Environmental Engineering and Management Journal February 2014, Vol.13, No. 2, 379-394 http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania
CHINA’S WETLANDS CONSERVATION: ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE ELEVENTH 5-YEAR PLAN (2006-2010) AND CHALLENGES IN THE TWELFTH 5-YEAR PLAN (2011-2015)
Zhigao Sun1, Linus Zhang2, Wenguang Sun1, Huanhuan Jiang1, Xiaojie Mou1, Wanlong Sun1, Hongli Song1
1Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 17 Chunhui Road, 264003 Yantai, China 2Lund University, Department of Water Resources Engineering, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
Abstract
China’s natural wetlands occupy 3.77% of the land and provide 54.9% of China’s ecosystem services. Healthy natural wetland ecosystems play an important role in the sustainable development of China, which was realized by the Chinese government in the early 1970s. In the past 5 years, China has made great efforts in wetlands conservation, which is signified by the funding of billions of dollars to restore degraded wetlands, the policy to return reclaimed croplands to wetlands, the specific regulation to strengthen wetlands management, the coordination mechanism to enhance management capacity, and the communication to strengthen international cooperation. This paper introduces the background of China’s wetlands, compares the status of wetlands conservation globally and in China, illustrates the achievements, policies and measures of China’s wetlands conservation during the Eleventh 5-Year Plan (2006-2010), analyzes the issues existing in current wetlands conservation, and discusses the challenges, efforts and measures in protecting natural wetlands in the Twelfth 5-Year Plan (2011-2015). The future of China’s wetlands looks promising since China has already realized that wetlands conservation is a national imperative to guarantee the sustainable development of economy and society.
Key words: challenges, Eleventh 5-Year Plan, restoration projects, Twelfth 5-Year Plan, wetlands conservation achievements
Received: October, 2011; Revised final: June, 2012; Accepted: July, 2012
1. Introduction include the marshes, rivers and lakes, while artificial wetlands consist of artificially excavated reservoir 1.1. Summary of wetlands in China and some large fish ponds (Niu et al., 2009). Since the Chinese government uses a broader definition of According to the current situation of wetland wetlands (Sun et al., 2006), the deep lakes and large resources and the classification of wetlands in rivers are also regarded as wetlands in China. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2006), the first national wetlands survey conducted during wetlands in China include 3 types in 28 variations, 1996-2003 indicates that China’s total acreage of covering coastal wetlands, inland wetlands and wetlands is 38.48×106 ha (Li et al., 2010). The artificial wetlands (Fig. 1). Inland wetlands mainly acreage of natural wetlands is 36.20×106 ha, taking
Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected]; Phone: +86 (0)535 2109121; Fax: +86 (0)535 2109000
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394 up 94.06% of total wetlands area of the country or Hainan, in which the acreage of coastal wetlands of 3.77% of territorial area of China, which is much two provinces of Shandong and Guangdong makes lower than 6.0% of the world average level (An et al., up 47.11% of the total coastal wetlands area 2007; State Forestry Administration of China, (5.94×106 ha) (Zhang and Xia, 2009). 2005a). Although China’s natural wetlands only Coastal wetlands in China can be divided into account for 3.77% of the land, they provide 54.9% of two groupings. One part is located to the north of the the estimated 903 thousand million dollars (USD) of Hangzhou Bay. In this part, the Bohai Sea coast and annual ecosystem services (Chen and Zhang, 2000), the Jiangsu coast have sandy or silty wetlands while including freshwater supply, flood regulation, the Liaodong Peninsula and Shandong Peninsula wastewater storage and natural purification, wildlife have rocky beaches; The other part is located to the habitat, and aquatic life preserve (Costanza et al., south of the Hangzhou Bay. In this part, the coasts 1997). are mainly rocky, including the major river deltas, such as the Yangtze River Delta, the Qiantang River- 1.2. Distribution of wetlands in China Hangzhou Bay, the Jin River estuary-Quanzhou Bay, the Pearl Delta and the North Gulf (Niu et al., 2009). Wetlands are widely and unevenly distributed across the regions of China. There exists in almost all 1.2.2. Distribution of inland wetlands parts of the country although the geographical The total area for inland wetland is 30.26×106 distributions of wetland types vary with the local ha, including the marshes, rivers, and lakes (Zhang natural conditions (Zhang and Xia, 2009). and Xia, 2009). i) Marshes in China are mostly In terms of the wetland resources by the located at the Sanjiang Plain, Da Hinggan Mountain, provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities), Xiao Hinggan Mountain, Changbai Mountain, Zoige the Tibet autonomous Region has the largest area of Plateau and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, followed by the wetlands, which is 5.23×106 ha in total, followed by foothill areas of Tianshan Mountain, Altai Mountain, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Qinghai with the Yunan-Guizhou Plateau and the low-lying reaches of wetland areas of 4.31×106 ha, 4.24×106 ha and rivers, lakes and coasts. The acreage of marshes in 4.12×106 ha, respectively. The total acreage of northeast China represents over 50% of the total wetlands in the above four provinces (autonomous marshes area of China (13.70×106 ha). The total regions) would account for 46.56% of the total marsh area of Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai acreage of wetlands in the country (Table 1). The and Tibet accounts for 84.88% of the total marsh geographical distributions of the three wetland types acreage. ii) Lake wetlands are distributed all over the in China are as follows. country, mostly at middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and Huaihe River, the lower reaches 1.2.1. Distribution of coastal wetlands of the Yellow River and the Haihe River, the plain The coastal wetlands are distributed in 11 areas to the eastern bank of the Grand Canal, Yunan- provinces (autonomous regions or municipalities) of Guizhou Plateau, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Mongolia- Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, Shandong, Jiangsu, Xinjiang Plateau, Northeastern Plains and the Shanghai, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, mountainous areas.
Fig. 1. Distribution map of the China’s wetlands. Inland wetland includes the marsh, river and lake; artificial wetland consists of artificially excavated reservoir and some large fish ponds; The paddy field is not included (The map is taken from reference Niu et al., 2009)
380
China’s wetlands conservation
Table 1. Wetland types and acreage of each province (autonomous region, municipality) in China (×104 ha)
Inland wetland Province (autonomous region, Coastal Artificial Subtotal River Lake Marsh municipality) wetland wetland wetland wetland wetland Beijing 3.44 0.5 2.94 Tianjin 17.18 5.81 5.51 1.23 0.82 3.81 Hebei 108.19 27.88 31.93 30.72 13.69 3.96 Shanxi 49.99 45.41 0.81 3.77 Inner Mongolia 424.50 60.75 49.52 309.81 4.43 Liaoning 121.96 73.81 25.22 0.63 11.02 11.29 Jilin 120.34 0.58 58.14 7.45 35.47 18.70 Heilongjiang 431.48 46.07 40.19 332.03 13.20 Shanghai 31.97 30.54 0.72 0.68 0.03 Jiangsu 167.47 84.35 20.33 60.42 2.36 Zhejiang 80.22 57.43 11.85 0.30 0.01 10.63 Anhui 65.39 23.95 35.05 6.39 Fujian 44.30 37.06 3.11 1.95 2.18 Jiangxi 99.88 31.49 44.32 11.48 12.59 Shandong 178.41 121.09 30.11 16.55 0.39 10.27 Henan 62.41 47.27 0.26 0.69 14.19 Hubei 92.73 37.74 29.47 5.84 19.69 Hunan 122.69 68.31 35.93 0.51 17.95 Guangdong 139.81 101.78 23.17 0.15 0.10 14.60 Guangxi 65.61 34.84 21.91 8.86 Hainan 31.15 19.00 3.83 1.73 1.10 5.49 Chongqing 4.32 3.16 0.03 1.13 Sichuang 96.17 56.39 1.34 34.23 4.21 Guizhou 7.94 5.80 0.23 0.57 1.35 Yunnan 23.53 11.98 9.65 0.40 1.50 Tibet 523.20 23.11 253.86 246.17 0.05 Shaanxi 29.29 25.21 0.73 1.78 1.57 Gansu 125.81 56.56 4.43 52.15 12.67 Qinghai 412.60 10.75 123.20 274.81 3.83 Ningxia 25.56 10.41 14.83 0.32 Xinjiang 141.02 20.02 69.49 36.95 14.55 Total 3848.55 594.17 820.70 835.16 1370.03 228.50 Note: Data of the Taiwan province and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau are not included. Date of paddy field area (3.80×107 ha) is not included. Data source: Zhang and Xia (2009), Li et al. (2010)
