performances given came to 202, nearly all of which were confined to the Goteborg area. In subsidies the theatre was allotted 175,000 kronor (35,000 dollars) from the Crown, and from the city of Goteborg it received 45,000 kronor (9,000 d o llars).

Ticket receipts covered approximately 45 per cent of the total costs.

The theatre season ran from September through May.^^

The Halsingborg Municioal-Regional Theatre.— The Halsingborg theatre building was b u ilt in 1877, The municipal theatre organization was established as a forening u.o.a. in 1923.

Although set up as a municipal a c tiv ity , the theatre operated more like a regional theatre or kretsteater. Out of a total of 177 performances, only eighty-eight were given in Halsingborg. The c ity of Malmo played host to seventy-five performances given by the

Ibid.. pp. 84-93.

I b id ., pp. 94-100.

l^See the Glossary, Appendix I. 21

Halsingborg theatre, and the remaining fourteen performances were presented in several small towns in the area between Halsingborg and

AAa I mb .

The artists employed by the theatre numbered twelve. Of the subsidies allotted to the theatre, 125,000 kronor (25,000 dollars) was given by the Crown, and 25,000 kronor (5,000 dollars) by the c ity of

Halsingborg. Ticket receipts covered approximately one-third of the total costs, and the regular season was from September through May.^^

The Stat ionarv Commercial Theatre

Except for revues, or cabaret-type entertainments, the stationary commercial theatre was virtually non-existent outside

Stockholm, Goteborg, and Maimb; and only in Stockholm was it of any importance. The number of private theatres in the capital have remained re latively constant at the following figures: four dramatic theatres, one lyric theatre, and four or five variety th eatres.W h ile a number of fine productions have appeared, and s t ill appear, in these theatres, the commercial theatre generally, at least in size, is a negligible factor in Swedish theatre life .

IllSL ■!±iJl£Jiajn.t. .?JJ,b.S.Îdi%ed, Theatre

in 1933, there were two itinerant organizations that were p artially subsidized by the government. It was obvious to most people, however, that these organizations were unable to cope with the many

l^Hbid. , pp. 101-6.

l^Hillestrom, Theatre and B allet, p. 70. 22

problems besetting the provincial theatre. The Skadebanan organization was too small and ineffective,^® while the People's Pafks* Theatre was operative only during the few months of the short Swedish summer.

Skadebanan.—Modeled after the German Frere Volksblihne. the

Skadebanan organization was established as an andelsforening u.p.a.^^

in 1919 with the support of various civic organizations and interested

individuals.

In 1933, Skadebanan hired five touring companies: three for the winter season and two for the summer. One of the summer companies

toured under the jurisdiction of the People's Parks' Theatre. The

artists employed averaged eight to twelve players a company. The number

of performances presented came to 324: 151 given in the winter and 173

given in the suinmer. In 1928, the yearly sum of performances amounted

to 601, Government subsidies were first allotted to the organization in

1926, and for the year 1933 the monies awarded came to 102,644 kronor

(20,529 do 11ars).

Local Skadebanan societies were organized in the early I920's

to form a supporting base for tours distributed by the parent

organization. In 1928, there were seven regional and forty-seven local

societies, but the depression drained their meager resources and by 1933,

these groups had discontinued their operations.

Ticket receipts covered about 40 per cent of the total costs."®

IGutredning i rik e t. p. 21.

l^See the Glossary, Appendix I.

l®Utrednina i rik e t. pp. 19-22. 23

The PeoDIe*s Parks* Theatre. — The outdoor summer theatres of the

People’ s Parks' Theatre are branch a c tivities (along with dance areas, refreshment centers, and picnic grounds) of the People's Parks*

Associât ion, which since 1905 has been in operation under the sponsor­ ship of the Union of Civic Organizations, or People's House (Folkets

Hus) . Organized as a means for working class people to get fresh air and sunshine, the People's Parks' Association has expanded its a c tivities to become an important summer cultural and social institution. By 1933, there were 137 parks, ninety of which were equipped with large open-air theatres (seating capacity average: 750; versus 350 for the majority of the indoor provincial theatres).

In 1933, People's Parks' Theatre hired sixteen touring ensembles: four operetta troupes, two revue or cabaret troupes, six light drama troupes, and four serious drama troupes. The number of a rtists employed varied between eight and twelve a troupe. The theatre presented 1,019 performances in the period between the end of May and the end of

August, and the Crown allotted 50,000 kronor (10,000 dollars) in sub­ sidies. Because the summer theatres had greater seating capacities than the winter theatres, it was easier for the People's Parks' Theatre to meet expenses. The summer theatre also had other sources of reve­ nue (i.e ., refreshments, entrance fees, and civic organization funds) to help cover any possible losses,In addition, the popular nature of the programs offered was calculated to attract and satisfy mass audiences.-0

19|bid.. pp. 22-26, P» 24, 24

Ills . .LLÎ..qgr^t. .QaiMSr.clal Theatre

The period of years between 1880 and 1920 was the “Golden Age” of the Swedish provincial theatre.In a sample year, as many as

th irty companies toured the provinces, but by the 1928-29 season, these companies had declined to a mere dozen." During the World War I “boom,

the number of traveling companies swelled briefly with the addition of many incompetent producers and actors, but once the boom disappeared

and the competition from radio and the movies became stronger, the

troupes thinned out rapidly and even the best quality ones were hard-

23 pressed to make ends meet. A survey conducted in 1934, revealed that

the number of performances presented in sixty-two different c itie s over

a period of four years, fe ll from 1,223 in 1929, to only 662 in 1933."^

Solutions is. Ü1S. ProbIems ill ills. Provincial Ttieatr.e.

It had been evident since the firs t decade of the twentieth century that the theatre in the provinces was having troubles, but it was not until 1933 that any real action was taken to remedy the s itu ­

ation. Following is a list of some of the petitions and resolutions

that preceded the governmental action which resulted in the creation

of the 1933 Investigation.

2lMoberg, Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), October 31, 1935.

^^Erik Wettergren, Henning Malm, and Niels Christiernsson. Den svenska teaterns tilis ta n d och b.ehov (Norrkopino. Sweden: Norrkopings Tidningars A/Bs Tryckeri, 1929), p. 14,

^^Mobero. Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), October 31, 1935.

24utrednina i jlLW ., PP • 10- II . 25

1911— The TXf (Theatre Owners’ Association) Chairman Albin

Ekbom asked for government aid to the theatre in the provinces.

1913—Member of Parliament Rickard Sandler precipitated a series of parliamentary debates by urging an awakening of more national interest in theatre art.^^

1914— A committee from the Swedish Actors' Association (Svenska

Teaterforbundet. or STF) recommended the founding of an institution which would encourage and work for s ta b ility within the provincial ^ 27 theatre.

1916— Another Actors’ Association committee urged the estab­

lishment of a concession system. A special agency was to administer this system by being empowered to grant or deny permission to tour to commercial theatre producers. This system would be a method of pro­ tecting those actors who were often left stranded and unpaid in the provinces by unscrupulous ”fIy-by-night" producers.

1919— A petition was drawn up by TXf , STF, and SFF (Swedish

W riters’ Association) which demanded the creation of a concession 90 system."

1922— STF called for a special parliamentary investigation of the theatre in the provinces.

25Wettergren, Pea svenska teaterns till.stan.d. p. 3.

^^Svenska Teaterforbundet (Swedish Actors’ Association), Letter to Ecklesiastikdepartementet (The Department of Education and Culture), December, 1927 (Stockholm, Ecklesiastikdepartementet Archives, 1927).

2%ettergren, Den svenska teaterns tillatlnjl. p. 3.

2G|bid.. p. 4. Ibid. 26

1926—-Motions were made, and debates took place in Parliament

concerning the need for aid to the provincial theatre and for the estab-

Iishment of a special Theatre Counci I or Advisory Board (Teaterradet) to administer to the needs of all theatre in the country, and to operate a concession system,

1927— An STF committee report suggested the creation of kretsteaters or regiotial theatres, to help solve the problems of the provincial theatre. These regional theatres would be set up on a trial basis in three cities: Norrkbping, Eskilstuna, and Gavie (total population approximately 180,000) to test the valid ity of this type of theatrical organization form.^^

1928— A theatre conference of the state- and municipally- supported theatres urged more awareness on the part of individual communities of their financial obligations to theatre.

1929—A private investigation urged immediate aid to provincial theatre. Regional theatres, or kretsteaters, were viewed as possible solutions. Setting up a regional theatre in the city of Norrkbping was suggested as an experimental project.

1929— People's Parks' Director Gottfrid Palm requested 200,000 kronor (40,000 dollars) from the government to operate a winter complement to the People's Parks' summer program. Palm fe lt that a sumi

-^Svenska Teaterforbundet, Letter to Ecklesiastikdepartementet, December, 1927.

X rJLk£l» p . 61.

34wettergren, Den, svenska teaterns t i I Lstlad. p. 4, 27 of 100,000 kronor (20,000 dollars) was necessary to help support five winter touring companies: three dramatic troupes, and two lyric com- panies.^

1932— independent producer and director Per Lindberg suggested the creation of a "People's Theatre" (Folkteater)• With central head­ quarters in Stockholm it would send out special tours to all parts of

Sweden

1933—The Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm was foundering in a financial c ris is . Motions were made by several members of Parliament which recommended drastic revisions in the allotting of lottery

■^7 monies#"

All of the above suggestions, petitions, and resolutions were either turned down or ignored, but they performed a valuable service by focusing continued attention upon national theatre problems.

January 20, 1933—At this point, the Minister of Education and

Cultural A ffairs, Arthur Engberg, used these misgivings ( i . e . , the financial operations of the Royal Dramatic Theatre and the dearth of quality theatre in the provinces)38 as reasons for assembling a committee to undertake a complete investigation of the Swedish theatre, with particular emphasis upon the provincial theatre (henceforth referred to

^^Gottfrid Palm, "Riksteatern reformer." Seen och Salcno. August, 1941, p. 1.

^^Herbert Grevenius, "Den store folkteatern." En bok om Per Lindberg (Stockholm: Wahlstrom & Widstrand, 1944), pp. 135-38,

^^19-43 betankande. p. 9,

fasta teatrarna. pp. 5-8. 28

in this study as the 1933 Investigation)» In his directive to the

committee, Engberg made the statement which became a manifesto:

It is not only the population of the capital who have a right to enjoy the best in theatre. The rest of the nation can with justificatio n raise the same demand.

The general agreement that something must be done for theatre

in the provinces did not prevent dispute over the best remedy for the

situation. Should a new theatre be created or should the few commercial

itinerant troupes s t ill touring be subsidized? If subsidies were granted, who would administer them?

One of the most ambitious schemes proposed was actually more of a philosophy of theatre than a practical plan. It became one of the most popular ideals of the time (in fact, it is s t ill popular) and each would-be architect of the new provincial theatre set about to demon­ strate that his particular system was the only one that filled the definition of a true People’ s Theatre.

People’s Theatre or Folkteater.--In the twenties and thirties, theatres around the world attempted to follow the Soviet Union’ s lead and make theatre more palatable to the "masses.” In America there was the Workers’ Theatre League and the Labor Stage.In Sweden, director- producer Per Lindberg echoed the temper of the times when he spoke about the need for new theatres: ”We Iive in the age of the masses, and we need massive theatre buildings.”^! Education-Culture Minister Arthur

391 bid., trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 6.

^^Mordecai Gorelik, New Theatres for Old (New York: Samuel French, 1949), pp. 303, 305.

^^Utrednlng i rik e t. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 128. 29

Engberg followed Lîndberg*s lead by insisting that ’’theatre art must consistently draw the power to regenerate from contact with a mass audience.Of all the people in Sweden who advocated a folkteater, no two men were more frequently identified with its ideals than Engberg and Lindberg.

The goals to be achieved in a folkteater included: The best theatre, for the largest number of people, at the lowest possible prices. For "people’s theatre" precedents, the Swedes looked to the past. Norrkbping newspaper editor Viggo Loos said that the theatre in ancient Greece "was a theatre for the people, it dealt with the people’ s gods and deroes. The Greeks had completely realized a program for a

folkteater which we discuss today. "^3 Loos pointed, too, to the theatre

in the Middle Ages— both in the church and in the market p|ace-~as a 44 true theatre for the people.

Per Lindberg wrote:

In the classical, medieval and renaissance theatre there was always a tangible, spiritual communion between the actor and the public. Furthermore, it was a pure communion of place— the stage and audience were not separate, they constituted a communal place, a theatrical place for the common people.^5

42pe fasta teatrarna. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 7.

^^Viggo Loos, Kulturteater-ProvInsteater. trans. H. G. Carlson (Stockholm: Wahlstrom & Widstrand, 1933), p. 117.

44|bid.. p. 119.

4 5 Ibid.. citing Per Lindberg, Krrna ri.dln (Stockholm: 1932), trans. H. G. Carlson. 30

To Lindberg, the contemporary theatre in general was hopelessly

inadequat e:

Already during the renaissance, the theatre was sp ilt into two different varieties; a people’s theatre, and a court theatre. After an additional several hundred years, especially during the nineteenth century, with its finance-oriented middle-class culture, the theatre was transformed into a means of speculation, a means of speculation among a thousand others, in our time there are speculations in the so-called economic trends and in public taste. Public taste in this connection has always implied an undervaluation of the spiritual status of the public. These speculations have brought about confusion in both the understanding of, as well as the interest in, theatre.

Edvard Alkman, a close friend of Lindberg, continued the attack with a question about the future of the contemporary commercial theatre:

The national cultural value of the commercial, private theatre has become more and more doubtful, because it built a business activity in theatre art upon a speculation in loose and often deeply erroneous conceptions about an uncertain something which was imagined to be the "average taste of the public." It is upon this road that this type of theatre has sunk as it has, both economically and a rtis tic a lly . The theatre c ris is , which has been discussed for years the world over, and which essentially concerns the very existence of the commercial theatre, is no temporary phenomenon; it is an organic sickness, against which no effective remedy has hitherto appeared.^?

With the decline of the provincial theatre viewed as an estab­

lished fact, and with the deepest of misgivings about the future of the contemporary commercial theatre, the theorizers sought a foreign

organizational form of theatre that would solve (or could be tailored

to f i t ) the problems in Sweden.

^^Per Lindberg, Folkteatern. trans. H. G. Carlson (Stockholm: Tidens Forlag, 1957), pp. 7-8»

Edvard Alkman, Vaoen ur kaos: K ritik och proaramutkast i den, store teaterfraqan. trans. H. G. Carlson (Stockholm: Alb. Sonniers Boktryckeri, 1953), p. 57. 48LOOS, Kulturt eater, pp. 45-139 passim: Mtred.n Ina^l PP. 27-134 passim: and Wettergren, Den svenska teaterns t iI Istand, p. 10. 31

The success of the Russian theatre was much admired in Sweden

(as it was elsewhere), but the to ta lita ria n implications offended the

Swedes’ democratic sensitivities# The conservative newspaper Lunds

Dagbladet said bluntly: "Art, in any form, must stand free and unbound,

. « . Soviet-type art doesn’ t beldng in Sweden • « .’’49

Theatre man Gustaf Collijn proclaimed the American Theatre Guild as "a shining example’’^^ of bringing theatre to the people. Later many

Swedes were to sing the praises of the American Federal Theatre, but in

1933, the theorizers turned their eyes most often and most enthusi­ astically towards the exciting events in the German theatre.

Die Vo-lksbuhne— Prototype for a Folkteater. —Of the several

German organizations whose form interested the Swedes, one mentioned often was Die. Volksbuhne. As a result the Skadebanan organization was patterned after this theatre.

The American w riter A. E. Zucker gave a glowing account of the founding of Die Volksbuhne:

, , , in March 1890, the author Bruno W ille called a public meeting for the purpose of organizing a "Free People’ s Stage" — "free" because it was to be unhampered by censorship, and "people’ s" because it was to give the best of art to the masses instead of allowing it to remain the privilege of the moneyed class, , • , Two thousand men and women— in the main they were artists and proletarians— attended the meeting and from that hour dates the organization known as Die Volksbuhne with its motto: Ant, for tTie PeonLe.^^

49|.unds Dagbladet. trans, H, G, Carlson, January I, 1933,

^^Gustaf C ollijn, "Ett lysande exempel," trans, H, G, Carlson, Skadebanan. X V III (September, 1933), 15,

^^A, E, Zucker, "Germany’ s New Army of Organized Playgoers," Theatre Guild Magazine. May, 1931, p, 24. 32

The ideals of Die Volksbuhne would adapt well to the Swedish environment. "Art for the People" was a slogan that was compatible with the traditions of the Swedish Popular Movements, and with the purposes of the proletarian-inclined Social-Democratic party.

The element in Die Volksbuhne that seemed most significant to many Swedes was the principle of an organized public, which guarantted a financial stability that the purely commercial theatre could never hope to realize. The Germans

. . . proceeded from the principle that the prices are high because the great risk of half empty houses must always be taken account of in any calculation. In fact, the play and whims of the public afford a certain justification for de­ manding prices that w ill allow a manager to recoup the losses in his failures by the gains in his successes. By virtue of the fact that every member pledges himself to attend a definite number of performances the Volksblihne can f i l l its houses completely every night and hence can offer much lower prices than the ordinary theatre which sells on the average only f if t y per cent of its seats.^2

The concept of obi iastzory subscript ion, that is, members

DI edging to attend a definite number of performances, was one aspect of the German theatre, however, that did not please many of the Swedish theorizers, and in the years following the establishment of Riksteatern, the question of obligatory subscription (in fact of subscription in general) became the subject of much debate and controversy.

Pr.çLa_nizi-iiq- the audLeace. — In his declaration of 1933, Arthur

Engberg made very clear his view of this theory: " It must not . . . be overlooked that one of the principle prerequisites for a successful realization of the idea of a folkteater is the attainment of an expe-

lb id., p. 26. 33 drent public organization,”^^ There were others who followed Engberg's

lead, Viggo Loos said that "organizing the public is, for the most part, an integral part of the effort to open the doors of the theatre to the people,”54 and he pointed to Die Volksbuhne and other German experiments as the "greatest attempts in history, cince the days of the

Greeks, to create a people's theatre,And Gottfrid Palm, director of the People's Parks' Theatre, said simply, "The public must be organized."^5

Among those who agreed upon the efficacy of organizing the audience, there arose the question of which social group or groups would be organized. At this point, Engberg and Lindberg (among others) made an appeal to the Public Organizations, Engberg said (in a continuation of his statement above) that the new organized audience should be closely related to the existing public organizations "which have already developed into a link in the chain of 'folkbiIdning' activities,"^? In

later years (1942) Lindberg ju stified the appeal to the public organi­ zations by the statement that

, , , independent of the interest in theatre, there is, among large sections of the Swedish people, an intensive inclination to organize. Just for the sake of organizing. Theatrical activity within the popular movements is not a mean object for this inclinât ion,58

D De fasta teatrarna. trans, H, G. Carlson, p, 7,

54loos, Ku I turteater. trans, H. G, Carlson, p, 79,

551 bid., trans, H, G. Carlson, p, 96,

55paqpns Nvheter (Stockholm), trans, H, G, Carlson, January 25, 1933,

5?De fasta teatrarna. trans, H« G, Carlson, p, 7,

58Lindberg, Folkteatern. trans, H, G, Carlson, p. 25, 34

With the aîd of the Public Organizations and Popular Movements there would arise (as Lindberg phrased it) a "new public" for theatre, a public that would provide a broad social and economic base for a true

Folkteater. A question left unanswered for some time in this ambitious policy was what would happen to the "old" audience. Presumably this group was composed of the middI e-classes who had somehow neglected their responsibility to theatre as an art form. But was not this audience the one that s t ill supported what l i t t l e provincial theatre there was left?

And was not this group among the most vociferous in demanding a pro­ vincial theatre that would meet its cultural obligations?

Repertoire jjpc. a fo lkteater. — Closely connected with the kind of audience a folkteater was to be composed of, was the kind of play to be performed before this audience. Was there a special kind of play best suited to this new form, and if so, what kind? When this question was asked within the Volksbuhne. the result was c o n flic t. The firs t such conflict occurred early in the history of the organization (1913) when

o . • a schism over a question of the repertory arose and for some time two organizations were in the fie ld . The dissenters fe lt a certain impatience with a continuous diet of drab n aturalistic drama and supported the then young and struggling Max Reinhardt by buying out many of his performances in which he was presenting authors of the neo-Romantic school, such as Maeterlinck, Hofmannsthal, Wedekind, and the later Ibsen; while the older group continued with a more definite leaning toward the play with a social message. But as the two organizations grew they found it d iffic u lt to satisfy their increasing numbers. . . . Since either organization alone was not equal to the task they decided to forget their differences and to merge again.^9

59Zucker, Theatre Guild Magazine, p. 25. 35

The second schism occurred in 1927 when the director Erwin Piscator withdrew to form his own theatre. The Volksbuhne. in conformity with the principle Die Kunst dem Volke (Art for the People), required

• . all plays performed under its auspices to be a rt, while propa­ ganda for its own sake, either political or religious, was strictly tabu.M^O But Piscator admitted openly that the question of art did not interest him: "Art belongs to the middle-class social sphere,and his purpose was to . transform theatre into an instrument for p o litical propaganda,"^2

In Sweden, the controversy over the type of repertoire suitable for a people’s theatre began in the twenties and continues to our time.

To Viggo Loos in 1933, Piscator’ s theatre (which discontinued operations in 1930) was an example of the dangers inherent in this type of radical experiment. Loos insisted that

The purpose of theatre is not to formulate p o litical theses but to exercise the power to affect profoundly. . . . Folkteater . . . cannot be political without losing sight of its aim: an artistic experience for the masses.

Just how "a rtis tic " the repertoire should be, few people bothered (or were really able) to define in d e ta il, Engberg said (for p o litical as well as a rtis tic reasons) about the coming provincial folkteater: "Only the best is good enough,"^4 and the only clear point

^^Ib id .. p. 26.

®^Loos, KuIturteater. p. 125, citing Erwin Piscator, Das Dolitlsche Theater (Berlin: 1929), trans. H. G. Carlson.

Ibid.. p. 123, citing Erwin Piscator, Das oolitische Theater, trans. H. G. Carlson.

G^Loos, KuIturteater. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 129.

^^De fasta teatrarna. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 7. 36 of agreement seemed to be that the people tn the provinces deserved as high quality art as was available to the city people—theatrical, as well as dramat ic.

■A form for a fo lkteater. —With ail major parties agreed as to the importance (p o litical and/or cultural) of a folkteater or people's theatre, there remained the very vexing problem of what particular organizational form it should take. The theories fell into three general catefories: (I) the folkteater should be ambulating, (2) the folkteater should be stationary, and (3) the folkteater should be p artia lly ambulating and partially stationary. These theories crystal­ lized into three d efin ite forms: (I) an ambulating provincial theatre,

(2) a municipal theatre or stadsteater. and (3) a regional theatre or

An ambulating theatre would operate much as the old commercial theatre with two exceptions: (I ) the new form would receive lottery monies and (2) an organized audience would form a supporting base.

Tours would proceed over planned routes to the various local societies.

The AAurLLcipal theatre alternative meant establishing new theatres in key c itie s throughout the nation. These new organizations would be similar to the existing municipal theatres in Goteborg and Halsingborg.

A number of regional theatres, or kretsteaters. would stand between stadsteaters and an ambulating theatre. The kretsteater would divide its performance schedule between several c itie s and towns in a limited area. A sample weekly schedule might appear as follows: three performances given in town A, two performances in town B, and one performance each in towns C and D. In this particular instance, town 37

A might serve as a permanent home, which housed administrative offices, rehearsal rooms, and construction shops. In 1933, the Halsingborg

Municipal Theatre functioned somewhat like a kretsteater.^^

Each of these organizational forms had certain advantages over

the others. One point of difference between them concerned the matter of local pride. The stadsteater would be a physical part of the community, and its adherents insisted that it could do more to stimulate this pride than any of the other forms. But since the primary function of a new provincial theatre was to reach out deep into the provinces, advocates of the ambulating theatre pointed out that their form could do the job more e ffic ie n tly .

For some people, the question was an economic one: Which organizational form would perform the best service for the monies allotted? Those who sought the establishment of the stadsteaters claimed that the high costs of transporting touring companies invalidated both the kretsteater and the ambulating theatre, while advocates of the ambulating form fe lt that national theatre interest was not sufficiently developed to support stationary or semi-stationary institutions. A

large audience in one city was needed to sustain a municipal theatre, whereas an ambulating theatre had the mobility necessary to seek its own audience.

It is no surprise that the adherents of the kretsteater felt that their theatre provided a compromise, and thus the best choice available. F irs t, they believed, the kretsteater would do more to

1 p. loi. 38 stimulate local pride than the ambulating theatre. Second, because a|| the activities were not limited to one city, it was believed that the kretsteater had a better chance of seeking an audience than the stads­ teater.®®

The supporters of each of these forms did not hesitate to give vent to these feelings in the press. People's Parks* director G ottfrid

Palm, having experienced success with an ambulating theatre, said,

"I believe that the traveling theatre, in spite of everything said against i t , is the right theatre form for the provinces in our elongated country."®^

What were the things mentioned by Palm that were said against the ambulating organizational form? For the most part, c ritic s of this form saw a new ambulating theatre, subsidized or not, as nothing more than a carbon copy of the old provincial theatre, e theatrical form that had outlived its usefulness. One of the sharpest c ritic s of the ambulating form was theatre publisher Arvid Englind, who spent many years of his life fighting against what he called

. . . a theatre form of the past. The old ambulating theatre's mission to furnish the public with a rtis tic a lly executed diversion and entertainment has been taken over by the film s, which do the Job much better, and above all in a significantly less expensive w a y . 68

^^Dagens Nyheter (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, January 25, 1933. The extreme length of Sweden from north to south is 977 miles, and the greatest breadth is 311 miles.

68Arvid Englind, "Riksteatern— distribution el 1er konstskapande," trans. H. G. Carlson, Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), June 27, 1935. 39

For as long as he had been fighting the ambulating theatre Englind had been working for the creation of

• • • stationary theatres which, with the help of transpor­ tation media, gather audiences from the surrounding d istricts to , . , performances, and which, concerning the buying of plays and use of scenery and costumes, cooperate with the existing theatres in Stockholm. Afterwards, . . . ambulating . theatres could complement the stadsteaters, but coulc never by themselves save the provincial theatre.

Allan Ryding, the last really first-class independent provincial theatre producer, disagreed with Englind:

I don't believe in stationary stadsteaters which people would have to travel to get to. The Swedish people woulc have to change a great deal if they were to begin, to any large extent, to ride trains to see theatre.

Ryding also doubted the efficacy of an ambulating theatre. He later worked out a plan (see the 1933 Investigation) for a series of kretsteaters or regional theatres.

Rudolph Wendblad, head of the Halsingborg Stadsteater, was another influential theatre person who felt that "in the final analysis one cannot get away from kretsteaters as the true and defin ite solution to the problems of the provincial theatre . . ."73-

Editor Viggo Loos also pushed the cause of the kretsteater.

Concerning stadsteaters, he felt that public interest in this form was not "sufficiently widespread or substantial."72 As for an ambulating theatre, it could not stimulate local pride the way a stationary theatre could. But with a kretsteater, "the countryside and the town

G9pagens Nvheter (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, January 25, 1935.

72loos, Kulturteater, trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 25, 40 w ill have a theatre which is th eir own."^^

Reminiscent of Stephen Leacock's famed rid er, the theorizers and architects mounted the folkteater ideal and rode off in all directions. While Gottfrid Palm was firm in his support of an ambu­ lating theatre, Allan Ryding was equally firm in support of the kretsteater form, preferably he aaid, with the cooperation of Gottfrid

Palm's People's Parks ", , , which are the only adept hands at organizing an audience,"74 Palm's reaction to Ryding's suggestion is not known.

Vested Interests i n I M Provincial .Ui£.a.tr.£

Among the theorizers, Engberg, Lindberg, Loos, Alkman, and

Englind were what might be termed "independents," They were not members of any organization whose future would be effected by changes in the dynamics of the contemporary provincial theatre. There were, of course, many organizations and individuals who would be thus effected, and because of their dissimilar interests, these groups formulated individual programs that often conflicted with one another. They were all inter­ ested in a provincial "people's theatre," but each group envisioned a folkteater created to meet its own particular needs.

The commercial producers. — The few producers s till touring the provinces could be reckoned among those who stood to gain or lose the most from radical changes in the nature of the provincial theatre.

Without substantial aid and encouragement from the government, and/or interested organizations, there was simply no future for the ambulating

73|bid.. trans, H, G, Carlson,

74pagens Nvheter (Stockholm), trans, H, G. Carlson, January 25, 1933. 41

theatre as an active, growing enterprise. Because of the years of work,

and often sacrifice, that these producers had given to the old

provincial theatre, many people fe lt that they were ju stified in asking

to be considered an integral part of the new theatre,

The professional associations.—Among the associations which were most active in working for changes in the provincial theatre were

the Svenska Teatenforbund (STF), or Swedish Actors' Association; the

Teateraaareforenino (tXf ), or Theatre Owners' Association; and the

Svenska Forfattareforening (SFF), or Swedish Writers' Association,

(See Proposed Solutions to the Problems of the Provincial Theatre,)

Actors, like many other professional people, were hit hard by

the depression. As the number of performances given in the provinces

decreased, so did the Job opportunities, STF worked tirelessly to

protect the interests of the actors, and the organization was careful

not to endorse any proposal for changes in the provincial theatre too hastily, A list of grievances had been assembled through the years,

and they took first priority. Primarily these grievances were directed

against the unscrupulous producers who hired actors for limited engage­ ments, and then, when the funds ran out, left their employees stranded

and penniless in the countryside,^^

In 1914 and 1915, STF held a series of meetings to discuss

these problems, and in 1916, they approached the Crown with a proposal

for the establishment of a concession system.The system would force

75utrednina I riket. pp, 55-56, 17, P* 82,

77wettergren, Den svenska teaterns tillst.in.d, p, 3, 42 private producers to supply proof of good intention and financial stability before they would be permitted to produce a pley and take it on tour. C ritics of the system charged that it would create a good deal of unnecessary red tape, and the 1916 proposal (as well as similar proposals in 1919, 1922, and 1927) was turned down (see pages 25 and

26) .

As early as 1911, the theatre owners (TA’F) suggested that sub­ sidies be distributed to the provincial theatre. The decreasing number of performances given in the provinces also hurt the theatre owners, since it meant a decreasing amount of rent revenues. The owners could not be expected to keep their buildings open for theatre when these revenues, in many cases, did not cover the costs of hiring night watch­ men. In 1916 and 1919, TA’F joined STF and other organizations in recommending a concession system. When these petitions failed , STF and

TAF drew up a plan whereby theatre owners would rent only to those pro­ ducers which STF endorsed as being reputable.^®

The Swedish Writers* Association worked together with STF and

TAF in the attempt to better conditions in the theatre, for the writers too, saw a threat to their livelihood in the provincial theatre’s decline. As the number of ambulating companies diminished, so did the number of production outlets for Swedish dramatists. SFF was among the signers of the 1916 petition requesting the establishment of a concession system.

liLfi. sta te -subsidized theatres.— Other groups that can be

1 p. 82. 43 regarded as "vested interests” were the royal and municipal theatres,

for if they were to take to the road, as Engberg had suggested, their standard operating procedures would have to be drastically revised.

Each of the theatres had experienced financial d iffic u ltie s in attempting to satisfy the demands imposed by the c itie s where they were located, and now they would be asked to satisfy the entire nation.

Also involved in the new proposals were the citizens who had supported these theatres, and come to regard them as their own property. The people of Halsingborg and Goteborg were not liable to be happy about a scheme that would take these theatres from them.

The People's Parks' Theatre. — Not without ju s tific a tio n , the

People's Parks' Theatre had come to regard itself as representative of what was best in the theatre in the provinces (in spite of the fact that

its activ itie s were limited to the short summer season). This theatre, with little help from the state, had established a stable situation, and had held a rtis tic standards high. Allowing People's Parks to have a

hand in the creation of a new theatre, therefore, seemed only, to them,

a right they had earned by their accomplishments. When the 1929 pro­

posal by the Parks Theatre to complement their summer activities with

a winter theatre was turned down, they were rig h tfu lly disappointed.^^

I M PQ-DUIar Movements a M E u b lk . P r 0?,nlZâtJ.9J3Jg»— Inasmuch as

these groups were asked to provide economic support for the new fo lk -

teater, they too had interests at stake. They had already given much to

the People's Parks' Theatre, and now they would be asked to give more.

79palm, Seen och Sa long. August, 1941, p. I 44

Theatre followers in the provinces. — Since these people were not

organized, it was difficult for their voices to be heard in the great

debate concerning the provincial theatre, but they were nonetheless

interested in its future» They had one strong bargaining weapons the

lottery monies.®® These monies were gathered from a I| parts of Sweden,

but they were awarded to only a few theatres, and the people in the

provinces fe lt they had a right to an equal share.

Between the partisan interests of the commercial producers and

the Actors’ Association, the seeds of conflict were sown. The

Association’ s proposal for a concession system was a plan to police and

govern the hitherto free ac tiv itie s of the private producers. But was this fair? Many reputable producers, because of pressing financial

problems, had been forced to do things even they disapproved of in

order to remain solvent. Were they now to be penalized by bureaucratic

control? Minister Engberg was quite right when he called the situation

’’hopel ess.”®^

®®De fasta teatrarna. p. 6.

Ibid.. trans. H. G. Carlson. CHAPTER IV

THE 1953 INVESTIGATION AND THE

ESTABLISHMENT OF RIKSTEATERN

The 1933 Investigation was to mark a turning point in the

history of the Swedish provincial theatre. It appeared that the many

resolutions and petitions were not drawn up in vain— fin ally something was to be done, and the people who had worked so diligently for a new

theatre waited expectantly for the results.

■?.e,üVlgnÇ£ a i Events

January 1933—Minister of Education and Cultural A ffairs Arthur

Engberg delivered his dictum on the state of the provincial theatre,

and authorized a thorough investigation of the situation.^ The 1933

Investigation committee was assembled and the problems to be examined 2 were out-lined.

Spring and fall 1933— Local Riksteatern theatre societies were

established throughout Sweden (forty-two in number by the end of the year)^ within the framework of the old Skadebanan organization. These new groups were to form bases of support for several tria l tours to be

^De fasta teatrarna. pp. 5-8. ^Ibid.. pp. 8-10.

^Berattelse over Riksteaterns PubI ikorçanisat ions ,y,.2d

45 46

produced by the royal theatres.^ The Skadebanan local society in

Stockholm was left intact, to serve as the Riksteatern local society

for that area,^ and the magazine Skadebanan was taken over by representatives of the Riksteatern local societies.®

January 21. 1954—At an assembly of representatives of the new

Riksteatern local societies, a constitution was written and adopted, and the central administration officers were elected for the new organizat ion,^

January 29. 1954— Part One of the Investigation was published:

UlS. Stat ionary State-Subsidized Theatres.^

June 4. 1954— Part Two of the Investigation was published:

CpD&erning N.a.t.i.gnp.l Theatre Conditions.9

September 1954— Skadebanan magazine became jC eatem magazine, the official organ of Riksteatern.

January 1955— This date marked the beginning of operations for the Theatre Council (Teaterradet) which was to serve as an advisory board for a ll theatre problems and disputes. It was not, however, authorized to administer a concession system.

June 1955—The firs t annual statement and report by the

Riksteater Public Organization was published for the period February I through December 51, 1954.^^

^1 bid., pp. 6-7. ®Ibid.. p. 5,

6Ibid.. p. 9. ^1 bid.. pp. 4-5.

fasta teatrarna. ^Utrednina 1 r.itot»

10*'Teaterr§det i verksamhet Teatern. II (January, 1955), 65. 11 Ber.êiltel.SÆ .a y jg r. RPO:s ver.ksamh.et 1 9 5 4 . 47

Minister Arthur, Enabera's Oictum^^

The following is a summary and abridgement of Engberg's

document and is dated January 20, 1933.

The royal theatres have been the subjects of repeated

investigations during the past few years. The report of April 29, 1924

resulted in a new set of regulations for the Royal Opera, but two

similar investigations of the Royal Dramatic Theatre, in 1928 and 1931,

led nowhere. Coupled with these investigations were c ritic a l statements

from the press regarding the over-a|| administration of both theatres.

