Transboundary Waters Systems – Status and Trends Crosscutting

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CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

The water systems of the world – aquifers, lakes, rivers, large marine ecosystems, and open ocean- sustain the biosphere and underpin the socioeconomic wellbeing of the world’s population. Many of these systems are shared by two or more nations. These transboundary waters, stretching over 71% of the planet’s surface, in addition tothe subsurface aquifers, comprise humanity’s water heritage.

Recognizing the value of transboundary water systems and the reality that many of them continue to be degraded and Transboundary Waters managed in fragmented ways, the Global Environment Facility Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (GEF TWAP) was developed. The Programme aims to provide a baseline assessment to identify and evaluate changes in Systems – Status and Trends these water systems caused by human activities and natural processes, and the consequences these may have on dependent human populations. The institutional partnerships forged in this assessment are envisioned to seed future transboundary assessments as well. Crosscutting Analysis The ﬁnal results of the GEF TWAP are presented in the following six volumes: Volume 1 – Transboundary Aquifers and Groundwater Systems of Small Island Developing States: Status and Trends Volume 2 – Transboundary Lakes and Reservoirs: Status and Trends Volume 3 – Transboundary River Basins: Status and Trends Volume 4 – Large Marine Ecosystems: Status and Trends Volume 5 – The Open Ocean: Status and Trends Volume 6 – Transboundary Water Systems: Crosscutting Status and Trends

A Summary for Policy Makers accompanies each volume.

This document – Volume 6 Transboundary Water Systems: Crosscutting Status and Trends (A Summary for Policy Makers) – highlights a first global analysis to examine the present-day thematic dimensions of risk among 756 international water systems across five water categories in 14 regions of the world. It hopes to encourage subsequent assessments to quantify and monitor interactions between systems, and make these system-system linkages as salient bases for effective transboundary water management in a warming climate.

VOLUME 6: CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

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Preface

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) approved a Full Size Project (FSP), “A Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme: Aquifers, Lake/Reservoir Basins, River Basins, Large Marine Ecosystems, and Open Ocean to catalyze sound environmental management”, in December 2012, following the completion of the Medium Size Project (MSP) “Development of the Methodology and Arrangements for the GEF Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme” in 2011. The TWAP FSP started in 2013, focusing on two major objectives: (1) to carry out the first global-scale assessment of transboundary water systems that will assist the GEF and other international organizations to improve the setting of priorities for funding; and (2) to formalise the partnership with key institutions to ensure that transboundary considerations are incorporated in regular assessment programmes to provide continuing insights on the status and trends of transboundary water systems.

The TWAP FSP was implemented by UNEP as Implementing Agency, UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) as Executing Agency, and the following lead agencies for each of the water system categories: the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for transboundary aquifers including groundwater systems in small island developing states (SIDS); the International Copyright © UNEP 2016 Lake Environment Committee Foundation (ILEC) for lake and reservoir basins; the UNEP-DHI Partnership – Centre on ISBN: 978-92-807-3531-4 Water and Environment (UNEP-DHI) for river basins; and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of Job Number: DEW/1953/NA UNESCO for large marine ecosystems (LMEs) and the open ocean.

The five water-category specific assessments cover 199 transboundary aquifers and groundwater systems in 43 small special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate island developing states, 204 transboundary lakes and reservoirs, 286 transboundary river basins; 66 large marine ecosystems; and the open ocean, a total of 756 international water systems. The assessment results are organized into five technical reports and a sixth volume that provides a cross-category analysis of status and trends: be addressed to the Director, DCPI, UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, Kenya. Disclaimers. Volume 1 – Transboundary Aquifers and Groundwater Systems of Small Island Developing States: Status and Trends Volume 2 – Transboundary Lakes and Reservoirs: Status and Trends Volume 3 – Transboundary River Basins: Status and Trends Volume 4 – Large Marine Ecosystems: Status and Trends Volume 5 – The Open Ocean: Status and Trends Volume 6 – Transboundary Water Systems: Crosscutting Status and Trends

A Summary for Policy Makers accompanies each volume. Volume 6 presents a unique and first global overview of the contemporary risks that threaten international water This document may be cited as: systems in five transboundary water system categories, building on the detailed quantitative indicator-based assessment conducted for each water category. The report is a collaboration of the five independent water-category Programme (UNEP), Nairobi. based TWAP Assessment Teams under the leadership of the Cross-cutting Analysis Working Group, with support Photo credits for cover: © Peter Liu, © Kangkan, © Alun McDonald, © Seyllou Diallo/FAO and © NASA from the TWAP Project Coordinating Unit.

Key messages This novel assessment provides a first indicator-based look at the broad global patterns of risk to transboundary water systems and dependent human populations across the five water system categories – Aquifers, Lakes & Reservoirs, River Basins, Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) and the Open Ocean. Key directional indicators (indicating good to bad ecosystem states), addressing thematic (i.e. biophysical, socioeconomic and governance) conditions of transboundary waters, are chosen from each of the five water system category-based assessments, and are used to show broad patterns of relative risk. Risk is defined as the likelihood of failure to sustain the ecosystem services that transboundary waters provide for planetary and human wellbeing. It is assessed at five color-coded risk levels from highest risk (red) to lowest risk (blue) using individual indicators and their averages. The results are geographically organized to allow for comparisons of risk across water system categories and themes in 14 regions of the world. The 14 regions are based on the UN sub-continental regions, with the smaller areas like Northern, Southern and Western Europe being grouped together as a region, to optimize the regional aggregation and comparison of transboundary water systems. The Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP) crosscutting analysis covers 89% of the global total of currently identified transboundary aquifer surface area and 87% of transboundary lake surface area for 204 lakes considered in the assessment. For transboundary river basins, LMEs and the Open Ocean, spatial coverage is 100%.