Of the above areas, the acreage of lake Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Shandong, Xinjiang, wetlands in Qinghai and Tibet takes up 45.15% of Gansu, Henan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang and the total lake wetlands acreage (8.35×106 ha). iii) Guangdong have an area of reservoir/pond wetlands Affected by topographies and climates, river over 1.00×105ha in each province. The acreage of wetlands are unevenly distributed all over the reservoir/pond wetlands of the above 12 provinces country. Most rivers are distributed in the wet amounts to 1.70×106ha, accounting for 74.53% of the monsoon zone of the eastern part while in northwest total reservoir/pond wetlands area (2.28×106ha) arid inland areas the amount of rivers is very limited. (Zhang and Xia, 2009). The acreage of river wetlands of the 12 provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi, 1.3. Past and present wetlands area in China Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and Sichuan accounts for 69.47% of the total river Over the past 60 years, China’s natural wetlands area (8.21×106 ha). wetlands have suffered tremendous loss due to the increased threat and pressure on wetlands for the 1.2.3. Distribution of artificial wetlands reason of the increasing population and rapidly Reservoir/pond wetlands scatter throughout developing economy (Fig. 2, Table 2). From 1953 to the country. The main distribution areas are located 2011, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of China at places with rich water resources including the increased from 31.49 to 7497.04 billion dollars, northeast China, the middle and upper reaches of the while the population increased by 0.746 billion Yellow River, the middle and lower reaches of the simultaneously (Fig. 2). In terms of total wetlands Yangtze River as well as the outermost parts of the area, the country lost 92.25% of coastal wetlands natural wetlands concentrated areas. Hubei Province (1950-2011), 49.26% of marshes (1950-2003), has the largest area of reservoir/pond wetlands in the 39.67% of lakes (1950-2003), and 14.92% of rivers country and its reservoir/pond wetlands area reaches (1991-2003). On the whole, China’s natural wetlands 1.97×105ha. Besides, 11 other provinces namely
381
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394 lost 23.17×106 ha from 1991 to 2011, with a loss rate Despite their importance to the ecological of 44.81% (Table 2). process and livelihood of humans, wetlands are Numerous factors endanger the existence of among the world’s most threatened ecosystems, with wetlands, such as land demands by a large some 50% of all wetlands having disappeared in the population, a lack of understanding of wetland last century (Cui and Yang, 2009). In Europe, it was values, a misguided reclamation policy, a lack of pointed out, about two thirds of wetlands had environmental laws and regulations, and water disappeared since 1850, while in the US, more than diversion needed because of rapidly economic half of the wetlands had been lost (Hatvany, 2009), growth (An, 2003). Among them, reclamation was and even now, approximately 8000-16000 ha the primary cause for wetlands loss (Li and Zhang, wetlands vanished per year (Lu et al. 2011). In the 2005), which accounts for 70-82% of the total coastal Holland, the Fenlands (England), the Po wetlands loss in China (An et al., 2007; Niu et al., River Delta (Italy), the Danube Delta (Romania and 2011). For example, approximately 8.59×106 ha Ukraine), the Mekong Delta (Vietnam), the Nile coastal lands, including swamp, salt marsh, estuary, River and Delta (Egypt and central Africa), the gulf, and mangroves, were reclaimed or destroyed Mesopotamian Marshes (Iraq and Iran), and the from 1991 to 2011, with a total loss rate of 88.92% Yellow River and Yangtze basins (China), the lost (Table 2), which seriously endangered the diversity percentage was larger than 50% over the past 100 and security of coastal zone in China. The Sanjiang years (Hatvany, 2009). Plain, the largest swamps in China, lost 84.83% of its Like all landscapes, human perception and total area during 1949-2005 due to the unreasonable interaction with wetlands have changed as a result of utilization and reclamation (Fig. 3). Decreased water alterations in population, economy, environment and recharge was another key cause for natural wetlands technology. In response to widespread destruction of loss in China (An et al., 2003; Zhao and Fang, 2004). wetlands in the past 160 years, wetland conservation Water diversion to agricultural and industrial and restoration have become major societal uses greatly reduced water flowing into wetlands, preoccupations seeking for many countries to reverse and much of the water was lost because of low water destruction and promote biodiversity and water use efficiency of irrigation (15-35%) (Ministry of functions. In general, the conservation and Water Resource of China, 2000). During 1950- restoration of wetlands have been early carried out in 2000, more than 1.20×105 dams were constructed, European and American countries (Cui and Yang, with 4.60×104 dams and 0.70×104 water gates along 2009). the Yangtze River alone (including the Three Gorges The precocious groups like the National Trust Dam) (Ministry of Water Resource of China, 2000), in Britain began preserving wetlands as early as 1899 which not only isolated 70% of the natural lakes from (Wicken Fen), and hunter-supported organizations rivers but also interrupted the migration routes of like Ducks Unlimited in the US and Canada began to aquatic species (Park et al., 2003). promulgate continental-scale wetland conservation in 1937. However, during that period, the awareness of 2. Comparison of world and China’s wetlands wetlands conservation for government and public conservation was not high. Not until the late 1960s, at the juncture of the 2.1. World wetlands conservation industrial and postindustrial eras, did international accords like the Ramsar Convention on Wetland Wetlands constitute a resource of great (1971), raised questions regarding the destruction of economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value wetlands and the need to preserve them, not only in to human life and are essential habitat for numerous intellectual circles, but also among general citizens threatened and endangered species of flora and fauna. (Hatvany, 2009).
8000 1.5 ) 9
6000 dollars) 9 Total population in mainland 1.2
4000
0.9
2000 Total populationin mainland (10
Gross Domestic Producet 0.6 Gross Domestic Product (GDP, 10 (GDP, Domestic Product Gross 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Fig. 2. Changes of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and population in Fig. 3. Changes of marsh area in the Sanjiang Plain China from 1953 to 2011 (Population data came from National from 1949 to 2005 Bureau of Statistics of China (2011) and GDP data came from the (Data sources: Liu and Ma (2002), Huang et al. (2009)) World Bank (2012)
382
China’s wetlands conservation
Table 2. Past and present area of the natural wetlands in China over the past 60 years (×106 ha)
Wetland type 1950 1991 2003 2011 Coastal wetland 13.81a 9.66b 5.94b 1.07c Inland Wetland —e —e 30.26b 27.54c Marshes 27.00b —e 13.70b —e Rivers —e 9.65b 8.21b —e Lakes 13.84b —e 8.35b —e Total —e 51.71d 36.20b 28.54c Note: a, Datum for coastal wetland area in 1950 was calculated based on reference Qiu (2011); b, Data for wetland area in 1950, 1991 and 2003 came from reference Li et al. (2010); c, Data for wetland area in 2011 came from reference Zhang (2011); d, Datum for total natural wetland area in 1991 was calculated based on reference Cyranoski (2009). e, No data.