The reason for my calling this new investigation, however, is

not to examine these theatres against the background of previous

enquiries, but to reconsider the intricate problems involved in a

broader frame of reference.

Without a doubt, the royal theatres have stumbled into a c ritic a l situation. It is not to be expected that these teeatres should make a p ro fit, but a reasonable relationship must be found

between the lottery monies bestowed and the cultural exchange the nation

asks from these institutions. The royal theatres must, if at all

possible, become the property of the whole country, for "it is not only

the population of the capital who have the right to enjoy the best in

theatre. The rest of the nation can with justification raise the same

demands."

"Unfortunately the situation is hopeless for the private

ambulating theatre, which has done its best to supply theatre to the

i £ 5 l â teatrarna. pp. 5-8. 48 provinces." The provinces have begun to feel themselves ill-used, and

it is up to the royal theatres to go to the people, since the people cannot go to them. The present investigation should examine the steps necessary to create an organization in the provinces for the purpose of cooperating with the royal theatres in the task of making these theatres available to everyone.

Naturally it is easier for the Dramatic Theatre to tour than

it is for the Opera. What with soloists, chorus, and orchestra to transport about, the Opera can more expediently fu lfill its obligations to the nation by increasing its contributions to the National Radio

Service.

In order to become true folkteaters. the royal theatres must expand their activities both in breadth and depth. They must stand

"in intimate interaction with the spiritual life of the nation, actualize the great contemporary social and psychological problems, and adapt themselves to different environments and their conditions.

The theatre must consistently draw the power to regenerate from contact with a mess audience." A public organization must be formed to support the new folkteater, an organization which will cooperate closely with the existing Popular Movements and Public Organizations. These organizations have already done much through their support of the high- quality amateur theatre now active, and through the assistance given to the Skadebanan ornanization. The amateur theatre and Skadebanan should be taken into account in the planning of any new organization.

In regard to the royal theatres, methods of making their admini­ strations more efficient should be examined. Perhaps closer economic 49 and administrative cooperation is warranted between the two organi­ zat ions.

A public organization working closely with these theatres would help to eliminate the wasteful centralization that has charac­ terized the institutions in the past. Often artists not used in a current production do nothing but wait for a new part, when they could have been used to advantage in a provincial production. This inefficient practice must not be allowed to continue.

The training schools attached to the royal theatres should be given special consideration in order to insure rational growth and expansion within the Swedish theatre generally.

Special attention must also be focused on the conditions within the existing commercial theatre. In this connection, the possibility of a concession system should be investigated.

To carry out this investigation, the Crown will appoint a committee of eight experts.

Reactions la. Minister EngbergAs DLC.tjjfH

It must be noted that Minister Engberg did not call for a truly objective analysis of the situation. His purpose was to change the royal theatres (and subsequently all of the state-subsidized theatres) from stationary to ambulating theatres, and he ordered the committee to seek out the most effective means to accomplish this end. This singleness of intention was to cause disagreement among the committee members, and to arouse the displeasure of the various "vested interests" who had envisioned different approaches to the problem. 50

The immediate reaction to Engberg's in itia tiv e , however, was general acclaim. People had waited so long for the government to take firm action, that when it came, the effect produced was one of excite­ ment and renewed hope, Hjalmar Lundholm, head of the Oscar's Theatre in Stockholm said, "At last we have a Minister of Education and Culture who thinks that theatre has a cultural purpose to fill and that the

Royal Dramatic Theatre is the property of the whole n a t i o n , R u d o l p h

Wendblad believed that such a step taken by a government o ffic ia l was

", . • the only way out and the last hope to bring into existence a true solution of the theatre question in the provinces.Independent producer Allan Ryding said simply, " S p le n d id ,w h e n he heard of

Engberg's decision, and actress-producer Pauline Brunius thought that

Engberg's observations and remarks were ", • , enormously interesting,

[^and] fille d with valid thoughts and a great love of culture,"^®

Approval also came from the people who did not have a profes­ sional interest in the theatre. The provincial newspaper N.ya Varmland

Tidningen remarked in an editorial that "the provinces have noted with satisfaction the justice which, in Mr, Engberg's proposal, has been bestowed upon the followers of theatre who live outside the capttal,"^^

But there were some who questioned Engberg's motives. In 1943,

Per Lindberg was to say, rather cynically, that "Riksteater was a catchword, a s k illfu l ta c tic , to get the parliament, without grumbling.

Ï3 paçpns Nvheter (Stockholm), trans, H, G. Carlson, January 25, 1933,

^"^1-b.id, 15|_b.i_d, \h.lA,

^^Nva Varmland Tidningen (Karlstad), trans, H, G, Carlson, January 23, 1933, 51

to vote subsidies to the royal theatres.*'^'® And theatre c ritic -p la y - wright Herbert Grevenius was to disparage Engberg's maneuver as "penny

reading-room politics" ( i . e . , demagoguery)

The conservative provincial newspaper Lunds Daqbladet led an

attack along more political lines. In an editorial entitled "The

Socialists' Theatre interest," the newsapaer remarked that there was

". . . evident, in the socialist party, a lively interest in theatre.

. . . It is easy enough to understand. Theatre is a most expedient

propaganda device. . . . But it must be realized that [bureaucratically-

run] theatre activities do not work . . , ”20

Other c ritic s were skeptical that Engberg's plan would ever work. Actors' Association (STF) officer Sven BergvaM called it

". . . magnificent, but rather hazy . . And even Engberg-supporter

Viggo Loos acknowledged that "many thought that . . . Engberg [had built]

a castle in the sky . . ."^2

The element that bothered Bergvall, Loos, and others, was the

proposal to combine the problems of the state-subsidized theatres and

the provincial theatre, and then arrive at one solution for both.

ISLindberg, Folkteatern. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 51.

l^Grevenius, En bok om Lindhecg. p. 138.

ZPLunds Dagbladet. trans. H. G. Carlson, January 25, 1933. The paper groups Engberg's Socia 1-Democrats with the Socialists, This would undoubtedly be considered unfair by many Swedes, since the Social-Democrats departed ". . . from the s tric tly Marxist viewpoint in favour of 'humanist' principles" in 1911.

*Andersson, Historv of Sweden. p. 408.

2 lAftonbladet (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, February 16, 1933. 22LOOS, Kulturteater. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 19. 52

Bergvall contended that the Dramatic Theatre could best serve the nation by remaining in Stockholm,and Loos was convinced that putting the

Dramatic Theatre on wheels just . . did not signify a solution. .

In answer to some of these charges, newly appointed investi­ gation committee chairman Professor Martin Lamm later gave assurances that Riksteatern was not being built solely around the Royal Dramatic

Theatre. The trial tours in the spring and fall of 1933 would test this theatre's a b ility to carry out extensive ambulating a c tiv itie s .

"Thus," said Lamm, "the Dramatic Theatre, according to our thinking, will become just a detail in the overall apparatus.

Formation of the Investigating Committee

Following his declaration of intentions. Minister Engberg appointed the committee members. Professor Martin Lamm (chiefly known for his comprehensive study of August Strindberg) of the Stockholm

Hogskolan (City College), became chairman. Other members included

Member of Parliament and Editor Nils Christiernsson; Theatrical producer Gustaf C ollijn; Adult Education Director Torsten Fogelqvist,

Ph. 0,; Per Lindberg; Comptroller Oskar Lokander; Member of Parliament and Editor Fredrik Strom; Editor Harald Xkerberg; and as secretary.

Professor Lamm's young protege at the College, Gbsta M. Bergman. To investigate various details of the problem, the committee appointed several experts: the Actors' Association sent Director Gunnar Klintberg

Z^AftonbIadet (Stockholm), February 16, 1933.

^^Loos, Kulturteater. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 31.

^^Svenska Daybladpt (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, May 4, 1933. 53 to report on problems related to actors; financial expert R. Palmqvist would report on pension problems within the royal theatres; Docent

V« G» Johnson of the City College would discuss conditions within musical theatre (opera as well as operetta); and architect Eskil Sundahl would draw up plans for renovating the Royal Dramatic Theatre. Because of prior committments, Fogelqvist and Lokander were excused in

May 1933.-®

Rgactians io. ili& ■QgiaaLtl.&e, CQmpgs.il.i.on

The Swedish Actors' Association (STF) was among the firs t to show disapproval of the composition of the committee. In a lead a rtic le in the Association magazinr (Svenska Teaterforbundets Med IemsbI ad). president U|f von Konow questioned why no representative from his organization had been chosen as a regular committee member. Too much emphasis had been placed on the importance of the public, he f e lt , and not enough on the various groups whose livelihood depended on a healthy provincial theatre.

A few years later, Allan Ryding revealed what he thought of the committee. In calling for a new investigation in 1937, he demanded that it be conducted ". . . without professors and doctors. "^8

Actor Sven Sta| probably voiced the strongest objections to the choice of committee members, in the newspaper Tidsvarvet. he said of

lasla. tealrarna. p. 9.

^^U|f von Konow, "Teaterutredningen och skadespelarkiren," Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. September, 1935, p. 3.

^Spaqens Nybeter (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, May 20, 1937. 54

Lamm, "He is fine as head of the City College, but he should stay there and not mix in technical theatre problems which are undoubtedly to ta lly

foreign to him,"^^ Fogelqvist, Stal claimed, was possessed of decidedly

limited knowledge when it came to theatre. C ollijn had had experience, but he belonged to a past era in theatre. Fredrik Strom, in his mis­ handling of the Skadebanan organization, had demonstrated complete in­ competence in theatrical matters. Harold Xkerberg seemed all rig h t, but

Per Lindberg was the only really good choice. This investigation was of vital interest to theatre people, but, asked Sta|, ", , . where is their representative?" STF has an obligation to see to it that something is done to remedy the situât ion.

Little heed was paid to these criticisms, but, despite this, the work of the committee progressed rather slowly. There was apparently much debate and argument, with Per Lindberg usually in the center of the

turmoil. For each part of the Investigation, Lindberg published dis­ senting opinions. Years later, one of the committee members, Gustaf

C ollijn, told of the storms that rocked committee meetings.

. . . Lamm ran into d iffic u ltie s many times, but he handled his duties admirably . . . the most d iffic u lt problem for Lamm to deal with was the always quarrelsome Per Lindberg . . ."^l

Sven Bergvall's suspicion that Engberg's dictum was "hazy" was

^^Sven Stal, "En teaterfoIkets riksdag," trans. H, G. Carlson, Tidsvarvet (Stockholm), February 4, 1933.

30 |b id .f trans. H. G. Carlson.

3lGustaf Collijn, "Nar Riksteatertanken mognade och foddes," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 12. 55 apparently echoed by the committee emmbers, for C ollijn also recalled that

Engberg’ s directions to the committee were not entirely clear upon one point. Several of the members thought that our mission concerned the state-subsidized theatres. Others of us were all the more convinced that nothing was more important than that the provincial theatre question should be examined • • . ”32

This confusion was eliminated by covering each subject in a different section, the firs t of which was published in January, 1934.

Ills. 12Ü Investigation Results

The following is a summary of the significant points made in the two published parts of the 1953 Investigation.

PaxJ. Oq^: U xs. Stationarv State-Subsidized Theatres.— Pub I ished

January 29, 1934.^^

1. Of the two royal theatres, the Opera is by far the more

e ffic ie n tly administrated. The Dramatic Theatre is due for

a thorough re-organization of its operations. The trial

tours (which were not particularly encouraging or impressive)

carried on by these organizations did not yield enough

information to determine whether future touring a c tiv itie s

are feasible.

2. Closer cooperation is necessary between Goteborg’ s two

theatres (Lyric and Lorensberg). In addition, these

32oustaf C o llijn , "Arthur Engberg— den svenska scenkonstens store framjare," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teatern. XI (May, 1944), 8.

^^Sweden, EckIesiastikdepartementet, De fasta statsunderstodda teatrarna. Statens offentliga utredningar 1934:3, 1933 §rs teater- iitrednings betankande. Part I (January 29, 1934) (Stockholm: Kungl. Boktryckeriet, 1934). 56

Institutions must work out plans for more extensive touring

act iv it ies,

3. The Halsingborg Municipal Theatre is an expensive operation.

Better touring arrangements must be made to help out costs.

4. Per Lindberg's dissent: Contrary to the position held by

the other members, the tria l tours did give sufficient

information to base an opinion upon: A national theatre

cannot be built upon the a c tivities of theatres which are

experiencing enough troubles staying solvent under present

condit ions.

P§£j. Im .: ln.V.gSti,ga,t,Î9n Concerning National Theatre

Conditions.— Published June 4, 1934.

1. Since before World War I, the provincial theatre has been in

steady decline. Newer forms of recreation and mass enter­

tainment (the movies, radio, sports, etc.) have drawn away

the vast audience that used to frequent the theatre.

2. The ambulating, p artia lly subsidized theatre organization,

Skadebanan. has done a fa ir job in helping to keep theatre

alive in the provinces, but the depression has cut deeply

into its meager resources. As a result, the quality of

Skadebanan's programs has deteriorated badly. In spite of

bad times, though, Skadebanan has proved to be less

expensive in operation than the Halsingborg Municipal

34$weden, Eck I esiast ikdepartement et, Utredning rorande t.eater- i- r ik e t. Statens offentliga utredningar 1934:21, 1933 ars teaterutredninas betankande. Part II (June 4, 1934) (Stockholm: Kungl. Boktryckeriet, 1934). 57

Theatre, which in many ways is closer to a Kretsteater.

The new organization (Riksteatern)^ which will take advan­

tage of close cooperation with the state-subsidized theatres,

will prove to be a more effective solution to the problems

of provincial theatre than the moribund Skadebanan.

3. Because of the large seating capacities in its theatres, the

People's Parks' Theatre has the opportunity to f i l l the

qualifications for a Folkteater in a much more effective way

than a winter theatre which is handicapped by small, often

inconvenient buildings. The committee recommmnds close

cooperation between the People's Parks' Theatre and the new

organization, Riksteatern.

4. The committee finds the "organize-the-audience" principle

a very useful one. It has already proved its effectiveness

in Germany, Russia, The United States, and England. The

committee, however, does not believe that closely joining

a Riksteater to the Swedish Popular Movements and Public

Organizations would be a wise move. People interested in

theatre within these organizations would not necessarily

form a more secure supporting base than an effectively

established independent organization (like Riksteatern).

It would, in any case, welcome attention and support from

the other public organizations, but an independent

Riksteatern can better assure f i11ed houses than an organi­

zation which was just another activity of the many carried

on by the union of Public Organizations. 58

5. It is the task of the newly formed public organization

(Riksteatern) to encourage and support a rtis tic theatre in

contrast to the strictly commercial theatre.

6. The ticket prices Riksteatern sets must not be so low that

the private theatre cannot compete.

7. Riksteatern's central purpose is to make available tor the

public, at reasonable prices, a series of interesting pro­

grams performed by the best theatrical artists in the

nation. It would be advantageous to encourage the adoption

of an effective voluntary subscription program to help

achieve this purpose.

8. To support this program, substantial lottery monies are

needed. These monies would go into a special fund adminis­

tered by the Riksteater Central Administration. The central

administration would see to it that these monies were

distributed where needed. A theatre seating 250, for

instance, would need more financial aid than one seating

five hundred.

9. Ticket price reductions to Riksteatern members should not be

more than 50 ore or 1:25 kronor (from 10 to 25 cents) under

the regular admission prices.

10. Performances should be arranged for, as far as possible, by

the local societies themselves. In addition, these socie­

ties should not only work for the benefit of their members,

but should stimulate interest in theatre generally in their

areas# Special performances at reduced prices for various 59

organizations should take place, Ch iIdren'm Theatre should

also be encouraged,

11, The local societies should work, as best they can, inde­

pendently of the central administration, and should seek

added financial support from their individual communities,

12, The state-subsidized theatre touring activities for the

1934-35 season should be arranged as follows:

a, Royal Drmmatic Theatre: Four tours, fourteen days each,

plus fifteen or twenty "one-night stands" in towns close

to Stockholm, These programs should include original

Stockholm casts, and not second-rate groups assembled

especially for the provinces,

b, Roval Operatic Theatre: Fifteen to twenty performances,

plus a few limited engagements in Goteborg,

c, Halsingborg Municipal Theatre: Eighty-seven perfor­

mances outside Halsingborg, Without this touring

activity, the theatre can not possibly justify its

future existence.

d, Lorensberg Theatre (Goteborg): Thirty performances out­

side Goteborg,

e, Goteborg Lvric Theatre: Sixty performances between

October I and April 15 (so as not to conflict with summer

act ivit ie s l,

13, Cooperation between Riksteatern and private theatre leaders

is to be desired. This cooperation could take the form of

private tours partially subsidized by Riksteatern, 60

14, Concerning the kretsteater ornani7atinnaI form, the

committee finds that many financial problems prevent its

realizatio n , Allen Ryding's plen for five ambulating

kretsteaters is too ambitious under present conditions,

Ryding had hoped that each of these five organizations

would perform for a time in one region and then eventually

move on to appear in a 11 the others. The total subsidies

needed (according to Ryding) would amount to 250,000 kronor

(50,000 dollars) per year. The committee finds Ryding’s

", « , calculations much too optimistic," As conditions

improve the kretsteater might well be the ideal form for the

provinces, but not at present,

15, The amateur theatre shoulc be encouraged because it can do

much through stimulating public opinion, to revive interest

in high-quality theatre. All professional theatre insti­

tutions and unions should seek closer cooperation with this

worthwhile cultural activity,

16, There is a serious problem involving theatre locales. Of

the 299 buildings in the provinces suitable for theatrical

a c tiv itie s , only ten have seating capacities of six hundred

or over, while thirty-eight theatres can seat between four

hundred and six hundred. The remainder have seating

capacities of between three hundred and four hundred, which

are hardly suitable for operations on a folkteater scale.

Theatre owners are more and more turning to films as a

source of rent, and consequently private troupes are often 61

offered poorer nights on which to perform ( i . e . , week days

rather than weekends). If a true folkteater is ever to be

realized, building conditions will have to be improved.

17. The committee believes that a concession system (see

page 41) would be bad. Theatre needs freedom to develop and

grow. A Theatre Co.unc_i I or AdvJ^cirv Board (Teaterradet)

for theatre would be much wiser. It could serve as a sort

of court where various disputes could be settled, and a

medium through which lottery monies would be e ffic ie n tly

administered.

18. Two separate articles appear by Per Lindberg. In one,^^

Lindberg deals with the problem of training a new generation

of actors. He finds the current conditions entirely unsatis­

factory and proposes a Theatre Academy, not unlike the

existing Music Academy where operatic artists receive their

training.

In the second article,^^ Lindberg urges that a

production committee be set up within Riksteatern’ s central

administration. As the organization stands Lindberg finds

too much emphasis on distribution in contrast to product ion.

(Both of these articles find Lindberg in opposition to the

rest of the committee.)

19. In a special supplement two members of the Swedish Actors'

55per Lindberg, "ElevutbiIdninaen.” Utredning i rik e t. pp. 95-106,

5Gper Lindberg, "PubIikorganisations produktionutskott," 1 r.lK fil, pp. 107-13. 62

Association, President Ulf von Konow and Social Section

Chairman Per-Axel Branner, urge the adoption of a

.C,on.Ç£§,S.iJH, system.^?

Itl£ EsiAblisbment ^ Riksteatern

At the January 21, 1934 congress of representatives of the local societies, the following regulations governing the operations of

Rikstettern were adopted as noted:

Q.ejijer.? I Rggu.t,^t„ig,n.s.

1. The Riksteater Public Organization constitutes a union of societies whose activities consist of organizing the public, extending and intensifying interest in theatre, and even music and a rtis tic movies. 2. The objectives of the organization are: II) to obtain and supply to the member societies the necessary organization materials; (2) to provide for the engagement of theatre troupes, artists, and lecturers; and (3) with the aid of informative talks and pamphlets, to promote general interest in high-quality theatre art. in addition, the organization should also support high-quality amateur theatre and theatre for school children. 3. Each local theatre society has the right to join the organization provided that the society acknowledges the regulations of Riksteatern’s Public Organization and will actively work for the fulfillment of its objectives. 4. Each society pays a fee to be determined yearly by Riksteatern’s Public Organization's central administration, but, beginning with the 1934-35 season, not to exceed I krona, 50 ore [about 30 c en t^ per person, per year. Each accredited member receives a free subscription to the organization’s publication as a privilege of membership. 5. The local society is responsible for submitting reports in accordance with the conditions prescribed by the central administration. 6. The highest authoritative body of the organization is the representative assembly which is composed of delegates from the local societies. Societies with up to 500 members may send one delegate; and societies with between 500 and 1,000 members may send two delegates; and societies with 1,000 or

37per-Axel Branner and Ulf von Konow, "Utredning rorande koncessionfraoan." Utredning i r ik e t. pp. 132-37. 63

more members may send three delegates. The representative assembly meets in congress every other year* Travel expenses for the delegates are paid by the societies themselves unless otherwise stipulated by the central administration. The representative assembly prescribes the rules and regulations for the activities of the organization. Proposals to be acted upon by the assem­ bly must be submitted by the member societies to the central administration at least three weeks before the opening of the biennial congress. The assembly may be called into special session if the central administration deems it necessary or if not less than 1/3 of all the member societies demand a session for a particular reason. At the congressional meetings each delegate has one vote. The central administration officers may vote upon all but administrative questions, 7, The central administration is composed of not more than eight (8) members, of whom the chiirman and two representatives of the Popular Movements and Public Organizations are chosen by His Majesty, The remaining five members, together with five proxies, are chosen by the representative assembly. The central administration chooses, from among its members, an executive committee, and from within or outside the central administration, chooses a managing director and a treasurer, 8, [Note: In the beginning a season was calculated as January I to December 31, The following paragragh went into effect in I936r] The financial year is reckoned from, and including, July I, to, and including, June 30 of the following year. Operational and financial reports must be submitted at the latest by September I each year, 9, The accounts are audited at the end of each financial year. Two auditors, one of whom must be duly authorized, together with two substitutes, are chosen by the representative assembly, 10, Each member society, when requiring theatre troupes, artists, or movies, shall engage them through the organization’s central administration. Exempt from this regulation are professional theatre troupes, artists, or amateur companies, which perform geographically close to the local society. In special instances the central administration may declare other exemptions. The member society must pay 25 per cent of any profits that accrue to the central administration, 11, Ammendments to the organization’s regulations require the approval of 2/3 of the representative assembly, 12, Dissolution of the organization con not take place unless 5/7 of the delegates at a regular congress are in agree­ ment, If the organization is dissolved, its assets, if any, go to an organization with purposes similar to Riksteatern’s 64

Public Organization, or to the Swedish Actors* Retirement Home (Hostsol)."®

Sj,e.CL,i91 R&oulftions regarding Society Operations (as drawn up by the central administration)

1. The society, which constitutes a local section of the Riksteater Public Organization, has the task of working in various ways to strengthen and preserve interest in theatre by: (I) arranging high-quality theatrical performances at the lowest possible prices; (2) contributing toward the improvement of the theatre locales; and (3) supporting local initiative through the collaboration with theatre study circles, and the arrangement of lectures on theatre. The society has also as its objective the creation of interest and understanding for music, a rtis tic movies, etc, 2. Membership in the local section is gained by the payment of an annual fee of 3 kronor [about 60 cents], and each member­ ship card entitles the holder to ticket-buying privileges for two (2) persons. 3. The activities of the local section are led by an administrative committee composed of from 3 to 6 members, and 3 proxies, who should represent various organizations interested in culture. The administrative committee is selected by the membership of the local society at the annual general meeting. Officers are chosen by the committee, and from among the committee members. 4. The financial year is reckoned from May I to April 30. Reports on operations and finances should be submitted to the local society no later than 14 days before the annual general meeting. 5. The annual general meeting is held each year during the month of May. At this meeting the administrative committee is chosen together with 2 auditors and I substitute auditor. At the meeting each member is entitled to one vote. An extra meeting can be scheduled if the committee deems it necessary or if 10 members draw up a written petition requesting such a meeting. The summons to attend a meeting is given not later than 8 days before the meeting, and like other information passed on to the members is announced in the town newspaper, through posters, or by mail. 6. Proposed amendments to these rules will be submitted to the central administration in Stockholm, for judgement and acknowledgement. 7. In case of dissolution the assets of the society will go to support Riksteatern's ac tiv itie s throughout the nation, in a way to be determined by the administrative committee in consultation with the central administration in Stockholm.

38|943 1rs betankande. trans. H. G. Carlson, pp. 17-18. 39 Ibid. . trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 114. 65

,^.l.g,c.t.iQP Apqg,in,tiTie,p± a i Can.tca| Administration Member

At the firs t congress, the following people were chosen:

%mLsrs a i iba. centre! administration: Editor Viggo Loos Theatre producer Gustaf Collijn Gosta M, Bergman, f i l . kand. Editor Gunnar E. W* Rydgren Vocational trade teacher Karl K§be

Proxies: Secondary school teacher Johan Wintzell Secondary school teacher Erik Terner Secondary school teacher A|f Hildinger Secondary school teacher Erik Lindstrom Local society representative lure HanelI

In accordance with Paragraph 7 of the General Regulations, His

Majesty appointed the following officer on February 9, 1934:

Chairman q i ibq central administration: Educational advisor Arthur Thomson

On February 22, 1935, Arthur Thomson was appointed a member of the newly appointed Theatre Advisory Council (Teaterradet). and His

A\ajesty appointed Mayor Gunnar Fant to the post of central administration chairman.

Popular Movement-Pubiic Organization Representatives: Headmaster Justus Elgeskog Headmaster Harald Elldin

Also in accordance with Paragraph 7 of the General Regulations,

the central administration elected the following officers:

Managing Director: Gosta M» Bergman

Trapsucen: Accountant Arthur Hilton (replaced by:) Accountant Ivan Torhall (on October I, 1934)

40Berattelse over RPO:s verksamhet 1934. pp. 4-5. 66

JM 12Ü lnv.e.s.tigatîgn aoil itiâ. y.e,at.e

It was to be some time before the importance of the 1933

Investigation was fully realized, but there were at least two news­ papers which suspected its significance at the time it was published.

Stockholm's Ny.a Daglîça Allehanda remarked that the Investigation was

"the first real housed ean ing within Swedish theatre life . . And the Norrkooings Tidningar called the committee's report "... a great attempt to Sh t±.eât,Le ia its. entirety, ag, axj. organizat ion

[Italics notin original] and as a culture-manifestation. For the provincial theatre, this way of looking at things is the only sa|va- tion."^^ Whether or not the many c ritic s who arose to denounce the results realized it, the 1933 Investigation had firmly established the place of the provincial theatre as an integral part of Swedish theatre culture. Never again would the Interests of the theatre in the pro­ vinces take a back seat to those of the theatre in the big c itie s . The typically Swedish peasant pride in community had been aroused and became a major influence in the future of Riksteatern.

But if the 1933 Investigation and the resulting Riksteatern met with approval from the provinces, many people countered this approval with criticism and opposition. Per Lindberg, speaking with the authority of a person who had taken part in the Investigation, led the attack by roundly c ritic izin g the way in which the committee had operated. He

41Cited in "Pressrbster kring betankandet," trans. H. G. Carlson, SkSdebaaan. XIX (June, 1934), x I .

42|bld.. trans. H. G. Carlson. 67 complained that he had had l i t t l e freedom to express his opinions*

Engberg's directives, LIndberg charged, had Invalidated the committee’s conclusions since the decision to create RIksteatern was made before all the alternatives had been discussed. The Investigation was only the tool of Engberg's desires, and as a result, RIksteatern was handicapped by an Ineffective organizational form.^^ Another participant In the

Investigation, Harald Akerberg, denied LIndberg's charges and said he believed the other committee members had shown more consideration for

LIndberg than he had shown for them,^^ but the sting of LIndberg’ s attack carried much weight.

Keeping In mind the Investigation results, and then recalling the demands made before the conclusion of the investigation by the vested Interests, It comes as no surprise that LIndberg’s criticisms were soon followed by many more.

TAe. commerce I a I producers. — Of a|| the vested Interests, the commercial producers were probably least pleased by the Investigation results. F irst, for many years these producers had hoped for subsidies from the Crown, and now the bulk of the new monies earmarked for provincial theatre were to go to theatres which were already subsidized.

Second, an ambulating form was chosen for the Incipient organization

Instead of the more stationary varieties advocated by Allan Rydlng,

Arvid Englind and others (see pages 38-40). And th ird , the commercial producers were now faced with two new forms of competition: (I) a rtls -

43Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), June 8, 1934.

;a Dagbladet (Stockholm), June 9, 1934. 68 tic competition from the highly touted and highly paid artists of the state theatre companies and (2) financial competition due to the re­ ductions in ticket prices for Riksteatern productions allotted by the organization to its members. True enough, the committee had recom­ mended an honorable place for the private theatre in the plans for

Riksteatern, but in the light of the facts presented, skepticism pre­ vailed, and even the optimistic producers took a "wait and see" attitude. For the moment, the state-subsidized theatres appeared to commercial theatre people as privileged intruders.

The professional associations. — During the depression the

Swedes created a special agency, the State Unemployment Commission (AK), with purposes akin to the American WPA. There were some people who attempted to have Riksteatern take on the aspects of a re lie f organi­ zation similar to other AK p r o je c t s .R ik s t e a t e r n would be, these people f e lt , of great help to unemployed theatrical a rtis ts . When the fledgling organization then made clear its intent of utilizing actors already under contract to the state-subsidized theatres, Riksteatern made many enemies among professional theatre people.

If there were misgivings among these same people about the composition of the 1933 committee (concerning the scarcity of practicing professionals), there was outright indignation expressed about the composition of the Riksteatern central administration (see pages 72-73).

^^Herbert Grevenius, "En ryggrad i teaterv’asendet." TeaXern. XX (September, 1953), 31.

^^"Forbundet om teaterutredningen," Svenska Teaferforbundets November, 1934, p. 61. 69

Among the administration members there was only one man, Gustaf C o llijn , who could be called a "professional,” and it had been more than a decade

since he had actively practiced his trade. Perhaps more important was

the fact that the key post— that of managing director— was given to a twenty-eight year old academic theatre person with no professional

theatre experience, Gosta M. Bergman. He was very soon to become the special target of the wrath of the professionals (see pages 72-75).

Two of the problems that were of great concern to the Swedish

Actors' Association were the amateur theatre and the proposed concession

system. The amateur theatre had done much (according to the Association)

to lower standards and living conditions for a|| actors in Sweden,

since, to save money, many private producers had hired amateurs rather

than negotiate with the Actors' Association.^^ When Engberg urged closer cooperation between the amateur theatre and Riksteatern, the

Actors' Association could not see this recommendation but as a threat to

its actor members. " It is obvious," said the Association president,

Ulï von Konow, that the committee ". . . doesn't recognize the danger

that this activity can come to constitute for the professionally

trained actors' rightful interests."^®

Ulf von Konow and the Association's Social Section Chairman,

Per-Axel Branner, urged the adoption of a concession system in a

special report published as part of the 1933 investigation (see pages

61-62). This system was a pet proposal of the Actors' Association, and

47"Amatorerna." Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. A pril, 1934, pp. 227-28.

48von Konow, Sveaska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. trans. H. G, Carlson, September, 1933, p. 4. 70 when the Investigating committee denied its v a lid ity , another barrier was placed between Riksteatern and the Association. That the committee's refusal to recommend the concession system was motivated by a desire to prevent private producers from becoming too involved with bureaucratic red tape mattered l i t t l e to the Association, and of course, the private producers could find l i t t l e room for gratitude among the many grievances that they had against both the committee and Riksteatern.

Other interests.—The state-subsidized theatres were in a poor position politically as well as financially. With dark threats emanating from Parliament to withdraw all subsidies, the administrators of these theatres could little afford to protest the imminent changes

in their operational activities; preparations were made to take on the new touring obligations. In this instance, the 1933 Investigation exerted an indirect influence. A motion was raised in the 1934

Parliament to reduce the lottery monies allotted to the theatre to 50

per cent of those given in 1933. But a special parliamentary committee

recommended disapproval of the motion on the grounds that the forth­

coming 1933 Investigation results would completely change conditions within the theatre. The motion was defeated.^^

The 1929 o ffer by the People's Parks' Theatre to undertake the

responsibility for a winter operation which would complement the

summer theatre, was an effort to expand its activities, and the organi­

zation undoubtedly fe lt it should have played an influential part in the

newly created Riksteatern. But while the Parks' Theatre was highly

=1943 ar.s betankande. p. 10. 71 praised by the investigating committee, the Skadebanan organization was chosen to become the instrument used to create the new theatre, and People's Parks was left where it had been before; outside the provincial winter theatre, and s t ill pleading for additional lottery subsidies for its own summer theatre.^^

Summarv. — The 1933 Investigation results were bound to aause disappointment. No plan in the world could have possibly satisfied so many different demands placed upon i t . It was an editorial in the

Stockholm newspaper Aftonbl.adet that contained the firs t reasonable estimate of the committee's accomplishment: "A committee can not by

itself create either public interest or theatre art. But it can point towards the steps necessary to remove the impediments for a sprouting of spontaneous interest in theatre . .

Im, Seen och Sa long. August, 1941, p. I.

^^Cited in "Pressroster kring betankandet," trans. H. G. Carlson, Skadebanan. XIX (June, 1934), x i . PART I I

RIKSTEATERN FROM 1934 TO 1943

The decade following the establishment of Riksteatern was a difficult period for the young organization. The task of bringing good theatre to all the people was an ambitious plan, fraught with many obstacles. A massive audience was necessary to support a genuine folkteater, but it was not easily assembled in a short time, especially when the theatre buildings available were not capable of holding really large audiences. Riksteatern was also faced with financial problems— the relatively small amounts of lottery subsidies awarded were not commensurate with the gigantic task the young organization was expected to accompiish.

Riksteatern's inadequacies as a folkteater quickly drew cries of disapproval from many groups and individuals. It had taken twenty years of petitions and resolutions to achieve a subsidized provincial theatre, but within a year of its inception, c ritic s were clamoring to have Riksteatern changed, or even dissolved, Gosta M. Bergman, the young managing director, bore the brunt of much of the criticism . He was literally beseiged with demands to resign his post. The theatrical magazine Scenen och FiImen asked in an ed ito ria l, "When is director

72 73

Gosta M. Bergman leaving?”^ And two weeks later the same journal changed the question to a demand: "Get out, Mr. Bergman!"^ Somehow

the organization remained intact, but the waves of criticism swelled

into one crisis after another. In 1943, the criticism mounted to a

point where the government fe lt it necessary to assemble a new

investigation, this time with a view towards the re-organization of

Riksteatern.

In terms of s ta tis tic s , Riksteatern's accomplishments were

sizeable, in its fir s t ten years, it arranged for approximately five

thousand performances; paid out wages totaling more than 4,000,000

kronor (800,000 dollars) to actors numbering between two hundred and

three hundred per season; and attracted audiences amounting to between

one and one-half, and two million people.^ But the critics were not

satisfied, and Riksteatern its e lf admitted it had fallen short of its

intended goal. In September 1943, Gustaf C o llijn , the centra}

administration chairman, acknowledged that "everyone is in agreement

about the desirability of Riksteatern's performances reaching a larger

audience than they do at present."^ The 1943 Investigation set about

to determine how Riksteatern was to achieve this goal.

Ijeddy Nyblom, "Riksteaterelandet. Nar avgar d ir. Gosta M. Bergman?* trans. H. G. Carlson, Scenen och Filmen. XXI (April, 1935), 3.

^Teddy Nyblom, "Gal hr Bergman," trans. H. G. Carlson, Scenen ,Q„ch- Filmen. XXI (May, 1935), 3.

^Gbsta M. Bergman, "Tio ars riksteater," Teatern. X (September, 1943), 7.