• Risk is generally lower in developed regions (Australia, North America and Europe) and higher in Sub- Saharan Africa and South and South East Asia. However, there are high and low risk systems in all regions, indicating the need for attention to transboundary water systems across the planet. • Risk appears spread across the three thematic areas - biophysical, socioeconomic, governance - and signifies the need for policy and management interventions to address the integrated nature of risk in order to effectively sustain ecosystem health and human wellbeing. • There is a tendency for risk to increase ‘downstream’ from aquifers and river basins to LMEs, with the exception of transboundary governance arrangements for aquifers, which are largely absent. • The assessment of governance arrangements and architecture is a novel aspect of this assessment, but does not yet reflect how effective the governance responses are in sustaining ecosystem health and human wellbeing. Subsequent assessments should focus on measuring effectiveness. • Spatial data coverage for transboundary aquifers and lakes should be improved. Across allfive transboundary water categories, there is a serious need for long-term time-series data, including those that quantify and track rates and magnitudes of linkages between water systems, for transboundary management to become effective. © Peter Liu © Peter

2 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Introduction The Global Environment Facility (GEF) approved a Full Size Project (FSP), “A Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP): Aquifers, Lake/Reservoir Basins, River Basins, Large Marine Ecosystems, and Open Ocean to catalyze sound environmental management”, started in 2013, following the completion of the Medium Size Project (MSP) “Development of the Methodology and Arrangements for the GEF Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme” in 2011. The TWAP FSP focuses on two major objectives: (1) to carry out the first global-scale assessment of transboundary water systems that will assist the GEF and other international organizations to improve the setting of priorities for funding; and (2) to formalise the partnership with key institutions to ensure that transboundary considerations are incorporated in regular assessment programmes to provide continuing insights on the status and trends of transboundary water systems.

The five water-category specific assessments covered 756 international water systems consisting of 199 transboundary aquifers and 42 non-transboundary aquifers in small island developing states, 204 transboundary lakes and reservoirs, 286 transboundary river basins, 66 large marine ecosystems (and the Western Pacific Warm Pool), and the open ocean. The assessed waters cover over 70% of the planet’s oceans and landmass, and about 16% of the planet’s landmass that is also underlain by transboundary aquifers.

The TWAP assessment is the first global assessment that uses quantified and directional indicators of system states, pressures and impacts under three broad themes: biophysical, socioeconomic, and governance. Results are summarized into five colour-coded relative levels of system risk for each directional indicator - lowest, low, moderate, high, and highest - which are amenable to water system and regional scale comparisons. As a first global comparative assessment of transboundary waters (those shared by two or more countries), TWAP provides quantified assessment results that can inform the setting of priorities for intervention by GEF and others as well as the development of strategies on how nations and regions can meet their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets for the period 2015- 2030. TWAP is also poised to help identify core indicators to support national monitoring and reporting of targets required to realize the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the period 2015 – 2030. TWAP freshwater indicators map to SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation, notably Target 6.6 (protection and restoration of mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes). TWAP marine indicators support SDG 14 on Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources, and all its targets.

The TWAP FSP was implemented by UNEP as Implementing Agency, with UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) as Executing Agency. The following agencies were the lead partner institutions whichled the water category-specific assessments: the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for transboundary aquifers including groundwater systems in Small Island Developing States (SIDS); the International Lake Environment Committee Foundation (ILEC) for lake and reservoir basins; the UNEP-DHI Partnership – Centre on Water and Environment (UNEP-DHI) for river basins; and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO for Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) and the Open Ocean.

3 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

The crosscutting analysis The analysis integrates the results of the five independent water category-specific assessments where system risk is underpinned by the interactions among water system health, human wellbeing and governance, within the constraints of a changing climate (Figure 1). System health is evaluated using selected directional biophysical indicators, which include metrics that quantify water quantity, water quality, and biodiversity for freshwater systems; and productivity, fish and fisheries, pollution and ecosystem health for large marine ecosystems. For the Open Ocean, measures of Cumulative Human Impacts are used to assess waters beyond national jurisdictions, as these indicate relative risk. Socioeconomic indicators cover dependent human populations including population sizes, incidence of poverty, human development levels, and threats imposed by climate-related natural disasters. Governance risks are evaluated using governance architecture, with a view to subsequently analysing governance performance using more detailed analytical approaches. All indicators are assessed with 2000-2010 as the reference period, and several include projection scenarios to 2030, 2050 and 2100. For this crosscutting analysis, only contemporary indicators are used.

Figure 1: The conceptual framework used in this analysis builds on the principle that ecosystem health sustains planetary and human well-being. Risks that weaken a system state, including those that exacerbate global warming, erode natural capital that is needed for long-term human development.

CLIMATE CHANGE al d nt e eo e ag xy W m or & g ar n st c en n iro & h a in v F a t g n s s n in , e w e o gi g ri o s n s d fl g g m i s n e r n b a r i g e a e t l i r t o i h n & l a f u d e A w c HUMAN i

e v h e w

e s l

r a s

re b s t

f u WELLBEING i e u t

y r

d s

g L GOVERNANCE Drinking water Fisheries Food Tourism BIOPHYSICAL BIOPHYSICAL Energy Shipping STATES Fisheries SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATES DEVELOPMENT Minerals Tourism Energy Pollution Biodiversity & Ecosystem health Water quality Fish & Fisheries Water quantity ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Productivity Water cycle Primary/Secondary production RIVERS & LAKES Biogeochemical cycles Carbon storage Surface freshwater LARGE MARINE

F ECOSYSTEMS re s s & hw em a yst te e s OPEN OCEAN r sy rin AQUIFERS stems Ma Subsurface freshwater ECOSYSTEM HEALTH

Climate Saltwater intrusion Given scenario Water M a ater to se ials & pollutants from land Assessed factors Humans

4 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

The results are geographically organized to allow for comparisons of risk by water system category and by theme in 14 regions of the world (Figure 2 and Table 1). The regional breakdown is a variant of the UN sub-continental regional subdivisions to enable optimal distribution of international waters and regional comparisons. To do so, the average risk was calculated in each region at two spatial scales (Boxed Text – Computing regional averages). At system scale, the average thematic values were obtained for all indicators that were assessed and grouped under each of the three themes – socioeconomics, governance and biophysical. The indicators that were used can be found in Table 2. The individual water systems are listed by water category for each region in Table 3. At regional scale, for each water category, the regional averages by theme are derived by weighting the water system averages by the ratio of a system’s area (surface or basin area) to the regional total area. The final averages for each region by water category are likewise area-weighted. Regional thematic averages across water categories are simple numeric averages that weight water categories equally regardless of size. This report displays the average risk at the regional level to enable a global comparison across the five water categories and three themes. Risk is assessed at five levels, from highest to lowest and color coded throughout from red to blue. In TWAP, risk can be interpreted as follows: the higher the risk, the greater is the likelihood of failure to sustain the ecosystem services from transboundary systems that are essential for human well-being.