During the 1970s, reevaluating the easily present, the European Union (EU) is working to quantified economic benefits of wetlands exploitation combat their decline through policies, funding and with the much-less-visible benefits of preserving cooperation with Member States. wetlands ecosystem functions, biodiversity and water The main pieces of legislation ensuring the functions was contentious between technocrats and protection of Europe’s wetlands are the Habitats and ecologists over their different visions of the value of Birds Directives (HBD) and the Water Framework wetlands. Only in the late 1970s, as environmental Directive (WFD). More than 70% of the species and education and public recognition of the value of habitats protected by EU legislation are water- wetlands in their natural state mounted, were related, so protecting water contributes significantly government policies like ‘No net loss’ in the US, and to the preservation and improvement of biodiversity. similar policies in Canada and Europe, adopted to Wetlands represent a significant number of sites that provide comprehensive strategies for wetlands form part of Natura 2000, the EU-wide ecological preservation (Hatvany, 2009). In 1977, American network of protected areas, which is the centerpiece enacted Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (CWA) of EU nature and biodiversity policy. which established a program to regulate the discharge The Natura 2000 network of protected sites dredged or fill material into waters of the US, and the integration of wetlands into future river basin including wetlands. The Clean Lake Program (CLP), management planning (under the WFD) are helping as section 314 of the Federal Water Pollution to guarantee their future conservation and sustainable Control Act, provided financial and technical use. Recently, the Commission launched a new assistance to states in restoring publicly-owned lakes. collaboration process to help Member States share From 1976 to 1994, the program funded a total of experience and expertise on the management and approximately $145 million of grant activities (Lu et restoration of habitats of EU conservation concern, al., 2011). including wetlands (European Commission, 2012). In In what has been called one of the world’s addition, Canada, Australia, Japan and India also largest marsh restoration project, United States have promulgated wetlands legislations to ensure the National Committee (USNC), United States effective implementation of wetlands conservation Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and and restoration projects (Zhu et al., 2004). On the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in whole, these countries, especially the European and the early 1990s began to conserve and restore the American countries, have already made great structure integrity of rivers, lakes and other wetlands progress in wetlands conservation and restoration in by taking a series of effective measures, and the past 40 years, which contributed great efforts to approximately 64×104 ha rivers, 67×104 ha lakes, and reversing the degradation and destruction status of 400×104 ha other wetlands were restored before world’s wetlands. 2010. Many famous wetlands restoration projects were also carried out in different states of US, such 2.2. China’s wetlands conservation as Clear Creek restoration, Florida Kissimmee River restoration, Mendota lake restoration, Hackensack Healthy natural wetland ecosystems play an wetland restoration, and San Diego Bay restoration important role in the sustainable development of (Perrow and Davy, 2002; Li and Ju, 2005). By China, which was realized by the Chinese comparison, European countries also make great government in the early 1970s (Li and Zhang, 2005), progress in the conservation and restoration of even though it did not appreciate the importance of wetlands, and a series of wetlands conservation and the full range of ecosystem services provided by restoration projects have been carried out in the past wetlands until China joined the Ramsar Convention 20 years, such as Donana wetland restoration (Spain), on Wetlands in 1992. Since then, the work of Rhine ecological restoration (France), Danube wetlands conservation has been greatly promoted. floodplain restoration (Austria), Idle river restoration The first major difference brought about was that the (England), Finjasjon lake and Hornborga lake Chinese government had paid much effective actions restoration (Sweden), Vesijarvi lake restoration to the wetlands conservation, and had performed the (Finland) and Wirbel lake restoration (Potland) obligations of the Convention seriously by taking a (Perrow and Davy, 2002; Li and Ju, 2005). At series of effective action for the conservation and
383
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394 wise use of wetland resources, including management policies and various wetlands implementation of related laws, establishment of conservation or restoration plans (State Forestry natural reserves, wetland restoration, water pollution Administration of China, 2005b). The IPNWCP was control, fish population conservation, newly incorporated into the Outline of the National originated wetland protection, and invasive species Eleventh 5-Year Plan for Economic and Social management (An et al., 2007). On the other hand, Development (2006-2010) for the first time, and in some current laws and regulations directly used the the IPNWPP, the goals, tasks, policies, approaches, word of “wetland”. The conservation and utilization and budgetary funds of wetlands conservation or of wetlands extended gradually into the legal system restoration were definitely confirmed, and the of the state (Table 3). primary regions and major projects were emphasized Although numerous other laws or regulations (China State Council, 2006), reflecting the capability do not directly use the term “wetland”, they have and resolution of the Chinese government on wetland already covered such specific wetland types as water conservation. bodies, lakes, beaches, mangrove forest and coral In China, the wetlands are protected by some reef (Table 3). However, China has no special law or objective criteria, and the prioritization is determined regulation for wetlands conservation and by the assessment of wetlands conservation value and management at the national level although 4 protection effect. The evaluation of protection effect provinces (such as Heilongjiang, Jiangxi, Gansu and is a comprehensive research into the levels of Hunan) have already enacted regulations of wetlands protection of nature reserves, which is based on the conservation during the Tenth 5-Year Plan (2001- conservation value, the measurement of wetland 2005). In current laws or regulations, the coverage of changes, wildlife population proliferation and wetlands conservation is insufficient, the functional zone adjustment in wetland reserves. conservation targets are inexplicit, the conservation Zheng et al. (1994) put forward a systematic method norms are unsystematic, and the effectiveness of for ecological evaluation by selecting several conservation measures is low (Zhang and Xia, 2009; indicators such as diversity, representativeness, Zhu et al., 2004). Therefore, it is highly imperative to rarity, naturalness, area suitability, vulnerability and conduct national legislation for wetlands human threats, which had been widely used as the conservation, and a sound wetlands conservation national accreditation standard for nature reserves. management legal system needs to be established. However, the method excessively depends on expert The Chinese government has incorporated evaluation with low quantitative levels, and neglects wetlands conservation and rational utilization into the the unique characteristics of wetland reserves. At China Agenda of the 21st Century, and the Action present, some quantitative evaluation on the wetland Plan of Biodiversity Protection in China for protection effect has been preliminarily studied prioritized arrangement for development. Meanwhile, (Zheng et al., 2012), and the establishment of related wetlands conservation and rational utilization were quantitative evaluation standard is ongoing. incorporated into the National Ecological In the following parts of this paper, we will Development Program. In order to effectively protect introduce the achievements of China’s wetlands and wisely use wetlands, the Chinese government conservation during the Eleventh 5-Year Plan, promulgated the Action Plan of China Wetlands analyze the problems that exist in current wetlands Conservation (APCWC) in November 2000, putting conservation, and discuss the challenges, efforts and wetlands conservation and rational use on the track measures in protecting natural wetlands in the of institutionalization and legislation. In APCWC, Twelfth 5-Year Plan (2011-2015). the guideline, goal, and preferred action fields or The purposes are: i) to provide information on projects were confirmed, which was of great the policies and measures of wetlands conservation significance to the ecological conservation in China taken by the Chinese government in the past 5 years; (Zhang, 2000). ii) to timely introduce the current status of wetlands In October 2003, the Chinese government conservation in China for the people from institutions approved the Plan of National Wetlands of scientific research and organizations of Conservation Project (2004-2030) (PNWCP) (Bo, conservation abroad, and encourage them to join in 2007), and promulgated the intensive management our efforts to explore effective strategies for the policy of wetlands conservation in June 2004. In science-based decision made by the Chinese PNWCP, the guiding principles, tasks, targets, government. general field designs and key projects of wetlands conservation by year 2030 was clarified, which 3. Achievements of China’s wetlands conservation would guide the wetlands conservation on long-term basis. Approval of the Plan by the State Council 3.1. Progress of wetlands conservation marked the initiation of standardized, scientific management of the wetlands conservation endeavors In the past 5 years, some remarkable progress in China. In 2005, State Forestry Administration has been achieved in protecting wetlands in China, established the Implementation Plan for the National which provides safeguard for the territory ecological Wetlands Conservation Project (2005-2010) security. Firstly, many important wetlands have been (IPNWCP), and answered for the implementation of protected or restored through mechanical measures.