^Gustaf C o llijn , "Infor framtiden," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teatern. X (September, 1943), 4. 74

The firs t chapter of Part II is an examination of Riksteatern’ s regular operating procedures. The second chapter is a historical account of the significant indidents, debates, letters, petitions, and investigations which shed light upon Riksteatern’s relationship to its cultural environment, and which preceded, or culminated in, the 1943

Investigation. The third chapter is a survey of the charges leveled at Riksteatern in the frame of reference of the folkteater ideal, and the final chapter of this part of the study is an account of the

1943 Investigation and its results. CHAPTER V

GRADUAL EXPANSION

in spite of the charges of the critics, Riksteatern did grow in strength and popularity. The regulations governing the organization’s ac tivities have been covernd in Part I, Chapter IV, under the heading

The Establishment of Riksteatern, and it remains now to discuss how these regulations worked in actual practice. The present chapter is an examination of the various parts of Riksteatern and a discussion of how these parts worked together. Except where specifically noted,

Riksteatern’ s operating procedures were much the same in 1958, as they had been throughout the twenty-odd years of its history.

ItLa Q.en.tra| Administrât ion

Operating on a budget that usually amounted to less than

10 per cent of the total budget for Riksteatern, the central administration had the following responsibilities:

I. The production, or the arranging for the production of plays on behalf of the local societies. Each year the central administration sent to each local society a lis t of plays to be produced in the

following season. The local society then chose the play or plays (the number chosen depended on the size of the local society in question),

it believed its members wished to see. The fee to be charged was

75 76 determined by the central administration, which took into account

several factors: ( I ) the relative cost of the production (musical comedies or operettas were necessarily more expensive than plays);

and (2 ) the size of the theatre available to the society— the larger

the theatre, the higher the fee, since a large theatre could of course

expect greater revenues from ticket receipts than a small theatre.

When a contract was signed, the local society was obligated to pay the

fee determined.

The contract between the central administration and the local

society obligated the central administration to pay the costs of the

following: scripts and other play materials, scenery, costumes,

accident insurance, wages for the artists and administrative personnel,

travel to the theatre, promotional material ( i,e ,, posters, pictures,

and news items), and the play and music royalties,

2, The publication of the magazine Teatern. This magazine

was used by Riksteatern to strengthen the relationships between the

central administration and the local societies. Although it was the

"mouthpiece" of the organization, Teatern attempted to stimulate greater

public interest in theatre through articles whose subject matter

included theatre, drama, theatre history, movies, b a llet, and opera.

The costs of this publication were usually covered by the portion of the

membership dues (1:50 kronor or 30 cents) sent to the central

administration by the local societies,

3, The scheduling arrangements and leadership for the biennial 77 congresses. Managing Director Bergman has assessed the purposes and significance of the congresses thusly:

Here the delegates are able, in resolutions and discussions, to present their wishes and any criticism they have regarding the repertoires, a rtis tic standards, technical arrangements and the like, and can also study their common problems; forms of subscription, play promotion, advertising, popular stimuli for a wider interest in the theatre, group visits to per­ formances, and so on. . . . During the years we have been able to watch how this Congress has engendered a community of interest among the local organizations, which has given the Riksteater somewhat the character of a democratic mass movementV^

The central administration had other functions in the period between 1934 and 1943, and these functions are dealt with accordingly throughout the remainder of this chapter.

Local Societ i es

At the request of the 1933 Investigation, organizers were sent out during the spring and fa ll of 1933 to found Riksteatern local societies. To stimulate community interest and participation, public meetings were held with the assistance of the people who had worked for the moribund Skadebanan organization's local and regional theatre societ ies.®

When Riksteatern came into existence officially in January

1934, the ambulating Skadebanan organization was, in effect, put out of business. One Skadebanan local, in Stockholm, remained active as the Riksteatern society representing the capital city, but its relationship with the parent organization was a nebulous one. Its

^Gosta M. Bergman, "Riksteatern," reprint from The Angol- Review. A p ril, 1956.

^Berattelse over RPO:s verksamhet 1934. p. 4. 78 function was limited to the task of administering a subscription system for people interested in theatre in the Stockholm area. For the most part, Riksteatern and Skadebanan operated independently of each other, and during the 1942-43 season the association was discontinued completely.7

From the beginning, the responsibility for Riksteatern's future was placed upon the local societies. It was early decided to build the organization upon the interest and initiative taken by the individual member, rather than upon the foundation of bureaucratic directives and controls. The central administration functioned as a guiding force, not an authoritative one. The results have been varied— some local groups have grown stronger by the year, while others have languished and died. An army of unpaid volunteers manned the administrative posts within the local societies, and consequently the success or fa ilu re of any individual group was dependent upon the enthusiasm and efficiency of its officers.

When a local society signed a contract agreeing to the purchase of a production from the central administration, the society’ s responsibilities included (I) arrangements for paying the theatre rental

Costs; (2) the payment of wages for any extra technical people who were needed during the times of the performances (overtime wages for these people, if necessary, were paid for by the central administration); (3) provisions for the payment of the placement of the advertising materials

7 1943. %rs betankande. p, 23,

^ Ibid,. pp. 13, 20, 79 received from the central administration; (4) arrangements for the payment of the fixed fee, which was given to the Riksteatern tour leader on the day of the performance; (5) the keeping of accurate accounts and the sending of results, within two weeks after each performance, to the central administration; and (6 ) the sending of 25 per cent of any profit that might accrue after expenses to the central adminstration.'

Xh_£ growth of the local .societies. — The number of Riksteatern

local societies increased rapidly in the firs t two years, reached a peak in 1938, and then began to decline slowly (see Table 1 ).

In the nineteen forties the lottery monies awarded to Riksteatern were decreased (see Table V i, page 169), which forced the organization to charge higher fees to the locals for the purchase of performances.

In some cases the fee was fixed with the supposition that the individual

theatre would be 90 per cent sold out.^^ As a result, several local societies were forced to either curtail or suspend operations, which was one of the factors that accounted for the diminishing number of active societies. In these cases, the locals continued to be recorded as member societies, but did no purchasing of performances.

Another result of the curtailed subsidies during World War II was the assumption, by the central administration, of part of the respon­ s ib ilitie s and risks which were within the provinces of the local

s o c i e t i e s . T h e s e risks took the form of occasional guarantees of money.

^This last point concerning profit was changed by the Theatre Council in 1946 (see Chapter IX).

10 1943 ars betankande. p. 21. ^^Ib id . 80 varying between 100 and 300 kronor (20 and 60 d o llars). The sums were credited to local societies which were unable to pay the fixed fees In

f u l l . Sometimes these sums were written o ff, and sometimes they were recorded as debts owed to the central administration. By 1943, the debts had run up to the sum of 33, 046 kronor (6,609 d o llars).

TABLE 1

THE GROWTH OF LOCAL SOCIETIES OF THE SWEDISH RIKSTEATER, 1934-44^

Date Number of SocI e tles^ At Riksteatern’ s founding ...... 42 (42) 31/12 1934 63 (63) 31/12 1955 68 ( 68 ) 30/6 1956 72 (70) 30/6 1937 75 (72) 30/6 1938 77 (73) 30/6 1939 75 (73) 30/6 1940 74 (70) 30/6 1941 71 (61) 30/6 1942 69 (57) 30/6 1943 69 (55) 30/6 1944 69 (54)

aSource: 1943 ars betankande. p. 19.

bIn parentheses are the number of locals which actually arranged to purchase performances through the central administration. Financial difficulties often caused some locals to be dissolved, while others remained In an Inactive status.

Ibid.. p. 103. 81

r îcket policies.--Nearly all the theatres in Sweden utilize an

•'advance-booking fee" system» When a person wishes to purchase a ticket before the day of performance he must pay a small fee in addition to the price of the tic k e t. The fee varies in size according to the proximity to the day of performance. In other words, on a ticket purchased four days before the performance, the fee will be higher than the fee charged three days before the performance. Generally, the fee does not rise higher than the amount fixed for four days before the performance.

Two of the ticket privileges enjoyed by Riksteatern members were a reduction in the regular ticket price, and the right to purchase tickets in advance without having to pay the "advance-booking fee."^^

The ticket prices charged varied from local to local, and from year to year. Table 2 is a sampling of the prices charged to the general public by three different Riksteatern societies in 1940 and 1955. The discount available to Riksteatern members amounted to approximately 20 per cent of the prices listed.

The 1933 Investigation recommended that ticket sales be pro­ moted through subscription svstems. and while Riksteatern was at first reluctant to accept this suggestion whole-heartedly, by 1943, fifteen

local societies were using various types of this act ivity.^'^ These systems fall into two broad categories: individual subscription and group subscript ion.

p. 19. ^^Ibid.

l^The information on subscription systems is taken from a pamphlet published for the use of Riksteatern organizers and local society officers. 82

TABLE 2

COMPARATIVE SWEDISH RIKSTEATERN LOCAL SOCIETY TICKET PRICES FOR 1940 AND 1955

Highest Price Lowest Price Soc i et y in Kronor in Kronor

1940^ 1955b 19403 I955‘

Kalmar 5:--C 9:— 1:40 2:50

Kar1skrona 5:25 8:75 1:75 4:75

Ystad 6:10 9:50 1:65 5: —

^Aftonbladet (Stockholm), November 25, 1940.

bRiksteaterns centralstyrelse (Riksteatern's central administration), "Loka|avdelningarnas résultat spelaret 1954-55" (Riksteatern's O fficial S tatistics, Stockholm, 1955).

^There are approximately five (5) Swedish kronor to one (I) American dollar.

Individual subscription was the system which formed the back­ bone of local society operations. It consisted primarily of members voluntarily agreeing to attend one performance of each production pre­ sented by the local society. In so doing, the members enabled the society's administration to anticipate the size of the audience at any one performance rather accurately. When the number of subscribers

increased su fficien tly, the society could confidently order additional performances of the same production. The ever-present risk of expanding operations was thus somewhat lessened,

Riksteatern members availed themselves of many variations of the individual subscription method. The three most common approaches 83 were (I) payment of all term ticket costs at one time (There were two terms in a Riksteatern season: Fa11 term, from September through

January; and Spring Term, from February through May,); (2) payment of ticket costs before each performance, rather than at one time; and

(3) payment of a deposit (amounting to the cost of tickets for one performance) at the beginning of a season. The subscriber then paid for each performance ahead of time as he would have done under method

(2 ), The deposit was returned in the form of tickets for the final performance of the season which the subscriber attended. Each local society utilized some variation of the above methods.

Group subscription was designed to attract members of the general public who were outside the local society. This system was used extensively by the stationary state and municipal theatres and was p ri­ marily intended for single performance obligations rather than season subscript ions,

Riksteatern began experimenting with this method in the I930’ s

as a complement to the individual subscription system ,U nder this

system the local society contacted various clubs, unions, civic organi­

zations, and employees of business firms with offers of blocks of tick­

ets for a specific performance at reduced prices. The number of

tickets in a block varied between ten and the whole house. In cases where the financial responsibility was a burden to the local society,

the central administration shouldered part, or even a ll, of the risk

involved,

IGpor further information on group subscriptions see Of "propaganda" performances in the section on Special A ctiv itie s ,

1~^I943 ars, betankaadf, p. 21, 84

Membership. — In the years following the establishment of

Riksteatern, this particular facet of operations became a favorite target of the c ritic s (see Chapter VI) who insisted that Riksteatern members were too privileged.

In return for the payment of the nominal membership fee

(1:50 kronor or 50 cents) a member was entitled to the following: (I) a free subscription to the magazine Teatern. (2) the right to vote and take part in the operations of the local society, and (3) ticket-buying privileges for two persons. These ticket privileges included (a) a reduction on the prices of all tickets; (b) the right to purchase tic k ­ ets before they were made available to the general public, together with the exemption from the advance-booking fee; and (c) the right to enroll in an individual subscription plan.

Much as was the case with the local societies, the growth in number of membership cards purchased between 1934 and 1944 did not come up to early expectations. As Table 3 demonstrates, the number of members was actually declining by 1944.

Production Act i v it les

Production sources. — During the firs t decade of operations, there were three cources for the tours Riksteatern made available to

its local societies: (I) the stationary state-subsidized theatres,

(2) the commercial ambulating companies, and (3) the tours produced by

Riksteatern itself.

I. In return for the contributions from the state-subsidized theatres, Riksteatern reimbursed these institutions for travel expenses 85

and per diem wages for the theatrical artists used. Other expenses

(;»e,, advertising, sale of tickets, theatre rentals, etc.) were handled by Riksteatern in the manner described in the preceding sections of this chapter.

TABLE 3

SWEDISH RIKSTEATERN MEMBERSHIP CARDS PURCHASED, 1954-44®

Season Number of Cards'^

1933/34 7,039 1934/35 14,144 1935/36 15,823 1936/37 17,792 1937/38 18,455 1938/39 19,131 1939/40 18,467 1940/41 16,913 1941/42 15,563 1942/43 15,712 1943/44' 15,393

®Sourceî 1945 Irs. betankande. p. 22.

^This Iist does not include members of Skadebanan, which was, up to the 1942 season, the Riksteatern local society for the Stockholm ares,

2 . Arrangements were made with the private companies whereby

they received fixed sums for each performance given. These sums were

computed on the basis of the following considerations: (a) Riksteatern

p . 2 8. 86 had to be assured that all regular expenses were covered; and (b) be­ cause Riksteatern assumed the whole risk, it was more entitled than the private companies to the benefit of any profit that might accrue.

3. Riksteatern was completely responsible for the tours it produced its e lf.

The size of the contributions from each of these sources varied from year to year. At the beginning, Riksteatern’ s operations were based on tours produced by the state-subsidized theatres. This emphasis or trend was in line with the suggestions made by Minister Engberg and the 1933 Investigation.20 This was the high quality to which the people

in the provinces were supposedly entitled. But as time went on, these contributions moved into the background, while performances by private theatre troupes and Riksteatern’ s own companies became dominant (see

Table 12, page 221). It was demonstrated that Riksteatern’ s own pro­ ductions were considerably less expensive than those contributed by the state-subsidized theatres. This situation existed primarily because the prominent artists employed by the stationary theatres demanded, and received, high wages and better class travel accomodations than those asked for by the artists hired directly by Riksteatern.^^ A Royal

Dramatic Theatre tour, for example, was found to be over 400 kronor

(80 dollars) more expensive per playing day than a Riksteatern tour of

22 comparable size.

The private troupes which toured under Riksteatern’ s auspices

l^ Ib id ., p. 29. 20see Engberg’ s Dictum, Chapter IV.

21,19.43 ara. bÆtlnkaDjie.. p. 31. 87 met with sharp criticism in the provinces. It was claimed that these troupes belonged to the "old" provincial theatre and were not what had been anticipated when Engberg proclaimed that "only the best was good enough." The private companies, in short, no longer enjoyed the con­ fidence of the public in the provinces.

To counter this opposition to the private companies, Riksteatern began to organize more tours on its own in itia tiv e . In the 1941-42 season, Riksteatern adopted the policy of labeling even the private company productions "Riksteatern tours," discovering that this was wise from an advertising standpoint

Production distribution. — Riksteatern's original purpose had been ( 1) to provide plays for consumption by the local societies. How­ ever as the organization grew in size, other activities came into being to complement the original plan (see Table 11, page 217). These ac tiv itie s included (2) the "Small-town" tours, to areas not serviced by a local society; (3) plays for school children; and (41 performances for men called into m ilitary service during World War II.

I. Production ac tiv itie s for the local societies were charac­ terized by the same trends discussed in the sections The growth of the local societies and Membership. Local in itia tiv e alone was not capable of assuming the responsibilities necessary to expand operations to a point anticipated by the planners and theorizers in the late twenties and early th irtie s . Consequently, Riksteatern began more and more in the forties to enter into areas other than the local society operations.

23|bid.. p. 33. 24|bid.. p. 34. 88

It was these other activities that caused Riksteatern to develop

(especially during World War II end afterwards) into an organization considerably different from the one envisaged by the members of the

193'3 Investigation.

2. The most significant production activity development in the early forties was the "sma||-town tour" program.When it became evident that the number of towns willing and able to support local societies was limited, Riksteatern contacted civic organizations in various places and persuaded them to agree to sponsor performances.^^

In many cases the buildings suitable for theatre were decidedly in­ adequate; the stages were frequently limited in size and were i l l - equipped, while most of the auditoriums had very small seating capacities.

To compensate for these shortcomings, Riksteatern made special pre­ parations for the tours to be distributed to these theatres— plays were chosen with characteristics such as modest scenic requirements, small casts, and themes which would appeal to relatively unsophisticated audiences. For these a c tiv itie s , the central administration assumed far more financial risk than it did for the local society operations, and 97 consequently the cost to Riksteatern was greater.""

3. Part of Riksteatern’ s plans in 1933 had been to introduce

sma11 town. as the Swedes use the term, is probably a good deal different from the way Americans might picture i t . Several of the so-called Iaroer towns where Riksteatern has established local societies have populations under 3,000 and nearly half of them are under 10,000. See Table 15, page 228.

^^■L9Æ3 ars. betankande. p. 30.

27cf, ticket receipts for places with no local societies and local society performances. Table 11, page 217. 89

living theatre to the generation of Swedes still in school. At the

start, these activ itie s consisted of occasional performances selected

from among the plays intended for Riksteatern's regular audience, but

during the 1941-42 season, a regular touring company was established

to bring plays with appeal for children to the provinces.^® The usual

policy was to give two different performances per day: a matinee for children between the ages of eight and twelve, and an evening perfor­ mance for older children. For the most part, these performances were

limited to towns which had a local Riksteatern society, or towns where

the community could at least afford to subsidize the activity to some

extent. The record for the children's theatre was uneven, and as

Table 11, page 217 shows, revealed no particular trend, either upward

or downward. When funds ran short, the local society and small-town

operations received higher priority considerations than the perfor-

29 mances for school children,

4, While Sweden was not directly involved in the war, she

spent the years from 1940 to 1945 in feverish preparations for any

eventuality. By 1943, Sweden had mobilized nearly 600,000 men out of

a total population of 6,501,000,^® Riksteatern put on performances

for these servicemen beginning in 1941, with purposes similar to the

American USO, Free performnnces were given in the field and the costs

3|943 ars betankande. p, 30,

Z^Berattelse over Riks.te.al.erns ysrKsemhat 12^ 3.» P. 7,

^®Wi||iam L, Shirer, The Challenge of Scandinavia: Norway. Sweden. Denmark and Finland in Our Time. (London: Robert Hale Limiatd, 1956), p. 121, 90 were covered by Riksteatern. These ac tiv itie s were discontinued following the cessation of h o s tilitie s in 1945.^^

Special A ctivities

"Special* ac "propaganda" performances. — This activity was begun by Riksteatern in 1942. Various public and civic organizations sponsored these performances through the purchase of group subscription tickets. The purpose was to stimulate interest among the members of the Popular Movements and Public Organizations.

Other a c tiv itie s . — Parallel to the production a c tiv itie s ,

Riksteatern also developed a comprehensive program of information and education about theatre during the th irtie s and forties. Theatre Weeks were often arranged in different parts of the country. During these periods, Riksteatern produced several plays at reduced prices, and in conjunction with the plays, lectures and discussions devoted to theatrical subjects were arranged. Where theatre weeks were not deemed feasible because of limited population or other reasons, special courses were set up over a period of from one to three days. These courses were usually made possible though the cooperation of such civic groups as the National Association for Amateur Theatre (ATR), and the Workers*

Educational Association (ABF). In addition, lecture tours were sent out by the central administration from time to time to various high schools

32 and col Ieges.

S lBeraitelse over RPOts verksamhet 1946. p. 4.

321943 ars betankande. pp. 30-31. 91

From the sta rt, Riksteatern fought for subsidies commensurate with its goals. A folkteater would cost a great deal and its size,

according to Riksteatern, was limited by the size of the subsidies

awarded.The lottery monies given rose rather steadily for the firs t

six or seven seasons (see Table 4 ), and when Riksteatern took on the

responsibility of providing entertainment for servicemen, it requested more m o n e y .T h e state replied by increasing the monies awarded by

50,000 kronor (10,000 dollars), provided that a total of 100,000 kronor

(20,000 dollars) would be set aside by Riksteatern for this wartime

a c tiv ity . In re a lity , therefore, the organization had 50,000 kronor

(10,000 dollars) less to use for civilian activities. Riksteatern

protested, but until 1944, nothing was done.^^

In a special investigation of Riksteatern's finances conducted IPS by the Theatre Council (dated May |3, 1943) it was found that the

organization was not as financially sound as it should have been. The

report recommended that more subsidies be allotted, but the suggestion

was turned down.^®

On June 8 , 1944, the Theatre Council again proposed an increase

in subsidies, noting the point made above that the monies used for

performances for servicemen left less for Riksteatern to devote to

c ivilian a c tiv itie s . On June 30, 1944, the government relented and

^^"Riksteatern skrivelse till Regerinaen." Teatern. X (February, 1943), 3 f f.

34|943 ^rs betankande. pp. 35-36.

^^Ibid.. p. 35. 92 awarded an increase of 25,000 kronor (5,000 dollars) to Riksteafern for c iv ilia n activities during the firs t half of the 1944-45 season.

TABLE 4

LOTTERY MONIES ALLOTTED TO THE SWEDISH RIKSTEATER, 1934-44®

Season Amount in Kronor^

Spring 1934 ...... 12,578:67 1934/35 ...... 100,000: — 1935/36 ...... 200,000: — 1936/37 ...... 200,000: — 1937/38 ...... 250,000: — 1938/39 ...... 300,000: — 1939/40 ...... 300,000: — 1940/41 ...... 300,000: — 1941/42 ...... 350,000: — 1942/43 ...... 350,000: — 1943/44 ...... 352,000: — Fall 1944 ...... 201,000: —

^Source: Berattelse over P.P.QiS verksamhet 1 2 ^ -4 ^ .

^There are approximately five (5) Swedish kronor to one (I) American do I|a r.

The steps taken to improve Riksteatern's financial operations during the 1943-44 season (including recovery of some of the monies owed to the central administration by the local societies) were later judged to have been successful.^®

Besides attempting to get increased subsidies from the state government, Riksteatern worked to stimulate greater interest and support

37 Ibid.. p. 36. 38 I bid. 93 from the community governments where local societies were located.

Several types of community aid resulted--among them were indirect support in the forms of free use of the theatres, return of ticket tax receipts, and direct support in the form of sums of money to help the

local societies to lower ticket costs. By 1943, the direct yearly monies alone which were allotted to Riksteatern by the communities amounted to nearly 20,000 kronor (4,000 dollars), as is indicated in

Table 15, page 228.

39 Interview with Riksteatern Organization Manager Arne Forsberg, CHAPTER VI

MOUNTING CRITICISM

The following chapter is a chronological survey of many of the significant criticisms leveled at Riksteatern between the years 1935 and 1943. These criticisms are also examined within another frame of reference in Chapter VII.

The disappointment and disapproval by many people of the results of the 1933 Investigation and the subsequent organization of Riksteatern did not take long to develop into opposition—collective as well as individual. Some of the criticisms led to contractive changes, but many incidents, such as the Harry Roeck-Hansen episode, illustrated how even well-intentioned efforts made by the fledgling organization were used by its opponents to discredit i t .

Fsbcuscy 1 2 ^ —I M Harry Roeck-Hansen Incident

Independent producer Harry Roeck-Hansen was approached by

Riksteatern late in 1934 and persuaded to send out a play Hansen had produced at his Blanche Theatre in Stockholm. As if to apologize for this act of weakness, Hansen remarked to newsmen, "The proposition looked so good, I just couldn't say no."^ Yet on returning from the tour a few months later, Hansen announced that "the only thing I regret

i Gefle Daqblad (Gavie), trans. H. G. Carlson, February 16, 1935,

94 95

is that I sold myself to Riksteatern for a mess of potage. The tour went so well that I could have taken the risk myself— fille d houses and enthusiasm everywhere," Instead of acknowledging the fact that

Riksteatern had worked diligently to help produce the "fille d houses and enthusiasm," Hansen was concerned over profits that would never enter his pocket.

AccJUL 1 2 ^ —Ib& Ro-S.enbad Debate

Prompted by a strong general feeling of disapproval of

Riksteatern, the Swedish Actors* Association (STF) held an open meeting at the Rosenbad Hotel outside Stockholm to discuss problems related to this situation.^ The discussion, however, turned into a sharp exchange of charges and denials between representatives of various branches of the theatre and members of Riksteatern's central administra­ tion. STF's Social Section Chairman Per-Axel Branner led off with a stinging attack. He reiterated Per Lindberg's charge that Riksteatern had wrongly placed emphasis on distribution instead of on production, and objected strongly to the many privileges enjoyed by Riksteatern members, or, as he referred to them, the "state-subsidized fireside- sitters."^ Branner went on to claim that Riksteatern was responsible

for much of the unemployment prevalent among theatrical artis ts , and he urged that Riksteatern cooperate more closely with the various

professional theatre interests other than the state-subsidized theatres.

Ibid.. trans. H. G. Carlson.

^"Riksteatern under debatt," Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. A pril, 1935, p. 234.

4|bid.. trans. H. G. Carlson. 96

Producer Harry Roeck-Hansen, director 0|of Molander, and even

Riksteatern’s own central administration chairman, Mayor Gunnar Fant, ail recommended that Riksteatern adopt an obligatory subscription system ( i.e ., members would be forced to purchase a fixed number of tickets before the season started) instead of the voluntary system then in use. Hansen also suggested that membership in Riksteatern be limited to people with low incomes.^

Representing the commercial provincial producers, Allan Ryding complained that competition from the state-subsidized theatres had made it d iffic u lt for private theatre people to get work, Ryding was joined by Fant, Branner, and others in recommending that a larger place be made available within Riksteatern for commercial theatre groups.®

Riksteatern central administration member Gustaf Collijn attempted to calm all parties concerned by calling for more patience and understanding,7 but he was followed by Managing Director Bergman who stressed the fact that Riksteatern was primarily the concern of the provinces, and that its firs t duty was to its audience, and not the professional theatre people. Bergman added that setting income limitations would be a serious hindrance to the organization's develop­ ment.® Viggo Loos, also a central administration member, supported

Bergman and stated that any changes which would affect the authority

®UoDsa|a Nva Tidning. April 4, 1935. ®lbid.

^"Teaterforbundets mote." Teatern. II (April, 1935), 128.

®G6sta M, Bergman, "Riksteatern— framst ett landsortens intresse." Teatern. II (April, 1935), 129, 133. 97 amd power enjoyed by the local societies would lead inevitably to a debilitating bureaucracy,^

Nothing very constructive resulted from this debate, but issues were defined and lines were drawn. Some of the statements, from both sides, were well thought out and clearly expressed, but unfortunately more heat than light was generated, and, perhaps proper in a gathering of theatre people, an element of farce was introduced into the pro­ ceedings, Revue producer Karl Gerhard finished a statement charging

Riksteatern with dictatorial methods by shouting "HeiI Engberg!”^^

The most significant fact in the discussion was that Central

Administration Chairman Fant had sided with the c ritic s against

Riksteatern on several issues. Backed by these c ritic s , Fant collected grievances against Riksteatern and set about to affect certain changes.

The stage was thus set for the first real battle the young organization had to face,

ëây. 1955—The Mayor Fant Incident

At a special meeting of the central administration on May 12,

1935, Chairman Gunnar Fant read a list of c ritic a l remarks directed against Managing Director Bergman, Foremost was the criticism that

Bergman was not qualified to hold his position and should be replaced by a professional theatre person. In addition, Fant demanded that

Riksteatern adopt an obligatory subscription system to guarantee better use of the lottery monies awarded to the organization. The

^Viggo Loos, "Riksteatern ur en loka|avde|nings synpunkt," »8 tern I I (April, 1935), 132,

lOUoDsala Nya Tidnina. April 4, 1935, 98 U administration refused to agree with Mayor Fant, however, and he saw no alternative but to tender his resignation»^^

As might be expected, the episode aroused protests from many sections of the theatre world. In defense of Fant, Allan Ryding de­ clared unequivocally that the chairman's . . departure would signify

the death of Riksteatern»"^^ And speaking for the Actors' Association,

president U|f von Konow stated that "» . » at the discussion in the

Rosenbad Hotel on April 3, was observed that Mayor Fant was the man we needed as Riksteatern's leader; the right man in the right job. We counted on him . »

Harry Roeck-Hansen put the blame for the trouble upon Bergman,

and accused the young managing director of acting like a dictator.

But to back up his charges that Bergman was unfit for the position he held, Hansen raised a rather strange objection. He charged that "worst of a ll is the fact that he [sergma^ envelops himself in a depressing

atmosphere of tediousness. It appears impossible to arouse enthusiasm

in him»"15

Taking advantage of the confusion resulting from this disrupting

turn of events. Minister Engberg stepped quietly into the affair and

countered Fant's challenge by accepting his resignation. To ju s tify his

action Engberg referred to the Riksteatern General Regulations,

Paragraph 7, which specified that the central administration had sole

H Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), May 14, 1935,

12|bid.. trans. H. G. Carlson.

13|bid.. trans. H. G. Carlson. ^^ibid.

l^ibid.. trans. H. G. Carlson, 99 right to determine who was, or was not, to be the managing director.

It was apparent that Bergman had acted a rb itra rily with some people and made a number of enemies, for, in a statement to the press, members of the central administration (C o llijn , El Id in, Kabe, and Loos— the men who had voted down Fant’ s resolution) admitted that Bergman

. « should have shown greater fle x ib ility in a number of dealings with certain theatre leaders • « But the last shot in Riksteatern’ s firs t conflict was fired by Engberg. On May 31, 1935, he appointed theatre director Gunnar Klintberg as the new chairman of the central administrâtion.^®

JL2^—lïxa Cr.iiKa.I Letters ±2. I M £Q.U.gçlL

Engberg's interference in the Fant incident halted attempts by various vested interests to exert influence upon Riksteatern from within the organization, but it did not prevent these interests from applying pressure through other channels. In the month following

Engberg’ s appointment of a new central administration chairman to re­ place Fant, two formal letters were presented to the Theatre Council, both of which requested that the government act to re-organize

Riksteatern. Opposition to the new organization had thus become relatively well-organized in only a little more than a year of its

estabIi shment.

The firs t letter came about as a result of the annual meeting

^^Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), May 15, 1935.

17 I bid., trans. H. G. Car Isom.

l^Berattelse over RPO:s verksambet 1955. p. 4. 100 of the Theatre Owners* Association CT’Af ) In early June, 1935* The letter accused Riksteatern of mismanagement In the renting of theatres*

Axel Lundgren, representing the Malrrio branch of the association, charged that **a theatre owner today never knows whom to regard as the rig htful

leasee of the locale,”^® since separate rental arrangements were made not only by the tour leader, but also by the Riksteatern central administration and the local society*

Central administration chairman Gunnar Klintberg replied to

Lundgren*s charges by pointing out that these separate steps were taken to assure that each party realized Its obligations* Since the organi­ zation was s t ill new, the various branches of Riksteatern needed more experience In the application of operating procedures, and Klintberg 20 requested that a ll parties concerned exercise patience*

A few days la te r, the second letter was presented to the Theatre

Council by the Actors* Association (STF)* On the basis of Information and experience drawn from the Rosenbad debate and the Mayor Fant episode,

• 21 the document recommended, among other things, the following: ( |) that subsidies to Riksteatern be withdrawn unless the organization Instituted an obligatory subscription system; (2) that Rlksteatern*s heavy demands on the state-subsidized theatres be reduced; (3) that Riksteatern deal

directly with STF regarding the hiring of theatrical artists (l*e*. In­

stead of with the state theatres); (4) that the private producers be

^^Aftonbladet (Stockholm), trans* H* G* Carlson, June 12, 1935*

^^Aftonbladet (Stockholm), June 15, 1935*

21"TIII Teaterradet.** Svenska Teat erf orkundets September, 1935, pp* 15-16* loi

given more consideration and help; (5) that Riksteatern cease its mis­

guided adherence to the "star system" |_i .e*$ the use of the prominent

artists attached to the state-subsidized theatres}; (6 ) that regarding

the selection of programs, Riksteatern pay more attention to the

audience’s ability to comprehend and appreciate the material jj^.e., to choose plays of a more popular n a tu r^ ; (7) that Riksteatern adopt a

program based more on production than on distribution; (8 ) that the

amateur theatre not be encouraged and aided (as recommended by the 1933

Investigation) to the point where it became a threat to the professional

theatre; (9) that the post of managing director of Riksteatern be held

by an experienced professional person who was appointed by the Theatre

Council (and not elected by the central administration); (10) that the magazine Teatern stop printing reviews of Riksteatern productions, and

stop their "Sunday supplement" approach to movies; and (II) that

Riksteatern do more to encourage interest in theatre among the nation’s

young people.

At the request of the Ministry of Education and Culture, the

Theatre Council investigated the criticism, both formal and informal, of

Riksteatern, and in a statement published June 22, 1935, the Council

recommended closer cooperation between Riksteatern and other theatrical

institutions and societies, but otherwise rejected the various proposals

which would have affected drastic changes in the structure of the

organ izat ion,~

For the moment at least, Riksteatern, in spite of its critics,

was still intact. The firs t major storms had passed, and central

ZZgoras Tidnina. June 22, 1935, 102 administration member Vlggo Loos must have echoed the thoughts of many people In the organization when he wrote that "one hopes that now

Riksteatern will sail upon calmer waters.

S,ep.t.gmt?,sr I936— Criticism from the National Radio Service

In the fall of 1936, Riksteatern found that the leadership of the nationalized Swedish broadcasting system had joined the opposition, in an Interview, radio director Carl Anders Dymllng accused Riksteatern of dictatorial tendencies when It attempted to prohibit certain plays from being broadcast.Riksteatern denied the charge,but It had an

Interest In the a ffa ir. On several occasions Riksteatern had requested that the radio service delay a certain broadcast, because, claimed a statement Issued by the central administration, "a radio performance of a play In Its entirety, shortly before [italics In the original] a

Riksteatern tour of the same play, can do damage by taking away some of the Interest for the stage performance

In this Instance Riksteatern’ s problem was unique. No other theatre was faced with the same kind of competition from radio, for only Riksteatern operated like the broadcasting service— on a nation­ wide scale. The plays used on the radio were often productions pur­ chased directly from the state theatres, but only after the plays had

^^Norrkoplno Tldnlnqar. trans. H. G. Carlson, June 22, 1935.

^^SvdsvRnska Daabiadet (Maim'd), September 2, 1936.

^^RPO:s centra Istyrelse, "Riksteatern och radlon," StockhoIms Tldnlncen. September 7, 1936.

^^Stockholms Tldnlnaen. trans. H. G. Carlson, September 9, 1936, 103 had a run in the cities where these theatres were located and thus could not compete with and hurt the original productions, in spite of these

facts, Riksteatern was accused of attempting to stifle competition.

January 1957— Riksteatern and O.lof Molanders* Folkteater

Olof Molander, then director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre,

experimented with the folkteater ideal by presenting several individual

27 productions of light comedies at a huge auditorium in Stockholm.

Utilizing this experience, he laid out plans for a permanent folkteater which would work closely with various working-class organizations to help attract a mass audience. Several people believed that this con­ cept of attracting a large audience with light entertainment should be

a sign for Riksteatern to follow suit, but Riksteatern replied that

the cardinal point in its activities was the insistence upon high-

quality theatre.28 Per Lindberg went one step further and termed

Molander’ s plan "the most irresponsible in a long time . . ."29

Mix 1937— C r it icism aj. JJ^g. Scandinavian Theatre Conference

The 1937 gathering of theatre people from all parts of

Scandinavia was an opportune setting for the critic s of Riksteatern, for

the conference provided both a large, captive audience, and a wide

press coverage.

Among the many speeches of tribute (inevitable on such occasions)

to such people as King Gustav III, the father of the Swedish theatre,

2^NorrkQDina Tidningar. February 8 , 1937.

29svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, February 4, 1937. 104

and to his cultural descendent. Minister Arthur Engberg, was one of a distinctly different tenor sent to the conference by independent pro­ ducer Allan Ryding from the provinces where he was on tour. Instead of praise, Ryding heaped scorn upon Riksteatern and the people responsible

for its existence.

Conditions in the provincial theatre, Ryding declared, were truly desperate. The movies and radio were contributing causes to this situation, but, according to Ryding, everything had been fine up until

1933, when the government interfered by instituting Riksteatern. Since then, he continued, the private touring troupes had suffered. Reminding his listeners of a proposal for the setting up of kretsteaters which he made at the request of the 1933 Investigation, Ryding demanded a new

investigation on the provincial theatre, this time, he emphasized,

". . . composed of people with experience in the professional theatre,

and not only of professors, doctors, and scientists."31

Ryding was joined in his attack by director Erik Bergman who claimed that Riksteatern's influence was responsible for the decimation of the corps of actors in the provinces.3^ And director Harry Bergvall

followed with a charge that because Riksteatern supposedly controlled

the theatre rental situation in the provinces, it was becoming impos­

sible for private theatre leaders to plan touring schedules.""