Computing regional averages (RA)

Sample region: Socioeconomic (SE) Governance Biophyiscal AverageCATEGORY Northern America (GO) (BP)

Aquifers RAAQUIFERS-SE RAAQUIFERS-GO RAAQUIFERS-BP AAQUIFERS

Lakes RALAKES-SE RALAKES-GO RALAKES-BP ALAKES

Rivers RARIVERS-SE RARIVERS-GO RARIVERS-BP ARIVERS

LMEs RALMEs-SE RALMEs-GO RALMEs-BP ALMEs

AverageTHEME ASE AGO ABP

Where:

System AverageCATEGORY-THEME = Average (Theme Indicator1, Theme Indicator2,…Theme Indicatorn)

Regional AverageCATEGORY-THEME = [(System AverageCATEGORY-THEME1 X System Area1) +

(System AverageCATEGORY-THEME2 X System Area2) +…

(System AverageCATEGORY-THEMEn X System Arean)] / Regional Area

AverageCATEGORY = Area – weighted Average (RASE, RAGO, RABP)

AverageTHEME = Simple Average (RAAQUIFERS-THEME, RALAKES-THEME, RARIVERS-THEME, RALMES-THEME)

Only water categories with data in a region are included in the calculation of averages. Thus, the individual system surface or basin areas weight the regional averages by water category. Regional thematic averages, in contrast, weight the water categories equally.

5 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 2: This analysis grouped countries into 14 regions to allow for thematic and water category risk averaging and regional comparisons.

Eastern Europe Northern America Northern Western & Southern Europe Eastern & Central Asia Northern Africa & Western Asia Southern Asia Central America & Caribbean Oceania, Micronesia Western & Middle Africa & Central Pacific Southern America Southeastern Asia Australia and Eastern & Southern Africa New Zealand

Antarctica

Table 1: Spatial coverage of crosscutting analysis and category specific TWAP assessment.

Number of Transboundary Percentage Assessed of Geographic coverage of this study and the water category-specific Water Systems assessed in Known Transboundary assessments this study Waters This analysis used the data set for aquifers that was derived from 89% of the global total the WaterGap model. Groundwater systems in 42 Small Island transboundary aquifer surface States and which are not transboundary were also assessed and Aquifers: 108 area of 26 561 572 km2 reported in the Aquifers Report but were excluded in this analysis along with smaller transboundary aquifers. Thus, the Aquifers Report has a wider spatial coverage at 96%. Twenty-three catchment scale drivers, grouped into thematic areas of catchment disturbance, pollution, water resource management, and biotic factors, not in-lake conditions, were used to quantify 87% of the global total threats to Incident Human Water Security and Incident Biodiversity Lake Basins & Reservoirs: 53 transboundary lake surface area of 874 171 km2 Security. The average of these risk levels were used in calculating the Regional Score Cards with a focus on 53 large lakes and reservoirs. The Lake Report includes ancillary data for an additional 151 smaller lakes, mainly for comparison purposes. The total global surface area of rivers and associated streams, transboundary or not, is estimated to be 662 000 km2 using stream 100% of the global total network analysis and awaits empirical validation. Thus the basin River Basins: 286 transboundary river basin area of 62 000 000 km2 area is used to determine percent area covered by assessment. Both crosscutting analysis and River Basin assessment covered the same total basin area. All LMEs were analyzed for the biophysical and socioeconomic 100% of the global total LME indicators, while only transboundary LMEs were analyzed for Large Marine Ecosystems: 66 surface area of 113 000 000 governance risk. The Western Pacific Warm Pool, though not an km2 LME, was included in the analysis of LMEs in Oceania, Micronesia and Central Pacific Region. The Cumulative Human Impact Index for Open Ocean was used in 100% of the global total Open this analysis. The Open Ocean Assessment examined many more Open Ocean: 1 Ocean of 232 000 000 km2 important contextual indicators, although some of these could not yet be appropriately scaled down to their influence on local risks.

6 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Table 2. Indicators used in this analysis (for details readers are referred to the water category-specific reports available at www.geftwap.org).

Water category Biophysical Governance Socioeconomic

• Mean annual groundwater • Presence of governance • Annual amount of renewable recharge depth including instrument addressing groundwater resources per artificial recharge from groundwater and/or freshwater capita irrigation system above it • Human dependency on • Mean annual groundwater groundwater AQUIFERS recharge depth excluding • Population density artificial recharge from irrigation • Groundwater depletion • Groundwater development stress • Incident Human water security • Presence of national or • Human Development Index • Incident Biodiversity security international governance LAKES instruments specifically addressing lake basins and reservoirs • Environmental water stress • Legal framework • Economic dependency on • Human water stress • Hydropolitical tension water resources • Agricultural water stress • Enabling environment • Societal wellbeing • Nutrient pollution • Exposure to floods and RIVERS • Waste water pollution droughts • Ecosystem impacts from dams • Threat to fish • Extinction risk • SST change • Completeness • Size of coastal population • Ecological footprint • Integration • Number of coastal poor using • Change in Marine Trophic • Engagement national poverty lines and Index scaled to 100 km coast • % Catch bottom impacting gear • HDI for the period 2009-2013 • Fishing effort change • Present day Climate Threat • Change in catch potential 2050 Index under warming • Microplastic numbers/km2 LMEs • Macroplastic density gm/km2 • POPs-PCBs • POPs-DDTs • POPs-HCHs • DIN risk score • ICEP risk score • Merged nutrient risk indicator • Reefs at risk Index • Change MPA coverage Open Ocean Cumulative Human Impact Index

7 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Risk in transboundary water systems Risk in transboundary water systems is displayed globally in Figure 3 which shows average risk by water system category and by theme for the 14 TWAP regions of the world as well as by FAO Fishing Area for the Open Ocean. Risk was assessed thematically using biophysical, socioeconomic and governance indicators for each water system, and averaged by water system category, for aquifers, lake basins, river basins, and lmes; and by theme in each region. The open ocean risks assessed using cumulative human impacts and scaled to FAO fishing areas, provide another layer of risk.

Average thematic risk is generally lower among developed regions of Northern America and Europe, and higher in Sub-Saharan Africa, and in Southern and Southeastern Asia. The low to middle levels of human development based on the Human Development Index, account for the high average socioeconomic risks found in these areas. The absence of aquifer legal instruments to govern their use results in average governance risk of moderate level in 9 of 14 regions. Average biophysical risk tends to be moderate in 10 regions, and low in Southern America, Western and Middle Africa, Eastern and Southern Africa, and in the Oceania-Micronesia-Central Pacific region. Overall thematic trends show that Southeastern Asia is at high socioeconomic and high governance risk; the Oceania-Micronesia- Central Pacific region is at low socioeconomic and low biophysical risk.