384
China’s wetlands conservation
Table 3. National laws or regulations that adopted or concerned the term of “wetland”
Names of law or regulation Related wetland management stipulation (1) Agricultural Law of the People’s Article 62 Encroachment of lakes for farmland and encroachment of nationally clarified Republic of China, 1993 forbidden wetlands are prohibited. For the encroached land, measures should be taken to convert the land back to lakes or wetlands. (2) Nature Reserve Regulation of the Article 10 Areas with special protection values including marine waters, coastal islands, People’s Republic of China, 1994 wetlands, inland waters forests, grasslands and deserts should be established as nature reserves. (3) Marine Nature Reserve Article 6 Areas that have protection values including the sea area, coast, island and Management Methods, 1995 wetland should be established as marine nature reserves. (4) Forestry Institutional Fee Article 7 Forest resources protection fees mainly include forest resources survey Management Methods, 1997 feewetland protection fee Article 9 Wetland protection fee is used for the expenditures of the survey, planning and wetland protection. (5) Forestry Working Station Article 6 Protect management of wetland resources according to law is a duty of all Management Method, 2000 forestry working stations. (6) Marine Environmental Protection Article 20 The state Council and the local governments should adopt beneficial measures Law of the People’s Republic of to protect mangrove forest, coral reef, coastal wetland, gulf, river outlets into sea and China, 2000 important fishery waters etc. that form typical or representative marine ecological system (7) Provisional Stipulations of the Article 6 The mandatory content of master plan in urban planning includes (1) areas that Mandatory Content in Urban must be protected and controlled for development purpose include scenic areas and Planning, 2002 resort spots, wetlands, water source protected area or other ecological sensitive areas (8) Breeding and Protection Article 13 Encroachment of beaches and lakes should be arranged and carried out with Regulation of Aquatic Culture consolidated planning and under the prerequisite of not harming aquatic resources Resources, 1979 (9) Water Pollution Prevention Law Article 27 New sewage draining exit should not be built within the water body protected of the People’s Republic of China, areas including drinking water source land, scenic water body, important fishery water 1984 body, or other protection areas of water bodies with special cultural values (10) Land Management Law of the Article 39 In line with the land use master plan, the reclaimed or cultivated land that People’s Republic of China, 1986 undermined the ecological quality should be converted back to forest, grassland or lake. (11) Water Law of the People’s Article 40 Encroachment of lakes for land is prohibited. The land encroached should be Republic of China, 1988 converted in a planned manner back to lake state according to the stipulated food prevention standards of the country. (12)Implementation Rules of the Soil Article 2 All entities and individuals have the right to report the deeds of dumping and Water Conservation Law of the discarded sand, stone, soil, mining residues or wastes into rivers, lakes, reservoirs, People’s Republic of China, 1993 gullies that are not designated as stocking site (13) Flood Prevention Law of the Article 18 Prevention and treatment of river floods should adopt the methods of water People’s Republic of China, 1997 storage and discharge, by giving full play of the floodwater transportation role of river courses and the storage adjustment function of reservoirs, shallow waters and lakes (14) Management Methods of the Article 11 Damages of mangrove forest and coral reef are prohibited. Activities carried Inshore Marine Environmental out in mangrove forest nature reserve or coral reef nature reserve, the Nature Reserve Function Zone, 1999 Regulation of the People’s Republic of China should be carried out strictly Note: (1)-(7) are national laws or regulations that adopted the term of “wetland”, (8)-(14) are examples of wetland-related national laws or regulations. The related contents were partly revised based on reference Zhang and Xia (2009)
Approximately 215 million dollars (USD) of potential to improve the status of China’s wetlands in central financial funds and 261 million dollars of the long term. At present, situations are improving as provincial or local financial funds have been put into a result of the Chinese government’s substantial the wetlands conservation or restoration, and 201 efforts in creating new protection areas and initiating wetland projects have been constructed in different wetland restoration projects (Niu et al., 2011). regions (Wetland China, 2010a). For example, the On the whole, these national projects Qinghai Lake, the largest inland lake in China, effectively improved the degraded status of wetlands expanded the surface area from 4250.25 km2 in 2005 in primary regions of China, and established different to 4321.07 km2 in 2010 due to the implementation of conservation or restoration patterns for lakes, rivers, restoration projects and the increase of regional swamps, marshes and coastal wetlands, which precipitation (Xinhua News Agency, 2010). The effectively promoted the conservation or restoration Dongting Lake, once the largest lake in China, of important wetlands in other regions. expanded the surface area from 2625 km2 in 2002 to Under the drive of national projects, 4350 km2 in 2010 resulting from the large-scale provincial or local governments also actively project of returning farmland (4350 project) to lake strengthened the conservation or restoration of in recent years (People Daily Agency, 2007). regional wetlands depending on provincial or local Despite the increase in spatial extent of financial funds, i.e., about 8000 ha and 2000 ha of wetlands and creation of restoration projects does not wetlands have been respectively restored in recent indicate improvement in degraded wetlands, it holds years in Heilongjiang Province and Ningxia Hui
385
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394
Autonomous Region (Wetland China, 2010b). after 1992 (Fig. 4A), which was probably because Although Chinese government has made great efforts China joined the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in in the conservation and restoration of the important 1992, and started a project called “Wildlife wetlands in the past 5 years, the situations of Protection and Nature Reserves Construction” in important wetlands conservation are still very severe. 2001. According to the studies of protection efficacy of 91 In 2006, wetlands conservation and national wetland reserves in China by Zheng et al. restoration was included in the Eleventh 5-Year Plan, (2012) (Table 4), of the 20 marine/coast reserves, 11 and the establishment of wetland nature reserves was are in poor conditions with a total area of promoted greatly (Fig. 4A). Until now, 553 reserves, 70.64×104ha, and 70.46% of the total area. In the 3 100 national wetland parks and 120 local wetland riverine reserves, Henan Dan River and Yellow River parks have been set up to protect wetlands and rare are in better conditions, with a total area of and endangered aquatic animals and plants (Wetland 13.20×104ha, and 85.27% of the total area. Of the 16 China, 2010a). lacustrine reserves, 6 are in excellent conditions and Of the 553 reserves, 91 are administered by 7 are in poor conditions, accounting for 68.98% and the national government, 170 are managed by the 12.11% of the total area, respectively. Of the 28 provincial governments and 292 are supervised by plalustrine reserves, 13 are in poor conditions with a the local governments (Fig. 4A), and the total large area of 1647.23×104ha, accounting for 87.81% conservation area of wetland reserves has reached of the total area. Of the 24 wildlife reserves, 12 are in approximately 1795×104 ha (Fig. 4B), indicating that poor conditions with a large area of 333.35×104ha, 49.6% of natural wetlands have been effectively and 91.48% of the total area. protected. In addition, 39 wetlands had been This means that lacustrine and riverine designated into the List of Wetlands of International reserves are in better conservation, while the Importance (the “Ramsar List”) by 2011 (7 were conservations for palustrine, wildlife and registered during the Eleventh 5-year Plan and 4 marine/coast reserves are, by comparison, generally were registered in 2011), and the total wetland area poor (Zheng et al., 2012). Moreover, the management has reached 370.99×104 ha (Table 5). capacity of wetlands conservation has been enhanced through agency construction. On 3 April 2007, the 3.2. Basic work of wetlands conservation Management Center of Wetland Conservation of State Forestry Administration (Ramsar Convention During the Eleventh 5-Year Plan, the basic Implementing Office) was established, which was work of wetlands conservation has been gradually responsible for the management of wetlands strengthened, which provided safeguard for the conservation and the performance of Ramsar sustainable development. First and foremost, under Convention in China. Subsequently, 14 provinces the leadership of State Forestry Administration, the (such as Jilin, Jiangxi, Yunnan, Heilongjiang, and second survey of national wetland resources was Hubei, etc.) set up special agencies to strengthen the started in 2009. The main purpose of the second conservation of regional sensitive wetlands (Wetland survey is to systematically determine the types, China, 2010b). acreage and distribution of all wetlands with single In China, natural wetlands are protected under area of over 100 ha in the country in the Twelfth 5- a three-class system: wetland reserves, wetland year Plan. Simultaneously, the zonation compositions parks, and scenic parks (An et al., 2007). In the past 5 and distributions of higher plants and rare plants in years, these agencies have established efficient wetlands, the geographical distribution and habitat management systems, which significantly enhanced condition of wetland amphibians, reptiles, birds, their management capacities. Besides, the mammals and fish resources will also be implementation of related national plans has synthetically surveyed. promoted the ecological conservation of wetlands. In In the past 2 years, about 15 provinces and 18 recent years, many national plans, such as Natural agencies have participated in the project, and Forest Conservation Plan (NFCP), National Water approximately 464×104 km2 territory has been Pollution Prevention and Control Plan (NWPPCP), surveyed (Xinhua News Agency, 2011). Presently, Water Resource Allocation and Management Plan the survey is ongoing in 9 provincial regions, (WRAMP), and National Ocean Functional including Hebei, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Anhui, Regionalization (NOFR), all regarded wetlands Guangxi, Qinghai, Xinjiang and Xinjiang Production conservation as an important part, and the and Construction Corps. implementation of these plans not only maintained The second survey of wetland resources is the ecological function of wetlands, but also, to a very important for the government to timely master great extent, promoted the conservation or restoration the information of wetland types or areas, wild of some sensitive wetlands in primary regions of animals or plant species, and wetlands conservation China. status, threats and issues, which lays a good The Chinese government started to establish foundation for the implementation of wetlands natural reserves of wetlands in the early 1970s, conservation projects, and the scientific decision- however, most national nature reserve, provincial making or management of wetlands conservation. nature and county-level reserve were established Secondly, in the past 5 years, the routine ecological
386
China’s wetlands conservation monitoring has been carried out in 35 wetlands of wetland management institution and coordination international importance, and 9 ecological mechanisms. In September 2007, the National monitoring stations have been set up in some Implementation of the Ramsar Convention important wetlands depending on the national Committee (NIRCC) was founded by the State wetland project (Wetland China, 2010a). These Council, which was responsible for the organization ecological monitoring actions, to a great extent, and coordination of different agencies, the publicity promoted the scientific management of wetlands of wetland knowledge for public, the supervision of conservation. Besides, the Chinese government has wetlands conservation in the nation, the management seriously performed the obligations of Ramsar of wetland international cooperation, and the setting Convention and gradually strengthened the of great national policies in performing Ramsar conservation of wetlands by establishing special Convention (Xinhua News Agency, 2007).