Another c r itic , theatre owner Axel Lundgren, proposed a plan

S^AIIan Ryding, "Svensk Iandsorteater f" Svenska Teat erfSr- bund.ets Medlemsbl ad E fte rs k rift. May, 1937, p. 36.

3 lIbid.. trans. H. G. Carlson.

32paçens Nvheter (Stockholm), May 20, 1937. 3"3|b;d. 105 which would supplant the inefficient Riksteatern: government support for a network of kretsteaters— ten large ones and ten smaller ones.

This, he claimed, would lead to the long-awaited renaissance of the provincial theatre.'^

Some critics, instead of attacking Riksteatern directly, found other methods of undermining its prestige. In a self-aggrandizing speech, radio director Carl Anders Dymling referred to his medium as the only "true folkteater.

Behind many of these attacks was an sssertion that Riksteatern had failed in its mission because the main purpose of the 1933

Investigation had been to find methods of aiding not only the provincial theatre, but the commercial interests in the provinces as w ell. Once again it was demonstrated that what the c ritic s demanded was not ^

Riksteatern, but several Riksteaterns. each one satisfying the needs of a particular vested interest.

J.uly. IgJZ—cr,it,i,£,i.giïi ima IM ,Pg9,g.l .&.!,& pslKs.' Th£a.tx:.Q

While the People's Parks' Theatre could not ju stifiab ly claim that Riksteatern's activities competed with, or in some other way operated to the detriment of its own program, the organization publi­ cized, at the 1937 annual People's Parks' Theatre convention, a grievance which involved Riksteatern,^®

In a letter to the government which demanded an increase in

I adet (Stockholm), May 20, 1937.

^®Dayens Nvheter (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, May 20, 1937. ^®Savsio Tidning. July 28, 1937. 106 lottery subsidies, the convention pointed out that Riksteatern con­ sistently received more government support than the People’ s Parks’

Theatre, in spite of the fact that ”in reality, Riksteatern does not operate, with the aid of its yearly grant of 300,000 kronor [ô0,000 d o lla r^ , more than one-tenth as extensive a program as People’ s Parks does with its 50,000 kronor jj0,000 dollars]."^^ No mention, however, was made of the fact that People’ s Parks’ Theatre had sources of income

(e .g ., revenues from refreshment and dance areas within the parks) which were not available to Riksteatern.

F.ej?rü,acx 1 2 ^ — Ih s . ü s rj. Gerhard Incident

Karl Gerhard, revue producer, and sometimes called “Sweden’ s

Aristophanes,’’^® accused Riksteatern of unfair practices in rental pro­ cedures. Attempting to rent a theatre in the provinces on a Monday evening, Gerhard was refused, on the grounds that a Riksteatern troupe had engaged the theatre for the Tuesday following. When Gerhard asked for the theatre for Wednesday evening, he was again refused. At this point Gerhard called in the press and announced that the incident was a typical example of the dictatorial methods the state employed to suppress competition.^®

The owner of the theatre involved in the dispute, Mr. 0. Wahl in, thereupon stated that he had acted on his own authority—Riksteatern knew nothing of the a ffa ir . Wahl in reasoned that since Riksteatern had

^^Ibid.. trans. H. G. Carlson.

^®Hil1estrom, Theatre and. Ba_l le.t_. p. 73.

^®Gbt eborcs Post en. February 19, 1938. 107 rented the theatre several months in advance, he would be doing the organization a disservice by allowing Gerhard to perform on a day too close upon the day Riksteatern had engaged, and this was apparently a precaution he also took in connection with other theatre groups,

Riksteatern supported the owner’ s claim by denying any knowledge of the incident until reports of it appeared in the press.But

Gerhard only scoffed, charged that Riksteatern’s explanation was

” , . . partly without factual worth and partly lie s ,”^^ and went on to praise the People’s Parks’ Theatre as ’’the real Riksteater."^^

My. 1 2 M - - - J M Federal Theatre-Riksteatern Comparison

Actors’ Association (STF) officer Per-Axel Branner, one of

Riksteatern’s most persistent critics, visited the United States early

in 1938, and returned impressed by the achievements of the Federal

Theatre, After a glowing account of the theatre’ s a c tiv itie s , he could not resist comparing it with its Swedish counterpart, ”A wave of theatre

interest is passing over America," Branner reported, "which manifests

itself as healthier, bolder, and livelier than our Riksteatern, because

it proceeded from the right point. It began with product ion [ita lic s not in originejJ, , , , The truth is on the march in free America,

Later that same year, another v is ito r to America had high

^^Smalands FoI kb I ad (Jonkbpingl, February 19, 1958.

^iGÜteborçs Po&ten. February 25, 1958,

^2|bid,« trans, H, G. Carlson.

431 bid., trans, H, G, Carlson,

44per-Axel Branner, "Amerikansk teater just nu," trans, H, G, Carlson, Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. May, 1938, p, 190, 108 praise for the Federal Theatre, but her comparison was less c ritic a l of

Riksteatern* Alva Myrdal^^ wrote of the Federal Theatre that "this type of Riksteatern or Folkteater cannot disappear with unemployment* Much

In the organization can be changed, but Its position Is secure***^^

iuQ£. LLnuikAfaTa EQ,Ltü.eater

Per Lindberg, s t il l sure In 1940, as he was In 1933, that the path to a folkteater was through close cooperation with the Popular

Movements and Public Organizations; and equally certain that Riksteatern had failed to take full advantage of this theory, planned a folkteater project called PQOUJ dr Entertainment Couoc i I (Folkr'orelsens

Programradet1 - In partnership with actress Nalma Wlfstrand and producer

Karl Gerhard, Lindberg produced one play which toured many parts of

Sweden under the auspices of various people's organizations*^^

The scheme was an ambitious one— too ambitious, for although much was said about the v alid ity of such a theatre by leaders of the civic groups which acted as temporary sponsors, the financial support necessary to make It successful was not forthcoming, and the fir s t production was the only production presented by the ill-fa te d Proaram-

The Ideal of a folkteater based on a close relationship with the

Public Organizations and Popular Movements did not die, however, with

45*1fe of Gunnar Myrdal, whose monumental study of the negro In the United States, The American Dilemma, remains a classic in Its fie ld *

45a |v 3 Myrdal, "Dramatik som nodhJ8|psarbetet* Amerlkas Rlkste- ater har 9,000 anstallda och gor alia tlders storsta teaterexperlment,** trans* H* G* Carlson, Vecko-Journalen^ November, 1938, p* 46*

47Grevenlus, En bok om Lindberg. pp* 150-51* 48|bid. 109

Lindberg's 1940 e ffo rt, and less than two years later, proponents of the ideal were to attempt to convert Riksteatern into just such an institut ion.

N.Q.Y£Cnb.er: I940— Criticism from a. LocaI Society

In a meeting, the results of which made headlines throughout the nation, members of the GavIe local society of Riksteatern complained that the fees the society had to pay for Riksteatern productions were far too high, Riksteatern, the members charged, had falsely followed the cult of the "star system," and the high wages necessary to attract these people were the resu lt. A suggestion was made to the effect that perhaps local amateur talent could be recruited to supplement the pro­ fessional talent used, and thus help to cut costs. In addition, the society complained that the programs did not include enough "every-day 49 drama" which would serve to attract a really large audience.

A reply to these charges and recommendations came sw iftly, not, as might be expected from the Riksteatern central administration, but from one of Sweden's leading actors, Edvin Adolphson. Adolphson denied that the "star system" was an influential factor in the Swedish theatre.

On the contrary, he claimed, Sweden was less afflicted with this tendency than most other European nations. The fact that there was relatively l i t t l e difference between the wages paid to leading players, and those paid to supporting players was sufficient evidence to demonstrate this point. To move in the direction suggested by the Gavie local society

( i . e . , to lower wages, to change the repertoire, and to use amateurs).

^^Nya Dagliga Allehand.a (Stockholm), November 13, 1940. I 10

Adolphson warned, would be to debase Riksteatern’ s high purposes.^^

In this particular incident Riksteatern was placed in an unusual position. It was not that the central administration was under fire from one of its locals; this was natural and to be expected in an organization which gives as much free rein and authority to its members as Riksteatern does. But while the Actors* Association (STF) was on record as being in opposition to Riksteatern, as indicated by the pronouncements of its officers (e,g ., Branner, Bergvall, and von Konow), here was a prominent rank-and-file member publicly defending Riksteatern’s operating procedures. What had happened was that Riksteatern had become one of the largest theatrical employers in the country (see

Chapter V, under Production A c tiv itie s ), and, as Branner was to learn, his open and aggressive opposition to the organization, especially during the years between 1940 and 1943, was to cause him to lose the confidence of the STF members who had recognized the significance of this aspect of

Riksteatern’s growth and development,

A o d L l 2 I 1L— S i Kfil£Æ tjer.n snsL H is Affiat eur Tbgatr.£

From the moment that the 1933 Investigation recommended that

Riksteatern aid and encourage the artistically worthwhile amateur theatre, some critics voiced the fear that amateur activities might reach a stage where they presented unfair competition for the profes­ sional theatre.It was true that from time to time amateur or, to be

^Q|^a Daçliga Allehanda (Stockholm), November 14, 1940,

^^von Konow, Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad, September, 1933, p, 4, 111 more exact, semi-professional groups produced low-quality entertainment

and rented theatres which were then closed to professional companies.

But in spite of the fact that Riksteatern opposed this form of maateur

theatre (see below), the organization was actually accused of encouraging

i t .

In the spring of 1941, several amateur groups termed "low-

quality” by various theatre people,enjoyed a brief period of

popularity, and the result was that unemployment increased in the

acting profession.'^ Arvid Englind, longtime foe of Riksteatern,^^

used this opportunity to promote his favorite theatrical cause— the

kretsteater.

Audiences supported the amateurs, Englind argued, because their

demand for theatre was not satisfied by Riksteatern; thus Riksteatern

was really responsible for the unemployment which had spread among pro­

fessional actors. But if a sufficient number of kretsteaters were

b u ilt, he continued, people would no longer feel the necessity to turn 55 to the amateur theatre for entertainment.

In reply, Riksteatern stated its regret that the spurious amateur

theatre was thriving at the expense of the people who made their living

in the theatre, but it vehemently denied Englind’ s allegation that

Riksteatern was responsible for the state of affairs. "It should be

unnecessary," Riksteatern’ s statement concluded, "to emphasize that

Riksteatern would be happy, with the aid of larger government subsidies.

^^Social Demokraten (Stockholm), April 23, 1941. I bid.

54see Chapter I I I , A form Ion a_ foLkt&a_t.en.

^^Socisl Demokraten (Stockholm), April 23, 1941. I 12 to create more work opportunities for professional actors.”^®

While in the extreme, Englind’ s charges demonstrate that things had reached a point where it seemed that any theatrical problem could be traced to Riksteatern’ s supposedly unhealthy influence upon the

Swedish theatre.

M x 1 2 1 1 —lbs. Berqv.a 11 -Ohman Let te r l a Itlg . Theatre Counc i I

Only a month after Englind had charged Riksteatern with being responsible for turning audiences toward the amateur theatre, a le tte r, sent to the Theatre Council by opera singer Martin 'Ohman and Actors’

Association officer Harry Bergvall, also used Riksteatern as a whipping

57 boy. Most of the charges were merely repetitions of ones that had been raised earlier. The points made included the following: (I) that

Riksteatern’s demands upon the state-subsidized theatres were excessive;

(21 that commercial touring companies were finding it impossible to compete with Riksteatern and still make a profit; (3) that Riksteatern had monopolized the renting of theatres to the disadvantage of the same commercial companies; (4) that because of Riksteatern, job opportunities for those actors not employed by the royal or municipal theatres were diminishing; and (5) that Riksteatern’s membership system discriminated against the lower economic classes.

But two new recommendations were made which were significant:

(I) that the lottery monies awarded to the theatre be dealt out on a

56Social Demokraten (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, Apri1,24, 1941.

5?Martin "Ôhman and Harry Bergvall, Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), May 21, 1941 (Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941) I 13 more equitable basis [i.e., less money to Riksteatern); and (2) that the new distribution of subsidies include monies to be used for the estab­

lishment of an operetta theatre in Stockholm.

It was not unlike the situation where the People's Parks' plea

for increased subsidies (see July 1937— Crit icism from the People's

Parks' Theatre) was ju stified on the grounds that since the Parks'

Theatre was a larger operation than Riksteatern, it deserved at least as much, or perhaps more money than Riksteatern received. Bergvall and

'dhman, in order to achieve their goal ( i . e . , a state-subsidized operetta theatre), began by questioning Riksteatern’ s right to a large share of the lottery monies, and then went on to suggest that if the monies were

to be redistributed, a new operetta theatre would be a worthwhile project

for consideration as a recipient. Criticism of Riksteatern, it appears,

had become a means by which a vested interest could further its own

ambit ions.

4.UÙS JL24L--SIF L,et t er is. IM Itieains. c&umii I.

In this letter, dated June 25, 1941, the Actors' Association

(STF) kept up the pressure on Riksteatern by reminding the Theatre

Council of the letter sent by the Association in 1935, which recommended 58 many changes in the provincial institution, STF found that its six-

year-old charges were still valid and it called for a new investigation

of Riksteatern and of other questions related to this organization.

State subsidies to the theatre, said the STF letter, were not efficiently

^®See June 1935—Two Critical Letters to the Theatre Council. I 14

distributed; and one purpose of the new investigation would be to dis- 59 cover better uses for these monies.

EaJUL J M L — I M Beginning ^ C r is is

The three sharp attacks upon Riksteatern in the spring and

early summer of 1941, made by Englind, Bergvall and Ohman, and fin a lly

by the Actors' Association, signaled the beginning of a war during which

Riksteatern was to find its e lf involved in skirmishes and major engage­ ments with nearly a|| of its c ritic s ; a war which was ended by the

publication of the results of the 1943 investigation in September, 1944,

The opening shots were followed by a lull which lasted through

the summer of 1941, But in November, the c ritic s resumed the attack.

On the first day of this month, Harry Bergvall returned with another

appeal to the Theatre CounciI,For the most part, this new attack

consisted of repetitions of the accusations made in the letter that

Bergvall co-authored wtth Martin Ôhman the previous May, but in addition

he charged that an organization ", , , with one-sided leadership by

people who were not practicing theatre professionals could never fill

the requirements one had a right to demand from it,"G1

Bergvall's letter was followed a few weeks later by one from

Gil I is Blom, the editor of the Actors' Association magazine, Svenska

^^Svenska Teaterfürbundet (Swedish Actors' Association), Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), June 25, 1941 (Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941),

^ÔHarry Bergvall, Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), November I, 1941 (Stockholm) Teaterradet Archives, 1941),

Gl|bid,. trans, H. G. Carlson, I 15

T-ealenf or buad.et s Med I emsb I ad Blom’ s thesis wps that Riksteatern had stagnated in its development. Armed with s ta tis tic s , he pointed out that the number of performances given in the provinces by Riksteatern during the 1940-4! season was actually less than the number given by the commercial companies during the so-called catastrophic season of 1932-33.®^

In his charge, however, Blom made no mention of the difference in theatrical quality between the two seasons he chose to compare.

Becoming aware of the mounting conflict, the Theatre Council decided to call a temporary cease-fire, in an announcement made in the fall of 1941, the Council stated that Riksteatern had been in existence for a sufficiently long period (eight years) to warrant a review of its achievements.®^ Discussions were then held in conjunction with various

interested parties, and as a result, the Council declared that in order for Riksteatern to become "... a genuine folkteater public organi­ zation, it must achieve a broader base of support and reach out to

larger segments of the population."®^ To obtain advice and cooperation

in connection with this problem, the Theatre Council invited the representatives of a number of Popular Movements and Public Organizations to participate in a series of special meetings to be held in the spring of 1942.

In making this decision, the Council was in effect responding to the charge, voiced by many c ritic s , that Riksteatern had neglected and

®^Gi||is Blom, Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), November 21, I94| (Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941).

®3|bid. ®"^I943 8rs betankande. p. 44.

I bid.. trans. H. G. Carlson. I 16 even discriminated against the vast number of people who were outside of the in stitu tio n ’ s membership circles. Perhaps now, some of these critic s must have felt, Riksteatern will really become a theatre for the masses.

t e d l 1942— Format ion a i itLS. Pooular ^9Y.emea.tS investigation

On March 17 and 21, 1942, the meetings authorized by the Theatre

Council were held.^^ At these meetings it was decided to set up a committee of seven prominent men in the Popular Movements to investigate ways and means of enabling Riksteatern to reach out to a larger audience.

The task was given to these men because of their extensive experience with the problems involved in organizing public interest and support for particular movements or ideals. The following organizations were represented on the Popular Movements Investigation Committee: The

People's Parks central administration. The People's House central organization. The Confederation of Swedish Trade Unions, The Temperance

Movement, The Cooperative Wholesale Society, The Tenants Savings Bank and Building Society, end The National Alliance of Adult Education

Associat ions.

Riksteatern was represented u n o fficially by Headmaster Harald

Elldin, chairmen of The National Alliance, and a member of Riksteatern's central administration since 1934.®^ Another familiar figure on the committee was a long-time c ritic of Riksteatern, People's Parks'

Director Gottfrid Palm.

^^Ibid.. pp. 44-45. 1 bid. 117

IS. iJUÛÊ. 1 2 4 2 — J M Theatre Owners' (IXF) Letter

While everyone awaited the outcome of the Popular Movements

Investigation, the Theatre Council received a letter from the Theatre

Owners* Association (TAF) which revealed that the theatre owners were firmly aligned against Riksteatern. And of course the owners offered their own solution to the problems of the provincial theatre.68

Riksteatern, the letter charged, had a monopoly on theatre activities in the provinces, and as a result a 11 of the independent touring groups had as good as disappeared. Because these groups decreased in number, the theatre owners watched in dismay as their rent revenues also diminished. Several theatres had been forced to close, and many others found themselves having to rely on movie receipts in o rd e r to remain solvent.

To remedy this situation, the theatre owners recommended

(I) that Riksteatern*s leadership be replaced by people more experienced in the problems of the provinces; (2) that the many privileges enjoyed by members of Riksteatern be withdrawn; and (3) that the entertainment tax included in the price of theatre tickets be returned by the government authorities to the communities involved and made part of a special fund, which would be used to subsidize renovations on many of the old theatres and to lend financial support to those commercial theatre companies which offered high-quality theatrical fere.®^

®8Svenska teateragareforeningen (The Swedish Theatre Owners' Association), Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), June 15, 1942 (Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942), 118

JL& 1262—Ill& Popular Movements Investigation Results

After nearly three months of deliberation, the Popular Movements

Investigation results were presented to the Theatre Council and then made pub IIc.^^

The recommended changes In Riksteatern Included the following:

(I) The central administration would be reconstructed so that In addi­ tion to the five members chosen by the Riksteatern representative assembly, there would be seven members chosen from the Popular Movements*

The Crown would then appoint a chairman and two people qualified to represent the theatrical and literary art fields* The new total number of members would therefore be fifteen* (21 To help form a broader supporting base for Riksteatern, all provincial theatre activities would be divided Into two parts: The Winter Theatre, carried on by Riksteatern, and The Summer Theatre, operated by the People's Parks' Theatre* Since closer cooperation would then be necessary between the two organizations.

People's Parks should have the right to appoint a member of Rlksteatern's central administration* In addition, the committee felt It would be desirable for an even greater centralization of the activities of these two organizations to eventually take place. (3) The existing

Riksteatern local societies would be Ideal nuclei for theatre societies to be founded upon broader social bases* (4) The special ticket-buying privileges for members of Riksteatern should be eliminated and replaced with a different form of subscription buying*?^

^^Folkrbrelsekommlttén utrednlng (The Popular Movements Committee Investigation), Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), June 18, 1942 (Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942)* 119

The committee pledged its support to a new organization formed along the lines suggested above, but there appeared one dissenting opinion. The representative for the labor unions had little to say 72 against Riksteatern, and he felt it necessary to add that he believed that the primary cause for Riksteatern's "stagnation” was the inadequate theatre locales that the organization was forced to use.^^ Apparently though, his voice was lost in the air of general agreement that permeated the report.

Riksteatern found itself facing the most serious crisis in its brief history, for if the investigation recommendations were to be accepted, Riksteatern would become simply an annex or subsidiary of the

Popular Movements and the People's Parks' Theatre* But, as subsequent events were to demonstrate, the threat posed by the Popular Movements

Investigation only marked the beginning of a new and even more dangerous campaign directed at the provincial in stitution.

Finding the investigation results satisfactory as far as they went, the Theatre Council appointed a new investigation committee, composed of professional theatre people, which would be faced with the task of outlining exactly how this "new” Riksteatern would function.

Per-Axel Branner was chosen as chairman, and as a result the investi­ gation became known as the Branner Committee Investigation.^^

Besides Branner, there were several other people known to be

^^"Teaterutredninaen." Seen och Salonq. December, 1942, p. I.

^^"Riksteatern skrivelse till Regeringen," Teatern. X (February, 1943), 4.

^^1.2.42 le a betankande. pp. 46-47. 120 unsympathetic with Rlksteatern's program* People's Parks Director

G ottfrld Palm (a holdover from the previous Investigation), director

Olof Molander, and producer Allan Rydlng* In addition the Crown also appointed Auditor Maurltz Andersson; Director of the Gbteborg Municipal

Theatre, Torsten Hammar^n; and playw rlght-critIc Herbert Grevenlus.

Georg Z, Topellus, a member of the Theatre Council, served as secretary*

Osiobsr iM2.—Ul£ gLOmier gaimiîl.t.eg investigation Results

While the changes proposed by the Popular Movements Investi­ gation would have endangered Rlksteatern's Identity and le ft It Inde­ pendent In name only, the Branner Committee recommendations were aimed at destroying even this vestige of Individuality*^^ Riksteatern would merge with People's Parks and become a new oroanlzatIon— Folkets

Taking up where the preceding Investigation left o ff, the

Branner Committee laid down the special conditions requisite for the establishment of this new theatre* To ju stify the necessary changes, the committee referred to Engberg's 1933 dictum, and noted that the primary goals which had been set down for Riksteatern had never been achieved* F irs t, Riksteatern had not become a folkteater In the true meaning of the word, l*e *, a theatre for the masses* Second, the suggestions for the creation of close ties between Riksteatern and both the Popular Movements and the People's Parks' Theatre had never been

^^Teatersakkunlgakommltten utrednlng (The Branner Committee Investigation), Report to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), October 30, 1942 (Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942)*

^^Folkteater Is a generic term which means "People's Theatre"; while Folkets Teater Is more specific, meaning "THE People's Theatre*" 121

acted upon* Therefore, according to the committee, Riksteatern was a

fa ilu re, and steps had to be taken to return the organization to Its 77 original objectives.

To bring about the new Folkets Teater, the Branner Committee recommended the following procedures: (I) To avoid disrupting the continuity of organizational development, the proposed centralization of the activities of Riksteatern and People's Parks would take place gradually. The existing Riksteatern local societies, for Instance, would serve (as suggested by the previous Investigation) as nuclei for new theatre societies founded on broader class bases* (21 During the

period when centralization was taking place, a coordinating committee would be set up to help direct the combined efforts of the two theatres*

(3) After the task of centralizing the Institutions was completed, a

new common central administration would be organized, with six members chosen by the Crown from the Popular Movements and Public Organizations,

four members chosen by the new local theatre societies, two members chosen by the People's Parks' Theatre, and a chairman, a rtis tic

director, and managing director chosen by the Crown * While the

composition of the administration was slig htly different from that

suggested by the Popular Movements Investigation, the total number of members would be the same— fifte en * (4) Within this central

administration, two executive committees would be chosen, one for winter

a c tiv itie s , and one for summer a c tiv itie s * (5) The chairman of the new

Folkets Teater would be an experienced theatre man and prominent director.

77TeatersakkunIgakommItten utrednlng. Report to Teaterradet, October 30, 1942* 122 while the managing director would be a man not only well-acquainted with

theatrical organization problems but also closely allied with the

Popular Movements and Public Organizations. (6) As a final step, the magazine Teatern would discontinue publication, and its function would

be assumed by the People's Parks* magazine. Seen och Sa long

In regard to the operational policies of Folkets Teater, the

Branner Committee stressed that the following points be borne in minds

(I) Emphasis should be on production as well as on distribution for consumption. (2) The number of performances araanged for each local

society should be increased so as to attract a larger audience.

(3) Touring activities by the royal and city theatres should be reduced

to a minimum. C4) More opportunities should be given for contributions

to be made by the private theatre. (5) The touring activities should

be organized on kretsteater principles— that is, the country would be

divided up into several regions with a touring company stationed in

each region. These companies would then alternate activ itie s with each

of the others so as to visit a|| parts of the country each season.

(6) Ticket prices should be held at a level commensurate with folkteater

principles [ I . e . , l o ^ . (7) The problem of inadequate theatre

buildings should be remedied. (8) An advisory board should be estab­

lished to handle such technical problems as the renovation of old

theatre buildings, and the proper installation and use of stage . 79 equipment.

The Branner Committee Investigation was the culmination of the

efforts made by the vested interests to exert their influence on 123

Riksteatern, Expressed within the recommendations were the fond desires of many of Rlksteatern's opponents: Branner's emphasis on production over distribution, Rydlng's scheme for the creation of kretsteaters,

and Gottfrrd Palm's desire to have the People's Parks' Theatre placed

on an equal footing with Riksteatern,

In their most concerted and publicized effort to set fir e to

Riksteatern, the c ritic s and opponents hoped to see a new theatre ris e ,

Phoenix-like, foom the ashes— a theatre which would satisfy a ll the many

people whose livelihood was dependent upon a robust provincial theatre.

As In the past. It did not seem to matter that the needs of some of

these people were s t ill In conflict with each other. On the one hand,

for Instance, there was the old recommendation that the Interests of

the private theatre be given more attention; on the other hand was the

Insistence that the Folkets Teater ticket prices remain as low as

possible, which would consequently make this new theatre an even

greater competitive threat to the commercial producers than Riksteatern

had been.

Conditions were continuing to change, however, and If this

Investigation was the best concerted effort made to destroy Riksteatern,

It was also the lest effort of such magnitude. The c ritic s did not

Immediately waver In their attack, but as earlier mentioned, Riksteatern

was attracting more and more sympathy and support, and the extreme

suggestions made by the Branner Committee did not even win the approval

of the Actors' Association, The strength of the critics' position

began to deteriorate considerably, Ryding died suddenly a few months

BOSee April 1945—The Per-Axel Branner Resignation, 124 after the publication of the investigation results, and Branner was close to being deposed as chairman of the Actors* Association ISTF) by rank-and-file members who found the investigation's harsh attacks distasteful and unwarranted.

JtomiLeL *,s Beal y JLsl Uis. investigations

Within a month of the publication of the Branner Committee

Investigation, the Riksteatern central administration drafted a twenty- page reply to both investigations, and this rebuttal was approved by the regular biennal congress of Riksteatern's representative assembly.®^

Following the Branner Committee lead, the Riksteatern reply also began by recalling Engberg's call to action in 1933. But in this case, Riksteatern reminded its opponents of Engberg's remark that "only the best is good enough."®^ Efforts to dilute this tenet, which

Riksteatern feared would follow from the suggestions made by the two investigations, could only be met by opposition from Riksteatern.

After making clear its position, the central administration's reply continued by attempting to refute each of the arguments advanced by the critics.

F irs t, Riksteatern seized upon one sentence in the Branner

Committee report which referred to the theatre operations within the

People's Parks as "exemplary,"®^ and then proceeded to demonstrate how

SlRlksteaterns centralstyrelse (Rlksteatern's central admini­ strât Ion), Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), November 24, 1942 (Stockholm, Teaterradet Ardcives, 1942).

B2pe fasta teatrarna. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 7.

®^Teatersakkunigakommitten utrednlng. Report to Teaterradet, October 30, 1942, trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 2, 125 impossible and unfair it was to compare the two organizations.^^

(I) Riksteatern was forced to use theatres which could only seat between 250 and 550 people, while several thousand spectators could be accommodated in many of the massive open-air Parks* theatres. 12) A v is it to the theatre meant something unique in the People’ s Parks— a person did not go to the theatre per se, he entered an amusement park, complete with dance and refreshment areas. (3) Summer theatre faced nowhere near the same competition from the movies as did the winter theatre. (4) People’ s Parks had resources to revenues from the other amusement park fa c ilitie s to help them recover possible losses incurred by theatre a c tiv itie s — an advantage not enjoyed by Riksteatern. (5)

While the gross costs per performance were about the same for

Riksteatern as they were for the People’ s Parks~l,IOO kronor (220 dollars)— the potential revenues, as mentioned, were considerably d ifferen t. (6) Since the repertoire of the People’ s Parks (approxi­ mately 65 per cent of which consisted of operettas or musical comedies) was contrived to appeal more to popular taste than was Rlksteatern’s repertoire. People’s Parks therefore had access to a larger audience.

In reply to the charge that Riksteatern had neglected to cooperate with People’ s Parks, Riksteatern claimed that it had made several attempts to get together with that organization, but its efforts had not been reciprocated.

Second, in answer to a similar charge that it had neglected to construct a close relationship with the Popular Movements, Riksteatern

®^The following is a summary of Riksteaterns centralstyrelse. Letter to Teaterradet, November 24, 1942. 126

pointed out that two representatives of these movements had been regular membcs j of the central administration since the founding of the organi­

zation. In addition, many of the local society officers were also

prominent people within these movements and organizations. The oppor­

tunity to exert greater Influence within the local Riksteatern societies

had always been open to these groups, end therefore Riksteatern could

not be accused of lacking In spirit of cooperation.

Third, In reply to the charge that It had reached Its limits In

expansion, Riksteatern mentioned that attendance figures and ticket

receipts were rising annually (see Table 11, page 217), which was

certainly a sign that the organization was not moribund. Expansion In

production, as well as In membership, (according to Riksteatern) was

limited only by the size of the subsidies allo tted, while the founding

of new societies and the extension of the ac tiv itie s of the existing

societies were dependent largely on the size and flexibility of the

theatre buildings available for use. Unfortunately, as even the critics

were aware, Inadequate fa c ilitie s were s t ill prevalent.

Fourth, In answer to the charge that It placed more emphasis on

distribution than on production, Riksteatern pointed out that In the

1941-42 season, 429 out of 625 performances presented were produced by

Riksteatern Itself (see Table 12, page 221).

Fifth, regarding the proposal for a Folkets Teater. Riksteatern

noted that nowhere. In wither of the Investigations, was there any

mention of how much this project would cost. Even If Riksteatern had

not satisfied ell expectations. It had sustained the Interest In, end

enthusiasm for, living professional theatre. To risk destroying these 127 achievements by dissolving Riksteatern and creating a new untested theatre Institution would be extremely foolhardy.

Sixth, to expand activities and save money on travel expenses, the Branner Investigation recommended that each tour spend a longer period of time and give more performances In each place It visited .

But since traveling costs amounted to only 12 per cent of the to ta l,

Riksteatern expressed the fear that any sizeable experiment of this sort would Involve considerable expense and risk. It was far more economical to give one performance before a capacity audience,

Riksteatern reasoned, than to give two performances to h e lf-fllle d houses. To Riksteatern, It made sense, psychologically as well as

economically, to let the supply of performances grow In accordance with

an Increase In demand for them. In any case, Riksteatern f e lt , there was no reason to assume that the practice of doubling or trip lin g per­

formances would guarantee the larger audience which the Branner

Committee seemed to anticipate.

Another factor related to growth and development~one which

both Investigations apparently failed to notice—was that the expansion

of high-quallty theatre was dependent upon a steady supply of high-

quality talent. Riksteatern predicted that If theatrical activities

continued to multiply rapidly, the supply of tale n t, which Is always

limited, would dwindle to a mere percentage of what would be needed.

Seventh, In reply to the suggestions concerning the commercial

theatre and the prices of tickets within the Folkets Teater framework,

Riksteatern stated. In typically reserved Swedish fashion, that "It

seems d iffic u lt to combine the recommended consideration for the private 128 theatre companies with a ticket-prlce policy which a Popular Movements audience finds suitable»"®^ Furthermore, It seemed to Riksteatern that since the lottery monies available for theatre were limited, the Folkets

Teater project should be abandonned, or at least postponed until a later date*

Eighth, Riksteatern rejected the proposal which would give the

Popular Movements the position of power within the local societies on the grounds that such unbalanced representation would tend to stamp

Riksteatern as the property of a particular social group or class* Any re-organlzatIon of these societies, Riksteatern maintained,”* * * must be adapted to each community's social structure*”®® If emphasis was suddenly to be placed on collective Instead of Individual membership, the organization might well lose the support of the thousands of people who were not connected with the Popular Movements or Public Organi­ zations,but who had generously contributed their time and effort as

Individual members of Riksteatern*

Ninth, Riksteatern concluded by branding the proposal for the centralization of the operations of Riksteatern and the People's Parks'

Theatre as an attempt to give the summer theatre unjustified or uncalled- for power over the winter theatre* The two Institutions, Riksteatern claimed, must remain separate and Independent*

A number of reservations and special points were published with the Riksteatern reply by Headmaster Harald Elldin, one of the two

85|bld.. trans* H* G* Carlson, p, 13*

Q®Ibid., trans* H* G* Carlson, p* 15* 129 central administrât ton members representing the Popular Movements and

Public Organizations, and also a member of the Popular Movements

InvestIgatIon.

E lldln's remarks Included the following:®^ ( 11 Since

Riksteatern had been represented In the Popular Movements Investigation,

It would only have been fair had It also been permitted to contribute to the Branner Committee Investigation. (2) Riksteatern had welcomed the

Popular Movements to participate In Its activities right from the start, but no formal organizational Invitation had been extended, and this should have been done. (3) Since the central administration has had the best opportunity to judge the qualifications of a managing director.

It should continue to have the right to choose the man it feels will be suitable for the post. (4) Rlksteatern's comparison of itself and

People's Parks was harsh and unnecessary. (51 Before any re-organl- zatlon of Riksteatern could take place, all steps must have been taken to Insure that the necessary funds would be available.

JsDiifcy 12É1—Iba Ihemlrs CQ»nci i Reoocl fifi. JM InxssliasjitiDja.

The Theatre Council took the two Investigations and Rlksteatern's re ;ly to them under consideration, and on January 23, 1943, Issued a statement which reflected Its findings and opinions.®®

The Council found that both a RIksteatern-type of theatre and an organized public were valid as parts of the provincial theatre. But, because of the many shortcomings In the organization noted by the two

G 7|bid .. p. 20. ®®I943 ars betaakflnd£. pp. 49-50. 130 investigations (particularly the reference to the alarming drop in the number of enrolled Riksteatern members), the Council recommended action to remedy the situation* included among the suggestions for Riksteatern's re-organization were the following* (I) The Popular Movements would play more definite roles in Riksteatern's administration* (2) The special membership privileges relating to the purchase of tickets would be eliminated* (3) Larger government subsidies would have to be granted in order to lend support to the Folkets Teater project* (4) The leadership of Riksteatern would be changed so as to place it in the hands of a professional theatre person who was appointed by the Crown*

To help insure that the task of re-organization would work smoothly, the Council recommended that a waiting period of two years be allowed to elapse before any major changes were made*

February Ili& Ri,Ks,t.eatfirn Beo.U

On February 23, 1943, Riksteatern, not daring to let the Theatre

Council's charges stand unopposed, sent a reply to the Council which reviewed many of the charges brought against the organization over the proceeding three years, and then singled out the various obstacles that had delayed Riksteatern's expansion* (I) the continued shortage of adequate theatre buildings; (2) the lack of real cooperation on the parts of the Popular Movements and Public Organizations; (3) the shortage of cap ital, in the form of government subsidies, for the development and extension of new activities (e*g*, the small-town tours, children's

B9"Riksteatern skrivelse t i l l Regeringen," XaâLSLD.» % (February, 1943), pp* 3 ff* 131 theatre, and the establishment of new local societies); and (4) the war­ time emergency which created special transportation problems, and necessitated the development of the "theatre-for-servIcemen*’ program.