Among water categories, biophysical risks among transboundary aquifers are predominantly low in both developed and developing regions, indicating their status as a relatively untapped water resource and a critical buffered water storage in light of a warming climate. Transboundary lakes, assessed using 23 catchment drivers and not in-lake conditions, indicate lake catchments in Central America & Caribbean to be most at risk, both as a result of high socioeconomic and high biophysical risks. Transboundary lake catchments in Northern and Southern America, Northern Africa & Western Asia, Eastern Europe, Southern Asia and in Eastern & Central Asia, all are at low risk, averaged across themes. Transboundary rivers in Southern Asia are at high risk because of highest socioeconomic and high biophysical risks; those in Northern America and Northern-Western-Southern Europe region are at low risk because of low to moderate socioeconomic and low governance risk. LMEs are at high risk in Southern and Southeastern Asia because of highest socioeconomic and high biophysical risks; those in Eastern Europe are at low risk because of low socioeconomic and low governance risk. The Antarctic LME is at low risk on average although it is at moderate biophysical risk. Examining the regional patterns across water categories, Southern Asia is most at risk with its river basins and lmes showing high average risks across risk themes. Northern and Southern America, Northern Africa & Western Asia, and Eastern Europe, all have two water categories at low risk, and another two at moderate risk.

In the case of the open ocean, all regions except for the Arctic show moderate to high levels of cumulative impacts, with climate change stressors dominating the patterns. While mitigating climate change requires global cooperation, the resulting impacts to ecosystem health and services at local and regional scales demand fine-scale monitoring, assessment and mitigation.

Regions that exhibit contemporary moderate and above risk levels thematically or by water category must address risk levels among transboundary water systems in their socioeoconomic, governance and biophysical dimensions; mitigating the root causes and effects of these risks. Areas that currently show low risks must seek to maintain these risk levels in the face of the challenges of a warming climate.

There is a tendency for biophysical risk to propagate downstream from aquifers to LMEs, so that a source-to-sea perspective must be embedded in water management if it is to be integrative across all aquatic systems, noting that marine living resource exploitation and pollution from coastal and marine sources provide additional in-situ stressors for marine waters. The assessment of governance arrangements and architecture is a novel aspect, but does not measure effectiveness of performance. Data for aquifers and lakes are scant and long-term time series data for all transboundary water categories must be significantly augmented to ensure their proper management and sustained system health.

8 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

The frequency distribution of risk by theme, pooled across aquifers, rivers, lakes and LMEs in a region is shown in Figure 4. With the total number of water systems across four water categories being equal to 100%, the percentage of water systems falling into each of the five risk levels is shown by theme. Risk is variable across the three themes – biophysical, socioeconomic, and governance, indicating a serious need for interventions at policy and management levels to address biophysical, socioeconomic and governance sources of risk in an integrated and thus strategic manner.

The profiles for each of the 14 regions provide greater at-a-glance detail on socioeconomic conditions as well as the distribution of risk across water categories and themes for each region (Figs 4-17). Reading the two-page spread from left to right, each profile provides a location map and some key demographic information at the top of the left page. Contemporary risks by water category and theme are shown at the top right. The bottom left shows contemporary risk for each of the three themes with the percentage of systems (pooled across aquifers, lakes, rivers and LMEs) indicated for each risk level. The segmented bars show the percentage of systems in each risk level. Finally, at bottom right, the average risks by water category and theme are summarized for the region. © Kangkan

9 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 3: Global Map of Risks

AVERAGE REGIONAL RISKS BY WATER CATEGORY Risk in transboundary water systems is displayed globally, showing average risk by water system category and by theme for the 14 TWAP regions of the world as well as by FAO Fishing Area for the Open Ocean. Risk was assessed thematically using biophysical, socioeconomic and governance indicators for each water system, and averaged by water system category and by theme in each region. Nothern America

Eastern Europe Northern Western & Southern Europe Risks based on Cumulative Human Impacts in the open ocean

Eastern & Central Asia Northern Africa & Western Asia Central America & Caribbean Southern Asia

Oceania, Micronesia Southeastern Asia & Central Pacific Southern America Western & Middle Africa

Eastern & Southern Africa Risk levels Australia & Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Not New Zealand applicable

Socioeconomic risk

Governance risk

Biophysical risk Antarctica

Average (category)

1. The Antarctic continent is not inhabited by resident citizens so that conventional country-based socioeconomic indicators are not applicable for Average assessing socioeconomic activities that take place on land and in surrounding waters including fisheries and tourism. (theme) 2. Most of the Large Marine Ecosystems of Australia and all the coastal waters of New Zealand are not transboundary. Groundwater Lakes River Large & Basins Marine 3. Included in the assessment of Oceania, Micronesia and Central Pacific are the countries within the Western Pacific Warm Pool. Reservoirs Ecosystems

10 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 3: Global Map of Risks

Eastern Europe Northern Western & Southern Europe Risks based on Cumulative Human Impacts in the open ocean

Eastern & Central Asia Northern Africa & Western Asia Central America & Caribbean Southern Asia

Oceania, Micronesia Southeastern Asia & Central Pacific Southern America Western & Middle Africa

Eastern & Southern Africa Risk levels Australia & Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Not New Zealand applicable

Socioeconomic risk

Governance risk

Biophysical risk Antarctica

Average (category)

11 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 4: Frequencies

The frequency distribution of risk by theme, pooled across transboundary aquifers, rivers, lakes and Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) in each of the 14 FREQUENCIES OF RISK LEVELS regions is shown here. For each theme, the total number of water systems across the four water categories in a region equals 100%, and the percentage of water systems falling into each of the five risk levels is indicated by the number in each risk segment. Risk in a region is variable across the three Not Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest applicable themes and signifies the need for governance to address the integrated nature of risk in order to effectively sustain ecosystem health and human wellbeing. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Risks Northern America Eastern and Southern Africa Socioeconomic 57 25 4 1 31 Socioeconomic 3 16 22 34 25

