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GEOLOGY of CARBONATE RESERVOIRS the Identifi Cation, Description, and Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Carbonate Rocks

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GEOLOGY of CARBONATE RESERVOIRS the Identifi Cation, Description, and Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Carbonate Rocks GEOLOGY OF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS The Identifi cation, Description, and Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Carbonate Rocks WAYNE M. AHR Texas A&M University A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION GEOLOGY OF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS GEOLOGY OF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS The Identifi cation, Description, and Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Carbonate Rocks WAYNE M. AHR Texas A&M University A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION Copyright © 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permiossion. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifi cally disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fi tness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profi t or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at 877-762-2974, outside the United States at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Ahr, Wayne M. Geology of carbonate reservoirs : the identifi cation, description, and characterization of hydrocarbon reservoirs in carbonate rocks / Wayne M. Ahr. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-16491-4 (cloth) 1. Rocks, Carbonate. 2. Carbonate reservoirs–Geology. 3. Geology, Stratigraphic. I. Title. QE471.15.C3.A34 2008 553.2’8—dc22 2007051417 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS PREFACE xi ABOUT THIS BOOK xv 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Defi nition of Carbonate Reservoirs / 2 1.1.1 Carbonates / 2 1.1.2 Reservoirs / 4 1.2 Finding and Developing Carbonate Reservoirs / 6 1.2.1 Sources of Data on Reservoirs / 7 1.3 Unique Attributes of Carbonates / 9 Suggestions for Further Reading / 12 Review Questions / 12 2 CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES 13 2.1 Defi nitions / 13 2.2 Fundamental Rock Properties / 14 2.2.1 Texture / 15 2.2.2 Fabric / 18 2.2.3 Composition / 20 2.2.4 Sedimentary Structures / 20 2.3 Classifi cation of Carbonate Rocks / 20 2.3.1 Classifi cation of Detrital Carbonates / 27 2.3.2 Classifi cation of Reef Rocks / 28 2.3.3 Wright’s Genetic Classifi cation / 30 v vi CONTENTS 2.4 Dependent or Derived Rock Properties / 30 2.4.1 Porosity / 31 2.4.1.1 Porosity Classifi cations / 34 2.4.1.2 The Archie Classifi cation / 35 2.4.1.3 The Choquette–Pray Classifi cation / 36 2.4.1.4 The Lucia Classifi cation / 39 2.4.2 A New Genetic Classifi cation for Carbonate Porosity / 42 2.4.3 Permeability / 44 2.5 Tertiary Rock Properties / 47 2.5.1 Borehole Logs and Carbonate Reservoirs / 47 2.5.2 Tertiary Rock Properties and the Seismograph / 53 Suggestions for Further Reading / 54 Review Questions / 54 3 PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS 56 3.1 Saturation, Wettability, and Capillarity / 56 3.1.1 Saturation / 56 3.1.2 Wettability / 62 3.1.3 Capillarity / 63 3.2 Capillary Pressure and Reservoir Performance / 64 3.2.1 Capillary Pressure, Pores, and Pore Throats / 66 3.2.2 Converting Air–Mercury Capillary Pressures to Oil–Water Equivalents / 69 3.2.3 Height of Oil Column Above Free-Water Level / 70 3.2.4 Evaluating Seal Capacity / 70 3.3 Fluid Withdrawal Effi ciency / 71 Suggestions for Further Reading / 74 Review Questions / 74 4 STRATIGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES 76 4.1 Carbonate Depositional Platforms / 77 4.1.1 Rimmed and Open Shelves / 80 4.1.2 Homoclinal and Distally Steepened Ramps / 82 4.2 Rock, Time, and Time–Rock Units / 83 4.2.1 Rock Units / 83 4.2.2 Time Units / 84 4.2.3 Time–Rock Units / 86 4.3 Correlation / 86 CONTENTS vii 4.4 Anatomy of Depositional Units / 88 4.4.1 Facies, Successions, and Sequences / 91 4.4.2 Environmental Subdivisions and Standard Depositional Successions / 93 4.5 Sequence Stratigraphy / 99 4.5.1 Defi nitions and Scales of Observation / 99 4.5.2 Sequence Stratigraphy in Carbonate Reservoirs / 102 4.5.3 Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration and Development / 102 Suggestions for Further Reading / 104 Review Questions / 105 5 DEPOSITIONAL CARBONATE RESERVOIRS 106 5.1 Depositional Porosity / 108 5.2 Depositional Environments and Processes / 109 5.2.1 The Beach–Dune Environment / 110 5.2.2 Depositional Rock Properties in Beach–Dune Successions / 112 5.2.3 Tidal-Flat and Lagoon Environments / 117 5.2.4 Depositional Rock Properties in Tidal Flat–Lagoon Successions / 119 5.2.5 The Shallow Subtidal (Neritic) Environment / 121 5.2.6 Depositional Rock Properties in Shallow Subtidal Successions / 123 5.2.7 The Slope-Break Environment / 124 5.2.8 Depositional Rock Properties in Slope-Break Successions / 125 5.2.9 The Slope Environment / 126 5.2.10 Depositional Rock Properties in the Slope and Slope-Toe Environments / 128 5.2.11 Basinal Environments / 129 5.2.12 Depositional Rock Properties in Basinal Environments / 130 5.2.13 Ideal Depositional Successions Illustrated / 133 5.3 Paleotopography and Depositional Facies / 134 5.4 Diagnosis and Mapping of Depositional Reservoirs / 137 Suggestions for Further Reading / 141 Review Questions / 141 6 DIAGENETIC CARBONATE RESERVOIRS 144 6.1 Diagenesis and Diagenetic Processes / 144 6.1.1 Defi nition of Diagenesis / 145 6.1.2 Diagenetic Processes / 146 viii CONTENTS 6.2 Diagenetic Porosity / 150 6.3 Diagenetic Environments and Facies / 153 6.3.1 Diagenetic Facies / 155 6.4 Diagenetically Enhanced Porosity / 156 6.4.1 Enhancement by Recrystallization / 158 6.4.2 Enhancement by Solution Enlargement / 160 6.4.3 Large-Scale Dissolution-Related Porosity / 161 6.4.4 Porosity Enhancement by Replacement / 163 6.4.5 Recognizing Enhanced Porosity / 163 6.5 Porosity Reduction by Diagenesis / 164 6.5.1 Pore Reduction by Compaction / 165 6.5.2 Pore Reduction by Recrystallization / 165 6.5.3 Pore Reduction by Replacement / 166 6.5.4 Pore Reduction by Cementation / 167 6.5.5 Recognizing Diagenetically Reduced Porosity / 170 6.6 Diagnosing and Mapping Diagenetic Reservoirs / 171 Suggestions for Further Reading / 174 Review Questions / 175 7 FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 176 7.1 Fractures and Fractured Reservoirs / 176 7.1.1 Defi nition of Fractures / 177 7.1.2 Types of Fractures / 177 7.1.3 Genetic Classifi cation of Fractures / 178 7.1.4 Fracture Morphology / 181 7.1.5 Where Do Fractures Occur? / 184 7.2 Fracture Permeability, Porosity, and Sw / 186 7.2.1 Fracture Permeability / 187 7.2.2 Fracture Porosity / 188 7.2.3 Sw in Fractured Reservoirs / 189 7.3 Classifi cation of Fractured Reservoirs / 190 7.4 Detecting Fractured Reservoirs / 191 7.4.1 Direct Observation of Fractures in the Borehole / 192 7.4.2 Indirect Methods to Detect Fractures in the Borehole / 192 7.5 Predicting Reservoir Fracture Spacing and Intensity / 195 7.5.1 Factors that Infl uence Fracture Spacing and Intensity / 195 7.6 Identifying and Developing Fractured Reservoirs / 195 Suggestions for Further Reading / 198 Review Questions / 198 CONTENTS ix 8 SUMMARY: GEOLOGY OF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS 200 8.1 Rock Properties and Diagnostic Methods / 201 8.1.1 Fundamental Rock Properties and Depositional Reservoirs / 202 8.1.2 Reservoir Morphology / 203 8.1.3 Derived Properties: Porosity and Permeability / 204 8.1.4 Tertiary Properties and Petrophysical Characteristics / 204 8.2 Data Requirements / 206 8.2.1 Regional Scale Investigations / 207 8.2.2 Field Scale Studies / 207 8.2.3 Quality Ranking of Flow Units / 208 8.2.4 Pore Scale Features / 209 8.3 Depositional Reservoirs / 209 8.3.1 Finding and Interpreting Depositional Reservoirs / 210 8.3.2 Selected Examples of Depositional Reservoirs / 213 8.3.2.1 North Haynesville Field / 214 8.3.2.2 Conley Field / 219 8.4 Diagenetic Reservoirs / 224 8.4.1 Finding and Interpreting Diagenetic Reservoirs / 224 8.4.2 Field Examples of Diagenetic Reservoirs / 226 8.4.2.1 Overton FIeld / 227 8.4.2.2 Happy Field / 231 8.5 Fractured Reservoirs / 239 8.5.1 Finding and Interpreting Fractured Reservoirs / 239 8.5.2 Field Examples of Fractured Reservoirs / 240 8.5.2.1 Quanah City Field / 241 8.5.2.2 Dickinson Field / 244 8.6 Conclusions / 249 Review Questions / 254 REFERENCES 255 INDEX 269 PREFACE This is a book on the geology of hydrocarbon reservoirs in carbonate rocks.
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