In addition, Riksteatern noted that It had never received any complaints concerning the special membership privileges from private

Individuals living In the provinces. The Implication here was that the objections raised against this system were originated by the vested

Interests.

Riksteatern concluded by questioning from what source additional subsidies were to be gotten to support the Folkets Teater project, when there already existed a severe shortage of these monies.

This time Headmaster Elldin stood with Riksteatern, but he con­ tinued to Insist upon the creation of more formal relations between his

Institution and the Popular Movements and Public Organizations.

ËflLgb, FgrmaJ-îan s d . lh & IS d l Invfijsti g.al Igfi

Shortly after the Riksteatern letter was delivered in February, the new Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs (Engberg was gone) decided that the statement made by the Theatre Council In January made clear certain weaknesses In Rlksteatern’s structure. To eliminate these weaknesses, the Minister appointed, on March 5, 1945, a committee of

disinterested persons and directed them to carry out a comprehensive

examination of the steps to be taken towards a re-organlzatIon of

RIksteatern.^O

Thus, on the eve of Its tenth birthday, Riksteatern was greeted

90 |9 4 3 a rs betankande. p. 5. 132

by the most extensive investigation of the provincial theatre undertaken since 1933. A period of waiting now began, but not the one that had

been suggested by the Theatre Council, The 1943 Investigation committee

explored the many proposed changes for over a year before publishing its results* This interim became, in effect, a breathing space for

Riksteatern; the critics were generally quiet, and Riksteatern had time

to map out new plans for expansion.

Abl IL 12É1— Bcmnsr Resignation

The resentment against Branner fe lt by members of his

Association (STF)®^ reached a peak in January, 1943, with the publi­ cation of the fact that a schism had developed between the Actors* 92 Association and its chairman. Brought on primarily by Branner’ s

participation in the Riksteatern investigations, the schism finally

resulted, several months later. In a vote of "no confidence" for

Branner. He had not, thought the Association's members, shown a

sufficient regard for the interests of his organization in his proposals

for changes in Riksteatern.^^ On April 27, 1943, Branner resigned.

Although it was not immediately apparent, this event helped

break up the solid, organized front of opposition which Riksteatern

had faced. No longer would Branner be able to use the weight of his

office as chairman of the largest professional theatre organization in

Gloiscussed ea rlie r in the section November 1940—Griticism from a Local Society.

^^Aftonbladet (Stockholm). January 13, 1943.

^^Aftonbladet (Stockholm), April 29, 1943; Aftont idninqen (Stockholm), April 29, 1943. 133 the country to strengthen his attacks. Riksteatern viewed the change in STF executives with satisfaction. "It is no secret," read an editorial in Teatern. "that Mr. Branner has been an enemy of Riksteatern from the very start . .

Branner's resignation brings to a close the chronological examination of the events between 1934 and 1943 which led to the 1943

Investigation. Before proceeding to an account of this investigation, however, there remains the task of reviewing the criticism s of

Riksteatern within another frame of reference—the folkteater ideal.

®^"De nya i Teaterfbrbundet," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teatern,X. (May, 1943), 4. CHAPTER VI I

RIKSTEATERN AMD THE FOLKTEATER IDEAL

The year 1944 was fille d with important events for Riksteatern and the Swedish theatre in general. Before the year was half gone,

Arthur Engberg and Per Lindberg were dead, and in September, the 1943

Investigation published the document (see Chapter V III) that was to decide the immediate fate of Riksteatern, and most probably the future of the provincial theatre.

In Engberg, Riksteatern lost the man whose in itia tiv e had brought the organization into existence, and In Lindberg, Riksteatern

lost its foremost opponent. This chapter is an examination of the

firs t ten years of Riksteatern in the frame of reference that these

two men worked so diligently to create—the folkteater or people's theatre ideal. Three fundamental factors were involved in this ideal:

the best theatre, for the greatest number of people, at the lowest

possible prices. The task therefore, is to examine the problems

Riksteatern encountered in terms of repertoire, audience, and finances.

In addition will be found a discussion of the most criticized element

in Riksteatern—the administration,

Repeclolre

Dual it v . —At the time of the Rosenbad debate in 1935, Gb'sta

134 135

Bergman made clear his position on the question of quality: "ft Is

Rlksteatern's purpose to support a repertoire of literary value, per­ formed by high-quality ensembles*"^ These two program aspects—good literature and high quality performers—ccme under fire time and again.

The criticism Involving the kinds of plays Riksteatern produced Is dis­ cussed In connection with the heading Qua!Itv. while criticism Involving the means used to produce the plays Is discussed In the sections en­ title d IL& 2lSL system and Enodustisn distribution.

Between 1934 and 1944, the following plays were among the out­ standing ones produced by Riksteatern:

Shakespeare's Othelio. Much ado about Nothing. Taming fli the

Shrew, and Hamlet. Other classics Included Sheridan's The RLlvals.

Euripides' Medea. Goldoni's Mistress the Inn, and Holberg's Henrik m i Pern I M a. Ibsen was represented by Master Btil Ider. W1 id

Duck. Ghosts. Enemy the People, and Per Gynt. Six of Strindberg's plays were done: SufiJLaf iiSfiSL» S m l Sdde.» TJiere agg, Crimes agj.

Ib a Dance £lL fifiâlil» fi^SlST Slâl» and Lvcko-Pers Journey. Among the

American plays produced were Eugene O 'N eill's Mourning Becomes Electra.

Days Without End, and ^ Wilderness! : Sidney Howard's SI Iver Cord;

Robert Sherwood's Id io t's Del Ight and Reunion JLo. Vienna: Kaufman and

Hart's You Can't Take H with You; Thornton W|Ider's Our Town: Maxwel I

Anderson's High Tor: Rose Franken's Claudia: William Saroyan's The Time of Your Life: and C lifford Odets' Clash By Night. Shaw was represented by Too True Good: Chekhov, by The Three Sisters: Tolstoy, by The

^Bergman, Teatern. II (April, 1935), 133. Trans. H. G. Carlson. 136

Living Coruse; and Hauptman, by The Beaver Coat. Besides Shaw, other

English playwrights produced included Noel Coward, John Orinkwater,

D. H. Lawrence, Somerset Maugham, Terrence Rattigan, and Emiyn Williams*

In addition to plays, Riksteatern also distributed a number of operas which included The. Earber of S eville. Madame Butterfly. Tosca.

Tannh^ufigr».Jiü,i.gn9ft» Ih a Maai£. F.iute. Romeo a a l Aili&L, Faust, ib a

M^rx.l?ae SSJL Eiaam* gaaaefl* =nd Ornheus md. Eurydice. The operettas or musicals presented included Rose Marie. The Three Penny Opera. Oroheus l a IbA Underworld. Helen s ± ICA%, and IÜ& Merrv Widow.

Even this abbreviated lis t is an imposing one. V irtu ally every dramatic period is represented, and there is a good balance between serious and light entertainment* Although the seasonal programs were dominated by foreign plays, twenty-six productions were devoted to the works of eleven native Swedish dramatists* The total number of pro­ ductions for the firs t ten years was well over two hundred, or approxi­ mately twenty different programs each year* Each local society did not contract for all of the plays. Some of the locals purchased half the plays offered in a season, while others ordered only two or three* In

any case, quality theatre was being seen in the provinces to an extent not known since the "Golden Age" of the Swedish provincial theatre in

the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century*

There were a number of people who saw Riksteatern’ s repertoire

as too pretentious* Supposedly the people in the provinces were much

too unsophisticated to appreciate art in the theatre* In 1935, the

actress Karin A|exandersson warned Riksteatern: "Do not travel, as

does the unsatisfactory Skadebanan, to Kiruna Qhe largest city in the 137 world above the Arctic C lrc l^ and present Mollere to the Lapp landers*”^

Apparently what was needed was a special type of play which was suited

to mass tastes— theatre which the "people** could understand* Engberg

answered these suggestions when he asked, "What sort of nonsense Is this,

that there should be one brand of theatre art for the people, and

another for those who are not the people?**^

Behind Rlksteatern*s decision to stress literary values was

the belief that the "masses" or "people" could learn to understand and

appreciate good drama which was presented well* The relentlessly

c ritic a l Per Lindberg paid Riksteatern a compliment when he granted.

In 1942, that the organization had "* * * ambition, [an^ a feeling for

quality*"^ And at the same time he noted that despite the mistakes made In creating Riksteatern, It had "« * * become a factor In Swedish

cultural llfe*"^

The star system.— Besides the criticism that Riksteatern had

been too artistically Inclined toward literary drama, there was the

charge that It had placed too much emphasis upon the so-called star

system* But since different people used the term In different ways.

It tended to become ambiguous* To the commercial producers and free­

lance actors who worked In the provinces, the term applied to

R|ksteatern*s use of the well-known actors employed by the state

^Karln A|exandersson, "Tankar om Riksteatern," trans* H* 6* Carlson, Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. May, 1935, p* 287*

^Arthur Engberg, "Onskemal for Riksteatern," trans* H* G* Carlson, Vecko-Journalen. February, 1942, p* 7*

^Lindberg, Folkteatern. trans* H, G. Carlson, p* 54*

^Ibld.. trans. H* G. Carlson, p* 53* 138 theatres* The latter naturally posed a serious competitive threat to the less-known, and perhaps even less-talented, artists who tried to obtain work outside the big cities*

For Per-Axel Branner, the question was an a rtis tic one* He saw the use of leading actors and actresses as a neglect of the values of ensemble playing, and he insisted that ”the ensemble is the very foundation of artistic quality in a theatre*”^ But what Branner apparently did not see was that Riksteatern never committed the sins most often associated with the "star system"* the tendency to produce shoddy plays merely because they were suitable vehicles for particular stars, or the tendency to distort the meaning of a good play just to satisfy some actor's egotistical ambitions* Branner, by the way, received l i t t l e support for this argument from the actors In his association (see Gil I is Blom's statement below).

As previously mentioned, various local Riksteatern societies defined the "star system" as the payment of excessively high wages to theatrical artists*^ When this charge was declared invalid by other members of Riksteatern at the 1940 representative assembly congress, the Actors* Association magazine editor Gil I is Blom viewed the action with approval* "No voices were raised against qualified actors," B|om reported from the congress. " It was even agreed that 'sta ré’— a term which should not really be used in a professional journal—could not be dispensed with* Because, as our good friend [The local society

®"R3rbundet om teaterutredningen," trans* H* G* Carlson, Svenska Teaterforbundets AAedlernsbled^ November, 1934, p. 64*

7See November l940~Criticism from a Local Society. 139 representative] from Ôrebro put it* ’ Just as stars are needed In sports, so are they needed In the theatre,*”®

A comparison of Blom’ s statement (particularly the remark about the word ”ster” being out of piece In a professional journal) with

Brenner’ s charges, reveals that some members of the acting profession regarded Brenner’ s attacks as distasteful* At least on this Issue, It

Is doubtful that chairman Branner’ s opinions were representative of those of his organization.

The confusion which resulted from the different applications of the term ”star system” Is best demonstrated by a statement made by private producer Martin Sterner In 1938, He viewed with regret the fact that the public gave their support to the star-idomlna.ted Riksteatern productions Instead of to the companies which emphasized ensemble- playing, At the same time he talked nostalgically of a past era when people thronged Into the provincial theatres to ” , , , greet their friends and favorites [among the actor^ , , ,”®

An Interesting feature of the debate over the ”star system” was the fact that It was restricted to Rlksteatern’s activities. For some reason the state and city theatres which supplied many of the actors and actresses Riksteatern used were never accused of practicing "star system” tactics.

Production vs. distribution.--The 1933 Investigation established

Riksteatern as primarily an agency for distributing pleys which were

®GI||ls B|om, ”b.angre turneer att vanta?” trans, H, G, Carlson, Sven&ka Teaterforbundets MfiiUSBSMSd.» December, 1940, p, 49,

^Varberos Posten. trans, H, 6, Carlson, January 14, 1938, 140

produced by the state theatres. The reason for this was to enable

Riksteatern to bring to its patrons the finest actors in the country

( i . e . , those who were members of the state and city theatre companies).

But Per Lindberg saw a weakness in the emphasis on distribution. He

feared that a distributing agency could never achieve the individuality

or personality necessary for a rtis tic progress. As a result, Lindberg

proposed, in a separate statement published with the investigation

results, the creation of a special committee within Riksteatern—a

"production committee which can place the public in a close, supporting

relationship with the creative people in the theatre. Only in this way

can an organization apparatus j j . e . , Riksteater^ be dynamic."^® No

action was taken on Lindberg's suggestion.

The Actors* Association (STF) followed Lindberg*s lead shortly

afterward when it stated that "first and foremost, it seems to us,

production within the theatre must be subsidized • . And Branner,

at the Rosenbad debate in 1935, mentioned that he had advised the

government early in 1934 to use lottery monies to support production

activities "... because," he asserted, " it is the art of the theatre

its e lf which creates interest, and not an organized public . .

As time went on, Riksteatern used fewer and fewer contributions

from the state theatres and came to rely on its own production fa c ilitie s

to such an extent that in 1942 Per Lindberg exclaimed that "now, after

lOLindberg, Utrednino i rik e t. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 108.

H"F6rbundet om teaterutredningen," trans. H. G. Carlson, Svenska Teaterforbundets MedLemsbfed. November, 1934, p. 67.

^^"Riksteatern under debatt," trans. H. 6. Carlson, Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. April, 1935, p. 237. 141 eight years, Riksteatern's central administration has arrived at exactly the same conclusion as I j^rrived at in 1934],"13 But Riksteatern did not admit that it was the influence of the critics that caused it to change the nature of its operations from distribution to production.

When Goste Bergman was questioned on this point, he stated that it was

"the difficulties endured by the stationary state-subsidized theatres in the process of sending out tours [whiciQ promoted the development of

Riksteatern's own production a c tiv itie s ."!^

The question arises* why did Riksteatern delay in developing these activities? The answer lies in Riksteatern's promise to present the best in acting talent available, and in the problems incolved in attracting this talent.

Aside from the fact that the two or three big cities in Sweden offered more opportunities for actors because of the number of theatres— commercial as well as state-subsidized—that were available, there were two other theatrical mediums which needed actors, and which centralized their ac tiv itie s in these large cities* radio and the movies. Many actors were (and are—especially since the advent of television) loathe to take jobs in the provinces and thus possibly forego a chance to make extra money in Stockholm and Goteborg. Consequently, Riksteatern (and to a lesser extent the other state theatres) has always had a difficult time competing for qualified artists. When Riksteatern had access to tours from the state-subsidized theatres, these difficulties were

lOLindberg, Folkteatern. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 52.

l^Statement by Goste M. Bergman, personal interview. May, 1957. 142 eliminated because the actors were already provided. In terms of

Engberg's cry that "only the best is good e n o u g h ,R ik s te a te rn thought

it only reasonable to hire the subsidized theatre companies instead of attempting to recruit independent a rtis ts .

But while Riksteatern was forced to develop into a production agency primarily because the state-subsidized theatres found themselves unable to fu lfill their touring obligations, this does not mean that the change was entirely involuntary on Riksteatern's part. As a matter of

fact, in 1935, Riksteatern requested permission from the Theatre Council to produce Julius Caesar since none of the state-subsidized theatres had

included a classical play in their tentative touring schedules for the

following spring. But the Council turned down this request on the grounds that the production would give the private troupes too much competition.^®

This last example is sufficient evidence that Riksteatern, contrary to the views of its c ritic s , did not seek to remain just an

a rtis tic middleman or wholesaler of theatrical merchandise. In addition,

as time and events were to demonstrate, Riksteatern was not only equal

to the challenge of a reversal in basic operating procedures ( i . e . , from

distribution to production), but it was also sufficiently flexible to

adapt to the demands made by a continually changing fluid theatre

culture.

A u d J ^ g -e

The term audience, as used in this discussion, is broken down

15pe fasts teatrarna. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 7.

i®:943 Icja ke,î.aaltand.e» pp« 33- 3 4 . 143 into two categories! (I) the people who lived in the provincial areas serviced by Riksteatern tours and (2) the actual number of members in

Riksteatern*s local societies. This distinction was drawn by critics who used the firs t figure as the target towards which they fe lt

Riksteatern was obligated to shoot, and the second figure as a yard­ stick of Riksteatern's growth and development. These c rite ria were established when Riksteatern was s t ill in the planning stages. Several of the people who worked to reach a solution to the problems of the provincial theatre in 1953, were not satisfied with just sustaining the interest and support of the small number of theatre patrons who had followed the fortunes of the provincial theatre through even its decadent phases, but were eager to see the theatre become as important a social institution as it supposedly had been in the past.^^ In order to achieve this goal, the dying commercial theatre would be replaced by a theatre for the people~a theatre to which the masses would flock as they had done to the Greek and Elizabethan theatres. The old public— composed of the middle-class regular customers—was relatively unimpor­ tant, for as Per Lindberg said in 1933, "In order to succeed, the theatre needs to conquer new classes of people."^®

It mattered l it t l e to the idealists that their conceptions of the so-called people's theatres of the past were challenged by men like

Bo Bergman, eminent w riter and member of the Swedish Academy, who asked!

When have conditions within the Swedish Theatre—or for that matter within the theatre of any nation-been really good? One

l^See People's Theatre jgji Folkteater in Chapter I I I .

^®Lindberg, Utredning i r ik e t. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 107. 144

can answer calmly: never* The theatre has never been for all the people. We hear talk of the great theatrical ideas, but It was nearly always the case of a great actor shaping these Ideas for a limited audience; the broad social strata have been fairly unaffected.19

For the socialist planners, "theatre for the masses" was seen as

Riksteatern's ultimate goal. In this way, it was believed, the organi­ zation could best serve the ideals of proletarian democracy.

There were of course, people who thought it unwise to allow the

"old public" to be lost in the shuffle. When Olof Molander made his proposal to create a folkteater in Stockholm-one that would reach out to the masses instead of to the "old audience"— the director of the

Swedish theatre in Helsinki, Nicky Ronngren, was asked for his opinion.

He repiied:

We cannot have a folkteater in Helsinki of the type AAr. Molander suggests . . . because we do not want to lose contact with our old middle-class public. The theatre is bound to tradition in its development, and while we seek to attract new social strata to our a c tiv itie s , we must not loosen our hold on the old "regular customers."20

But the opinions of people like Ronngren apparently had l i t t l e affect upon the folkteater planners and dreamers.

As early as 1935, Riksteatern was accused of catering only to the "old public." Viggo Loos answered this charge with the admission that Riksteatern could be ". . . characterized as a middle-class theatrical a c t i v i t y , b u t he pointed out (as Ronngren did above) that

19bo Bergman, "Folkteater," trans. H. 6. Carlson, Dagens Nyheter (Stockholm), January 27, 1937.

20pagens Nvheter (Stockholm), trans. H. G. Carlson, January 23, 1937.

Zlloos, Teaiem. II (April, 1935), 132. Trans. H. G. Carlson, 145 the plen was . to win through propaganda, greater attendance from the working cl asses.

But strong support from the working classes did not m aterialize to the extent hoped for, and by 1943, even Riksteatern's leadership had to admit shortcomings of this nature in the organization. Gustef

Collijn noted that "... it would be desirable for Riksteatern's performances to reach a larger audience than they do at p r e s e n t , a n d

Gosta Bergman confessed that Riksteatern, "... only in certain respects, has had the possibility of realizing the program which was prescribed for it."^^

In 1942, Per Lindberg examined Riksteatern's achievements and took an "l-told-you-so" attitude. "One of the chief criticisms of

Riksteatern," Lindberg remarked, "was that it could never reach a new public. . . . Only the ordinary theatre public would be able to benefit from the state subsidies. . . . [And nov^ the mass audience has not joined Riksteatern."^^ To remedy the situation, Lindberg suggested changes in what he fe lt was the weakest point in the structure of the organization— the membership system.

That the members of Riksteatern were favorite targets for the c ritic s has already been demonstrated (see Chapter V I); they belonged to the old, obsolete middle-class audience, and they received far too

22|bid.. trans. H. G. Carlson.

^^Collijn, Teatern. X (September, 1943), 4. Trans. H. G. Carlson,

^'^Bergman, Teatern. X (September, 1945), 6. Trans. H. G. Carlson,

OK Lindberg, Folkteatern. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 52. 146 many privileges. Per Lindberg noted these faults in 1942, and he observed further that their number ”, , , after eight years, is ridiculously small,”^6 He asserted that until the number had increased to about one hundred thousand, there could be no talk of an effective

Riksteatern,^^

Riksteatern usually replied to charges of shortcomings in its membership system as follows: ( II The wartime transportation problems made membership in Riksteatern less attractive to many people who had to travel some distance to get to the theatres, (2) As long as the theatres remained small and inadequate, there was l i t t l e hope of attracting mass audiences, (3) The Popular Movements and Public

Organizations were in positions where they could encourage many people

to attend the theatre, but they had not cooperated with Riksteatern

as they might have done.

This last charge (usually denied by the organizations in

question), tended to undermine the v a lid ity of the proposals made by

both the Popular Movements and Branner Committee Investigations, Why

should Riksteatern allow the civic organizations to occupy an influ­

ential position on the Riksteatern central administration when these

groups had not, to any significant extent, evidenced a cooperative

attitude in the past? People’ s Parks, for one, admitted that it had

been unwilling to engage in an activity where it did not have the power

to influence policy decisions,Therefore, while the burden of blame

26|bid.. trans, H, G, Carlson, p. 54, I bid., p. 55,

28"Teaterutredninaen.” Seen och Belong. December, 1942, p. I, 147 for the lack of close cooperation between Riksteatern and the civic organizations was laid upon Riksteatern, It seemed that these organi­ zations were at least partly to blame for Riksteatern's failure to attract a larger audience. Evidence of the valid ity of this theory comes from an unexpected source— a source highly c ritic a l of

Riksteatern's activities—Per Lindberg. In the same article quoted above, Lindberg stated that a . barrier to Riksteatern's develop­ ment has decidedly been the People's Parks. . . . Their people believe.

In many places, that during the summer they f i l l the need for theatre; thus a winter theatre Is not necessary.

One of the purposes of the changes proposed by the Popular

Movements and Branner Committee Investigations was to give Riksteatern the character of a mass movement and thus make It more palatable to the working classes. Riksteatern repeated the warning that an appeal

to class Interests would threaten the effectiveness of the organization,

and here again Per Lindberg provided evidence to confirm Riksteatern's

theory. "Within a number of the larger c itie s ," claimed Lindberg,

"there has been a troublesome antagonism between the middle class

tradition and [various Popular Movements]. . . . Part of the public

shrinks from attending theatre which Is associated with Qhese movement 0 . .

As was the case with other controversial aspects of Riksteatern's

a c tiv itie s , the discussion of the audience Involved a conflict In

^^Llndberg, Folkteatern. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 56.

50|bid.. trans. H, G. Carlson. 148

interpretations the critics* view of Riksteatern as a mass movement, with the need for more emphasis on the mass: and Riksteatern's view of

Its e lf as a relatively successful and significant cultural In stitu tio n , with the emphasis on oualIty. In other words, while some people regarded

Riksteatern as an unsuccessful and Inadequate folkteater or people's theatre, others saw It as a vivid demonstration of the fact that It was not only the people of the nation's captlal who could come to regard the phenomenon of theatre as an Integral part of their lives-- the same thing was possible In the provinces,

F.ioaaffjss

The financial aspects of Riksteatern's operations were continuing sources of controversy. Most of these aspects have been discussed In

the two preceding chapters, but several are worthy of special attention

In connection with the folkteater Ideal,

At the Rosenbad debate In 1935, Per-Axel Branner outlined what

he believed should be the financial position or status of a member of

Riksteatern (see pages 95-96), First he advocated the elimination of

the ticket-purchasing privileges which made Riksteatern members "state-

subsidized fIre s ld e -s ltte rs ," Second, he urged the adoption of an

obligatory subscription system. Under a system of this nature, people

would be forced to attend a fixed number of performances In order to

retain the other privileges of membership (e,g., the right to elect

local society o fficers, attend the congresses, e tc ,). Third, Branner

fe lt than an Income lim itation should be set so that membership would

then be held only by people, such as the unemployed, who were truly In 149 need. By adopting these suggestions, Riksteatern (according to Branner) would bring Its policies In line with folkteater prInclples,^^

Riksteatern found these suggestions unacceptable. F irs t, the elimination of the economic privileges would also eliminate an Influ­ ential motive for joining the organization. Second, obligatory sub­ scription Implied a form of coercion which prospective members might find distasteful. And third, an Income limitation would fix a class stamp upon Riksteatern, something It had tried vigorously to avoid. In addition, this last suggestion might tend to characterize Riksteatern as a re lie f project, the question being then what would happen once the depression disappeared and fu ll employment returned.

Producer Karl Gerhard made a statement In connection with the

"state-subsidized fIresld e-sltters" which needed no answer. During the period of the Popular Movements Investigation, Gerhard noted Ironically that "I believe that this time the state will support art. ^Italics In orlglnaij, God will surely furnish the audience,"^2

While Riksteatern was accused of setting Its ticket prices both too low and too high. It Is the last charge that Is Interesting In terms of the folkteater Ideal of "the lowest possible prices," When

Riksteatern was founded, everyone~crIt Ic and defender a|Ike~agreed that a low-priced ticket policy should be one of the organization's high priority goals, but folkteater prices were hardly possible In theatres

^^Per-Axel Branner, "Statsrâdets Engbergs Ide bestIckande," Sveaska. Teaterforhundets MedLemab.1 ad. A pril, 1935, pp, 232 f f ,

S^Karl Gerhard, "krbnlkan," trans, H. G, Carlson, AftontIdnlnaen (Stockholm), February 28, 1943. 150 which could only seat betwwen 250 and 500 people. In spite of this handicap, Riksteatern was accused of discouraging the masses from attending the theatre because of the high prices It charged for admis­ sion, Playw rlght-critIc Herbert Grevenlus provided an effective comment on this charge:

It Is said that [Riksteatern*^ ticket prices keep the masses away from the theatre, , , , jSuQ no one can persuade us that It Is only the prices which draw the line. People who stay away from theatre for this reason often have money for so many other things above and beyond clothes, food, and shelter,53

Finally there Is an accusation that would seem strange In the light of the facts about the Swedish theatre, except that It was made by Karl Gerhard, In 1943, he was w illing to grant that Riksteatern had become a rather large commercial enterprise, but, he said, **lt has become this because the state has supported It,**^^ Gerhard's remark

Is strange because the question of whether to grant state money to theatrical activities had been settled long before Riksteatern appeared on the scene. The state and city theatres had enjoyed government support for decades before 1933, and their success might also be traced to this source. But, since Gerhard never mentioned these other theatres, we must assume that this was just another example of how far he would go to attack Riksteatern,

Iha ÇfinJLr.^1 Admin,î st.raU.9.n

The critics of Riksteatern never tired of petitioning for re-

^^Hsrbert Grevenlus, Offentliga nolen. trans, H, G. Carlson (Stockholm: C. E, Fritzes Bokfbrlags Aktlebolag, 1946), pp, 152-53,

^^Gerhard, "Krbnlkan," trans, H, G. Carlson, AftontIdningen (Stockholm), February 28, 1943, 151

organization of this administrative body. And behind all of the attacks

and petitions was the Indisputable fact that Riksteatern was not In the hands of professional theatre people, but Instead was controlled by men who perhaps should have remained In the classrooms and lib raries.

But If the men In the central administration did not have the confidence of the professionals, they had the confidence of the members of the local societies, which was probably more Important. Founded as

It was on the support of an enlightened. Interested, and organized

audience, Riksteatern's firs t obligation was not to give employment to

theatrical artists, nor was It to create a folkteater; Its first obligation was to present high-quality theatre for this organized

audience. During a ll the years when such men as Karl Gerhard, Per-Acel

Branner, and the others were c ritic iz in g the composition of the central

administration, the representative assemblies were solidly behind I t .

Riksteatern had no real historical precedent. Because of this many of the c ritic s attacked things within the organization that they

apparently did not notice were also present In other Institutions.

Karl Gerhard's remark that Riksteatern had reached Its position because

of state aid Is an example of such an attack. Another concerned the

fact that Riksteatern's central administration contained no people who

were trained In the professional theatre. At the same time that praise

was heaped upon the People's Parks' Theatre, It was somehow overlooked

that the man responsible for the success of this organization—Gottfrld

Palm—was primarily a civic organization director, and no better qualified

than Gosta Bergman to supervise theatrical a c tiv itie s . CHAPTER V III

THE 1943 INVESTIGATION

IbLS. .l.nV.aar.îag.t..iog CQItm.U.tgS and its Purposes

The commît tee was composed of three men: treasurer of the

Workers' Educational Association (ABF), Mauritz Andreas Andersson; business executive Carl Juhlin-Dannfelt; and government cabinet secretary Tage Gustaf Warn.^ Among the directions given to the committee by the Minister of Education and Cultural A ffairs were the following:

1. Investigate the possible ways in which Riksteatern can be re-organized so as to secure a better relationship with the broad masses of people.

2. Special attention should be directed toward the problem of inadequate theatre locales.

3. In any plan of re-organization, the local societies must be given special consideration. It is vital that the important work of these Societies be preserved, but they must take on more financial respcnsibilities.

4. The prospect of Riksteatern developing a permanent ensemble should be explored, together with an examination of to what extent the

1 |&43 ars betankande. p. 5. ^ Ib id .. pp. 58-60.

152 153 stfit e-subsîd îzed theatres find private ambulating troupes should continue their touring activities under Riksteatern's auspices.

The committee was appointed on March 5, 1943, end the Investi­ gation results were published September 20, 1944, The results were then forwarded to the Theatre Council for final disposition. The

Theatre Council's rulings were announced In August, 1946, and are discussed In Chapter IX.

The following Is a summary of the recommendations made by the

1943 Investigation committee:^

1, The committee found that the Interests of provincial theatre

were best served by allowing Riksteatern to continue oper­

ations under the same general conditions that prevailed. To

replace Riksteatern, or even affect too radical a change In

the organization, would have jeopardized the future of the

theatre In the provinces. But It was recommended that the

primary emphasis be placed on theatrical production rather

than on the organization of the audience. In this connec­

tio n , the committee suggested that the name Riksteatern's

Public Organization be changed to simply Riksteatern.

2. The committee found few faults with Riksteatern's artistic

program, but felt that Riksteatern should extend this

program to a larger audience,

^Sweden, EcklesIastIkdepartementet, 1943 ars rlksteater- utrednlnas betankande jggb. iÜT,sJLSJ. anaS.en.ti?EU ssI êSIéOS OmQCtiani&eUon (September 20, 1944), Statens offentllga utrednlngar 1944:42 (Stockholm: LInkoln B|oms Boktryckerl AB, 1944), pp. 61-99 passim. 154

3» The committee recognized that the most Important factor in

Riksteatern's future was the question of theatre locales

and it urged that the public take an active part in the

construction of suitable modern theatre buildings*

4, The committee felt it was imperative that Riksteatern estab­

lish a closer contact with the Popular Movements and Public

Organizat ions.

5* The committee believed that Riksteatern would become a far

more stable organization if it were given the form of a

Limited L ia b ility Company, similar to the form under which

the royal theatres operated since the early twentieth cen­

tury. Stockholders in this company were to include the

royal theatres, the Popular Movements and Public Organi­

zations, and interested private citizens. The stockholders

would take an active interest in the operations of

Riksteatern and give the organization a feeling of per­

manence which it lacked. In addition, the Crown would have

the power to appoint both the chairman and managing

director of the central administration.

Other recommendations by the committee included:

6. The central administration would be re-constructed so as to

include members of the Popular Movements and Public

Organizations.

7. Steps would be taken to strengthen the local societies,

financially as well as organizationally. In connection

with the limited lia b ility company proposal, the name 155

ia& ai SO,Cj.Æt^ would be changed to theatr? association.

8. Provisions would be made for collective as well as individual

membership, so as to make Riksteatern more attractive to

the Popular Movements and Public Organizations.

9. Funds would be set aside to hire special representatives

for the local societies. These representatives would work

closely with the local societies and report directly to a

new representative council. This council would take the

piece of the old representative assembly and eliminate the

necessity of holding biennial congresses.

10. The establishment of a permanent ensemble for Riksteatern

would be unwise because of the financial hazards involved.

11. The touring contributions of the state-subsidized theatres

were extremely important and should continue in the future.

In order to fa c ilita te these operations, the Royal Dramatic

Theatre would be allotted special funds to (I) establish a

special rehearsal stage to help it meet touring obligations

and (2) increase the size of its acting company.

12. To expand a c tiv itie s , Riksteatern would undertake to double

or trip le its performances, at least in the larger towns,

to a greater extent than hitherto attempted.

The ticket price reduction system then operating would be

retained, but a more extensive subscription system was neces­

sary as a complement to this facet of Riksteatern’s operations.

14. Additional lottery monies would be allotted to Riksteatern

so that ticket prices could be reduced. 156

15, In conclusion, the committee found that the cost to the

government in lottery monies for each spectator at

Riksteatern’ s performances compared very favorably with

similar figures from the other state-subsidized theatres,

as is shown in Table 5,

TABLE 5

SWEDISH GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES FOR EACH THEATRE SPECTATOR, 1942-43® Theatre Cost per Spectator in Kronor" Royal Operatic Theatre 5*66

Royal Dramatic Theatre 1:83

Gbteborg Municipal Theatre « . . , 1:19

Gbteborg Lyric Theatre ...... 3:22

Halsingborg Municipal Theatre . . 6:40

Riksteatern 1:43

®Source: 1943 a m betankande. p. 66,

^There are approximately five (5) Swedish kronor to one (I) American dollar.

Reac.t,J„on& l a üls. Rsjæc I

In spite of some of the recommendations for changes aimed toward re-organization, Riksteatern fared much better at the hands of the 1943

Investigation than with the two previous investigations. The Folkets

Tester proposal, for instance, was dropped by the wayside, and this would leave Riksteatern’s identity intact. In addition, the 157 organization was praised for its artistic program and its efficient handling of lottery monies# Instead of merely blaming Riksteatern for stagnating, the committee recognized that the organization faced sizeable obstacles in the forms of (|) inadequate theatre locales and

(2) limited allottments of government subsidies#

But of course there were elements within the investigation report which displeased Riksteatern and its adherents# Aside from the recommendations repeated from other investigations which Riksteatern had already replied to, the most controversial point turned out to be the suggestion that the royal theatres and civic organizations become stock­ holders in Riksteatern, and that consequently the representative assembly and biennial congresses be eliminated# This suggestion was

interpreted by many as a dangerous move towards central izat ion~the provinces would have less to say about their own theatre. An editorial

in the newspaper Norckooinçs Tidninoar. entitled “Reform with a

Question-Mark," noted that “a theatre program receiving direction from

the capital can never achieve the same hold on the provinces [that

Riksteatern established#"*

In regard to the elimination of the congresses, the newspaper

Morgan Tidnincen stated that " it is important that the local societies

« # # can— through their representatives— gather together to discuss

various questions, and feel that the organization belongs to them#

Furthermore, the whole concept of re-organization is based upon a share­

holding system whose prospects are uncertain#"^ Independent theatre

ANorrkopinqs Tidninpar. trans# H, G# Carlson, October 7, 1944# 5cited in Dagens Nvheter (Stockholm), trans# H. G. Carlson, October 7, 1944# 158 c r itic Nils Beyer asked simply (concerning the participation of the royal theatres), ’’What has the Royal Opera to do with Riksteatern?"®

And the newspaper ’Orebro Kuriren believed that the 1943 Investigation proposals would only lead to . . more bureaucracy and less mobility."?

Gosta Bergman, speaking for Riksteatern, had doubts about the efficacy of diluting the power of the local societies. Bergman, in a speech at the November 1944 congress, said:

We do not believe that there are many people interested in theatre who would care to be part of a local society administration which was only a puppet government; which had all the financial responsibility but no authority to make decisions; and which was under the watchful eye of a representative who took all his orders from the central administration.®

With the threats of amalgamation with People’ s Parks and the

elimination of membership privileges gone, thanks to the 1943

Investigation, Bergman now took a firm stand against this last threat—

the centralization of power through the process of making the local

societies less independent and less able to use collective action (at

the congresses) to influence policy decisions. The 1944 representative 9 assembly congress supported Bergman in this stand.