Governance 33 19 23 25 Governance 1 11 49 3 36

Biophysical 445 26 15 10 Biophysical 85536 1

Central America & Caribbean Southern Asia 1 30 19 34 16 16 20 38 26

3155 6 26 81 50 11 30

10 24 37 27 2 26 15 43 16

Southern America Eastern and Central Asia 24 25 37 8 7 931 42 10 8

16 1 45 13 25 13 10 44 9 24

20 40 39 1 8322733

Northern, Western and Southern Europe Southeastern Asia

20 44 34 3 1 27 35 10 27

19 17 36 2 26 34 30 36

832 33 23 4 33 17 28 22

Oceania Micronesia Eastern Europe and Central Pacific 21 54 25 69 31

13 18 42 2 25 50 6 44

541 30 12 12 75 25

Northern Africa and Western Asia Australia and New Zeland

729 30 19 15 12 88

25 3 50 4 18 13

2 26 37 18 17 50 50

Western and Middle Africa Antarctica

4 15 22 23 36

10 10 34 13 33 100

18 52 30 100

12 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 4: Frequencies

Governance 33 19 23 25 Governance 1 11 49 3 36

Biophysical 445 26 15 10 Biophysical 85536 1

Central America & Caribbean Southern Asia 1 30 19 34 16 16 20 38 26

3155 6 26 81 50 11 30

10 24 37 27 2 26 15 43 16

Southern America Eastern and Central Asia 24 25 37 8 7 931 42 10 8

16 1 45 13 25 13 10 44 9 24

20 40 39 1 8322733

Northern, Western and Southern Europe Southeastern Asia

20 44 34 3 1 27 35 10 27

19 17 36 2 26 34 30 36

832 33 23 4 33 17 28 22

Oceania Micronesia Eastern Europe and Central Pacific 21 54 25 69 31

13 18 42 2 25 50 6 44

541 30 12 12 75 25

Northern Africa and Western Asia Australia and New Zeland

729 30 19 15 12 88

25 3 50 4 18 13

2 26 37 18 17 50 50

Western and Middle Africa Antarctica

4 15 22 23 36

10 10 34 13 33 100

18 52 30 100

13 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 5: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: NORTHERN AMERICA Socioeconomic risk The region belongs to the very high HDI group with a Governance regional average HDI of risk 0.914, and a population Biophysical reaching 355 million in risk 14 10 20 21 2015. Contemporary risks 6 of water systems by water category and theme 17 Risk levels 20 expressed as percentages 26 100% 37 Highest are shown at top right. 10 6 Across 50 transboundary 90 28 67 High waters in the region 86 80 43 21 (bottom left), about 82% Moderate experience low to lowest 70 100 60 100 63 socioeconomic risks; 52% 60 42 68 39 Low are subject to low to lowest 50 100 governance although another 25% are at very high governance risk; and 52% are at moderate to highest 13 Lowest 40 53 biophysical risk. On average ((bottom right), the region’s transboundary waters are at low socioeconomic risk, 43 and at moderate governance and biophysical risks. Lake and river basins both are at low risks averaging all risk 30 20 11 themes, and aquifers and LMEs are at moderate risk. 20 26 10 14 16 Population (2015, Millions) 050100150200250300350 0 354.60 (Total) 0.10 (Minimum) Assessment 318.90 (Maximum) 5 7 19 19 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) Highest assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 00.2000.4000.6000.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.914 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.913 (Minimum) 0.915 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 020 00040 00060 00080 000100 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 70 990 (Mean) 51 630 (Minimum) 106 140 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 57 25 14 1 3

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 33 19 23 25

Biophysical Assessment risk 93% 65% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 4 45 26 15 11 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

14 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 5: Transboundary Waters

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 57 25 14 1 3

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 33 19 23 25

Biophysical Assessment risk 93% 65% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 4 45 26 15 11 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

15 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 6: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: CENTRAL AMERICA & CARIBBEAN Socioeconomic risk The region belongs to the High HDI group with a Governance regional average HDI of risk 0.716, and a population Biophysical reaching 212 million in risk 4 2015. Contemporary risks of water systems by water 40 2 34 category and theme Risk levels expressed as percentages are shown at top right. 100% 67 Highest 6 Across 41 transboundary 90 9 waters in the region 100 High 80 63 (bottom left), 50% 100 59 70 Moderate experience high to highest 100 60 60 47 100 socioeconomic risk; 97% 60 33 Low are subject to moderate 50 100 100 to highest governance risk; and 66% are threatened by moderate to highest biophysical risk. On average 22 Lowest (bottom right), the region’s transboundary waters are at high socioeconomic risk, and are at moderate 40 3 governance and biophysical risks. Aquifers, river basins and LMEs are at moderate risk across risk themes, but 30 40 13 lakes are at high risk. 20 38

10 Population (2015, Millions) 0 50 100 150 200 0 212.50 (Total) 0.10 (Minimum) Assessment 125.40 (Maximum) 5 1 32 3 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.716 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.483 (Minimum) 0.790 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 9 122 (Mean) 820 (Minimum) 20 980 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 1 30 19 34 16

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 3 55 16 26

Biophysical Assessment risk 67% 43% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 10 24 37 27 2 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

16 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 6: Transboundary Waters

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 1 30 19 34 16

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 3 55 16 26

Biophysical Assessment risk 67% 43% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 10 24 37 27 2 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

17 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 7: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: SOUTHERN AMERICA Socioeconomic risk The region is classified as a High HDI with a regional Governance average HDI of 0.738, and risk a population of 414 million Biophysical in 2015. risk 3 Contemporary risks of 14 water systems by water 28 29 category and theme 8 Risk levels expressed as percentages 36 60 are shown at top right. 100% 2 Highest Across 64 transboundary 29 90 21 water systems (bottom left), 50 High 60 83 80 40 32 52% are threatened by 63 Moderate 70 93 moderate to highest 50 40 socioeconomic risk, 83% by 60 43 Low moderate to highest 86 50 governance risk, and 79% by low to moderate biophysical risk. On average (bottom right), the region’s 40 37 Lowest transboundary waters are at moderate socioeconomic and governance risk, and at low biophysical risk. 40 79 5 60 Transboundary aquifers and lakes are at low risk across risk themes, and river basins and LMEs are at 30 17 63 7 moderate risk. 20 5

10 Population (2015, Millions) 14 0100200300400 0 3 414.20 (Total) 0.50 (Minimum) Assessment 206.10 (Maximum) 14 5 38 7 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) 00.2000.4000.6000.800 1.000 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.738 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.636 (Minimum) 0.836 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 05 00010 00015 00020 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 9 196 (Mean) 2 870 (Minimum) 16 350(Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 24 25 37 87

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 16 1 45 13 25

Biophysical Assessment risk 88% 54% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 20 40 39 1 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

18 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 7: Transboundary Waters

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 24 25 37 87

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 16 1 45 13 25

Biophysical Assessment risk 88% 54% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 20 40 39 1 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

19 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 8: Transboundary Waters

The region has an average Human Development Index of 0.863, belonging to the Very High HDI group with a total population of 449 million in 2015. Contemporary risks of water systems by water category and theme expressed as percentages are shown at top right. Pooling across 77 transboundary water systems in the region (bottom left), 44% of the water systems are at low socioeconomic risk, 36% at moderate governance risk, and 33% at moderate biophysical risks. On average (bottom right), the region's transboundary waters are at moderate socioeconomic, governance and biophysical risks. Aquifers, lakes, and LMEs are at moderate risk across risk themes, while river basins are threatened by low risk.

