Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 428 Hopkins’s Patera system, is also exoskeletal but, in contrast with the central spine, is more restrained. Anthony Hunt Associates designed the steel structure, and the lightweight structures unit of Ove Arup and Partners designed the fabric roof. A zoned servicing strategy supports the contrasting spatial and structural characters of the central spine and flanking wings. The winter garden and test station, although weather tight, are conceived as quasi-external spaces; the labs are sealed spaces in which tightly controlled environmental conditions for research can be maintained; and the offices have opening windows and sunshading that can be adjusted by the occupants. The building works as an icon in the heroic modernist tradition and, by addressing human needs, significantly advances the idea of the workplace. Transparency—with fully glazed walls between winter garden, test station, and labs and a glazed external envelope—creates a high degree of visual interaction both within the building and between the building and the outside world. An egalitarian workplace laced together by open meeting spaces and the generosity of the winter garden integrates disparate functions—clean and dirty, quiet and noisy, front and back of house. This social and programmatic integration is reiterated in the marriage of orthogonal and curvilinear geometries, of compressive and tensile structures, and of rational Miesian discipline with more exuberant expressionism. This building for Schlumberger was Michael Hopkins’s first use of a tensile fabric structure and the first large-scale architectural use of Teflon-coated fabric in the United Kingdom. Hopkins would further explore fabric structures in subsequent projects including the Mound Stand at Lord’s Cricket Ground (1987), the amenity building and ventilation towers at Inland Revenue (1995), and the Younger Universe Pavilion in Edinburgh (1998). As a product of systems-building thinking—inspired by the pioneering work of Ezra Ehrencrantz and developed in Hopkins’s early association with Norman Foster—Hopkins designed Phase I as an open-ended, extendible system of prefabricated parts. However, oil research methods were changing rapidly. By the time Phase II was commissioned in 1990, Schlumberger was relying more on computer simulation, making the test station less central in its research program. Phase II is consequently a separate building that echoes Hopkins’s 1988 Solid State Logic scheme near Oxford. Located to the south of Phase I, the extension plays the role of gatehouse, with two pavilions joined by an atrium that houses the reception area for the site and defines a central axial path to the winter garden. Each of the two-story pavilions is square in plan with offices for scientists at the perimeter surrounding labs, computer suites, conference rooms, and mechanical plant. Phases I and II are unified visually by similarly detailed glazed facades and conceptually by the integration of the rational and expressive sensibilities of Hopkins’ work. However, the structure of Phase II, for which Buro Happold were consultants, is utterly different. The upper floor is prefabricated ferroconcrete used as permanent formwork for an in situ Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 concrete slab. Recalling Pier Luigi Nervi’s Gatti Wool Factory (1954) in Rome, the soffit is detailed to express clearly the patterns of structural stresses in the slab. An understated, light structure of air-filled pillows of clear PTFE (polytetra fluoroethylene) sheet spanning between simple steel beams encloses the central atrium. The Schlumberger Cambridge Research Center is one of the emblematic projects of the so-called British High Tech movement led by Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Nicholas Entries A–Z 429 Grimshaw, and Michael Hopkins. However, like other buildings designed by Hopkins during the same period—notably the David Mellor Cudery Factory (1988), Bracken House (1992), Glyndebourne Opera House (1994), Inland Revenue, and the Emman-uel College Music Room (1995) the ferroconcrete used in Phase II of Schlumberger signals a shift away from the light steel and glass buildings of Hopkins’s early career and the application of systems thinking and prefabrication to heavier, more traditional materials and methods of construction. Phase I received the Financial Times Architecture Award in 1985 and a Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) National Award, a Civic Trust Award, and a Structural Steel Award in 1988. In 1993, Phase II received an RIBA Regional Award and was a finalist for the Financial Times Award. ANNETTE W.LECUYER Further Reading Davies, Colin, Hopkins: The Work of Michael Hopkins and Partners, London: Phaidon, 1993 Groák, Steven and Roger Barbrook, “A Cambridge Test: Hopkins for Schlumberger,” The Architects’ Journal 182, no. 38 (18 September 1985) Herzberg, Henry, “High Flyer,” The Architects’ Journal 180, no. 43 (24 October 1984) International Biennale of Architecture, British Architecture Today: Six Protagonists, Milan: Electa, 1991 Jenkins, David, Schlumberger Cambridge Research Centre: Michael Hopkins and Partners, London: Phaidon, 1993 Winter, John and Sarah Jackson, “Technology Stretching High-Tech,” The Architects’ Journal 196, no. 17 (28 October 1992) SCHOOL School buildings have undergone tremendous change in the course of the 20th century. In part, these changes were driven by a dramatic increase in school enrollments, as children in industrialized nations were driven out of the workplace by new technologies and protective labor legislation, and compulsory school attendance laws become more commonplace. Even more important to the form of school buildings were new pedagogical theories advanced at the turn of the century, notably by Maria Montessori in Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Italy, John Dewey in the United States, and Karl Popper in Germany. Building on the ideas of the 19th-century kindergarten movement, these thinkers popularized the concept that children learn best by doing, rather than through rote memorization. Montessori emphasized the importance of the Prepared Environment, in which furnishings were sized and arranged to enhance the autonomy of young children. Dewey was equally influential in arguing that high schools should prepare students for life, and not just for college. Kindergartens were among the first educational environments affected by these new Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 430 pedagogical theories. In the United States and England they tended to take the form of a specially shaped classroom attached to a primary school, while in Europe the kindergarten tended to be a distinct building type. Those associated with the Waldorf School Movement (which began in 1919 when Rudolph Steiner started Die Freie Waldorfschule, for the children of the workers at the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory in Stuttgart) tended to favor organic forms that seemed to support Steiner’s emphasis on cultivating higher mental faculties through the total harmony of the senses. More common in the 1920s and 1930s were kindergartens designed in a modern idiom, like the 1934 nursery school on the outskirts of Zürich where architect Hans Leuzinger provided direct access to the out-of-doors, ample daylighting, and light movable furniture scaled to young children. Schools for older children took longer to address all of the implications of the new pedagogy. The regimented classroom (with chairs bolted into place facing the teacher’s desk) remained the basic unit of school design, although educators and architects refined the arrangements of these rooms to insure that students could see the blackboard and hear the teacher’s instructions. In the United States, the first architectural indication of the new educational theories involved the provision of facilities beyond the classroom: fully- equipped playgrounds, baths, gymnasia, art studios, scientific laboratories, shops for woodworking and handicrafts, and home economics classrooms. Auditoria and libraries were often included as well, to serve both students and the wider community. In order to make these amenities more affordable, the Gary, Indiana, school system introduced the platoon system (also called the Gary plan) in 1909. Aimed at using all school facilities at once, this system divided the student body into two platoons, each of which used conventional classrooms for academic subjects while the other was involved in special activities. Schools planned for this system typically included a large auditorium at the center of the building, with special classrooms grouped together on lower floors. After World War I, junior high schools (for grades 7–9) were also understood as a cost effective and developmentally appropriate means of providing adolescents with the manual training and home economics classrooms not used by students in the primary grades, where the focus remained on the acquisition of basic academic skills. This new attention to the distinct needs of different age groups also extended to the architectural expression of early 20th-century schools in the United States. San Francisco school architect John J.Donovan, for one, argued that school architecture should anticipate the psychological responses of children; elementary schools “should reflect the spirit, quietness and refinement of a good home,” while high schools “should have the character, repose, and presentation befitting the important work