Everyone interested in the provincial theatre and its problems

settled back to await the final disposition of the many investigations

by the Minister of Education and Cultural A ffairs.

®Cited in "Presskommentarer t i l l Riksteaterutredningen," trans. H. 6. Carlson, Teatern. XI (October, 1944), 6.

?lbid.« trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 7.

®"KongressbiI age," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teat ern. XI (December, 1944), 15.

p. 19. PART I I I

RIKSTEATERN FROM 1944 TO 1955

While the storm clouds of criticism were gathering In the thirties and early forties for the 1943 Investigation, Riksteatern was making friends, even among the professional theatre people. Each year more and more actors were getting work, thanks to Riksteatern. When the

Actors' Association CSTF) refused to back Branner and his committee's report, a significant point had been reached. It appeared that STF was unwilling to return to the hazardous and unstable conditions which existed before Riksteatern. It was an Indirect vote of confidence In

Riksteatern's a b ility to bring s ta b ility to the provincial theatre.

The 1943 Investigation cleared the a ir . In contrast to the fa r- reaching changes proposed by the various letters, petitions, and Investi­ gations, the 1943 committee's recommendations seemed quite mild. In the year following the publication of the Investigation report, all organized resistance to Riksteatern as an organizational form melted away.

After the brief controversy which accompanied the Investigation results, things were re latively quiet In the newspapers and trade maga­ zines. W riter Sture Bohlln probably voiced a question raised by many people when he wondered whether there had not been simply too much talk

and too many investigations. "And It would be best," he w rote,"if we could move on from eternal debate to constructive

159 160 a c tiv ity .*! Even Per-Axel Branner seemed to have softened a b it. He admitted that "the Riksteatern idea— however distorted it became, artistically as well as organizational|y—signified the salvation of the provincial theatre.

For the most part, everyone withheld comment and waited for the government to take action on the 1943 investigation recommendations.

This period of waiting finally ended in 1946.

The last section of this study is an account of Riksteatern’s growth from 1944 to 1955, during which time Riksteatern reached the stage of development which had been set up as the organization’ s goal in 1933. Chapter IX, the firs t chapter in this section, is a survey of some of the more significant postwar theatrical developments which affected Riksteatern: the final disposition of the 1943 Investigation, with the subsequent changes made in Riksteatern, and the unique postwar theatre boom* Chapter X is an examination of Riksteatern’ s growth in terms of expansion in depth and breadth of production operations and an analysis of how Riksteatern’s relationships with other theatrical organizations and institutions have changed over the years* Chapter XI is an account of the formation of the 1955 Provincial Investigation, together with a survey of the contemporary theatrical problems as they affect the future of Riksteatern* Chapter X II, the concluding chapter, is a discussion of Riksteatern’s significance as a theatrical institution.

Isture Bohlin, "Den nya teaterutredningen," trans* H* G. Carlson, FolKlia Kuilur* IX (October, 1944), 262.

2per-Axe| Branner, "Nagra reflexioner kring teeter av i dag," trans. H. G* Carlson, Samtid och Eramtid. II (February, 1945), 73* CHAPTER IX

SIGNIFICANT POSTWAR THEATRICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Itm al Nai Provincial Theatre Forms

In the summer of 1946, the Theatre Council took a step which was an Indication of how the government might fin a lly act on the 1943

Investigation recommendations. Instead of merely outlining new changes to be made In Riksteatern, the Council opened a new avenue of develop­ ment and progress—the encouragement of additional provincial theatre organizations to supplement Riksteatern's operations. The Council thus ta c itly rejected the majority of the proposals made towards the re­ organization of Riksteatern. Among the recommendations made by the

Theatre Council were the following:^

1. Riksteatern must continue to expand Its own production facilities because the state-subsidized theatres find It more and more difficult to meet their touring obligations for Riksteatern. In the future the contributions should come primarily from the Gbteborg Lyric

Theatre,

2 . Other organizational forms should be established alongside

Riksteatern. There Is, for Instance, ample room In the provinces for both Riksteatern and commercial theatre companies. To guard against

^"Intéressant utlatande an teaterr^det," Svenska Merit emsbI ad. September, 1946, pp. 6 f f .

161 162 possible losses, a fund should be set up to help these companies;

50,000 kronor (10,000 dollars) per year would be sufficient for this purpose.

3. Steps must be taken, by both state and community governments, to stabilize the theatre locale problem.

4. The Popular Movements and Public Organizations should be represented in the Riksteatern central administration.

£Iûâl Dlsaoailion a l JL2ÂL investigation

In the middle of November, 1946, Minister of Education and

Cultural Affairs Weijne called in Gosta Bergman for a discussion of the various investigations and proposals. The result was that Minister Weijne could not find sufficient cause for drastic changes in Riksteatern's form.^ The few changes made were incorporated into Riksteatern's constitution and by-laws at the November 1946 congress of the Riksteatern representative assembly. These changes included:^

I. Paragraphs 1 and 2 of the Riksteatern General Regulations were removed and a new Paragraph 1 was inserted which read as follows:

Riksteatern's purpose is to extend and deepen interest in theatre by arranging high-quality theatrical performances— preferably at those places throughout the nation where permanent state-subsidized theatres are not found— either through Riksteatern's own organization, or in cooperation with the permanent state- subsidized theatres, or through the engagement of private troupes, or through some other means. Riksteatern should encourage high- quality theatre for children. Another of Riksteatern's purposes is to encourage general interest in theatre through lectures and through the publication of informative m aterials. Riksteatern

■^"Utbyggnad av verksamheten." Teatern. XI I I (July, 1946), 3.

^"Riksteaterns konaress." Teatern. XIII (July, 1946), 5 ff. 163

should also support the amateur theatre that is culturally worthwhile«®

2. The name of the organization, beginning with the 1947-48 season, was officially changed from Riksteatern's Public Organization to simply Rikateatern.

3. Special paid representatives of the central administration were appointed to travel among the various local societies and act as advisory "trouble-shooters" on administrative and other problems. They were not, however, selected to assume authority over the local societies as had been proposed in the 1943 Investigation.

4. The government subsidies given to Riksteatern (which a amounted to 352,000 kronor, or 70,400 dollars, for the 1946-47 season) were increased by 100,000 kronor (20,000 dollars) for the 1947-48 season.

5. The local societies were no longer required to turn in

25 per cent of all profits to the central administration.

These minor changes made in 1946 settled the issues brought up by the many investigations. The long war between Riksteatern and its opponents was fin a lly over, and the event passed without comment from the press. The organization was now free to devote all of its attention to expansion.

Ili£ P9&tïïqi:, Ibasins

The decade following World War II proved to be one of the most productive periods in the history of the Swedish theatre. In the year

prior to the founding of Riksteatern a total of 1,600 performances were given by the state-subsidized theatres. But by the 1955-56 season, the

5|bid.. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 6. 164 number had Increased to approximately 7,500 performances,^ or about one performance for every thousand Swedes, and most of this expansion had Q taken place between 1946 and 1956.

There are no simple answers as to why or how this growth took place, but this much Is certain* the Swedish people have developed an

Insatiable hunger for living theatre. In the thirties, when people spoke of a "crisis In the theatre," the reference was to a depression, but In the forties and fifties the crisis was Inflation. The thinkers and theorlzers who worried during the thirties about how to stimulate greater Interest In theatre are today concerned about where to get enough actors to satisfy production demands. The limited amount of qualified talent available has become a serious theatrical problem.

The following Is a survey of the Innovations made In the Swedish thaatre between 1944 and 1954:

September 1944— The MaJjno Municipal Theatre began operations

In Sweden's third largest clty.^

September 1947—With the help and encouragement of Riksteatern, the NorrkooIng-LInkooIng kretsteater. or regional theatre, was opened.

?Thls figure. If transferred to the United States, would be the equivalent of over 400 fu lly professional theatres presenting eight performances a week, fifty-tw o weeks of the year, for a total of 170,000 performances.

®Gosta M. Bergman, "Den narmaste utveckiIngen av RIksteaterns verksamhet." Teatern. XXIII (December, 1956), I.

®Hakon Hedeman-Gade, "MaImb," Teater utanfbr huvudstaden. ed. Olof Hlllberg (Stockholm* Aktlebolaget Svensk L Itte ra tu r, 19511, p. 375.

lOGunnar Rydgren, "Ostgbtascenen— en utbyggnad av Riksteatern," Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 22. 165

September 1951— The Uopsala-Gavle Municipal Theatre was founded.

September 1954— Two new kretsteaters came into being* one in

Sfflcia and one in KarJstad.^^

Besides the stationary or semi-stationary theatres listed above, several new provincial theatre organizations were also estab­ lished in this period.

1946— Sn.t.ectjaInmsnts, L L l. (Proarambolaaet) was founded under the sponsorship of the People's House organization in a ffilia tio n with

People's Parks. The purpose of Entertainments, Ltd. Is to organize and stimulate Interest in theatre in places inaccessible to

Riksteatern.

1951— The Countryaide Theatre (Bygdeteatern) was founded to organize and stimulate interest in theatre in places inaccessible to

Entertainments, Ltd. The Countryside Theatre purchases all of its productions (mostly from Riksteatern), while Entertainments, Ltd. produces many plays its e lf.

In addition to these two large organizations there are two smaller groups: Vara Gardar. an organization similar to the Countryside

Theatre, and Pi on iarteatern. an organization with the task of performing

^^Hi I lestrbm. Theatre and B_a_l_Let. p. 70.

^^Lars Gerhard Norberg, "Svenska teaterchefen uttalar slg," Tidens teater 1957. ed. Erwin Lelser (Stockholm* Tidens For lag, 1957), p. 92.

l^Birgir Aim, "Svensk turneteater," Svenska Teaterforbundets November, 1954, p. 9.

P» 10. 166

In prisons, hospitals, and mental and other welfare Institutions.^^

Several of the stationary theatres expanded their a c tiv itie s In

two new directions. The first was the "studio theatre," a small,

Intimate, sometimes experimental theatre, to be used for productions

of plays which might not prove to have the popular appeal necessary to

fill the regular theatres. Today these small theatres function as

additional production outlets at the Royal Dramatic Theatre In

Stockholm, at the Malmo Municipal Theatre, and at the Goteborg

Municipal Theatre.

The second expanded activity was the addition of new theatre

schools. Besides the existing schools at the Royal Dramatic Theatre

and the Goteborg Municipal Theatre, others were founded at the Malmo,

Norrkoping, and Uppsala theatres.

In the area of commercial theatre, conditions have not Improved

much, but this Is not to say that the commercial theatre Is dead. The

Theatre Council's 1946 suggestion to allot subsidies directly to

various Itinerant private companies has grown Into a rather large

operation. In 1946, the sum finally allotted was 25,000 kronor

(5,000 d o llars), and by the 1957-58 season, the amount had grown to

380,000 kronor (76,000 d o l l a r s ) . T h e stationary commercial theatre,

however. Is non-existent outside Goteborg and Stockholm.

A v ita l factor In the boom has been the fact that the total

ISjLbld..

l^Hlllestrom, Theatre and Ballet, p. 70.

^^Daaens Nyheter (Stockholm), June 28, 1957. 167 amount of lottery monies allotted to theatre has Increased each year.

In 1945, this sum was 3,341,037 kronor (668,207 d o llars), and by 1955, the sum had reached the Impressive figure of 9,476,600 kronor

(1,895,320 dollars).IB

^®Sweden, Handelsdepartementet (The Department of Commerce), "Betankande och forsleg angaende r ik tlln je r och former for fordelning av le t t e r Im e d e I(1948 §rs utredning om en statens kulturfond, Stockholm, Handelsdepartementet, June 15, 1955), pp. 93, 102. CHAPTER X

RAPID EXPANSION AND CHANGING

RELATIONSHIPS

SSttÊLSjL aeV£j£iDinents

At the end of World War II living conditions returned to

normal, and Swedes could once more teke a full interest in theatre

affa irs * The most obvious advantage that Riksteetern gained by the cessation in hostilities was that the organization was relieved of the wartime responsibilities and pressures that had done so much to restrict end limit the development of its civilian activities. The severe World War II fuel shortages, for instance, had caused hardships not only for the companies Riksteetern sent out, but also for the

theatre-goers in the provinces who lived some distance from their local

theatres. When the fuel supplies returned to normal, Riksteetern was

in a better position to guarantee that tours would meet their obligations on schedule and also in a better position to make membership in

Riksteatern a more attractive proposition.

But the most important postwar development for Riksteatern

involved finances. Speaking about Riksteatern's success on the

organization's twentieth anniversary in 1953, Gosta Bergman stated that

"this advance was made possible by the step-by-step increase in state

subsidies which thus removed the obstacle which had earlier brought

168 169

Riksteatern's development to a standstill.**^ Table 6 shows the yearly

Increase In subsidies from 1944 to 1956. Expansion needed cap ital, and thanks to the recommendations of the 1943 Investigation, the capital became available.

TABLE 6

LOTTERY MONIES ALLOTTED TO THE SWEDISH RIKSTEATER, 1944-56®

Season Amount In Kronor^

1944/45 ...... 402,000*00 1945/46 302,000:00^ 1946/47 ...... 357,897*I|d 1947/48 ...... 452,000*00 1948/49 502,000*00® 1949/50...... 562,000*00 1950/51 ...... 612,000*00 1951/52 ...... 892,000*00 1952/53...... 1,092,000*00 1953/54...... 1,212,000*00 1954/55 ...... 1,287,000*00 1955/56...... 1,287,000*00

Source* Berattelse over

*^There are approximately five (5) Swedish kronor to one (II American dollar.

“"This reduction marked the end of Riksteatern's performances for servicemen.

^The sum of 5,897*11 kronor was left over from the subsidies allotted for perfor­ mances for servicemen.

®0f which 50,000 kronor went to financing the "doubled" and "tripled" performances.

iGbsta M. Bergman, "20 ars RIksteater," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 2. 170

During the firs t five years following the war (1945-1950),

Riksteatern's operations were characterized by the expanded growth and development of the local societies*

Expansion ia Depth

The local societies had been hurt by both the wartime conditions and the efforts to undermine their authority made by the various debates which preceded the 1943 Investigation. At the end of the war, the total number of societies was sixty-eight,^ but this figure was deceiving. A dozen or more groups were carried on Riksteatern's books that were inactive. They did not order performances and a number of these societies did not even hold meetings.

In 1948, Riksteatern began listing only those societies which were active (see Table 7 ). This number was fifty -th re e . A program was then launched to make the existing locals stronger and to add new units which were willing to take on local society responsibilities.

This effort was quite successful, for by 1949, the number of active

locals had jumped to sixty, and by 1950, the number was sixty-six.

Aside from the period between 1934 and 1936, the two years between

1948 and 1950, marked the most successful advance in the number of new

local societies that Riksteatern had ever known (see Table 1 , page 80,

and Table 7, page 171). When the 1943 Investigation was finally

settled, the local societies regained the confidence of their patrons,

and with more funds available from the lottery monies, the locals were

able to provide more services for their members.

^Berattelse s x £ L B£PJi,& ,Y£riLSi>Cah,e,t P * A . 171

In regard to the members, the per rod between 1948 and 1950 was also important from the standpoint of new enrollments* As Table 7 shows, during this time the number of membership cards issued jumped from 16,294 to 24,227, for an increase of very close to 50 per cent*

TABLE 7

THE SWEDISH RIKSTEATER LOCAL SOCIETY AND MEMBERSHIP CARD STATISTICS, 1945-56^

Membership Cards As of Local Societies Issued^

31/6/45 68 (enrolled) * * * * 15,715 31/6/46 67 (enrolled) * * * * 13,514 31/6/47 67 (enrol 1ed) * * * * 14,587 31/6/48 53 (active) * * * * 16,294 31/6/49 60 (active) * * * * 19,844 31/6/50 66 (active) . . * * 24,227 31/6/51 71 (active) * * . . 25,425 31/6/52 72 (active) * * * * 25,015 31/6/53 73 (active) * * * * 27,014 31/6/54 75 (active) * . . * 26,337 31/6/55 75 (active) * * * * 24,350 51/6/56 74 (active) * . * * 24,625

^Source: gerMlclaa izm : PiKs,te^.t.ern§ YfiChgagltlfit JL2É5.-5&.

^Each membership card entitles the holder to ticket-buying privileges for two 12) persons*

In the effort to strengthen and expand their operations, the

local societies took several lines of action:^

^Except where specifically noted, the following Information on depth and breadth of expansion was obtained in extensive interviews with Managing Director Gosta Bergman, Treasurer Ivan Torhall, Organization Manager Arne Forsberg, and from the Riksteatern official files and archives, during the period May through July, 1957* 172

I* To help guarantee that the theatres would always be filled to capacity, or near capacity, the local societies made attempts to offer a variety of subscription systems designed to attract a|I types of people. I.e., Individual citizens as well as members of organizations.

2 . To create greater Interest In theatre, within Riksteatern’s membership as well as within the general public, the local societies distributed Increased amounts of informative materials. Before a production arrived at a particular town, for Instance, hundreds of pamphlets describing the play were dispersed, and frequently there would be a discussion between the audience and actors of the significance of the play after the performance. In addition, low-cost books on theatre art and history were sold either by the societies themselves or by private book dealers with a view towards making the public more soph IstIcated.

3. To attract the Interest of labor unions and civic organi­ zations, the special or "popular* performance program was expanded.

Similar to the methods used In the American system of "benefit" perfor­ mances, an organization could purchase at reduced prices either part of, or the entire theatre for Individual performances.

4. The practice of "doubling" or "trip lin g " performances was also expanded (see Table 13, page 223). To Insure that the program would be financially successful, a special arrangement was made between the central administration and the local societies. When the society decided It wanted more than one performance of a particular production.

It presented evidence to the central administration to the effect that a large percentage of the house had already been sold to subscribers. 173

Two examples w ill serve to illu s tra te how this system operated:

The Lidkoping local society had at Its disposal a theatre seating 552 people. Since the number of subscribers for the fa ll season of 1955 was only 126, the society received one performance.

But in the same season, the Eskilstuna local had 1,332 subscribers and a theatre seating 576 people. Dividing the number of subscribers by three meant that the Eskilstuna local had enough patrons tn advance to guarantee that for at least three performances their theatre would be fille d to at least 75 per cent of capacity. Consequently,

Eskilstuna received three performances of each production it ordered.

5, One suggestion made in the 1943 Investigation was that the community governments contribute more to theatrical a c tiv itie s . Taking this suggestion as their cue, the locals began an intensive campaign for various forms of government support: (I) the direct allottment of funds to the societies by city councils, ( 2 ) the return of tax revenues from the sale of tickets to the locals by the municipal governments, (3) special subsidies for programs for school children, and (4) the payment of theatre rental fees by the local governments.

With these additional funds, the societies hoped to be able to lower ticket prices and thus attract more people.

As Riksteatern's operations expanded in the decade following

World War I I , the communities responded to requests for funds in a most gratifying manner. In 1943, the total direct funds awarded to

Riksteatern by the community governments amounted to a relatively small figure— 17,600 kronor (3,520 dollars)— but by 1957, the sum had risen to 324,025 kronor (64,805 d o llars), close to twenty times as much 174 as the previous figure, and a sum nearly equal to the lottery subsidies awarded to Riksteatern by the Crown for the 1946-47 season (see

Table 6 , page 169, and Table 15, page 228).

From Its early days, Riksteatern had asked that both the state and community governments return to the organization the revenues received from entertainment taxes (which the state and communities usually divided equally) on the grounds that since Riksteatern was a state-supported Institution, the state was pieced In the Illogical position of taxing Its e lf, Gradually a number of communities agreed to this, and fin a lly , on July !|,, 1957, It was announced that all future entertainment tax monies (local as well as state) would be returned to the local societies. Riksteatern organization Manager Arne Forsberg estimated that a yearly sum of 200,000 kronor (40,000 dollars) was

Involved.

Riksteatern Is particularly proud that the city of Jbnkoplng, beginning In 1957, gave 56,400 kronor (11,280 dollars) per year

(a sum equal to more than I krona— 20 cents— per man, woman, and child

in the c ity ; see Table 15, page 228). Jbnkoplng Is often referred to as " L ittle Jerusalem" because of the high concentration of nonconformist and fundamentalist church groups which have their head­ quarters there— groups which have traditio n ally been opposed to the theatre as a social Institu tio n . Attitudes have changed, however, and

In 1957, the city awarded more money to Its local society than any other city or town In the nation (see Table 15, page 228).

The community subsidies have a significance above their sizes.

The state subsidies are taken from the state lottery monies, but the 175 community subsidies are received either from local taxes, or in a few cases (Kbpmanholmen and Rundviksverken— see Table 15, page 228) from local industries. These sources are a real indication of how high the theatre has come to be regarded by the Swedish people in the provinces.

The most striking fact about the activities of the local societies is the variety of results achieved by individual groups

(see Tables 13, 14, and 15; pages 223, 226, and 228). Some locals had dynamic production programs while others had mediocre programs.

Much of this difference can be accounted for by the fact that the cities where the societies were located varied in size a good deal (from 1,000 to over 50,000), but one essential difference is caused by a factor that can either be a great asset, or a crippling IiabiIity— individual, local initiative. Riksteatern was continually dependent upon the many people from all social classes who served voluntarily and without pay on the local society administrations. Here again, as with other postwar aspects of Riksteatern, the trend has been upward. The many imposing statistics demonstrate (see Tables 13, 14, and 15; pages 223,

226, and 228) that the local societies were more and more being staffed by people who had faith and confidence in "their" organization— people who saw that a strong and active Riksteatern theatre society could become a focal point for a 11 cultural a c tiv itie s in a community.

By 1958, Riksteatern local societies were found in nearly every part of Sweden that is inhabited (see Map 2, page 216), and production figures were rising consistently (see Table 11, page 217).

During the years 1945-1950, the period here designated as expansion in depth, the number of performances ordered by the local societies 176 increased from 536 to 752, or by more than 100 per cent. The Increase from 1951 to 1956 was also impressive— from 769 to 895— but by then another aspect of Riksteatern*s operations had grown to an important size and had come to figure prominently in its future.

ixasnsJm la aiaalt,h

In the early I950's it became evident that the number of local societies and the number of membership cards held were relatively constant at seventy-five locals and 25,000 members (see Table 7, page 171). The number of towns able to support theatre society activities was limited. But since one of Riksteatern’ s primary goals was to reach as many people as possible, the question was how to extend a c tiv itie s deeper into the countryside. The answer was to continue expanding the "small-town” tours, which began as a single tour in the 1937-38 season and was firs t awarded special lottery monies for the 1949-50 season (see Table 6 , page 169). Table 8 demonstrates how this activity expanded in terms of the number of c itie s and towns visited between 1945 and 1956.

These tours to places with no local societies were usually arranged with the cooperation of local chapters of civic organizations.

People’s House (Folkets Hus) representatives, or purchased directly from Riksteatern by Entertainments, Ltd. or the Countryside Theatre

(see Chapter IX). These arrangements were dependent upon several factors—one of which was the size of the town in question. Table VIII shows the differences in population of towns visited by Riksteatern during the 1954-55 season. 177

Since there were such differences In the sizes of the c itie s visited and also In the theatres located In these c itie s , Riksteatern had to devise a system which would take these differences Into account. The system operated on this equation: the smaller the town and Its theatre, the smaller and less expensive the production must be,

Tours were broken down Into three categories: "A" tours (those

Intended for the local societies) and "B" and "C” tours (those

Intended for places with no local societies). Table 10, page 179 demonstrates the financial statistics pertaining to these categories.

TABLE 8

NUMBER OF PLACES VISITED BY THE SWEDISH RIKSTEATER TOURS, 1945-56® As of Places Visited^

31/6/45 122 31/6/46 I!4 31/6/47 165 31/6/48 193 31/5/49 282 31/5/50 341 31/6/51 369 31/6/52 368 31/6/53 383 31/6/54 499 31/5/55 459 31/6/56 530

®Source: Berattelse flxar. R,i fc>at.e,qlgt;ns yacAsambat

^Including local sod et les. 178

TABLE 9

TYPES OF POPULATION CENTERS IN SWEDEN VISITED BY RIKSTEATERN TOURS, 1954-55*

To Places with Number of Percentage PopulatIon: Performances of the Total

Under 5,000 533 36.8 between 5-10,000 151 10.4 between 10-15,000 149 10.3 between 15-20,000 87 6 .0 between 20-25,000 149 10.3 between 25-30,000 87 6 .0 between 30-60,000 179 12.4 over 60,000 112 7.8 1,447 100.0 To Norway 19 Total 1,466

Sources YGLhagmhcf 1255.»

Before a small-town tour took to the road, brochures describing

the play and Its theatrical requirements were sent either to the local

chapters of a civic organization, or to one of the other provincial

theatre organizations (e.g.. Entertainments, Ltd., Countryside

Theatre). Since the plays were rehearsed, and the scenery built In

Stockholm, Riksteatern needed to know In advance whether the stage

dimensions and technical facilities In the theatres to be visited

satisfied certain minimum requirements. 179

TABLE 10

THE SWEDISH RIKSTEATER "A", "B" AND " C TOUR COSTS, 1951-52®

"A" Tour "B" Tour "C" Tour Type of Expense Costs in Costs in Costs in Kronor^ Kronor Kronor

Average cost per day, exclusive of local costs: 1,575 930 690

Cost of transportation: 155 120 1 15

Expense allowances to actors and technicians: 262 90 90

Royalties: 1 15 60 25

Cost of publicity, exclusive of local costs: 30 30 25

Depreciation of touring equipment: 270 200 150

Average local cost per day: 480 150 100

®Source* Gosta M. Bergman, "The Swedish RIksteater," World Theatre. I I (1952), 27.

^There are approximately five (5) Swedish kronor to one (I) American dollar.

if the local civic or theatre organization had at its disposal a theatre which met the production requirements, and if it fe lt that there was sufficient interest in the community for the play, the organization signed a contract with Riksteatern, obligating itself to 180

pay the set fee (determined by the size of the tour; i . e . , "B" or **C'M

to the Riksteatern tour leader on the day of the performance. These

arrangements for the "B” and ”C" tours were thus sim ilar to those

used in connection with the "A", or local society tours, which was in

keeping with Riksteatern's primary operational principle: the

decentralization of authority and responsibility.

These tours to every part of Sweden provided a tremendous

stimulus to the growth of public interest in theatre. They also gave

a psychological l i f t to the actors involved in them. During the war,

the prominent Norwegian actor Hans Jacob Nielsen toured northern-most

Sweden with a Riksteatern production of Hamlet and was later asked if he found it difficult to play to such an unsophisticated audience.

Nielsen replied, "D iffic u lt? — you cannot imagine anything more wonderful I I played to an old man who walked twelve miles to see how

Hamlet ended. Can you think of anything more wonderful than people who do not know how Hamlet ends?"^

Between 1940 and 1956, the performances for small towns

increased from twenty-seven to 639, an increase many times greater

than the one achieved by the local societies ( i.e ., from 414 to 895;

see Table 11, page 217). But this does not mean that the small-town

tours assumed the dominant role in Riksteatern. In terms of attendance

and receipts, the local society a c tiv itie s s till formed the backbone

of Riksteatern's operations. In the 1955-56 season, for instance,

the receipts from local society performances were nearly four times

^Anders H. Angstrom, "Mote med en ny publik," trans. H. G. Carlson, Tea±ern. XX (September, 1955), 27. 181 greater than those from the small-town a c tiv itie s , and the total attendance was nearly three times greater (see Table 11, page 217)*

The real significance of the small-town tours was that they demonstrated that Riksteatern continued to be a flexible and dynamic organization, capable of meeting new challenges and capable of breaking ground for further progress and growth. The leaders of

Riksteatern were also re a lis tic enough to realize that the postwar boom might end; and should this happen, Riksteatern Is prepared to discontinue Its relatively expensive sma||_town operations and fall back on the more established and stable local society activities.

The significance of Riksteatern's success In the postwar era Is nowhere better demonstrated than In Its relationships with other theatrical and cultural Institutions. The 1943 Investigation had dissolved a ll organized resistance, and the remaining vested

Interests underwent great changes. Allan Ryding's death In 1942, marked the end of the era when the private theatrical entrepreneur was an Influential part of the provincial theatre; unemployment In

the acting profession disappeared; as Riksteatern placed more and more

emphasis on production Instead of distribution, the stationary state-

subsidized theatres were happily left to pursue their own destinies;

and as Riksteatern doubled and tripled Its performance schedules, the

theatre owners found less to complain about pertaining to rental fees.

Only one organization continued to resent Riksteatern's position In

the provinces— the People's Parks' Theatre. 182

and the People's Parks» Theatre.—The end of World

War II brought about great changes in the People's Parks' a c tiv itie s .

The relaxations of limitations on transportation turned the Swedish

people into one of the most mobile national groups in Europe. Because

of the severity of the Scandinavian winter, most Swedes take their

vacation in the summer and many travel out of the country. Consequently,

the attendance at the summer Parks' entertainment fa c ilitie s has

dec Iined.

Another factor is connected with this decline in attendance.

As Sweden continues to expand as a small industrial power, more Swedes

have more money than ever before. Class distinctions, although s t ill

sharp when compared with a country like the United States, are fading,

and fewer people wish to identify themselves with institutions that

are stamped as "working-class" or "proletarian." As a result, an

ironic transition has taken place. Whereas in the thirties Riksteatern

had to defend its e lf against charges that it was not close enough to

the "masses," People's Parks, as early as 1946, was forced to take a

defensive position because it was close to the "masses." An editorial

in the People's Parks' magazine Seen och Sa long insisted that

"generally speaking, the public needs to change its attitude toward the

People's Parks. The Parks are not poorer in quality [than Riksteatern]

because they were built by the working people. If anything, they are

better because of this fact «"^

As Riksteatern expanded its sma||-town tours, the Parks

^Birgir Aim, "Det allmanna och folkparkerna," trans. H. G, Carlson, Seen gptl Sa long. August, 1946, p. I. 183.

pointed with pride to the fact that an organization intimately connected with People's Parks and People's House— Entertainment, Ltd.— was largely responsible for this growth. Since Riksteatern was

dependent upon this new organization in order to be able to meet the

demand for more winter theatre, the Parks claimed that Riksteatern was

inadequate.®

In 1949, the Parks' Theatre revealed the real reason why it

resented Riksteatern's position. Hard hit by rising costs and

declining attendance, the Parks' administration ". . . felt a bit

depressed when— just prior to the opening of the present season— the

state refused their petition for Increased subsidies, but approved

Riksteatern's request for an increase."^

In 1950, the Parks' Theatre indicated something about their own

standards when they c riticized the types of programs Riksteatern

presented In their small-town tours. "There is nothing wrong," an

editorial in Seen och Salcnq read, "with the a rtis tic standard of these

plays, but to give them Is to aim high—much too high . . ."®

Since 1945, People's Parks has been forced to curtail their

programs of serious plays and put more emphasis on light comedy and

musical revues, or as they put it : ". . . plays which the people

®Conny Jonsson, "Riksteaterns s ta tis tik ," Seen och Salcnq. June, 1949, p. I.

^Blrgir Aim, "Teaterans!egen," trans. H. G. Carlson, Seen och Sa long. August, 1949, p. I.

®Birgir Aim, "Turneteaterns baksida," trans. H. G. Carlson, Sc,en och Sa long. May, 1950, p. I. 184 understand • . As a result, the Parks* Theatre came under fire from various critics who accused the organization of watering down its repertoire. In a debate held in 1952, the Parks' Director of Theatre

Birgir Aim said, **We cannot present theatre for the sake of theatre.

The cost alone is sufficient reason why the People's Parks' Theatre is not the right place for experimental theatre,In return, theatre c r itic Ebbe Linde proposed that the Parks include more of the classics in its program: Holberg, Moliere, Marivaux, and Ibsen,But actor

Douglas Hige ridiculed the suggestion with the statement: "'Damn, we had fun at the Moliere show last n ig h t!'— I believe such an expression to be impossible,"12 ;v\r, Page's remark is more than a l i t t l e reminis­ cent of actress Karin A|exandersson's 1935 warning to Riksteatern not to present Moliere to the Lapplanders,

At another People's Parks' debate in 1953, actor George Fant resurrected the charge that Riksteatern was the property of the middle classes, and he called for more social|y-conscious drama,

But despite attempts to interest their public in theatre, it was obvious to the People's Parks' administration that the changing conditions in postwar Sweden had hurt the summer theatre. The parks themselves were in danger fin ancially, and there was some speculation

9Ibid.. trans, H, G, Carlson, p, 2,

10"Folkparksteaterns repertoar— en debatt i Eskilstuna," trans, H. G, Carlson, Seen och Salanç. December, 1952, p, 16,

^^ikLsL.

12Ibid.. trans, H, G, Carlson, p, 17,

l^"Om teater at folket." Seen och Salcnq. July, 1953, p, 14, 185 among People's Parks' administrative people that perhaps the principle of a people's park had stagnated,

These developments in the People's Parks' Theatre since 1945 are particularly significant when compared with the upward curve in

Riksteatern's development in the same period. None of the charges or comparisons made by the Parks were new. The difference was that now only this organization made them. The same inconsistencies were presents

Riksteatern's small-town repertoire was "too artistic," but the success

Riksteatern enjoyed with this repertoire was supposedly due primarily to the cooperation given by the People's Parks' and People's House affiliate— Entertainments, Ltd, Riksteatern had shown that high- quality theatre would attract large audiences, but too much high- quality theatre would drive audiences away from the People's Parks,

The Parks demanded as high subsidies as Riksteatern received, despite the fact that the winter theatre did not have as many sources of revenue as the summer theatre. It has been a number of years since anyone recommended that Riksteatern look to the People's Parks' Theatre as a model to be imitated,

Riksteatern agj, Actors' Associât ion.— The Actors'

Association ceased its active opposition to Riksteatern when it accepted

Per-Axel Eranner's resignation in 1943, and a few years later the organization was numbered among Riksteatern's supporters. By 1953,

Sven Bergvall, now president of the Association, said:

For someone who was present at Riksteatern's birth, and then followed its development through the years, it is a great

l^Arne Elmgren, "Stelnar formerna?" Seen pph Sa Iona, September, 1953, p. I, 186

pleasure to acknowledge the extraordinary significance the organization has had In the cultural life of the nation. Here Is an achievement that aannot be over-estimated— so great Is Riksteatern’s artistic and cultural contribution. Furthermore, an Invaluable area of work opportunities has been opened for the nation’ s large corps of actors.

These are Indeed kind words from a man (see Chapter VI) who did much to try to change Riksteatern In the thirties and early forties.

Riksteatern’s postwar production statistics were apparently more successful In convincing the vested Interests of Riksteatern’ s Impor­ tance than Riksteatern’ s leadership had been In the period before the

1943 Investigation.

U3£. Norrkoo I na-L i nkoo I no Theatre The clamor

In the early th irtie s for stadsteaters (municipal theatres) and kreisteaters (regional theatres) as solutions to the problems of the provincial theatre In the depression never really died down. Even when Riksteatern became accepted as a valid organizational form after

the 1943 Investigation, new theatres were founded to supplement

Riksteatern’s activities.

The 1933 Investigation rejected proposals for kretsteaters on

the grounds that there was not sufficient Interest at that time to warrant their establishment. But far from closing the door permanently

on this organizational form, the Investigating committee noted that

^^Herbert Grevenlus, "En ryggrad I te a te rv a s e n d e ttra n s . H. G. Carlson, Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 30.

l^when the w riter attempted to get background Information on the grievances held by the Actors’ Association against Riksteatern betwwen 1933 and 1945, he received only this reply: "The Svenska Teaterforbund has nothing against Riksteatern!" Stockholm, May, 1957. 187

"it is possible that if the theatre in Sweden should once again flourish,

then the kretsteater would be the logical form of development."^^

The leadership of Riksteatern did not welcome the many new theatres which sprang into being in the late forties and early fifties.

Following a conservative line, men like Bergman advocated relatively slow expansion—with care taken not to let the supply exceed the demand. There was also another problem—more theatres meant spreading

the already short supply of talent even thinner.

But Riksteatern's words of caution were lost in the swirl of optimism and headlong rush toward massive expansion. Many people felt

that the new period of growth predicted by the 1953 Investigation had

come, and charges were made that Riksteatern pursued reactionary

ideals--that it opposed the founding of new theatres because it feared

that it would lose its dominant position in the provinces.