20 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 8: Transboundary Waters

21 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 9: Transboundary Waters

expressed as percentages 100% 4 45 Highest are shown at top right. 90 55 50 17 Pooling across 77 49 65 High 80 transboundary water 75 45 50 70 Moderate systems in the region 100 33 82 (bottom left), 44% of the 60 63 33 Low water systems are at low 27 50 18 25 14 socioeconomic risk, 36% at moderate governance risk, and 33% at moderate biophysical risks. On average 37 Lowest 40 (bottom right), the region's transboundary waters are at moderate socioeconomic, governance and biophysical 25 25 risks. Aquifers, lakes, and LMEs are at moderate risk across risk themes, while river basins are threatened by 30 22 50 low risk. 20 5 25 33 10 18 Population (2015, Millions) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 293.20 (Total) 3.60 (Minimum) Assessment 143.80 (Maximum) 11 4 43 12 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.800 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.693 (Minimum) 0.870 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 10 697 (Mean) 2 560 (Minimum) 18 370 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk Socioeconomic 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % risk Biophysical risk 21 54 25

Average Governance (category) risk Average (theme) 13 18 42 2 25

Biophysical Assessment risk 90% 98% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area)

5 41 30 12 12 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

22 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 9: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: EASTERN EUROPE Socioeconomic risk The region has an average Human Development Index Governance of 0.863, belonging risk to the Very High HDI group Biophysical with a total population of risk 449 million in 2015. 18 25 Contemporary risks of 21 water systems by water 2 37 7 Risk levels category and theme expressed as percentages 100% 4 45 Highest are shown at top right. 90 55 50 17 Pooling across 77 49 65 High 80 transboundary water 75 45 50 70 Moderate systems in the region 100 33 82 (bottom left), 44% of the 60 63 33 Low water systems are at low 27 50 18 25 14 socioeconomic risk, 36% at moderate governance risk, and 33% at moderate biophysical risks. On average 37 Lowest 40 (bottom right), the region's transboundary waters are at moderate socioeconomic, governance and biophysical 25 25 risks. Aquifers, lakes, and LMEs are at moderate risk across risk themes, while river basins are threatened by 30 22 50 low risk. 20 5 25 33 10 18 Population (2015, Millions) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 293.20 (Total) 3.60 (Minimum) Assessment 143.80 (Maximum) 11 4 43 12 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.800 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.693 (Minimum) 0.870 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 10 697 (Mean) 2 560 (Minimum) 18 370 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk Socioeconomic 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % risk Biophysical risk 21 54 25

Average Governance (category) risk Average (theme) 13 18 42 2 25

Biophysical Assessment risk 90% 98% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area)

5 41 30 12 12 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

23 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 10: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: WESTERN & MIDDLE AFRICA Socioeconomic risk The region is classified as Low HDI Group with a Governance regional HDI average of risk 0.482 and a population of Biophysical 491 million in 2015. risk 3 15 Contemporary risks of 18 water systems by water category and theme 7 Risk levels expressed as percentages 37 67 100% 38 Highest are shown at top right. 75 50 Examining 68 90 24 29 53 67 High transboundary water 80 42 86 systems (bottom left), 59% Moderate 70 32 are subject to high to 67 38 highest socioeconomic risk; 60 Low 25 29 33 46% are threatened by high 50 16 63 to highest governance risk; and 82% are at low to moderate biophysical risk. On average, the region's 32 Lowest 40 transboundary waters (bottom right) are at high socioeconomic risk, moderate governance risk and low 71 33 30 58 24 biophysical risk. All transboundary water categories- aquifers, lakes, rivers and 14 8 LMEs -- are at moderate risk across risk themes. 20 33 10 Population (2015, Millions) 13 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 491.40 (Total) 0.20 (Minimum) Assessment 177.50 (Maximum) 19 8 38 3 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.482 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.348 (Minimum) 0.684 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 2 000 4 000 6 000 8 000 10 000 12 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 1 872 (Mean) 320 (Minimum) 10 210 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 4 15 22 23 36

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 10 10 34 13 33

Biophysical Assessment risk 97% 95% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 18 52 30 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

24 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 10: Transboundary Waters

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 4 15 22 23 36

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 10 10 34 13 33

Biophysical Assessment risk 97% 95% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 18 52 30 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

25 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 11: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: EASTERN & SOUTHERN AFRICA Socioeconomic risk The region belongs to the Low HDI Group with a Governance regional HDI average of risk 0.534, and a population of Biophysical 445 million in 2015. risk 10 Contemporary risks of 25 water systems by water 25 4 36 category and theme Risk levels expressed as percentages 12 100% 38 Highest are shown at top right. 6 77 Examining how 67 90 High 75 transboundary waters are 80 33 75 distributed by risk level and 55 56 70 64 50 Moderate by risk theme (bottom left), 100 60 60% are threatened by high 60 70 Low to highest socioeconomic 17 50 56 risk, 88% by moderate to highest governance risk, and 92% by low to high biophysical risk with 55% 10 Lowest 40 6 8 experiencing low risk. On average, this region is similar to Western & Middle Africa region. Its transboundary 61 20 30 25 waters (bottom right) are at high socioeconomic risk, moderate governance risk and low biophysical risk. 40 50 All transboundary water categories – aquifers, lakes, rivers and LMEs- are at moderate risk for all risk 20 6 30 themes, on average. 10 Population (2015, Millions) 0 100 200 300 400 0 444.60 (Total) 0.10 (Minimum) Assessment 97.00 (Maximum) 20 18 25 4 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.534 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.391 (Minimum) 0.777 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 3 000 6 000 9 000 12 000 15 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 2 913(Mean) 250 (Minimum) 14 100 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 3 16 22 34 25

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 1 11 49 3 36

Biophysical Assessment risk 87% 97% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 8 55 36 1 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

26 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 11: Transboundary Waters

Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 3 16 22 34 25

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 1 11 49 3 36

Biophysical Assessment risk 87% 97% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 8 55 36 1 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