Table 4. Number and area of national wetland reserves under different types of conservation
bArea Conservation aArea Type Number ratio Examples of reserves effect (×104ha) (%) Excellent M 3 15.16 0.57 Guangdong Zhanjiang Mangrove, Hainan Dongzhaigang, Liaoning Shuangtai Estuary R 1 6.40 0.24 Henan Dan River L 6 192.81 7.31 Heilongjiang Xingkai Lake, Eastern Dongting Lake, Inner Mongolia Dalai Lake P 8 180.01 6.82 Heilongjiang Zalong, Jilin Momoge, Heilongjiang Dazhanhe W 1 7.80 0.30 Jiangsu Dafeng Moderate M 3 12.91 0.49 Guangxi Shankou, Zhejiang Nanji Islands, Liaoning Dandong Yalu Estuary R 1 6.80 0.26 Henan Yellow River L 2 52.85 2.00 Anhui Shengjin Lake, Qinghai Lake P 5 35.60 1.35 Heilongjiang Three Rivers, Guizhou Caohai, Jilin Hani W 5 12.90 0.49 Inner Mongolia Ordos, Hubei Shishou, Yangtze Upstream Poor M 11 70.64 2.68 Jiangsu Yancheng, Shandong Yellow River Delta, Shanghai Jiuduansha R 1 2.28 0.09 Henan Xinxiang Yellow River L 7 33.85 1.28 Jiangxi Nanji, Jilin Chagan Lake, Inner Mongolia Dalainur Lake P 13 1647.23 62.45 Qinghai Three Rivers Scource, Sichuan Zoige, Heilongjiang Dongfanghong W 12 333.35 12.64 Yunnan Dashanpao, Anhui Tongling, Qinghai Longbao c Not M 3 1.54 0.06 Hainan Dazhou Island, Hainan Sanya Coral Reef, Hainan Tongguling assessed R 0 0 0.00 L 1 2.20 0.08 Hubei Longgan Lake P 2 13.06 0.50 Heilongjiang Hong River, Jilin Xianghai W 6 10.36 0.39 Guangdong Huidong, Shandong Changdao, Hubei Tianezhou Total 91 2637.75 100 Note: M, Marine/coast reserves; R, Riverine reserves; L, Lacustrine reserves; P, Palustrine reserves; W, Wildlife reserves. The related contents were partly revised based on reference Zheng et al. (2012). a, the unit was altered; b, the values were recalculated according to the original data; c, 12 reserves were not evaluated due to the shortage of related data.
Fig. 4. Wetland conservation efforts as represented by the number (A) and cumulative area (B) of nature reserves in China from 1980 to 2011. Data sources: China Forestry Science Data Center (2002), Ministry of Environment Protection of the People’s Republic of China (2011), and Zheng et al. (2012)
387
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394
Table 5. Wetland in China registered in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance
Designation aArea Designation aArea No. Wetland name Location No. Name Location date (year) (×104ha) date (year) (×104ha) 1 Zhalong National Heilongjiang 1992 21.00 22 Dashanbao Yunnan 2004 0.60 Nature Reserve Wetland 2 Xianghai National Jilin 1992 10.55 23 Bitahai Yunnan 2004 0.20 Nature Reserve Wetland 3 Qinghai Lake Qinghai 1992 5.36 24 Eling Lake Qinghai 2004 6.59 Niaodao National Nature Reserve 4 Poyang Lake Jiangxi 1992 2.24 25 Lashihai Yunnan 2004 0.36 National Nature Wetland Reserve 5 Dong Dongting Hunan 1992 19.00 26 Maidika Tibet 2004 4.35 Lake Wetland 6 Dongzhaigang Hainan 1992 0.54 27 Mapangyong Tibet 2004 7.38 National Nature Cuo Wetland Reserve 7 Mai Po Marshes & Hong Kong 1995 0.15 28 Napahai Yunnan 2004 0.21 Inner Deep Bay Wetland 8 Sanjiang National Heilongjiang 2002 16.44 29 Shuangtai Liaoning 2004 12.80 Nature Reserve Estuary 9 Xingkai Lake Heilongjiang 2002 22.25 39 Zhaling Lake Qinghai 2004 6.49 National Nature Reserve 10 Honghe National Heilongjiang 2002 2.18 31 Zhangjiangkou Fujian 2008 0.24 Nature Reserve National Mangrove Nature Reserve 11 Dalai Lake Inner 2002 74.00 32 Haifeng Guangdong 2008 1.16 National Nature Mongolia Wetlands Reserve 12 Ordos National Inner 2002 0.76 33 Beilun Estuary Guangxi 2008 0.30 Nature Reserve Mongolia National Nature Reserve 13 Dalian National Liaoning 2002 1.17 34 Honghu Hubei 2008 4.35 Spotted Seal Wetlands Nature Reserve 14 Yancheng National Jiangsu 2002 45.30 35 Chinese Shanghai 2008 0.38 Nature Reserve Sturgeon Nature Reserve of Yangtze Estuary 15 Dafeng National Jiangsu 2002 7.80 36 Zoige Wetland Sichuan 2008 16.65 Nature Reserve National Nature Reserve 16 Chongming Shanghai 2002 3.26 37 Hangzhou Zhejiang 2009 0.03 Dongtan Nature Xixi Wetlands Reserve 17 Nan Dongting Hunan 2002 16.80 38 Gahai Gansu 2011 24.74 Wetland & Wetlands Waterfowl Reserve Nature Reserve 18 Xi Dongting Lake Hunan 2002 3.50 39 Nanweng Heilongjiang 2011 22.95 (Mupinghu) Nature River National Reserve Nature Reserve 19 Huidong Port Sea Guangdong 2002 0.04 40 Zhenbaodao Heilongjiang 2011 4.44 Turtle National Wetland Nature Reserve National Nature Reserve 20 Zhanjiang Guangdong 2002 2.03 41 Qixing River Heilongjiang 2011 2.00 Mangrove National National Nature Reserve Nature Reserve 21 Shankou Guangxi 2002 0.40 Total 370.99 Mangrove Nature Reserve Data source: Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2012), Wetland China (2012); a, the unit was altered.
388
China’s wetlands conservation
By intensifying the coordination mechanism (promulgated in 2007) and the Sichuan Provincial of NIRCC, the sensitive issues of some Regulation of Wetlands Conservation (promulgated internationally important wetlands caused by the in 2010). The wetlands legislation work of other implementation of related projects could be provinces is in progress, and the LWCS will be appropriately solved. Finally, the scientific and promulgated one after another in the Twelfth 5-Year technological support powers were further enhanced. Plan (China State Council, 2011). In the first year of In order to strengthen research on wetlands, the Twelfth 5-Year Plan (2011), many provinces many national wetland research institutions were (autonomous regions) such as Jilin, Tibet and established one after another from 2008 to 2010, Ningxia have already promulgated LWCS. The including the Wetland Research Center of State development of wetlands legislation in China has Forestry Administration (Beijing), the National reflected the socio-economic development of the Plateau Wetlands Research Center (Yunnan), and the country and the process of legal system construction, National Wetland Protection and Restoration revealed the depth of realization of the function and Technology Center (Beijing) (Wetland China, value of wetlands by Chinese society, and has been 2010b). closely related to the promotion of international Cooperating with other national institutions wetlands conservation and relevant legislation. and provincial or local agencies, many important Besides, 8 standard or specific regulations that were national projects centered on wetlands and global related to the survey of wetland resources, the change, wetlands and water resource protection, and conservation and restoration of wetlands, and the wetlands and ecological security have already been construction of wetland parks have been promulgated completed, which laid scientific and technological during the Eleventh 5-Year Plan, such as the foundation for wetlands conservation and restoration. Technological Regulation of National Wetland Resource Survey and the Construction Regulation of 3.3. Statutes and policies of wetlands conservation National Wetland Park. In addition, some policies have been enforced to guarantee the capital channel The statutes and policies have been gradually of wetlands conservation. In the No.1 document of established and perfected in recent years, which the Chinese central government in 2009, the created favorable conditions for promoting wetlands ecological benefit compensation pilot programs for conservation. Although current laws and regulations grassland, wetland, and water and soil conservation are effective in stopping wetland loss and water was put forward for the first time, indicating that the pollution at large scales, i.e., protecting wetlands compensation institution of wetlands has been from reclamation and point-source pollution, these upgraded state will. In May 2010, the Implementation laws or regulations can not fundamentally solve the Advice of Wetlands Conservation Subsidy was jointly problems of wetlands conservation because wetland issued by State Ministry of Finance and State restoration or cleaning up water pollution will take a Forestry Administration, and approximately 30.7 long time, and the water-resource shortage of million dollars (USD) of financial funds were first wetlands will remain a problem in the future (An et subsidized to 20 internationally important wetlands, al., 2007; Sun et al., 2006). Therefore, a special and 16 wetland reserves and 7 national wetland parks to consistent law or statute and a long-term commitment carry out wetland monitoring and restoration to wetlands conservation and water quality control (Wetland China, 2010b). Subsequently, some are needed for the Chinese government. During the provinces (such as Guangdong and Jiangsu) also Eleventh 5-Year Plan, the national wetlands carried out the pilot programs of wetland ecological legislation work was boosted greatly. The draft of benefit compensation, which promoted the National Wetlands Conservation Statute (NWCS) has conservation and management of local wetlands. been established with the joint efforts of State Council Legislative Affairs Office, State Forestry 3.4. Public Participation and international Administration and other related branches (Wetland cooperation of wetlands conservation China, 2010b). The main problems existing in the draft of NWCS are revising and perfecting, and the The public awareness about wetlands formal NWCS will be promulgated and implemented conservation has been gradually enhanced during the at the end of 2012. The provincial wetlands Eleventh 5-Year Plan, which created favorable social legislation work was also promoted and another 5 atmosphere for promoting wetlands conservation. provinces promulgated Local Wetland Conservation According to the requirements of Ramsar Statute (LWCS) during the Eleventh 5-year Plan, that Convention, the publicity activity of World Wetland is, the Shaanxi Provincial Regulation of Wetlands Day was carried out by related wetland management Conservation (promulgated in 2006), the Guangdong institutions every year. Sponsor organizations Provincial Regulation of Wetlands Conservation cooperated with newspaper offices and TV stations to (promulgated in 2006), the Inner Mongolia disseminate the significance of wetlands conservation Autonomous Regional Regulation of Wetlands vigorously for publics through solicit articles, TV Conservation (promulgated in 2007), the Liaoning special subject slice, and publicity posters (Wetland Provincial Regulation of Wetlands Conservation China, 2010a). Moreover, different wetlands
389