Partly to refute these charges, and partly to test its own

theory that an ambulating theatre was a more economical means of

expanding than a stationary or semi-stationary form (i.e ., stadstèater

or kretsteater), Riksteatern assisted in the establishment of the

Norrkbping-Linkoping kretsteater in 1947. Riksteatern central

administration member Gunnar Rydgren provided the necessary leadership

and in itia tiv e by assembling people from the two c itie s who were

interested and willing to assume partial responsibility for the new

1 p- eo.

^®Gunnar Rydgren, "Ostgbtascenen— en utbyggnad av Riksteatern," XX (September, 1955), 22. 188 project. Rydgren, speaking for the other members of the central administration, stated that , we view this as a logical extension of Riksteatern.*'^^

The theatre divides its performances primarily between the cities of Norrk'dping and Linkdping, with some performances in towns adjacent to these cities. The theatre's rehearsal halls, construction shops, and administrative offices are situated in Norrkdping.

The new kretsteater has been relatively successful, but as

Riksteatern feared, the cost has been high. In 1950, G'dsta Bergman noted that "the subsidy paid out is 1,000 kronor [j200 dollars3 per performance, and the production costs for each performance are about

3,000 kronor [dOO dollars]. The corresponding figures for Riksteatern are 500 kronor [lOO dollars] and 1,715 kronor [343 dollars].

Another aspect of this stadsteater-kretsteater expansion that has caused Riksteatern concern is that this trend is toward greater theatrical centralization. Since the lottery subsidies and the supply of talent are not unlimited, Riksteatern sees more theatre for the population in the large urban centers as meaning less theatre for people in the provinces.

Cautiousness and conservatism are traditionally unpopular in a period of boom end inflation, so Riksteatern continues to fight a losing battle against the tide of expansion that s t ill characterizes

I bid., trans. H. G. Carlson.

^^Gosta M. Bergman, "Teaterkris och skadespelareutbiIdning," trans. H. G. Carlson, Teatern. XVII (February, 1950), I. 189 the development of the Swedish theatre (see Chapters IX and X I), Only time w ill te ll whether Riksteatern's conservatism was ju s tifie d ,

Riksteatern and the amateur theatre One of the 1933

Investigation recommendations that antagonized the Actors* Association

(STF) was that Riksteatern should encourage and cooperate wrth the artistically worthwhile amateur theatre (see pages 60 and 62), Many professionals viewed the amateurs as competitors, but in spite of the opposition, the amateur theatre has flourished alongside the pro­ fessions I ,

Gosta Bergman has always thought of the amateur theatre as a valuable means of educating the public in the general principles of the art of theatre. Active as a student in the Stockholm City

College (Hogskolan) theatre programs, Bergman continued to take an

interest in amateur theatrical affairs even after he assumed the post of managing director of Riksteatern, In 1938, as a member of the

National Committee for Amateur Theatre, Bergman edited a number of

theatre manuals for amateurs, which were used as basic texts for a

number of years. The committee also published a comprehensive magazine to which Bergman and Per Lindberg contributed.

In 1934, the National League of Amateur Theatres was founded.

The organization ran into financial troubles in 1947, and was replaced

in 1948, by the Central Committee for Amateur Theatre. Riksteatern

contributed to the growth of both of these organizations by providing

theatrical artists to give lectures and lead discussions in literary

21 study circles,"

21cramer, Ama tort eat erji i Sverige, p, 101, 190

But if Riksteatern is given credit for assisting in the development of the a rtis tic a lly valid amateur theatre, Bergman is quick to admit that the amateur theatre has helped Riksteatern by educating the public, and, perhaps more importantly, by providing the leadership necessary to carry on the operations of the local societies," This mutual cooperation between Riksteatern and the amateur theatre has led to a new relationship between professionals and amateurs in the theatre: areJptionship that has made both parties realize that they are aiming at a correnon goal— the general betterment of the Swedish theatre.

In 1953,the number of organized amateur groups was close to one thousand, and the number of people participating in the work of these groups was over ten thousand. These numbers do not include many

?3 other unorganized groups in schools, colleges, and communities,"

Bergman’ s faith in the amateur theatre has been sustained. Not only has it failed to threaten the professional theatre, but

Bergman has expressed the belief that the national rise in interest

in theatre is directly connected with the successful expansion of the amateur theatre over the last three decades.

Riksteatern and the Norwegian Riksteatre.— One feature of

Riksteatern’s activities in the decade following the 1943 Investigation has been increased cooperation with theatres in Norway and Finland,

^^Gosta M, Bergman, "Yrkesteater och amatorteater," XVII (September, 1950), 16,

2^01 le Hilding and Claes Hoogland, Hur man JiLlr. skldesp.el are (Stockholm: Strombergs, 1953), pp, 10-11,

“■^Bergman, Teatern. XVII (September, 1950), 15, 191

This cooperation has included exchanging v is its with these theatres

(see Table 9, page 178, and Table 11 , page 217). In 1948, the

Norwegian Parliament was sufficiently impressed by Riksteatern's achievements to decide to establish a Norwegian counterpart— R iksteatret,

Norway has a population of about three million people. Of this number, only one m illion live in cities and towns; and Oslo, the cap ital, has over four hundred thousand people, or nearly half of the urban population. Most Norwegians live in tiny hamlets which are not easily reached by land transportation because of the rugged, mountainous terrain.

When Riksteatret was founded, it had to conform to the facts of Norwegian lif e . Because the population is small and widely scattered, no attempt was made to organize the public into local theatre societies. The Norwegians are great fishermen and sailors,

so when Riksteatret sought an e ffic ie n t, economical means of

transportation, it quite naturally took to the sea. By 1950, fishing

boats carried Riksteatret tours not only up and down the long

Norwegian coast, but even across the North Sea to London, Antwerp, and

25 Rotterdam to perform for Norwegian sailors away from home.'

Riksteatret receives financial support from several sources.

From the state, the organization received 600,000 kronor^® in 1956.^^

^^Frits von der Lippe, "Men bat ma vi ha," Teatern. XXI I I (December, 1956), 13.

"^Approximately 85,700 dollars. It takes a bit more than seven Norwegian kronor to equal one Mmerican dollar.

^^von der Lippe, Teatern. XXIII (December, 1956), 12. 192

In the same year, seventeen of the eighteen administrative provinces

agreed to guarantee Riksteatret*s performances against excessive losses,

and community subsidies came to 150,000 kronor (about 21,400 dollars)."

Riksteatret produces most of its plays its e lf, but each year

the six stationary state-subsidized theatres contribute a number of

performances. In 1956, these contributions amounted to 145 performances 29 out of the total of six hundred."

Norway, like Sweden, has enjoyed a theatre boom in the last

few years, and the Norwegian director Frits von der Lippe credits

Riksteatret with a large share of the responsibility for this boom.^^

StbSL '^.Sg.ÇÇtS a i Riksteatem's Activities

-The repertoire.— The program of plays Riksteatern offered

between 1945 and 1956 was of the same high quality as the program

produced during the firs t decade of operations. Among the plays pro­

duced during these years were the following:

Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice and Romeo and J u lie t: Moliere's

Tart.ufi?; Holberg's JçpAS QQ. JtM Msmlajji; Kyd's Arden Favorsham:

Aristophanes' Lvsistrata; Shaw's Pygmalion. Man and Superman. Arms a^^,

Ü1& Man, Gnd Ma ior Barbara: O'Nei 11's -Bevond iJm Horizon. Annie

Christ ie, and Mourning BaCflgi&S Electra: Ibsen's Enemy g f ibjS. PeooXe.

Iks. Wi IdL Duck. and Oal l's Hjauss.; Strindberg's DËÛ&a. 9 i Death. East,SC,

Gustaf Va&a, JJÜL& F.a,t.tlg,r.> gJLS.li..tar.S, I M Sunit êCSUÜSL, and Jjm SfQon;

and Gorki's The Lower Depths.

28|bid.. p. 13. 29 Ibid.. p. 12.

30|b id .. p. 13. 193

Among other American plays produced were the following:

Tennessee Williams* Glass Menagerie and Cat ûq. ^ Hot Tin Roof: Arthur

Mi I ler's A L L % Sons and Death jji. s . SaLesmant Inge's Come Back Li tJiLe.

^ e b a and Picnic: plus Maxwell Anderson's Joan of Lorraine. R, and A,

Goetz* The Heiress. Norman Krasna's Dear Ruth, Elmer Rice's Dream G ir l.

John Patrick's Teahouse q J , the August Moon, and George Axelrod's Seven

Year Itch.

Among the other English and continental playwrights represented were T* S. Elliot, J* B. Priestly, Terrence Rattigan, Somerset

Maugham, Aldous Huxley, Noel Coward, Daphne Du Maurier, Jean Anouilh,

Marcel Pagnol, and Jean-Paul Sartre.

The operas, operettas, and musical comedies presented

included Don i.uaa. Th# Marr.ia^ae S i± Figaro. Cosi Fan T u tti. Madame

B utterfly. T.rftY.ÎÆt.a» Ba|:,f^fir OL SfiV.i 1.I.S» Fledermaus. J MttS TJO j. WjdQM,

Tales Q Ji Hof fman, and Anaie Tour

Once again it was clear that Riksteatem's repertoire was

a balanced one: tragedies, melodramas, and comedies; and selections

from the classic, modern, and contemporary repertoires.

In the early th irtie s , Riksteatern drew on the repertoire

already introduced to Sweden by the other state-subsidized

theatres. But in the forties and f if t ie s , it too began to present

new dramatic works to the nation. P|ays which were given their

Swedish premieres by Riksteatern include Picnic. Come Back L ittle

Sheba. Summer ^ Smoke. JhS. lim £lL ISUJL LU&, ALL and

View From the Bridge. In addition, three plays by Sweden's Noble 194

Prize winner, Per Lagerkvist, were first produced by Riksteatern, and the organization continues to serve as a valuable production outlet

for aspiring young native playwrights.

Riksteatem’s Studio Iheatre.—This subsidiary of Riksteatern began operations in 1950. It was the result of Riksteatem’s deep concern over the shortage of advanced training fa c ilitie s for young

actors. The Studio functions as a sort of post-graduate production outlet for actors and actresses who have already had some training

in either private or state theatre acting schools.

The Studio has two goals* (|) to give young talent a chance to prove itself and (2) to give Riksteatern an opportunity to

find new actors and actresses for use in future productions.^^

The plays presented by the Studio are rehearsed and given

before small, select audiences in Stockholm. In charge of the program

are two of Sweden’ s leading directors* Sandro AAalmquist and Borje

Mellvig. Several of these productions have proved so successful

that they were sent out as regular parts of Riksteatem ’ s touring

32 program.

Summarv

The rapid expansion and changing relationships that have

characterized the second decade of Riksteatem ’ s history have given

the organization a s ta b ility which has come to mean a great deal

^^"Riksteaterns Studio.” Teatern. XXV (September, 1958), 35. 195 not only for Riksteatern, but for the entire Swedish theatre. The solid strength of the local societies provided a firm foundation for the essentially fragile structure that hasty expansion has given to the postwar provincial theatre; and the sma||-town touring program (which formed the a rtis tic nucleus for both the Entertainments,

Ltd. and the Countryside Theatre operations) has planted the seed for future growth and development. The prominent novelist and dramatist Vilhelm Moberg describes Riksteatem’s importance in this way: ’’It has revolutionized theatre life in the Swedish provinces.

Riksteatern has become an institution— and it has become

i nd i spensabIe."^^

^^ViIhelm Moberg, "Resa i Teater-Sverige: Besok hos Riksteatern," trans. H. G. Carlson, MorqonbIadet (Stockholm), May 4, 1957. CHAPTER XI

THE 1955 INVESTIGATION AND THE FUTURE

By 1955, the great expansion that had taken place in the theatre caused a number of people to become anxious. Between 1945 and

1955, the state lottery subsidies to theatre had increased nearly threefold,1 and the traditio n ally th rifty Swedes wondered whether these funds were being used to best advantage. In addition, there was some question whether the present large number of theatre institutions was necessary to meet the national demand for living theatre.

To find answers to some of these questions, the government was requested to take action.

IÜ& 1255. .Lny.e.s.t.l.g.q.t.i.o.n,

On September 12, 1955, Minister of Commerce John Ericsson^ assembled a committee to investigate the situation in the contemporary provincial theatre. The committee members chosen were Editor and Member of Parliament 0. Sehlstedt (chairman); F. Lyberg; and the director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre acting school, f i l * dr. S. Torsslow.

^Sweden, Handelsdepartementet (The Department of Commerce), "Betankande och forsleg angaende rik tlin g e r och former for fordelning av lotterimedel" (1948 ars utredning om en stetens kulturfond, Stockholm, Handelsdepartementet, June 15, 1955), appendix 1.

^Both the Department of Commerce (Handelsdepartementet) and the Department of Education and Culture ( EckIesiastikdepartementet) have jurisdict ion over matters pertaining to theatre.

196 197

Five experts were chosen to act in an advisory capacity: business executives A, F. Elmgren and R. Lundkvist, Political Scientist

E* A. S* Forslund, Editor and Riksteatern central administration member G. E« W. Rydgren,^ and Theatre Council Secretary G. Z, Topelius*

The purposes of the investigation were as follows:^

I « To discover whether the demand for theatre in the provinces

is satisfied under present conditions.

2. To discover whether the activ itie s of the existing organi­ zational forms might in some way or ways be coordinated to assure more efficient use of the lottery monies allotted.

3. To discover whether expansion of the a c tivities of the

stationary state-subsidized theatres might not fill the demand for

theatre in certain areas (e .g ., southern Sweden) in a more economical way than it is filled at present.

4. To discover whether the transportation fa c ilitie s from

small towns to theatres in larger towns could be expanded.

5. To discover means of stimulating greater support to theatre

by the community governments.

As of October 1958, the 1955 investigation had not completed its

work. The reason for including mention of it here is to use the

investigation as a point at which to draw this study to a close. The

1933 and 1943 Investigations marked turning points in the history of

^Gosta Bergman replaced Rydgren upon the le tte r's death in late November, 1956.

^Sweden, Handelsdepartementet (The Department of Commerce), ” 1955 ars utredning av landsortsteatern” (Stockholm, Handelsdeparte­ mentet, September 12, 1955), pp. 1-8. 198 the Swedish theatre. There is no certainty that this w ill be the case with the 1955 Investigation, but one thing is clear—controversy still exists in the Swedish theatre despite its impressive record over the past ten or fifteen years. Controversy means that issues and in s ti­ tutions are alive and the possibilities of change and progress are present. The greatest dangers any cultural institution faces are not controversy and opposition, but indifference and apathy.

Pi,Hifitextern s M IM £u.üjj:.s

Riksteatern today spends l i t t l e time ruminating over past achievements. Its primary concerns are the problems that are obstacles to further growth and development. At the November 1956 congress of the Riksteatern representative assembly the goals toward which

Riksteatern would work in the immediate future were discussed.^

New expansion areas. —The firs t problem discussed involved the types of population centers to be visited in the next few years. In the period between 1945 and 1956, the focus of production operations was firs t centered on the local societies and then on the small towns.

The congress decided that the next phase of development would be concentration upon the middle-sized and small cities— places partially or wholly neglected during the periods of expansion in depth and breadth (see Chapter X)

Community suonort . —The congress praised the local governments

^•’Riksteaterns kongress,” Teatern. XXIII (December, 1956), 4.

®Gosta M. Bergman, "Den narmaste utveckiingen av Riksteaterns verksamhet .** Teatern. XXIII (December, 1956), 3. 199 which had already pledged financial aid to Riksteatern (see Table 15, page 228), but it called for the communities to increase this aid to a point commensurate with the state subsidies allotted to Riksteatern.?

ItlS. laJLSilL shortage .gM ïh & . training actors. — The congress spent a great deal of time discussing the problem which has occupied the minds of many people in the Swedish theatre in the last decade: the shortage of qualified actors and actresses, particularly between the ages of forty and sixty. The congress adopted a resolution asking the 1955 Investigation to give special attention to this problem with a view towards the establishment of a Riksteatern theatre school.®

The quality or quanti tv contdoversv. —Gosta Bergman sees the

future expansion of the Swedish theatre and the problem of the shortage of qualified actors in a larger perspective, which he has termed the

"question of quality or quantity."^ Bergman feels that the continued demand for ouant ity has caused the factor of aualitv to be neglected.

This trend can only lead, according to Bergman, to a tendency to

", , . mass produce bad theatre.

Although the demand for more actors to staff new production companies continues to rise, facilities for training these actors have

not increased appreciably. Groups and individuals other than

Riksteatern have campaigned for more schools, but with l i t t l e resu lt.

As early as 1933, Per Lindberg recommended the founding of a theatre

^"Thalia infer fr&gan: kvalitet aller kvantitet," trans, H, G. Carlson, Teatern. XVI (December, 1949), I.

lO lb id . . trans. H. G. Carlson. 200 academy (see page 61), and the Actors* Association (STF) made a similar appeal to the Crown in 1945.^^

There are people who deny that a serious shortage of actors exists. Karl Ragnar Gierow, the managing director of the Royal

Dramatic Theatre, said that there was a temporary scarcity rather than a shortage, and he viewed the founding of a theatre academy as a risky

1 2 0 and dangerously experimental project. And Director Anders Angstrom said that there was a shortage of work opportunities rather than a shortage of talen t,

But the majority of theatre people feel that the shortage is indeed a problem. Riksteatern, in any case, continues to adhere to the ideal of quality, as it has done during the years since its inception.

Quality has been defined by some as an excuse for operating a "star system" (see pages 109 and 137), but this charge has not caused

Riksteatern to be diverted from its goal. It will continue to fight for more theatre schools and against hasty and irresponsible expansion, with the hope that the Swedish theatre w ill grow and prosper at a reasonable rate of speed.

^^"Teaterakademi och teaterhooskola." Svenska Teaterforbundets December, 1945, p. I.

^^"R’dcker skidespelerna till?" Teatern. XIX (January, 1952), 4,

l^Anders H. Angstrom, "Skadespelarbrist el 1er ej," Teatern. XXI (January, 1954), I. CHAPTER XI I

RIKSTEATERN'S ACHIEVEMENTS AND SIGNIFICANCE

By chance the present writing coincides with the celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of Riksteatern. But the organization has l i t t l e time to spend dreaming of the past. Its greatest concern is the future and the changes the future w ill bring. The biggest changes in the organization between 1956 and 1958, were made in the central administration: three of the men most prominent during the firs t twenty-odd years— Gunnar Rydgren, Gustaf C o llijn , and Gosta M.

Bergman— are no longer members. Rydgren is dead,^ C ollijn retired as chairman,2 and Bergman resigned as managing director to become Professor of Theatre History (the only position of its kind in Sweden) at the

Stockholm City College (Hogskolan) T h e s e changes are significant.

Riksteatern enters a new phase of its development, as a new generation of leaders takes over the responsibility of guiding the organization

into the future.

Twenty-five years is a short time in the history of the theatre,

and the task of Judging the significance of Riksteatem's achievements

^Gosta M. Bergman, "Gunnar Rydgren— t i l l minne," Teatern. XXIII (December, 1956), 6 .

2”Ny Rt-ordfbrende," Teatern. XXIII (September, 1956), 2.

^Dagens Nvheter (Stockholm), January I, 1958.

201 202 in this period is difficult. This kind of judgement needs distance from the event in terms of time; it needs a perspective that people in the middle of the twentieth century lack. But even if Riksteatern fa lls into the category of news rather than history, several of the organization’ s accomplishments are worthy of consideration by people interested in the state of the contemporary theatre,

Rlhsieafann aa.m Organization Form

Tha ambulating form. — In 1953, Riksteatern was faced with two big problems: the task of reaching as many people in the provinces as possible, and the accomplishment of this task with only modest amounts of lottery monies at its disposal. In the years following its estab­ lishment, Riksteatern demonstrated that these problems could be best solved by a theatrical institution which had a structure flexible enough to expand the supply in direct proportion to the demand,

i.e ., an ambulating theatre.

In the 1953-54 season, the two largest stationary theatres— the Goteborg Municipal Theatre and The Royal Dramatic Theatre— presented a combined total of 1,145 performances,* In 1954, these theatres received together 1,884,000 kronor (376,800 dollars) in lottery sub­ sidies,^ Riksteatern, in the 1953-54 season, gave 1,572 performances

(see Table 11, page 217) and received, for the year 1954,

*Karl Ragnar Gierow, *'Dôda marionetten,” Ord och Bi Id. LXVI (1957), 37,

^Sweden, Handelsdepartementet, "Betankande och forslag av lotterimedel, ” appendix 1 b. 203

1,287*000 kronor (257,400 dollars) in lottery subsidies»^ In other words, in spite of the fact that Riksteatern gave more performances than the two stationary theatres combined, the ambulating theatre cost the state less money than the two stationary ones.

There are a number of reasons why Riksteatern is less expensive than the stationary organizations. One reason is connected with methods of finding an audience. Both the Royal Dramatic Theatre and the

Goteborg Municipal Theatre are restricted in this search to their

Immediate geographical environs. The number of potential patrons Is thus relatively fixed. But Riksteatern Is restricted only by the efficiency of transportation facilities. Geared to travel, the ambulating theatre can carry the search for audiences to new population centers.

The organized audience. — Another reason why Riksteatern is a more economically efficien t organization than a stationary theatre is because it has evolved a method of guaranteeing that audiences w ill be on hand to receive performance tours. Through such devices as membership plans and subscription systems, Riksteatern can be rea­ sonably certain ahead of time just how successful any particular tour w ill be. In this way, much of the risk Involved In production Is

eliminated.

The decision made in 1933, to base the organization on audience

interest rather than on the needs of professional theatre people, quite

naturally met with antagonism from the professionals or "vested 204 interests," but Riksteatern stood its ground* Today (1958) many of the vested interests are counted among Riksteatem ’ s supporters (see page

135). Herbert Gravenius, a member of the 1942 Branner Committee

Investigation and director of the National Radio Theatre, had this to say in 1953:

Riksteatern was started with the assumption that it would be an AK [ i* e ., unemployment^ project for actors during the de­ pression. Without the stubbornness, energy, and enthusiasm epitomized in the name Gosta M. Bergman, it is possible that it would never have assumed more than this re latively humble function. Instead, it has grown to be a pillar in the theatre system of the nation.?

The Lac.a_l. societies. — The great achievement of assembling and organizing an audience would have been extremely d iffic u lt without the work of the local societies. The local society operation has proved to be a splendid balance between two often conflicting factors: individual initiative and collective action. The opportunity to contribute to the congresses encourages each local society to develop a feeling of individual identity, while the congresses themselves are living proofs of the power and influence of democratically organized collective action.

If Riksteatern has demonstrated that a decentralized theatre can become a vital, constructive cultural force, it has also demonstrated that an extremely effective way to build such a theatre is to decentralize organizational authority and responsibility. The finest tribute to the significance of both the principle of an organized public and the concept of a local theatre society system was given by Per Lindberg, one of

^Herbert Grevenius, "En ryggrad i teatervasendet," Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 30. 205

Riksteatem ’ s most relentless c ritic s and opponents, in 1942*

Wherever you go throughout the nation, you w ill find a circle of people for whom Riksteatern is a part of living, and its performances events which are eagerly anticipated* To be able to present these plays involves no l i t t l e trouble* People work unselfishly to receive the traveling companies and collect audiences for them. Theatre habitues such as these, who looked forward to v is its from touring theatre groups, were found within many generations* But they have never before stood together as they do now, never before been unified by a central leadership* They have at their disposal a modern, nationwide central organization, supported by public funds* This is no insignificant gain*®

PiKsteq.t.er,fl and ilis. Çonaeat a l S9YIji.satca

The Swedish government today (1958) is deeply involved in the theatre financially* With about ten m illion kronor (two m illion dollars) given to theatrical institutions every year, it seems hard to believe that there were suggestions in the early th irtie s that all sub­ sidies to the theatre be eliminated* But as is the case in many other countries, the Swedish theatre has had to fight for subsidies*

The American director Harold Clurman described some of the

frustrating aspects of a problem all theatre people often have to face, when he told of the d iffic u ltie s involved in raising money for his

"Group Theatre" in the thirties and forties:

* * * while it is true that a great orchestra or the opera, no matter how well attended, runs at a d eficit that is paid off by patrons, such patronage for the theatre was out of the question because an orchestra or the opera can’ t possibly make any profit and is thus clearly a cultural institution, while the theatre can be profitable and therefore should be* If it is profitable, why does it need support as a cultural institution? And if it

^Lindberg, Folkteatern. trans. H* G. Carlson, pp. 53-54* 206

isn’ t profitable, then it must be bad. If the theatre is to make money, why choose plays that are commercially doubtful? And if the plays don’ t make money, isn’ t the theatre failing in its purpose?^

In some ways Clurman’ s problem was akin to that faced by the

Swedes in 1933. They recognized the theatre as a cultural institution,

but they were also aware that the commercial theatre (with its profit motive) was failing to do the job. The commercial theatre leaders

needed help, but some of them, like Harry Roeck-Hansen, not only wanted government aid, but also whatever profit might accrue (see

page 94). In the act of subsidizing Riksteatern, the state inadvertantly

signed the death warrant for the itinerant commercial theatre, for

Riksteatem ’ s growth and development coincided with the final stages of

the decline of the provincial theatre as a business enterprise. The

disappearance of the commercial theatre from the provinces is probably

to be regretted, but the fact remains that without Riksteatern, a11

provincial theatre would be dead— a fact that even Per-Axel Branner

had to acknowledge (see page 160).

The Swedes have learned to accept government-supported theatre

as a part of modern lif e — a necessary step if the theatre is to remain

a valid cultural institution— but the problem is still cause for much

controversy in other countries, particularly the United States. The

fear that government support inevitably leads to government control

seems to be a traditional part of American lif e . Max Lerner, the

historian and newspaperman, reflected this fear recently when he said

^Harold Clurman, The Fervent Years (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945), p. 231. 207 of state subsidization, "One must doubt whether the American government is mature enough to handle this kind of power without abusing it."^ °

The Swedes, on the other hand, are suspicious of the power of commercial enterprise in a rtis tic media. In May, 1957, the Swedish

Riksdag (Parliament) decided by votes of eighty-seven to forty-four, and

122 to ninety-four, to reject a proposal that commercial television be admitted to Sweden.^ Some of the representatives fe lt that once commercial interests enter into a project, cultural values are forced to take a back seat to the profit motive, and in the attempt to please the majority, the commercial interests might forget the rights of the minority.

This fear that commercial interests will not always perform a truly democratic service ( i . e . , pay heed to minority rights qs well as ma ioritv rights) in the arts, was echoed recently by United States

Congressional Representative Emanuel Cel 1er of New York, when he charged that American commercial television operated under the theory:

"What most people want is what a|| people get."l^

Much emphasis in this study has been placed on the tremendous progress achieved by the Swedish theatre in general, and by Riksteatern in particular, it would be easy to b e little this achievement on the grounds that this programs would have been impossible without heavy

l°Max Lerner, America as a C ivilization (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957), p. 844.

l^ Dagens Nyheter (Stockholm), May 24, 1957. Ibid.

l^Speech by Emanuel Cel 1er to the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, cited by Bernard Asbell, "TV Ratings: What They Really Mean." Harper's Magazine. CCXVIl (September, 1958), 66. 208 financial grants from the state—which Is true. But the vital fact remains that this recognition of theatre as an Important cultural

Institution worthy of subsidization was made by theatre-goers and non- theatre-goers alike. Sweden's theatre Is not a state-controlled bureaucratic Institution. Masters of the art of compromise,^^ the

Swedes have evolved a cultural program that Is able to absorb aid from the state without being congrolled by I t , with the faith that this Is possible In a nation where people trust their government.

It Is true that there are many Americans who do not trust their government to administer an arts program wisely, but there are others who do, as The New York Times demonstrated In a recent ed ito rial:

The golden ages of art flourished when art was prized and hand­ somely patronized by the princes of church and state. More than ever the arts need backing today— private. Industrial, corporate and Federal too. Art is Important as a national resource, and deserves recognition as such.15

Riksteatern aOil JLtlS. QstnSi£Q.t Sd. ^ tsttplala ThSQlrs

If we judge Riksteatem 's achievements by the goals set up In the twenties and th irtie s , then It Is Impossible to refer to It as a true "Folkteater” or "People's Theatre." It does not, for Instance, have the popular appeal enjoyed by the medium sometimes referred to as the "twentieth century people's theatre"— the movies. Riksteatern has been only moderately successful In attracting as large an audience as that which frequents the movies In Sweden, but It Is doubtful that any contemporary theatre could achieve this goal. The eminent social and

l^Shirer, The Challenge of Scandinavia, p. 172.

l^Tbe New York Tim&s. July 13, 1958. 209 cultural historian Arnold Hauser has made some very cogent statements concerning the entire principle of a people's theatre in his book

The Social History of A r t In regard to the so-called people's theatre of ancient Athens, Hauser notes that

The notion, popularized by classicist and romanticist alike, of the Attic theatre as the perfect example of a national theatre, and of its audience as realizing the ideal of a whole people united in support of art is a falsification of historical truth. « . . The true "people's theatre" of ancient times was the mime * •

While Hauser grants that the Elizabethan theatre attracted a true mass audience, he hotes that the sociological conditions in England at that time were unique:

The individual social categories are less sharply divided from one another in Elizabethan England than anywhere else in Western Europe; above all, cultural differences are smaller here than, for example, in the Italy of the Renaissance, where humanism drew more decisive lines of demarcation between the various sections of society than in the England of the Elizabethan age. . . . In Ita ly , therefore, no cultural institution with a universality comparable to that of the English theatre could possibly hope to thrive. This theatre is the result of a levelling of minds, unheard of outside England.^®

The kind of loosely defined social class structure that existed

in seventeenth century England is not present in the twentieth century.

Francis Fergusson made the point that Shakespeare wrote for a theatre

", . . which focused, at the center of the life of the community, the

l^Arnold Hauser, The Social History of A rt. trans. Arnold Hauser and Stanley Godman, 4 vols. (First Vintage ed.; New York: Vintage Books, 1957-58).

17 |b id .. I, 85-86.

18 |b id .. I I , 165. 210 complementary Insights of the whole culture. We do not have such a theater, nor do we see how to get It.*'^^

It may be impossible for the contemporary theatre to recapture the conditions which produced Shakespeare's theatre, but Riksteatern has demonstrated that theatre can reach out to a far greater number of people than it does at present. Even if a people's theatre is im­ possible, both the theatre and the people have a right to demand that they be brought closer together. No one can learn to appreciate great art in the theatre unless it is made available to him. This is

Riksteatem's greatest achievement: It has made high-quality theatre available to more people. Naturally it took some time for the people to appreciate the significance of Riksteatem 's achievement. Fortu­ nately government support gave Riksteatern the time to develop— the time which is so often necessary for a cultural institution to become really established. The skeptics thought it presumptive of Riksteatern to ask the masses to learn to appreciate its values and would rather have seen the organization descend to the level of the common demoninator— popular taste— wtjich Riksteatern consistently refused to do. The Swedish c ritic Herbert Grevenius made an important statement in connection with a "people's theatre" when he said.

Theatre for everyone, is theatre for a|| those who have a need of theatre or who— and this quickly becomes apparent— possess the a b ility to develop an understanding of what it is

19prancis Fergusson, The Idea of a Theatef (Doubleday Anchor Books; Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1953), p. 15. 211

al I about» People of this nature can be found in all classes and on a|I income levels»^®

Arnold Hauser pointed out how art can more effectively be made meaningful to the masses, and In so doing he has neatly summarized the

significance of the achievements of the Swedish welfare and cultural

program in general— and of the ambulating Riksteatern in particular*

The problem is not to confine art to the present-day horizon of the broad masses, but to extend the horizon of the masses as much as possible. The way to a genuine appreciation of art is through education» Not the violent simplification of art, but the training of the capacity for aesthetic judgement is the means by which the constant monopolizing of art by a small minority can be prevented. » » » Genuine, progressive, creative art can only mean a complicated art today» It w ill never be possible for everyone to enjoy and appreciate it in equal measure, but the share of the broader masses in it can be increased and deepened. The preconditions of a slackening of the cultural monopoly are above all economic and social. We can do no other than fight for the creation of these pre- condit ions . 21

^^Grevenius, Of fen11iga noien. trans. H. G. Carlson, p. 153.

2lHauser, The Soc ial History a f Ac.t, IV, 259, APPENDIX I

Fgr.en.Lag Or andelsfGreninç. or ekonomisk jai

Forms of business enterprise. An andelsforeniny is

• • » a type of union ( i . e . , an association which lacks the close attachments characteristic of a commercial company), which has as its purpose the promotion of its members' economic interests (increase their incomes, or decrease their expenses) through the procurement of food products or other necessities for them; or the disposal of the products of their labor; or the furnishing of living quarters for them; or the procurement of loans for them; or the practice of other economic (business-like) activities. Examples of this type of association or union are the so-called coopérât ive enterprises. . . . In an association "u.p.a.," the individual members are not responsible for liabilities incurred by the association.^

Monetary units. — The monetary unit of Sweden is the krona

(plural: kronor) which contains 100 ore (plural: ’ore). One (I) p American dollar equals 5:18 Swedish kronor.

^"Ekonomisk forening," trans. H. G. Carlson, Sven&ka vol. VIII (1948).

^Facts about Sweden (Stockholm: Bokfbrlaget Forum AB, 1956), p. 64.

212 213

■I niMdufilion la gagjdaa

"One of the biggest countries in Europe, Sweden occupies an area of 173,000 sq. miles» It is somewhat larger than California and twice the size of Great B ritain, stretching for 1,000 miles from the 55th to the 69th p a ra lle l. The population, more than 7 m illion, is unusually homogeneous. Nearly all are Protestants, but other faiths have their own temples in all major c itie s .

"Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. The King is a symbol of national unity, but exercises no political power. Parliament consists of two chambers. The major parties are the Social Democrats, Liberals,

Conservatives and Agrarians, listed in the order of their present strength. Normally the leader of the strongest party is also the

Prime Minister,

"Sweden remained, in many ways, an old-fashioned country, dependent on an agricultural economy, up until the latter part of the

19th century, when a great and s till continuing industrial expansion started. Utilizing their country's natural resources—forests, iron ore and water power— the Swedes have gradually achieved a modern, high standard of living, which is not exceeded by any other European country.

"A few facts illustrate this living standard. The Swede can afford, for instance, to have a telephone (250 per thousand of

ÏThis information has been selected verbatim from the following pamphlets: Your Mao of Sweden, Publication Nr. 339 (Stockholm: The Swedish Tourist T raffic Association, 1957); and Sweden—Land and People (Stockholm: The Swedish Institute, 1955). 214 population, more than any country but the U. S.) and own a radio (310 per 1,000, also second only to the U. S .), He goes to the movies a great deal ClOO cinema seats per 1,000, more than anywhere else) and eats well (3,200 calories daily, about the same as the U« S.). He may own a car (1 per 12 inhabitants), but is more likely to ride a bicycle. The Swede is an avid newspaper reader— freedom of the press

is one of the four basic laws written into the Swedish c o n s titu tio n - consuming more newsprint per capita than any other European country.

About 4,000 new book title s are published each year,

"The average Swede is considered capable of developing technical s kills , and has a f la ir for organization and concerted group action; essentially, he has a practical mind. But this is combined with other tra its . Out of the 3 b illio n kronor contributed by Sweden for war relief, nearly 100 kronor per capita were donated as voluntary contributions. The Swede’ s love of nature finds many expressions; a typical example is the way natural landscaping is used when new housing developments are laid out. There is widespread enthusiasm

for outdoor life and sports of every kind— one out of every four

Swedes is an active member of a sports club," 215

SWEDEN Karesw^ SVERIGE SCALE 1 : 7000 000 200 km

120 M es Frontier Height of land ^ S uhteJn Province boundary 1000 m Principal railway

Sea level

AttVifeTE 3TTE

JAMTL

tvOt,

HATS

INGFO^

HPT tAM

TALLINN

KHOLM

?o '^GotskkSanddn

Ka-tte.

ffO LAND

Ÿlekrona tsawTstast.