27 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 12: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: NORTHERN AFRICA & WESTERN ASIA Socioeconomic risk The region belongs to the High HDI Group with a Governance regional HDI average of risk 0.734 and a population Biophysical reaching 472 million in risk 9 2015. 16 28 Contemporary risks of 40 water systems by water 17 17 Risk levels category and theme 100% 64 21 Highest expressed as percentages 9 are shown at top right. 90 50 80 High Pooling across 51 80 31 40 70 50 40 transboundary water Moderate 70 48 systems (bottom left), 63% 66 69 suffer from moderate to 60 18 Low highest socioeconomic risk; 50 82 50 17 20 73% from moderate to highest governance risk; and 72% from moderate to highest biophysical risk. On 9 Lowest 40 62 3 average, the region's transboundary waters (bottom right) are subject to moderate socioeconomic risk, low 30 30 60 governance risk and moderate biophysical risk. Aquifers and Lakes are at low risk across risk themes, while 17 14 20 river basins and LMEs are at moderate risk. 20

10 17 Population (2015, Millions) 9 7 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 471.60 (Total) 1.20 (Minimum) Assessment 89.60 (Maximum) 11 6 29 5 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.734 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.479 (Minimum) 0.894 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 16 889 (Mean) 1 300 (Minimum) 92 200 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Highest Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 7 29 30 19 15

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 25 3 50 4 18

Biophysical Assessment risk 84% 100% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 2 26 37 18 17 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

28 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 12: Transboundary Waters

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 25 3 50 4 18

Biophysical Assessment risk 84% 100% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 2 26 37 18 17 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

29 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 13: Transboundary Waters

water systems by water 17 Risk levels category and theme 100% Highest expressed as percentages 17 45 are shown at top right. 90 100 100 65 High Pooling across 30 80 transboundary water 50 70 100 Moderate systems in the region 67 50 100 (bottom left), 38% of the 60 70 Low

water systems are at high 50 100 50 100 socioeconomic risk, 60% are subject to moderate governance risk, and 43% are at high biophysical risk. On 15 Lowest 40 average, the region's transboundary waters (bottom right) are subject to high socioeconomic, moderate 33 governance and moderate biophysical risks. Transboundary river basins and LMEs are at high risk; aquifers are 30 at moderate risk and lakes are at low risk, across all risk themes. 20 5 33 25 10 Population (2015, Millions) 5 0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 0 1 799.10 (Total) 0.40 (Minimum) Assessment 1295.30(Maximum) 3 6 20 1 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.618 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.465 (Minimum) 0.766 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 2 758 (Mean) 680 (Minimum) 7 120 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Highest Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 16 20 38 26

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 8 1 50 11 30

Biophysical Assessment risk 99% 100% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 26 15 43 16 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

30 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 13: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: SOUTHERN ASIA Socioeconomic risk The region has an average Human Development Index Governance of 0.618, belonging to the risk Medium HDI group with a Biophysical total population of 1800 risk million in 2015. 20 Contemporary risks of 33 water systems by water 17 Risk levels category and theme 100% Highest expressed as percentages 17 45 are shown at top right. 90 100 100 65 High Pooling across 30 80 transboundary water 50 70 100 Moderate systems in the region 67 50 100 (bottom left), 38% of the 60 70 Low water systems are at high 50 100 50 100 socioeconomic risk, 60% are subject to moderate governance risk, and 43% are at high biophysical risk. On 15 Lowest 40 average, the region's transboundary waters (bottom right) are subject to high socioeconomic, moderate 33 governance and moderate biophysical risks. Transboundary river basins and LMEs are at high risk; aquifers are 30 at moderate risk and lakes are at low risk, across all risk themes. 20 5 33 25 10 Population (2015, Millions) 5 0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 0 1 799.10 (Total) 0.40 (Minimum) Assessment 1295.30(Maximum) 3 6 20 1 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.618 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.465 (Minimum) 0.766 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 2 758 (Mean) 680 (Minimum) 7 120 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Highest Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 16 20 38 26

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 8 1 50 11 30

Biophysical Assessment risk 99% 100% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 26 15 43 16 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

31 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 14: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: SOUTHEASTERN ASIA Socioeconomic risk The region has an average Human Development Index Governance of 0.686, belonging to the risk Medium HDI group with a Biophysical total population of 624 risk 10 million in 2015. Contemporary risks of water systems by water 8 Risk levels category and theme 32 20 100% Highest expressed as percentages 7 71 80 are shown at top right. 90 High Pooling across 40 80 transboundary water 71 43 54 Moderate systems in the region 70 100 60 (bottom left), 37% (10% + 60 80 29 Low 27%) of the water systems 50 100 20 are at high to highest socioeconomic risk, 36% are subject to the highest governance risk, and 50% (28% + Lowest 40 4 22%) are at moderate to high biophysical risk. On average, the region's transboundary waters (bottom right) are 30 21 subject to high socioeconomic and governance risks and to moderate biophysical risks. LMEs are at high risk 50 and aquifers and river basins are at moderate risks across all risk themes. 20 40 10 Population (2015, Millions) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 624.40 (Total) 0.40 (Minimum) Assessment 254.50 (Maximum) 7 Not 28 6 Coverage applicable (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.686 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.536 (Minimum) 0.912 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Not 11 365 (Mean) applicable 1 020 (Minimum) 55 150 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 1 27 35 10 27

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 34 30 36

Biophysical Assessment risk Not 97% applicable 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 33 17 28 22 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

32 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 14: Transboundary Waters

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 34 30 36

Biophysical Assessment risk Not 97% applicable 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 33 17 28 22 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

33 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 15: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: EASTERN & CENTRAL ASIA Socioeconomic risk The region has an average Human Development Index Governance of 0.758, belonging to the risk High HDI group with a total Biophysical population of 1645 million risk 5 18 in 2015. Contemporary 15 risks of water systems by 33 water category and theme Risk levels expressed as percentages 100% 36 Highest are shown at top right. 45 50 75 43 17 Pooling across 58 90 25 25 High transboundary water 80 systems (bottom left), 60% 83 Moderate suffer from moderate to 70 100 33 25 43 highest socioeconomic risk; 60 70 35 39 Low 25 83 77% from moderate to 50 17 highest governance risk; and 60% from moderate to high biophysical risk. On average, the region's 50 68 Lowest 40 transboundary waters (bottom right) are at moderate socioeconomic, governance and biophysical risks. LMEs 30 21 are at high risk across risk themes; both aquifers and river basins are at moderate risk, and lakes are at low risk. 50 17 20 30 10 17 Population (2015, Millions) 7 0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 0 1 645.00 (Total) 0.60 (Minimum) Assessment 1 364.30 (Maximum) 20 4 28 6 Coverage (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 0 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.758 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.624 (Minimum) 0.910 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 80 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest 20 150 (Mean) 1 080 (Minimum) 76 270 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Highest Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Governance risk Socioeconomic 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % risk Biophysical risk 9 31 42 10 8