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394 conservation forums and activities, such as Yangtze River valley and issued Wuhan Declaration ( a River Forum, Lake Conservation Forum of the wetland covering an area of about 2×104 km2 would Middle-Lower Yangtze River, Symposium of be effectively protected in the following years), Wetland Bird Conservation Network in Eastern which was highly praised by the secretariat of China, and National Reading Day—Approach Ramsar Convention and other international wetland Forum, have been held actively by the organizations. Every year, the Wetland Envoy Action Chinese government or provincial governments organized by related wetland institutions was (Wetland China, 2010b). The First Wetland Cultural extensively concerned by Chinese society, which had Festival in China was jointly held by State Forestry significantly propagandistic and educational effects Administration and Zhejiang Province in 2009, on the teenagers and publics (Wetland China, 2010a). which was the largest scale, the most abundant China has joined global inter-governmental content, and the most far-reaching influence activity conventions including Ramsar Conventions on of wetlands conservation so far in China (Wetland Wetland and Biodiversity Convention etc.. In the past China, 2009). These forums and activities not only 5 years, Chinese government has seriously performed publicized the basic knowledge of wetlands the obligations of Ramsar Convention and actively conservation and management for publics, but also carried out international cooperation of wetlands improved the awareness of government agencies and conservation. On one hand, the Chinese government public citizens on the participation of wetlands actively participated in the Ramsar Conference of the conservation. parties and put forward many reasonable suggestions In recent years, the constructions of Wetland on related themes of wetlands conservation. Through Park and Wetland Museum have also been promoted actively participating in the convention affairs, the actively. Hong Kong Wetland Park, located at the Chinese government extensively disseminated the northern part of Tin Shui Wai in Yue Long and related work and achievements in the aspects of opened to public in May 2006, was a world-class wetlands conservation and management (Wetland ecotourism facility aimed at promoting green China, 2010a). tourism, education on environmental protection and On the other hand, the international wetland conservation, and approximately 700 cooperation and exchange activities have been thousand people visited the Wetland Park every year extensively carried out. Cooperating with WWFN, (Lewis, 2007). China Wetland Museum (CWM), Wetlands International (WI), European Union (EU), located in Xixi National Wetland Park in Hangzhou United Nations Development Program (UNDP), City, Zhejiang province, was the biggest museum International Union for Conservation of Nature that focused on single theme of wetland in the world, (IUCN), United Nations Educational, Scientific and which has drawn great attention from Chinese society Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Global since it opened to public on 2 November 2009 Environment Facility (GEF) and other international (Hangzhou Government, 2009). Currently, about 800 organizations, China has carried out a series of thousand people have visited the museum and the international cooperation in the fields of wetlands public awareness about wetlands conservation has conservation, biodiversity, migratory birds protection been greatly enhanced. Under the drive of CWM, and personnel training etc. For example, in the many provincial governments or natural reserves project of Synthetic Management of Biodiversity in have already constructed more than 20 wetland Zoige Wetland, sponsored by China and UNEP-GEF, museums or publicity centers to disseminate lots of important advice on the conservation of information on wetland ecological benefits and peatland and biodiversity has been put forward. The functions for public (Wetland China, 2010b). project of Wetlands Biodiversity Conservation and In addition, the mass publicity activities about Sustainable Utilization Demonstration in China wetlands conservation gradually increased. Since the (1999-2009), sponsored by China and United Nations website of Wetland China (www.shidi.org) was built Environment Program (UNEP), has been on 2 February 2008, the information-clerks and successfully completed, which made great progress volunteer teams have grown gradually, and more in enhancing the management capacity of than 20 thousand messages were issued on the government and the conservation awareness of Internet every year. With the joint efforts of related public. wetland institutions and volunteers, the website of Besides, the projects of Sino-Australian Wetland China has become the most influential Wetlands Conservation Policy and Capacity gateway website in the aspects of wetland publicity Construction (formed by China and Australian in China. On 25 September 2010, the Second Annual government), and China Wetlands Biodiversity Network Conference of Yangtze River was jointly Conservation (produced by China and German held by State Forestry Administration, Forestry government) are being carried out smoothly, and the Bureau of Hubei Province, and World Wide Fund for project of Sino-American Ten-year Action Plan of Nature (WWFN), and more than 150 network Wetland Cooperation under the framework of energy organizations from 12 provinces in Yangtze River and environment in the U.S.-China Strategic and valley attended the conference (Wetland China, Economic Dialogue has also made great advances in 2010b). The annual conference finally came to the conservation, management, monitoring and consensus on the wetlands conservation in Yangtze assessment of wetlands (Wetland China, 2010b).
390
China’s wetlands conservation
4. Issues existing in China’s wetlands conservation Environmental Protection of China, 2010). It was estimated that the first three invasive Although China has achieved many species might have caused a total annual economic remarkable achievements in the conservation and loss of 2000 million dollars (USD) in terms of restoration of wetlands during the Eleventh 5-Year jammed coastal waterways and economic species Plan, the increasing threat and pressure on wetlands loss from habitat conversion and ecosystem collapses for the reason of the increasing population and (Li and Xie, 2002). rapidly developing economy will be in existence in ii) Many wetlands have lost the functions of China for a long time. At present, the ecological water reserve, flood storage, and flood diversion due degradation of wetlands is still in progress. The to the decrease of wetland areas and the decline of comparison of the results of the first national wetland wetland functions, which, to some extent, aggravates survey and the preliminary results (not integrity) of the crisis of water resources and increases the risk of the second national wetland survey shows that the flood damage (Wetland China, 2010b). Numerous wetland areas in some provinces (such as Beijing, factors that endanger the existence of wetlands, such Jilin and Guangdong) are decreasing greatly due to as reclamation, misguided policy and water the reclamation driven by economic benefits, while diversion, are still very serious in some regions, and in other provinces (such as Heilongjiang, Jiangsu and the unreasonable utilization activities that greatly Tianjin), although there is no significant decrease, the alter wetland functions still can not be controlled wetland benefits and functions are degrading due to effectively. For example, in western China, lake frequent human activities (Wetland China, 2010b). areas are encroached by the desertification process Besides, according to the studies of Niu et al. (2011), caused by long-term reclamation, droughts and the about 33% wetlands were lost between 1978 and destruction of wetland plants. The areas of Aibi Lake 2008 across the country, and approximately 55% of shrank greatly from 700-1045 km2 in the late 1990s these were natural inland wetlands and biodiversity to 400 km2 in 2008, and large areas of bare lake hotspots. On the whole, the issues that exist in bottom became the source of sand storm (Legal current wetlands conservation mainly include: Daily, 2008). What’s more, the reduction of lake area i) The biodiversity of wetlands is still and storage not only aggravated the shortage of degrading significantly, and many important regional water resources and the risk of flood wetlands have partly or completely lost habitats or damage, but also drastically changed the fauna of breeding ground functions for wild animals and lake and destroyed the diversity of local region. plants due to wetlands destruction. Approximately Besides, the tremendous loss of coastal 120 species of higher plants (15 species for wetlands from 1991 to 2011 (Table 2) seriously hryophyte, 25 species for pteridophyte, 5 species for endangered the diversity and security of coastal zone gymnosperm, and 75 species for angiosperm) and in China. The natural swamps in Sanjiang Plain were 110 species of wild animals (not including mammals) still under threat since many local governments (85 species for waterfowls, 10 species for continued to consider them as potential land amphibians, and 15 species for reptiles) that require resources. wetlands as their vital habitats are extinct or iii) During the Eleventh 5-Year Plan, endangered (Table 6). approximately 215 million dollars of central financial The known extinct animal species in recent funds and 261 million dollars of provincial or local years included wild Yangtze River dolphin (Lipotes financial funds have been put into the wetlands vexillifer) (Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2006), conservation or restoration, and about 1795×104 ha Xinjiang big-head fish (Aspiorhynchus laticeps) and of wetlands (accounting for 49.6% of natural David deer (Elaphurus davidianus) (State Forestry wetlands) have been effectively protected by 2010 Administration of China, 2005a). The endangered with the joint efforts of different agencies. However, species mainly include Psephurus gladius, the capital input of wetlands conservation is still very Myxocyprinus asiaticus, Ciconia nigra, Grus limited which can not meet the actual demands of japonensis, G. antigone, G. nigricollis and Alligator conservation and management. At present, more than sinensis etc. (China wetlands, 2011). Moreover, 50% of natural wetlands are still endangered by biological invasion can also result in the degradation reclamation, pollution, water diversion, economic of wetland biodiversity. China is one of the countries development, and other human activities. that are affected by biological invasion, and more iv) Although the establishment of NIRCC than 400 alien invasive species are endangering the significantly promoted the management and biodiversity of ecosystems (Economic Information coordination of related agencies, the management Daily, 2008). and coordination capacities of some provincial and The Ministry of Environmental Protection of local governments or agencies are still very low. China declared 18 notorious invasive species, Moreover, although the national wetlands legislation including 6 wetland species, such as Alternanthera work has been promoted greatly in the past 5 years philoxeroides, Spartina alterniflora, Eichhornia and the formal NWCS will be promulgated and crassipes, Mikania micrantha, Pomacea implemented at the end of 2012, the provincial or canaliculata, and Rana catesbeiana (Ministry of local legislation work still falls behind.