12 Hainhurg.üerUn, 16 OSTL.L.V.GREENWICH Map 1 ,—Principal Cities of Sweden 216

A R C T IC CIRCLE

Map 2 e—Location of Riksteatem’s Local Societies TABLE 11

RIKSTEATERN'S OPERATIONAL STATISTICS, 1935-56^

Performances Number Receipts Average Of which Average fo r: Season of in Receipt Attendance Following Attendance Performances Kronor Are Members

1935 453 366,000 803 137,000 65,000 300 1/1-30/5/36 187 143,000 765 52,500 29,000 280 1936/37 442 433,600 981 151,900 86,100 343 1937/38 459 404,982 882 [41,700 80,600 308 1938/39 444 484,716 1,092 161,937 94,091 364 1939/40 424 422,925 997 138,268 79,240 326 1940/41 414 450,574 1,088 145,114 83,723 355 1941/42 326 372,681 1,143 115,244 66,533 354 1942/43 323 417,074 1,291 120,465 69,018 373 I N) m 1943/44 295 422,174 1,431 115,138 61,491 390 's! I 1944/45 363 432,286 1,191 128,781 Local 67,503 355 X soctet tes 1945/46 336 445,515 1,326 118,197 69,804 352 1946/47 412 536,125 1,300 145,170 82,195 352 1947/48 446 656,292 1,471 169,893 106,125 381 1948/49 604 886,660 1,468 229,302 142,056 379 1949/50 752 1,127,605 1,500 287,412 180,170 382 1950/51 769 1,212,490 1,577 297,963 181,520 387 1951/52 733 1,271,817 1,735 270,022 171,257 368 1952/53 828 1,589,869 1,920 328,696 214,204 397 1953/54 894 1,642,070 1,837 338,170 226,815 378 1954/55 843 1,629,193 1,933 329,502 218,287 391 1955/56 895 1,872,329 2,092 360,504 255,090 403

Places with 1940/41 27 8,240 305 4,705 • • • 174 no local 1941/42 79 22,385 285 14,308 • 0 • 181 soc îe t res 1942/43 81 32,426 400 16,888 • • • 208 1943/44 60 30,702 517 13,002 • • • 217 TABLE 11— Continued

Performances Number Receipts Average Of which Average fo r: Season of in Receipt Attendance Following Attendance Performances Kronor Are Members

1944/45 86 44,677 519 22,602 # # # 263 1945/46 n o 74,571 678 33,782 * # * 307 1946/47 157 70,054 446 31,394 • • • 200 Places with 1947/48 197 105,039 533 44,519 • • • 197 no local 1948/49 310 155,705 502 58,552 • • • 189 so cieties 1949/50 441 208,483 473 74,952 # * # 170 (cont inued) 1950/51 451 217,486 482 78,911 # # # 175 1951/52 459 262,377 571 83,610 • • • 182 1952/53 409 243,898 596 74,064 • • • 181 1953/54 595 359,945 605 104,258 • • • 175 1954/55 512 294,991 575 82,978 • • • 162 1955/56 639 480,783 752 129,441 • • • 203 NJ CD 1940/41 5 4,217 843 3,039 # @ # 608 1941/42 95 49,765 524 36,581 • • • 385 1942/43 98 45,320 462 37,230 • • 380 1943/44 22 16,806 764 8,786 • • • 399 1944/45 47 26,740 570 19,794 • • • 421 1945/46 9 ■ 5,405 600 3,266 # # * 363 School 1946/47 18 8,210 456 6,899 # * # 383 ch îIdren 1947/48 75 28,224 376 27,064 • • • 361 1948/49 7 4,803 686 2,746 • • e 392 1949/50 4 4,256 1,064 1,681 c • • 420 1950/51 99 55,652 562 34,537 # # * 349 1951/52 46 33,256 723 18,503 • • • 402 1952/53 50 35,869 717 22,062 • • • 441 1953/54 83 45,761 551 28,600 e • • 345 1954/55 92 50,800 552 29,795 * # * 324 1955/56 73 47,698 653 26,542 • • • 363 TABLE 11— C

Performances Number Receipts Average Of which Average fo r: Season of In Receipt Attendance Fol lowing Attendance Performances Kronor Are Members

1940 M l 16 • • • • • • 3,689 • • • 230 1941/42 119 • • • # # # 6 3 ,1 2 7 « • • 535 Servicemen 1942/43 121 • • • # e » 60,100 * * * 497 1943/44 104 # # # • • « 57,816 • • • 556 1944/45 101 • • • * * # 54,150 # # # 536

1940/41 446 463,031 1,038 152,858 c * # 342 1941/42 500 444,831 839 166,133 • • • 332 1942/43 502 494,820 985 174,583 • • • 348 1943/44 481 469,682 • • • 194,742 • ♦ • • • • 1944/45 597 503,703 • • • 225,327 * * # • • • 1945/46 455 525,492 # * * 155,245 • • • NJ 1946/47 587 614,390 • • ♦ 183,463 • • • • • ♦ 1947/48 718 789,556 * # * 241,476 # * # • • • Totals^ 1948/49 921 1,047,169 • • • 290,600 • • • • • • 1949/50 1,197 1,340,346 # # » 364,045 • • • # # # 1950/51 1,319 1,485,629 * # # 411,411 • • • * e # 1951/52 1,238 1,567,451 # * * 372,135 # » # ♦ • • 1952/53 1,305C l,892,389C • • • 432,207® * # # # # # 1953/54 1,572 2,047,777 # # # 471,028 • • • • • • 1954/55 1,466d l,9 9 l,3 2 9 d • • • 447,182^ # # # • • • 1955/56 1,622® 2,413,765® • • • 520,891® # * * • • • 1956/57 1,861f 3,2!0,Q00f * # # 600,000? # # e

^Sources: QerJ.ttglS.e over REO_:.s verksamhet m54-Jim& ^ IMU B eraitsisg 'dver y.erKsainhsl iiibi 1» i22&.

^These totals do not Include figures for the performances for servicemen* Totals for TABLE 11—Continued

years prior to the 1940-41 season are included under performances for the local societies.

^Included In this figure are 18 performances given in Norway,

^Included in this figure are 19 performances given in Norway.

^Included in this figure are 15 performances given in Norway, lO Unofficial figures from Daaens Nvheter (Stockholm), May |6, 1957, ° TABLE 12

RIKSTEATERN'S PRODUCTION SOURCES, 1935-448

Season's Contribution Sources 1935/36 1936/37 1937/38 1938/39 1939/40 1940/41 1941/42 1942/43 1943/44 The state-subsidized theatres^ The Royal Opera « « 15 15 18 13 15 10 15 9 15 12 20 23 20 9 20 2 20 17 The Royal Dramatic Theatre . « « , , 55 55 85 60 80 67 65 60 65 40 65 70 50 50 50 29 50 26 The Goteborg Municipal Theatre 12 • • 30 16 15 12 15 9 15 12 15 4 15 6 The Goteborg Lyric N) Theatre • • • • • 80 141 120 50 60 58 84 100 90 97 90 92 90 84 50 54 50 47 The Halsingborg Municipal Theatre 60 62 75 63 60 51 60 49 60 44 45 40 45 47 45 68 45 5 Total , , 222 273 328 202 230 198 239 227 245 205 235 229 220 196 165 153 165 95

75d P rivate companies • 21 |C 206 220 177 171 2 • # • 31®

Riksteatern's own productions^. . . . . 68 64 64 81 69 427 470 355

Total performance contributions of the above sources . 537 476 482 468 424 469 625 623 502

^Source: 19.41 ars betsnkande. p, 32.

^In the section dealing with the state-subsidized theatres, the figures in the first column TABLE 12--Continued under each season are those recommended by the Theatre Council* The second figures Indicate the actual number of performances given.

*"P|us 53 performances given bythe Swedish Theatre of He ls in k i.

dpius 63 performances given by the Swedish Theatre ofHe ls in k i. ro ®P|us 21 performances given by the Free Norwegian Theatre.

*These are primarily tours which Riksteatern organized by choosing the play end contracting actors and director, but also include tours which were partially organized by a tour leader hired by Riksteatern. Riksteatern would engage a director and purchase the play, while other aspects, such as hiring actors, were accomplished with the cooperation of the tour leader. 223

TABLE 15

NUMBER OF PERFORMANCES PER PLAY PER LOCAL SOCIETY, 1944-57®

Local Season Society 1944/45 1949/50 1954/55 1955/56 1956/57

Arboga , . , , , • • • 1 1 1 2 Boden • . . . • 1 2 1 1 1 BoIIden • • . • 1 1 1 1 1 Bollnas • • • • 1 1 1 1 1 Borfenge • • • • 1—2 3-4 3 3 3 Boris • • • • • 1 4 4 4 4 Eskilstuna , , , 1-2 2 3 3 4 Fagersta , , , , # # # 1 1 1 Falun # * # # * 1 1 1 1

Filipstad . , * • • • • • • # # e 2 Grangesberg • • 1 1 1 1 G'âv l e ...... 1 3 3 3 3 Hagfors . . . . 1 1 1 C Halmstad * * * * 1 lb 2 2 3 Hammarstrand . * » # e • • • 1 1 1 Hudlksvajf , , , 1 1 1 1 1 Husum • • • . . e # # 1 1 1 Hornefors . . . • • • 1 1 1

Jbnkoping . « . 1 2 2 2-3 3 k a lix ••••• 1 1 1 1 1 Kalmar • . • • • 1 1 -2 2 2 3 Karlshamn • • • 1 1 1 1 1 Kerlskrona , , , 1 1 1 1 2 K arlstad • • • • 1 2 3 4 4 ' K fnna # # # # # # # * 1 1 1 1 Klruna , . , . , 1 2 2 3 3 Kopparberg • . • • • • 0 • • 1 1 1

Kristianstad . « 1 1 1 1 2 Kristinehamn • • 1 1 1 1 1 Krylbo • • • • • # * » 1 1 1 Kdping • • • • . 1 1 1 1 2 Kopmanholmen « . • • • • • • 1 1 1 Lidkoping • • • • • • 1 1 1 1 Linkdping • • • 2-3 # # # # • • • • • Ljusda1 « • • • # e # • • • 1 1 1 Ludvlka • • • « • • • 1 1-2 1 1 224

TABLE 15— Cont tnued

Local Season Society 1944/45 1949/50 1954/55 1955/56 1956/57

Lu l e a ...... 1 id 3® 3 3 Lysekil ...... 1 1 1 1 1 Malmberget . • • 1 2 2 2-3 3 Mariestad . 1 2 2 2 2 Monsterls « « . . • • • 1 1 1 1 Morbyllnga . . . • • • • • • • • • 1 1 Norastad .... • • • 1 1 1 1 Norrkoping . . . 1-2 • e • # e # • • • Nykoping .... 1 2 3 3 4

Oskarshamn ... • • • 1 1 1 2 Pi te l ...... 1 1 1 2 2 Rundviksverken . # e # 1 1 1 1 Sandviken .... 1 1 1 1-2 1—2 Skara ...... 1 1 1 1 1 Skelleftehamn . . 1 1 2 1 1 Skelleftea ... 1 1 2 2 2 Skbvde ..... 1 1 1 1 1 S o lle fte a .... 1 1 1-2 1-2 1—2

Stromstad .... • • • • • • 1 1 1 Sundsvall .... 1 2 2 3 3 Soderhamn .... 1 1-2 2 2 2 Tingsryd .... 1 1 1 Uddevalla .... 1 1 2 2 2 Ulrjcehamn . . . • • o 1 1 e # # 1 Utnea ...... 1 4 3 3 3 Uppsala . • . • • 1 1 # # # • • • Varberg ..... 1 1 1 1 1

Vanersborg . . . 1 2 3 3 3 Vasteras .... 1 2-3 3-4 3-4 3-4 Vaxjo ...... 1 2-3 3 3 4-5 Ystad ...... 1 1 2 1 1 Ama1 ...... * # # ,1 1 1 1 Alvsbyn ..... • • • # # # 2 1 1 Drebro ..... 1 1-2 2 2 3-4 tirnsk'dldsvik . . 1 1 1 1 2 Ostersund .... 1 2 3 4 4-5

^Source: R iksteatern Organization Manager Arne Rorsberg, 225

TABLE 13— Continued

June, 1957»

^Seating capacity: 400.

^Seating capacity: 950-1,000 (new theatre),

^Seating capacity: 400»

^Seating capacity: 750 (new theatre)» 226

TABLE 14

LOCAL SOCIETY PERFORMANCE STATISTICS, 1954-55=

Seating Total Per Cent Performances^ Society Capacity^ Attendance of Capacity

Arboga , . , , 509 13 5,665 86 Boden • • • 337 13 4,035 91 Bollnas • • 265 5 893 68 85 Bor I ange • • 420 19 6,716 Boris • • • 361 34 10,599 90 Eskilstuna , 576 35 18,559 88 Fagersta . , 487 5 1,534 62 78 Falun . . . 428 6 2,054 72 Getinge • , 383 2 501 70 Grangesberg 464 9 2,628 74 Gavie • • • 647 32 12,082 20 Hagfors . . 484 3 289 86 Halmstad • . 937 IB 14,824 641 49 Hammarstrand 439 3 74 Hudiksvall , 249 10 2,049 27 Husum • • • 445 4 497 76 Hbrnefors . 400 8 2,433 77 J okkmokk • • 236 4 752 15,234 99 Jbnkoping . 551 33 96 Kalix • . • 297 7 2,339 7,765 96 Kalmar . • • 469 22 1,675 85 Karlshamn # 318 6 86 Karlskrone , 700 16 9,790 17,121 92 Karlstad . . 475 39 92 Kinna , , , 460 6 2,062 91 Kiruna , , , 464 18 7,711 1,134 43 Kopparberg • 428 6 3,337 90 Krist ianstad 437 8 1,531 90 Kristinehamn 287 6 721 72 Krylbo • • • 246 4 3,520 98 Kdping • • • 449 8 790 68 Kbpmanholmen 433 3 4,130 74 Lidkoping • 552 11 271 55 Linkbping • 486 1 1,434 81 LJusdaI , , 312 6 3,015 84 Ludvtka , . 394 9 15,784 82 Lu lea • . • 741 27 2,086 93 Lysekil • . 369 6 4,859 98 Malmberget • 511 14 3,145 90 Mariestad . 267 13 510 94 Monsteras • 269 2 2,576 83 Norastad • • 350 9 1,395 89 Norrkoping , 773 2 7,312 88 Nykoping • • 308 27 227

TABLE 14—.Cont înu«^^

Seat ing Total Per Cent Society Capacity^ Performances^ Attendance of Capacity

Oskarshamn # # « # 359 8 2,618 99 P it ea ###### 382 17 3,902 97 Rundviksverkan # # 296 4 808 68 Sandviken # # # # 554 10 5,229 93 Skara ###### 450 7 2,961 91 Skelleftehamn # # 419 17 4,641 84 Skelleftea # # # # 304 16 3,855 84 Skbvde ###### 51 1 2 914 98 Solleftea # , # # 301 10 2,891 96 Stromstad # # • # 265 3 435 60 SundsvalI # # # # 539 23 9,754 88 Soderhamn # # # # 343 20 5,538 76 Tingsryd ...... 250 4 561 56 Uddevalla # # # # 462 14 4,564 70 Ulricehamn # # # # 318 5 1,076 72 Umea ####### 409 27 9,558 87 Uppsala # # # # # 830 3 2,536 100 Varberg # « * « # 378 7 2,814 92 Vanersborg • # # # 372 32 9,608 79 Vasteras # # • # # 495 46 19,778 85 Vaxjo # # 0 # # # 423 26 10,674 91 Ystad ###### 473 18 5,623 69 ^ma1 ####### 372 4 816 55 ‘Alvsbyn . # # # # 402 17 6,163 90 ‘Orebro ###«#. 574 27 11,707 77 'o'rnskbldsvik « # # 370 12 3,642 81 'Ostersund « # # # 508 39 19,439 98

®Rîksteaterns centralstyrelse, ”Loka|avde|ningarnas résultat spel^ret 1954-55" (Riksteatern's Officiai Statistics, Stockholm, 1955), pp * 1—2 #

^The figures for seating capacity are approximate in many cases, since poorly constructed auditoriums (from the visual end auditory aspects) prevent the sale of certain seats#

These performance statistics also include plays presented for school ch iIdren# 228

TABLE 15

COMMUNITY SUBSIDIES FOR 1943 AND 1957

Subsidies in Kronor Ponij 1 at ion® Community 1/1950 1943^ 1957*=

Arboga •••••• 9,262 # # # 4,500 Boden •••••• 11,314 * # # 4,100 Bolrden • • • • • • • • * * » 500 1,200 Bo11nas « * » 15,736 ' * Bor range » * * 20,947 300^ 6,000 Bor^5 # * * # » # 57,043 * # * 16,000 Eskilstuna » • • • 52,742 1,300 16,000 Fagersta * « # . * 12,152 • # • 4,000 2,000 * Falun •••••• 16,447 • • # 2,000 F ilip s ta d • • • • 6,415 • • • 4,000 Grangesberg • > • 5,928 * * *d 17,500 Ga'v le •••••• 46,180 • • • 1,000 Hagfors • • • • • 6,501 * # # 3,000 Halmstad • • • • • 34,886 1,000 1,500 Hudiksvall • • • • 8,526 • • • 1,200 Husum ####»# e * # # * * 1,000 Hbrnefors • • • • 3,897 e e # 56,400® Jbnkoping * « * 43,240 # # # 2,969 • « • 2,400 10,500 Kalmar •••••• 26,520 « • • 2,000 Karlshamn . * . « 10,633 • • • Karlskrona . « . . 30,817 • • • 4,000 9,000 Karlstad • • • • • 35,047 • • • 1,500 Kinna # o # # # # 4,814 • • 4» 10,500 Krruna ####*# 18,735 1,000 225 Kopparberg « • • • 2,217 • • • 4,000 Kristianstad « « « 23,920 » # # I ,500 Kristinehamn . * * 16,978 • • • 1 ,100 Krylbo •••••• 2,743 • • • 3.000 Kbp1ng • • • • • • 13,178 600 2,150* Kopmanholmen • • • • • • • • • 4.000 Lidkoping • • • • 14,322 # * # 1.500 Ljusda 1 • • • • • 7,320 # e # 2.500 Ludvlka • . • • • 9,715 * # # 6.000 Lu 1 ea •••••• 20,828 # # e # * # Lysekil • • • • • 5,697 500 7,291 1,500 8 ,0 0 0 Malmberget • • • • g Mariestad • • • • 8,181 • • • # # * Monsteras * * « 3,009 • • • Morbylanga • • • • 1,599 • • • • • • 1,900 Norastad . « « « 3,490 300 * # » Norrkoping • • • • 84,035 2,350 229

TABLE 15— C

Subsidies in Kronor Populat ion® Community 1/1950 1943b I957 C

Nykoping ...... 20,045 500 9 ,0 0 0 Oskarshamn . • . • • 10,649 • • • 3,000 P f t e^ ...... 5,438 1,000 3,000 Rundviksverken . . . # e # • • • 2,450? Sandviken ..... 18,391 600 2,500 Skara ...... 8,324 . . .b 1,500 Skelleftehamn . . . 4,067 300 2,500 Skelleftea ..... 9,793 300 2,500 Skbvde ...... 17,284 • • • 1,500 S o lle fte S ..... 8,251 400 600 Stromstad ..... 3,248 # # # # # $ Sundsvall ...... 25,386 750 7,000 Soderhamn ...... 11,321 # # » 1,900 Tingsryd ...... 1,141 • • • # * # Uddevalla ..... 24,219 • 0 • 5,000 Ulricehamn ..... 7,552 # # e 4,100 Ume^ ...... 16,900 • • • 6,000 Uppsala ...... 61,539 3,000 • • • Varberg ...... 12,353 500 1,500 Vanersberg ...... 15,317 • • • 3,000 Vasteras ...... 57,829 1,000 20,000 Vaxjb ...... 19,711 # # * e # # Ystad ...... 13,013 # * # 4 ,000 ^m^1 ...... 7,973 * # » 4 ,000 Alvsbyn ...... 2,698 * • • J 4 ,000 'drebro ...... 65,690 d 13,500 ‘Ornskbldsvik .... 7,355 400 2,500 dstersund ., . . . . . 20,905 • • • 1,500 T o ta l. . 1,181,671 I7,600b 324,025

^Sweden, S t a t i s t tk centralbyr§n (Central Bureau of S t a t is t ic s ) , Jjaom g.dmlnÎ5,t.r,?.,t ÎY? omcadsa ik a 1 1 december i2 É 2 , Sveriges officielle statistik (Stockholm: KungI, Boktryckeriet, 1950), pp. 10-36,

Ica. ke.t.àjilbLaji.d.a> p * 106.

^Riksteatern Organization Manager Arne Forsberg; As of July I, 1957, all entertainment taxes, state as well as community, were returned to R ik s te a te rn .

dpius re s titu tio n by the community of entertainment taxes. 230

TABLE 15— C

ejonkoping: The monies are allotted as follows:

6.000:— for administrative activities and costs 600:— contribution for each performance (reg u lar) 900:— contrib u tio n from the community for each performance fo r school c h ild re n . 56.400:— Total

fprom industry 9Rent-free theatre

hplus 1,600 kronor in subsidies from communities no longer affiliated with Riksteatern as of 1957. BIBLIOGRAPHY

SûûlSÂ

Alkman, Edvard. y.aflJBfl WL Mfl&8 Krîtik och Qrogramutkast i den stara teaterfrëgan. Stockholm: Alb. Bonnrers Boktryckeri, 1933.

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Clurman, Harold. The Fervent Years. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945.

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Elmer, &ke. "Vagen fran fattigdomen: Den social a utveckiingen," De 50 aren: Sverige 1900-1950. Vol. I. Stockholm: Ah I en & Akerlunds Boktryckeri, 1950. Pp. 137-234.

Facts about Sweden. Stockholm: Bokfdrlaget Forum AB, 1956.

Fergusson, Francis. The Human Image in Dramatic Literature. Doubleday Anchor O rig in a l, Garden C ity , New York: Doubleday & Company, In c ., 1957.

. The Idea of a T heater. Doubleday Anchor Books. Garden C ity , New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1953.

Gorelik, Mordecai. New Theatres for Old. New York: Samuel French, 1949.

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231 232

Hauser» Arnold* The Social History of Art. Translated b y Arnold Hauser and Stanley Godraan* 4 vols* First Vintage edition* New York: Vintage Books, 1957-58*

Hederaan-Gade, Hakon, "Malmo." Teater utanf&r huvudstaden. Edited by Olof Hillberg* Stockholm: Aktiebolaget Svensk Litteratur, 1951* Pp* 375-400*

Hilding, 0||e, and Hoogland, Claes* Hur man blir skldesoelare. Stockholm: Strombergs, 1953#

Hillestrbm, Gustaf* Theatre and Ballet in Sweden. Translated by Anne Bibby* Stockholm: The Swedish In s titu te , 1953*

Lerner, Max* America as a Civilization. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957.

Lindberg, Per* Folkteatern. Stockholm: Tidens Ftirlag, 1957.

Loos, Viggo. Kufturteater-Provinsteater. Stockholm: Wahlstrom & Widstrand, 1933.

Lund, Ragnar, and Ohisson, Harry. Adult Education in Sweden. Translated by Donald Burton. Copenhagen: J . H* Schultz A /6 , 1951 .

Norberg, Lars Gerhard* "Svenska teaterchefen uttalar sig," Tidens teater 1957. Edited by Erwin Leiser* Stockholm: Tidens Far lag, 1957. Pp. 91-94.

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Your Man of Sweden. P ublication Nr. 339. Stockholm: The Swedish Tourist Traffic Association, 1957.

pQ&umsnt s aad. Reooct s

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?er’ât,.t.el,se iksn RiKst,&atgoia Ysrks4mb.s.t .jjibL JL, iM I-im s . JL22» Stockholm: Oskar Eklunds Boktryckeri, 1948— . 233

Sweden, EckIesîastîkdeparteraentet (The Department of Education and C u ltu re ). Qæ tasta stat&understodda teatrarna^ Statens offentllga utrednîngar 1934:3. 1933 8rs teaterutrednînas betànkande. Part I (January 29, 1934). Stockholm: Kungl. Boktryckerîert, 1934.

------• Utr^dnîna ror.fln.de tea±erfQrhallandena I r lk e t . Statens offentIiga utrednîngar 1934:21. L933 Srs teaterutrednînas betankandey Part II (June 4, 1934). Stockholm: Kungl. Boktryckeriet, 1934. d 12É1 LLiSat,e,9.t.er,U,tr,ednIngs betànkande fiSk forslao anaaende Riksteflterns Omoroanisation M. (September 20, 1944). Statens offentIiga utrednîngar 1944:42. Stockholm: Linkoln Bloms Boktryckeri AB, 1944.

Sweden, S ta tis tik centra|byr§n (Central Bureau of S t a tis tic s ). EftlKmaruLlea jju m adm inistrât iY9 cmcKilsn ksa 2JL december iaA2.« Sveriges officielle statistik. Stockholm: Kungl. Boktryckeriet, 1950.

Wettergren, Erik, Malm, Henning, and Christiernsson, Niels. Den Svenska teaterns tillstSnd och behov. Norrkoping, Sweden: Morrkopings Tidningars A/Bs Tryckeri, 1929.

Periodicals

Alexandersson, Karin. "Tankar om Riksteatern,** Svenska Teaterforbundels Medlemsblad. May, 1935, pp. 286-87.

Aim, B irgir. "Det allmanna och folknarkerna.** Seen och. Sa Iona. August, I946, p. I.

______• "Svensk tu rn eteater.** Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. November, 1954, p . 9.

"Teateranslaoen." Seen och Salona. August, 1949, p. I.

"Turneteaterns baksida." Seen octi Sa long. May, 1950, pp. 1-2.

"Amatorerna," $vensK9 Ie.ftt£r.tflrbundsts Medlemsklsid»April, 1934, pp. 227—28.

Angstrom, Anders H. "Mote med en ny publik," Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 26-27.

. . "Skadespelarbrist el 1er ei." Teatern. XXI (January, 1954), I f f . 234

Asbelly Bernard* "TV Ratings: What They R eally Mean," Haraer*s Magazine. CCXVII {September, 1958), 66-71,

Bergman, Gosta M. "Den narmaste utveckiIngen av R Iksteaterns verksamhet." Teatern^ XXIII (December, 1956), 1-3.

.. "Gunner Rydgren—till mlnne." Teatern^ XXIII (December, 1956), 6 ,

"Riksteatern," reprint from The Anglo-SwedIsh Review. April, 1956.

.* "Riksteatern— framst ett landsortens Intresse." Teatern. II (April, 1935), 129-33.

.. "Teaterkris och skadespelareutblIdning," Teatern. XVII (February, 1950), 1-6.

_. "The Swedish R Ik s te a te r." World Theatre. II (1952), 24-30.

_. "TIo 8rs riksteater," Teatern. X (September, 1943), 6 ff.

_. "Yrkesteater och amatorteater," Teatern. XVII (September, 1950), 2 f f .

_. "20 8rs Riksteater." Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 1-14.

Blom, Gill Is. "Langre turneer att vanta?" Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. December, 1940, pp. 47-49.

Bohlln, Sture. "Den nya teaterutrednlnaen." Folklîç Kultur. IX (October, 1944), 261-62.

Branner, Per-Axel. "Amerlkansk teater just nu." Svenska Teaterforbundets Mfldlemsblad. May, 1938, pp. 179 ff.

"Nagra reflexloner kring teater av I dag," Samtid och. Framtld. II (February, 1945), 69-76.

"S tatsradets Engbergs Ide bestIckande," Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. April, 1935, pp. 232 ff.

CollIJn, Gustaf. "Arthur Engberg— den svenska scenkonstens store framiare." Teatern^ XI (May, 1944), 8-9.

. "Ett lysande exemnel." Skadebanan. XVIII (September, 1933), 15.

_. "Infor framtlden." Teatern. X (September, 1943), 4-5.

_. "Nar RIksteatertanken mognade och foddes," Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 12 ff. 235

**De nya ! Teaterfbrbundet," Teatern^ X (May, 1943), 4.

Elmgren, Arne. "Stelnar formerna?" Seen och Salong. September, 1953, p. I •

Engberg, Arthur. "Onskem^l for Riksteatern," Vecko-JournaI en. February» 1942, p. 7.

"Folkparksteaterns repertoar— en debatt i Eskilstuna." Seen och Sa long. December, 1952, pp. 16-17.

"Fbrbundet om teaterutrednlnaen." Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. November, 1934, pp. 61-67.

Glerow, Karl Ragnar. "Dbda marionetten." Ord oc|i Bildf LXVI (1957), 37.

Grevenius, Herbert. "En ryggrad i teatervasendet," Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 30-32.

Hainaux, Rene. "Editorial," Theatre in Sweden. Special issue of World Theatre. IV 1952 , 3 -4 .

"intressant utlatande an teaterradet." Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. September, 1946, pp. 6-10.

Jonsson, Conny. "Riksteatern statistik." Seen och Sa long. June, 1949, p. I .

"Konqressbilaoa." Teatern. XI (December, 1944), 14-19.

Loos, Viggo. "Riksteatern ur en lokalavdelnings synounkt." Teatern. II (April, 1935), 132.

Myrdal, Alva. "Oramatik som nodhjalpsarbetet. Amerikas Riksteater har 9,000 anstallda och gbr all a tiders stbrsta teaterexperiment," Vecko-Journalen. November, 1938, pp. 18 ff.

Nyblom, Teddy. "gSi hr Beroman." Scenen och Fllmen. XXI (May, 1935), 3 .

. "Riksteaterelandet. Nar avgar dir. Gosta M« Bergman?" Smisaflfiil£Ugaea> xxi (April, 1935), 3 .

"Ny Rt-ordfbrande," Teatern. XXIII (September» 1956)» 2.

"Om teater at folket," Scea och Salong. July» 1953» p. 14.

Palm» Gottfrid. "Riksteatern reformer." Seen ach Sa long. August» 1941» p. I .

"Presskommentarer till Rlksteaterutredninaen." Teatern. XI (October, 1944), 5-11. 236

"Pressroster kring betankandet." Skadebanan. XIX (June, 1934), x î.

"Packer skadespelerna till?" Teatgfny XIX (January, 1952), 4-5.

"Riksteaterns konaress." Teatern. XIII (July, 1946), 5-12.

"Riksteatern skrivelse till Reoerlnaen." Teatern. X (February, 1943), 3 f f .

"Riksteaterns Studio," Teatern^ XXV (September, 1958), 35.

"Riksteatern under debatt," Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. A pril, 1935, pp. 231 f f .

Rydgren, Gunnar. "Ostgbtascenen— en utbyggnad av Riksteatern," Teatern. XX (September, 1953), 22 ff.

Ryding, Allan. "Svensk Iandsortsteater." Svenska Teaterforbundets Med.iemsblad E f t e r s k r if t . May, 1937, p. 36.

"Teaterakademi och teaterhooskola." Svenska Teaterforbundets MedlemsbXB.d. December, 1945, pp. 1-3 .

"Teaterforbundets mote." Teatern. II (April, 1935), 128.

"Teaterradet i verksamhet." Teatern. II (January, 1935), 63.

"Teaterutredninoen." Seen och Salong, December, 1942, p. I .

"Thalia infer fragan: kvalitet el 1er kvantitet." Teatern. XVI (December, 1949), I ff.

"Till Teaterradet." Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. September, 1935, pp. 15-16.

"Utbyggnad av verksamheten," Teatern. XIII (July, 1946), 3-4,

von der Lippe, Frits. "Men bat ma vi ha," Teatern. XXIII (December, 1956), 12-14.

von Konow, U|f. "Teaterutredningen och skadespelarkaren," Svenska Teaterforbundets Medlemsblad. September, 1933, pp. 3-5.

Zucker, A. E. "Germany's New Army of Organized Playgoers." Theatre Guild Magazine. May, 1931, pp. 24-27. 237

Mewsoapei-s

Aftonbladet (Stockholm). February 16, 1933-January 13, 1943.

Bergman, Bo. "FotkteaterDa^^ens Nvhe1-pr (Stockholm), January 2 7 , 1937.

Boras Tidnina. June 22, 1935.

Daaens Nyheter (Stockholm), January 25, 1953-January I, 1958.

Engl in d , Arvtd. "Riksteatern—distrtbut" ion el 1er konstskapande," Svenska Daçbladet (Stockholm), June 27, 1935.

GefIe Dayblad (GavIe), February 16, 1955,

Gerhard, Karl, "Krontkan." Aftont idninm«=n (Stockholm), February 28, 1943.

GSteborg.cj Post e n . February 19, 1938-F eb ru ary 23, 1938.

Lunds Dagble.det, January I, 1933-January 25, 1933,

Moberg, V ilhelm , "Fbre R ik s te a te rn ." Svjepska Oaabladet (Stockholm), October 31, 1935.

"Resa i Teater-Sveriges Besok hos Riksteatern," Morgonb I edet (Stockholm) ^ May 4 , 1957.

Norrkopinqs Tid-plnoar. June 22, 1935-Oct ober,7, 1944.

Nya D e ç liq a A ll ehanda (Stockholm ), November 13, 1940 and November 14, 1940.

Nva Varmlend Ti-diiinqeti (Karlstad), January 23, 1933.

RPOss centralstyrelse. "Riksteatern och radion." Stockholms Tidningenf September 7, 1936,

5âi(SJÜ IlÜ fljm . July 28, 1937.

SmS.Lë'Pds Folkbl-8cl IJonkoping), February 19, 1938.

Socle 1 Demokraten (Stockholm), A p ril 2 3 , 1941 and A p ril 24, 1941.

St&l, Sven. "En teaterfolkets riksdag," Tidsvarv.et (Stockholm), February 4, 1933.

Stockholms Tidnlnoen. September 9 , 1936.

Svenska Daqbladet (Stockholm), May 4, 1933-Februery 4, 1937.

^ydsvenska Daab I adet (Malmo), September 2 , 1936. 238 The New York Times. July 13, 1958.

Unnsala Nva Tldnlng^ April 4, 1935.

Varbergs Posten^ January 14, 1938.

Unpublished Material

BergvoM, Harry. Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), November I, 1941. Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941,

Blom, Gill is. Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), November 21, 1941. Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941.

FolkrBrelsekommitten utredning (The Popular Movements Investigation). Report to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), June 18, 1942. Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942. tJhman, Martin, and Bergvall, Harry. Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), May 21, 1941. Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941,

Riksteaterns centralstyrelse (Riksteatern's central administration). Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), November 24, 1942. Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942.

.. "Lokaiavdelningarnas résultat spelaret 1954-55." Riksteatern's Official Statistics. Stockholm, 1955.

Svenska TeaterfBrbundet (The Swedish Actors' A sso ciatio n ). L e tte r to EckIesiastikdepartementet (The Department of Education and Culture), December, 1927, Stockholm, EckIeslastikdepartementet Archives, 1927.

.. Letter to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), June 25, I94|, Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1941.

Svenska Teateragaref'dreningen (The Swedish Theatre Owners' Association). Letter to TeaterrSdet (The Theatre Council), June 15, 1942. Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942.

Sweden, Handelsdepartementet (The Department of Commerce). "Betànkande och fo rs lag angSende r i k t l i n j e r och former for fordelning av letterimedeI." 1948 §rs utredning om en statens kulturfond, Stockholm, Handelsdepartementet, June 15, 1955.

. "1955 ars utredning av landsortsteatern." Stockholm, Handelsdepartementet, September 12, 1955.

Teatersakkunigakommitten (The Branner Committee Investigation). Report to Teaterradet (The Theatre Council), October 30, 1942* Stockholm, Teaterradet Archives, 1942. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Harry Gilbert Carlson, was born In New York City,

September 27, 1930. I received my primary and secondary school education In the public schools of New York City, and my undergraduate training at Brooklyn College, which granted me the Bachelor of Arts degree In 1952. During the years 1954-56, I was engaged In graduate work In Speech at Ohio State U n iv e rs ity . While In residence th e re ,

I received the Master of Arts degree In 1955, and was appointed

University Scholar for the year 1955-56. From the AmerIcan-Scandlnavlan

Foundation, I received the New York Chapter Fellowship for the year

1956-57, which enabled me to do Independent research In theatre history

In Sweden. In 1957, w hile completing the requirements fo r the degree

Doctor of Philosophy, I accepted the position of temporary Instructor

In English and Speech at Southwest Missouri State College.

239