Warfare Rather Than Agriculture As a Critical Influence on Fires in the Late Holocene, Inferred from Northern Vietnam
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Warfare rather than agriculture as a critical influence on fires in the late Holocene, inferred from northern Vietnam Zhen Lia,1, Yoshiki Saitob, Phong X. Dangc, Eiji Matsumotod, and Quang Lan Vue aState Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200092, China; bGeological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Central 7, Higashi 1–1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan; cInstitute of Geography, Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam; dGraduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; and eNorthern Mapping Division, Department of Geology and Minerals of Vietnam, Ai Mo 1, Gia Lam, Hanoi, Vietnam Edited by Graeme Barker, University of Cambridge, and accepted by the Editorial Board May 22, 2009 (received for review December 26, 2008) Fire has played an essential role in the development of human measures in areas of open forest in present-day monsoonal civilization. Most previous research suggests that frequent-fire environments (4, 21, 22). However, determining how these regimes in the late Holocene were associated with intensification activities have affected fire regimes is complicated, and there are of human activities, especially agriculture development. Here, we still insufficient reliable data to do so. analyze fire regimes recorded in the Song Hong delta area of The Song Hong delta is densely populated and most of the Vietnam over the past 5,000 years. In the prehistoric period, 2 land has been cultivated for rice fields; fire has certainly been long-term, low-charcoal abundance periods have been linked to used for deforestation and domestic purposes. This research was periods of low humidity and cool climate, and 5 short-term fire carried out to address the question of how often fire regimes regimes of 100–150 years in duration occurred at regular intervals occurred and what were the critical factors influencing the fire of Ϸ700 years. However, over the last 1,500 years, the number, regimes in northern Vietnam during the late Holocene. frequency, and intensity of fire regimes clearly increased. Six intensified-fire regime periods in northern Vietnam during this Results and Discussion time coincided with changes of Vietnamese dynasties and associ- Charcoal records in sediments provide the only way to recon- ated warfare and unrest. In contrast, agricultural development struct fire records spanning more than a few hundred years. We supported by rulers of stable societies at this time does not show carried out charcoal analysis on samples with a resolution of a positive correlation with intensified-fire regime periods. Thus, several decades from 2 sediment cores, VN (20°24Ј37’’N, warfare rather than agriculture appears to have been a critical 106°22Ј39’’E) and GA (20°15Ј26’’N, 106° 30Ј57’’E), drilled in the factor contributing to fire regimes in northern Vietnam during the Song Hong (Red River) delta in northern Vietnam during a late Holocene. cooperative project between Japan and Vietnam (Fig. 1). In previous studies, we reconstructed the palaeoclimate and dep- fire regime ͉ Song Hong (Red River) ͉ charcoal ͉ human activities ositional environments from these 2 cores (24, 25). Depositional environments in core sections we analyzed were submarine delta ire regimes play an important role in nutrient cycling, the from delta front platform to prodelta on the basis of results from Fdevelopment of vegetation ecosystems (1–3), and global sediment facies analysis including molluscan fossils (25) (Fig. 2) concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere (4). To understand the (see Materials and Methods). All of the charcoals in the subma- factors that influence them, fire regimes have been studied at rine delta were transported by river from the Song Hong (Red various time scales. Wildfire and climate are intimately linked River) drainage area and surroundings together with sediment (5–7). Many previous studies have shown that fire regimes at materials, not in situ. Our age model was based on 14 AMS decadal, centennial, and millennial time-scales are influenced by (accelerator mass spectrometry) 14C dates from core VN, and 13 climatic change at the similar pacing (8–12). Fire regimes have 14C dates from core GA, and was calibrated using CALIB5.01 been presumed to occur under hot and dry climatic conditions (24–26) (see Materials and Methods). (13–16). However, high fire frequencies have also been identified According to archaeological records, from Ϸ3000 BC most of during relatively cool and moist periods, which suggests fuel- the population of Vietnam migrated from mountainous areas to determined rather than directly climate-determined influences areas of low hills surrounding the midlands and