391
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394
Table 6. Number of species that live or are extinct in natural wetlands of China
Higher a Number of b Number of extinct or Wild a Number of b Number of extinct or plants species endangered species animals species endangered species Hryophyte 267 15 Mammal 31 —c Pteridophyte 70 25 Waterfowls 271 85 Gymnosperm 20 5 Amphibians 300 10 Angiosperm 1919 75 Reptiles 122 15 Total 2276 120 Total 724 110d Note: a, Number of species were based on the first national wetland inventory from 1996 to 2003 (Zhang and Xia, 2009); b, Number of extinct or endangered species were based on reference An et al. (2007); e, No data; d, Data were the sum of waterfowls, amphibians and reptiles species
v) With the efforts of the Chinese government statutes and policies. Since the limited capital input in the past 5 years, the conservation and management of wetlands conservation can not meet the actual of wetlands in China have already generated good demands of conservation and management, it is international influence. However, the changes in necessary for the national, provincial and local ecological character of some internationally governments to continually increase the input of important wetlands have already occurred, or are financial funds to strengthen the conservation or occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of management of natural wetlands. In addition, a pollution or other human interferences, and the system for monitoring and assessing at the national potential pressure that some important wetlands are scale needs to be developed to ensure the facing has also been realized by the international effectiveness of the implementation of the policies, society. If effective measures are not timely taken by laws, and regulations, and the accountability of the the Chinese government, these wetlands will be listed funded programs. in the Montreux Record of Ramsar Convention Secondly, effective implementation of the (Wetlands International-China Programme, 1999). In national wetland action plan requires concerted addition, the public awareness about wetlands efforts at all levels. Since the increasing population conservation, and the executive force of related and rapidly developing economy are the main causes statutes and policies in some provincial or local of wetland degradation or decrease, it will be a governments are still not very high although some challenge for the Chinese government to find a efforts have been made by related wetland agencies balance between protection of wetlands and in the past 5 years. revitalization of the local economy in wetland regions. In the next few years, some new policies and 5. Challenges for China’s wetlands conservation regulations should be developed to provide local people with alternative ways of livelihood that will Presently, the important status and function of not cause disturbances to wetlands, and some wetlands in ecological construction are attracting significant obstacles to wetlands conservation, such much attention of the Chinese government. The as local bureaucracy, misuse of wetland funds, lack nation has already regarded the wetlands of trained managers, and lack of appreciation of conservation and the maintenance of wetland ecosystem management principle, should also be ecosystem health as important approaches to removed. guaranteeing the territory ecological security and the Thirdly, the international cooperation and sustainable development of economy and society. In exchange activities should be further strengthened in the Twelfth 5-Year Plan (2011-2015) (China State the next few years. It will be a challenge for the Council, 2011), the goals, tasks, policies, approaches, Chinese government to appropriately solve the and budgetary funds of wetlands conservation or sensitive problems of some internationally important restoration are further defined compared with those wetlands caused by the implementation of related in the Eleventh 5-Year Plan (2006-2010). Despite all projects. The active international cooperation, that has been done during the Eleventh 5-Year Plan, combined with close agency coordination and strict many challenges remain in terms of wetland policy, management measures, will effectively solve these management, fund, international cooperation, and problems. scientific research during the Twelfth 5-Year Plan. Finally, scientific research is needed to Firstly, success in wetlands conservation requires quantitatively evaluate the efficacy of wetlands science-based policies and effective management and conservation efforts and provide the information for coordination. decision-making and for training wetland In the next few years, it will be a major professionals to manage natural reserves and wetland challenge for the Chinese government to promote and parks, and to educate local people. Moreover, efforts perfect the provincial or local legislation work, and to enhance scientific communications will be needed the management and coordination mechanisms of to narrow the gaps and to make scientific progress to provincial and local governments or agencies. solve many problems mentioned previously. It is a Especially, the provincial or local governments challenge for the Chinese government to strengthen should strengthen the executive force of national the research, education and communication of
392
China’s wetlands conservation wetland science, and to enhance the public awareness Bo D.M., (2007), Essentials of the implementation of the of wetlands conservation in the next few years. nationwide wetland protection program plan (in In short, sustainable development in China Chinese), Wetland Science and Management, 3, 18-20. requires new attitudes, sound policies, and great Chen H.X., Zhang X.S., (2000), The value of the ecosystem services of China (in Chinese), Chinese efforts in protecting natural wetlands. Actually, the Science Bulletin, 45, 17-22. economic miracle of China in the last 30 years came China Forestry Science Data Center, (2002), List of at the huge expense of the environment, especially China’s wetland nature reserves (in Chinese), On line the natural wetlands. To reverse the trends, China at: faces a heavy task to deal with the relationship http://www.cfsdc.org/web/module_ysj/titleforphoto.js between economic development and wetlands p. conservation in the five years to come. According to China State Council, (2006), Outline of the Eleventh 5- the sixth population census date of China in 2010, the Year Plan for economic and social development total population in mainland is 13.39 hundred million (2006-2010) (in Chinese), On line at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/ misc/ 2006-03/16/content_ (Fig. 2), and the population increased by about 73.90 4309517.htm. million from 2000 to 2010, and the average annual China State Council, (2011), Outline of the Twelfth 5-Year growth rate is 0.57%. Plan for economic and social development (2010- In contrast, the population increased by more 2015) (in Chinese), On line at: than 1.3 hundred million from 1990 to 2000 and the http://news.xinhuanet.com/ politics/ 2011-03/16/ average annual growth rate is 1.07% (National c_121 193916.htm. Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011). These figures China wetlands, (2011), Wetland biology (in Chinese), On indicate that the rapidly increasing tendency of line at: http://www.chinawetlands.com/xm/shidigai population has been effectively controlled, which kuang/shengwu.html. Chinese Academy of Sciences, (2006), The survey results offers a favorable opportunity for the Chinese of dolphin in Yangtze River in 2006 (in Chinese), On government to protect or restore wetlands in the next line at: http://159.226.97.8/html/Dir/2006/12/30/14/68 few years since the threat and pressure caused by the /66.htm. rapid population increase will be gradually reduced. Costanza R., d’Arge R., de Groot R., Stephen F., Grasso However, the threat and pressure caused by fast M., Hannon B., Limburg K., et al., (1997), The value development of economy are still apparent although of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital, the Chinese government has already realized the Nature, 387, 253-259. quality of economic growth during the Eleventh 5- Cui B.S., Yang Z.F., (2009), Wetlands, Beijing Normal Year Plan, which needs the concerted efforts of University Publishing Group, Beijing, (in Chinese). Cyranoski D., (2009), Putting China’s wetlands on the governments, managers, publics and scientists to map, Nature, 458, 126. solve these problems in the years to come. Economic Information Daily, (2008), 400 alien species The future of China’s wetlands looks invade China (in Chinese), On line at: promising, because China understands that wetlands http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2008-01/09/content_ conservation is a national imperative to guarantee the 7390685.htm. sustainable development of economy and society. European Commission, (2012), Natura 2000 net work, On line at: http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/ nature/natura Acknowledgements 2000/index_en.htm. The authors would like to acknowledge the two anonymous Hangzhou Government, (2009), China Wetland Museum reviewers for their constructive comments on this paper. opened for publics in Xixi wetland (in Chinese), On This study was financially supported by the National line at: http://www.hangzhou.gov.cn/main/zwdt/swg Nature Science Foundation of China (No. 41371104, zdt/hd/T3027 95.shtml. 41171424), the Key Program of Natural Science Hatvany M.G., (2009), Wetlands and reclamation, Foundation of Shandong Province (No. ZR2010DZ001), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, the “1-3-5” Strategy Plan Program of the Yantai Institute of Amterdam; London; Oxford: Elsevier, 241-246. Coastal Zone Research of the Chinese Academy of Huang N., Liu D. W., Wang Z. M., Zhang B., Song K. S., Sciences (No. Y254021031), the Key Research Program of Li F., Ren C. Y., (2009), Distribution features of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. KZZD-EW-14), the natural wetland in the sanjiang plain from 1954 to Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences 2005, Wetland Science, 7, 33-39. (No. KZCX2-YW-223), and the Talents Program of the Legal Daily, (2008), The areas of Aibi Lake shrunk greatly Youth Innovation Promotion Association, Chinese (in Chinese), On line at: http://qingyuan.people. Academy of Sciences (No. Y129091041). com.cn/GB/14748/8041862.html. Lewis A.H., (2007), Introduction of Hong Kong Wetland References Park (in Chinese), Urban Environment Design, 1, 36- 41.
Li H.Y., Ju M.T., (2005), Principles and practice of An S.Q., (2003), Ecological Engineering of Wetlands, (in ecological restoration (in Chinese), Chemical Industry Chinese), Chemical Industry Press, Beijing. Press, Beijing. An S.Q., Li H.B., Guan B.H., Zhou C.F., Wang Z.S., Deng Li K., Zhang M. X., (2005),The resource and conservation Z.F., Zhi Y.B., Liu Y.H., Xu C., Fang S.B., Jiang J.H., suggestion of wetlands in China (in Chinese), Wetland Li H.L., (2007), China’s natural wetlands: past Science, 3, 81-86. problems, current status, and future challenges, Li S.D., Chen X.L., Ma F.Q., Cheng T.L., (2010), China AMBIO, 36, 335-33342. Ecological Status Report 2009-Ecological Succession
393
Sun et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 13 (2014), 2, 379-394
in China 1949-2009 (in Chinese), Scientific Press, The World Bank, (2012), Open data by country, On line at: Beijing. http://www.worldbank. org/. Li Z., Xie Y., (2002), Invasive Alien Species in China (in Wetland China, (2009), Introduction of the First Wetland Chinese), China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing. Cultural Festival in China (in Chinese), On line at: Liu X.T., Ma X.H., (2002), Natural environmental changes http://www.shidi.org/sf9DBFA2D3064E4489B71E75 and ecological protection in the Sanjiang Plain (in B664A99D32 _151_ smxlsl .html. Chinese), Scientia Geographica Sinica, 20, 14-19. Wetland China, (2010a), The wetland devotion during the Lu J.J., He W.S., Tong C.F., Wang W., (2011), Wetland Eleventh 5-Year Plan affords favorable opportunity for Ecology (in Chinese), Higher Education Press, the wetland conservation in the Twelfth 5-Year Plan, Beijing. (in Chinese) On line at: http://www.shidi.org/ Ministry of Environment Protection of the People’s sf0C2BB5F5F2E449B6822FD89C6D FD4B67151_zy Republic of China, (2011), List of China’s nature zsg.html. reserves (in Chinese), On line at: http://sts.mep. Wetland China, (2010b), Work summary of nationwide gov.cn/ zrbhq/. wetland conservation and management in 2010 (in Ministry of Environmental Protection of China, (2010), Chinese), Online at: http://www. shidi.org/sf_7D6045 2009 Environmental Report (in Chinese), On line at: 5D236345D4B 45B8D0 287D6EF3C151_sdb.html. http://jcs.mep.gov.cn/hjzl/ zkgb/2009hjzkgb/. Wetland China, (2012), Introduction of the international Ministry of Water Resource of China, (2000), Report on importance wetlands in China (in Chinese), On line at: Freshwater Resource of China (in Chinese), On line at: http://www.shidi.org/lib/lore/ramsar-about.htm. http://www.mwr.gov.cn/. Wetlands International-China Programme, (1999), Ramsar National Bureau of Statistics of China, (2011), Bulletin of Convention Information Papers (in Chinese). the sixth national population census in 2010 (in Xinhua News Agency, (2007), The National Chinese), On line at: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjfx/jdfx/ Implementation of the Ramsar Convention Committee t2011 0428_402722 253.htm. (NIRCC) established in Beijing (in Chinese), On line Niu Z.G., Gong P., Chen X., Guo J. H., Wang L., Huang at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2007-10/03/ H.B., Shen S.Q., et al., (2009), Geographical content6824641.htm. characteristics of China’s wetlands derived from Xinhua News Agency, (2010), The surface area of Qinghai remotely sensed data, Science in China Series D: Lake continually increases from 2005 to 2010 (in Earth Sciences, 52, 723-738. Chinese), On line at: http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2010- Niu Z.G., Zhang H.Y., Gong P., (2011), More protection 07/31/content 1668442.htm. for China's wetlands, Nature, 471, 205. Xinhua News Agency, (2011), Progress of the second Park Y.S., Chang J.B., Lek S., Cao W., Brosse S., (2003), survey of national wetland resources (in Chinese), On Conservation strategies for endemic fish species line at: http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2011- threatened by the Three Gorges Dam, Conservation 02/16/content180450 6.htm. Biology, 17, 1748-1758. Zhang L., Xia Y.F., (2009), Study on legal system of People Daily Agency, (2007), Returning farmland to lake wetland conservation and utilization of China (in and protecting Dongting Wetland (in Chinese), On Chinese), China Forestry Press, Beijing. line at: http://env.people. com.cn/GB/6613449.html. Zhang Y., (2000), Action Plan of China Wetland Perrow M.R., Davy A.J., (2002), Handbook of Ecological Conservation (in Chinese), China Forestry Publishing Restoration, Cambridge University Press, UK. House, Beijing. Qiu J., (2011), China faces up to ‘terrible’ state of its Zhang Q.L., (2011), One third China’s wetland area ecosystem, Nature, 471, 19. decreased in the past 30 years (in Chinese), On line at: Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, (2006), Classification http://www.uux.cn/viewnews-26256.html. system for wetland type (in Chinese), On line at: Zhao S.Q., Fang J.Y., (2004), Impact of impoldering and http://www.ramsar.org/ ris/key_ris.htm#type. lake restoration on land-cover changes in Dongting Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, (2012), Lists of wetland Lake area. Central Yangtze, AMBIO, 33, 311-315. of international importance, On line at: Zheng Y.W., Xue D.Y., Zhang G.S., (1994), Study on http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-rsworldwide ecological evaluation criteria and standards for nature index / main/ ramsar/1%5E25636_4000_0__. reserves (in Chinese), Rural Eco-environment, 10, 22- State Forestry Administration of China, (2005a), Wildlife 25. and Wetland Reserves Information (in Chinese), On Zheng Y.M., Zhang H.Y., Niu Z.G., Gong P., (2012), line at: http://www.cnwm.org.cn/wildlife/index.asp. Protection efficacy of national wetland reserves in State Forestry Administration of China, (2005b), China, Chinese Science Bulletin, 57, 1116-1134. Implementation Plan of National Wetland Zhu J.G., Wang X., Ba L.Z., Bao D.M., Jiang W.L., Lei K., Conservation Project (2005-2010) (in Chinese). Li X., et al., (2004), Study on Legislation for Sun Z. G., Liu J. S., Li B., (2006), The actuality, problems Conserving Wetlands in China (in Chinese), Law and sustainable utilization countermeasures of wetland Press China, Beijing. resources in China (in Chinese), Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment, 20, 83-88.
394