fertile plains of on fire regimes (17, 18). Climate controls fire directly by large rivers valleys and coastal areas, shown by cultures of the providing opportunities for ignition and spread of fire, but also Phung Nguyen, Ha Long, and Mai Pha in the Song Hong delta indirectly through regulation of the accumulation and structure (27). Stone hoes, harvesting knives, stone spades, and stone of fuel at longer time scales (19). In addition to natural fire ploughs found at archaeological sites at Hoa Binh suggest that triggers, human activities can also play an important role in the rice was cultivated in these areas. Rice grains related to the occurrence of fire. In the advancement of human civilization, fire Phung Nguyen culture have also been found at the Dong Dao has played an essential role; for example, fire has been used for heat and light, for cooking, to fend off wild animals, and to clear land in preparation for planting (20–22). Author contributions: Z.L., Y.S., and E.M. designed research; Z.L. performed research; Z.L., Y.S., P.X.D., and Q.L.V. contributed new reagents/analytic tools; Z.L. analyzed data; and Z.L., Because human activities intensified in the late Holocene, fire Y.S., and P.X.D. wrote the paper. regimes became decoupled from climate, especially during the The authors declare no conflict of interest. last 2 millennia (4, 21). Campbell and Campbell (23) suggested This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. G.B. is a guest editor invited by the Editorial Board. that a sharp increase of fire regimes in the last 2 millennia can Freely available online through the PNAS open access option. be ascribed in large part to an increase in human population 1To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Zhen Li, State Key Laboratory of compared with prehistoric times. Human activity is believed to Estuarine and Coastal Research, East Normal University, North Zhongshan Road 3663, induce more fire regimes as a result of adaptation of the Shanghai, 200062, China. E-mail: [email protected]. landscape for human use, large-scale deforestation, burning, This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/ agriculture, and warfare, even as a result of forest-conservation 0813258106/DCSupplemental. 11490–11495 ͉ PNAS ͉ July 14, 2009 ͉ vol. 106 ͉ no. 28 www.pnas.org͞cgi͞doi͞10.1073͞pnas.0813258106 Downloaded by guest on September 28, 2021 Fig. 1. Geographical locations of cores VN and GA on the Song Hong delta (modified from ref. 25). DFP: an area shallower than Ϸ6 m below mean sea level with a gradient of 0.5/1,000; DFS: an area from DFP to 20–30 m below mean sea level, having a relatively steep slope with a gradient of 2.5/1,000; PD: located further offshore from DFS. site. However, rice agriculture in Vietnam did not developed and clear wild grass in Vietnam, especially in areas upstream widely until the Dong Son culture, when bronze ploughs were from the delta. However, our data do not show a clear corre- used. Oscar (28) reported that, from 3000 BC to 2000 BC, wet lation between the amount of charcoal present and the abun- rice cultivation was carried out in the Song Hong delta on a small dance of Gramineae pollen larger than 40 m, which is consid- scale, whereas became widespread after 2000 BC, when bronze ered to be an indicator of human cultivation (Fig. 2) (24). tools were introduced. Various kinds of bronze plough have been According to historic records, in stable societies rulers generally discovered at Co Loa, Son Tay, Lao Cai, and Bat Xat. Most of strongly encouraged people to farm and exploit the land for these harvesting tools are the ‘‘nhip’’ type, and were found agriculture by decreasing (or abolishing) taxes, and soldiers mainly in the Song Hong River delta at locations such as Tho Vuc returned home for agriculture in the seasons when warfare did and Vinh Quang in Ha Tay province, and Duong May, Xom Trai, not normally occur. The rulers also supported the building of and Ma Tre in Ha Noi province (29). The occurrence of high canals, dams, and roads to support irrigation and protect farm- content of Gramineae pollen of Ͼ40 m provides additional lands. All of these initiatives helped to restore agriculture after evidence for the intensified rice agriculture in the Song Hong periods of warfare and unrest, expanded the area of farmland, delta area after Ϸ1050 BC (Fig. 2) (24). and improved agriculture, especially in the periods 110 BC-39 The combination of archaeological and palaeoecological re- AD, 544–906 AD, 1010–1127 AD, and 1231–1266 AD (28, 35). search has provided evidence of numerous confirmed instances Moreover, the abundance of Gramineae pollen larger than 40 of land clearance for agriculture by 2500 yr BP (Ϸ650 BC) m clearly increased during these periods, reflecting agricultural (30–32), corresponding to major waves of human migration to development that corresponds to historic records.