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 13 10 44 9 24

Biophysical Assessment risk 89% 99% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 8 32 27 33 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

34 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 15: Transboundary Waters

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 13 10 44 9 24

Biophysical Assessment risk 89% 99% 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 8 32 27 33 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

35 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 16: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: OCEANIA, MICRONESIA & CENTRAL PACIFIC Socioeconomic risk The region is classified as Medium HDI with a regional Governance average HDI of 0.640 and a risk population of 11 million in Biophysical 2015. Contemporary risks risk of water systems by water 12 category and theme expressed as percentages Risk levels are shown at top right. Across nine transboundary 100% Highest waters and the 90 High Western Pacific Warm Pool 80 100 (WPWP) area (bottom left), 88 Moderate 69% experience low 70 socioeconomic risk, 50% 60 Low moderate to highest 50 100 100 governance risk, and 75% are subject to low biophysical risk and another 25% moderate biophysical risk. On Lowest 40 average (bottom right), transboundary waters are at low socioeconomic and biophysical risk, but are at moderate governance risks. Both river basins and LME and the WPWP are at moderate risk averaging across 30 all risk themes. 20 10 Population (2015, Millions) 04286 10 12 0 10.90 (Total) 0.00 (Minimum) Assessment Coverage 7.50 (Maximum) Not Not 8 1 applicable applicable (Number of Human Development Index (2014) assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE 00.2000.4000.6000.800 1.000 & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE 0.640 (Mean) ECOSYSTEMS 0.505 (Minimum) 0.780 (Maximum) Average Risks Per Capita Income (2015, US$) 02 0004 0006 0008 00010 00012 000 Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Not 4 345(Mean) applicable 1 830 (Minimum) 11 110 (Maximum) Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Socioeconomic risk Biophysical risk 69 31

Average Governance (category) risk Average (theme) 50 6 44

Assessment Biophysical Not Not risk applicable applicable 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 75 25 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

36 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 16: Transboundary Waters

Average Governance (category) risk Average (theme) 50 6 44

Assessment Biophysical Not Not risk applicable applicable 100% 100% Coverage (% regional area) 75 25 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

37 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 17: Transboundary Waters

The region composed of these two countries exhibits the highest HDI at an average of 0.924, and has an aggregate population of 28 million. Contemporary risks of water systems by water category and theme expressed as percentages are shown at top right. Of the eight LMEs in the region (bottom left), 88% are at moderate socioeconomic risk, one (13%) was assessed for governance and is at moderate risk, and 50% each are at low and moderate biophysical risk. On average (bottom right), the eight LMEs are subject to low socioeconomic risk, and moderate governance and biophysical risk. All eight LMEs are at moderate risk, averaging across the three risk themes.

38 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 17: Transboundary Waters

39 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Figure 18: Transboundary Waters

Contemporary Risks by Water Category TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS: ANTARCTICA Socioeconomic risk The Antarctic continent is not inhabited by resident Governance citizens so that risk conventional country-based Biophysical socioeconomic indicators risk are not applicable for assessing socioeconomic activities that take place on Risk levels land and in surrounding waters. For the period 100% Highest 2001-2010, Antarctic LME 90 High average annual fish catch is 80 100 estimated at 12 000 tons, Moderate worth 2013 US$ 2.4 million 70 per year. Average annual 60 Low 10 tourism revenues for the 50 Lowest period 2004-2013 are estimated to reach 2013 US$ 1229 million. The Antarctic 40 LME is subject to low governance risk and moderate biophysical risk. 30

Assessment Coverage Not Not Not 1 applicable applicable applicable (Number of assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Average Risks

Not Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest applicable

Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk Socioeconomic 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % risk

Biophysical risk Not applicable

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 100

Biophysical Assessment risk Not Not Not applicable applicable applicable 100% Coverage (% regional area) 100 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

40 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 18: Transboundary Waters

Assessment Coverage Not Not Not 1 applicable applicable applicable (Number of assessed systems) AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Average Risks

Not Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest applicable

Socioeconomic risk Contemporary Risks by Theme Risk levels Lowest Low Moderate High Highest Governance risk Socioeconomic 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % risk

Biophysical risk Not applicable

Governance Average risk (category) Average (theme) 100

Biophysical Assessment risk Not Not Not applicable applicable applicable 100% Coverage (% regional area) 100 AQUIFERS LAKES RIVER LARGE & RESERVOIRS BASINS MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

41 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

A WAY AHEAD

TWAP has demonstrated the widespread incidence of the risk of unsustainability in transboundary aquifers, lakes, rivers, Large Marine Ecosystems and the open ocean across the planet. To reduce and reverse the causes of risk in order to meet Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets by or before 2030, countries will need to continue developing and monitoring key indicators in order to identify and mitigate the sources of risk. The continued development and monitoring of key indicators, such as those used by TWAP, will be an essential aspect of this process. Full details of the indicators used and the findings can be found in the five technical reports for the water system categories and their technical summaries for policy makers (www.geftwap.org).

In addition to indicators that are specific to the transboundary water categories, it will be important to address the impacts of linkages among systems as well as the associated sources of risk in order to reduce risk. The approach of five separate assessments precluded a proper evaluation of the implications of the linkages between water systems in different water categories. Yet, it is well known that there are many biophysical linkages such as the flow of water itself, pollution, movement of plants and animals and influences on climate (Fig 19). Seeking to understand and quantify these linkages must be a focus of the next global assessment.

Much has been learned in TWAP that can be applied to ensure an expanded suite of indicators that is focused on critical issues. As an example, the conjunctive use of surface and subsurface freshwater for food and energy production may require a nexus approach in which sustainable food and energy systems may need to be premised on the sustainability of surface aquatic systems (rivers and lakes) and subsurface aquifers, which is challenged by a warming climate. Among marine systems, the downstream and lateral flows of water, materials and pollutants together with direct point sources of pollution and exploitation of marine living resources are undermining the health of coastal ecosystems. In the open ocean as well as near the coast, climate impacts from intensifying processes of ocean warming, accelerating sea level rise, acidification, and deoxygenation are exerting profound influences on changes in primary and secondary production, biodiversity and carbon storage. Sea level rise will be an intensifying source of risk where cause and consequence span millennia. When anthropogenic influence alters the ability of the ocean to modulate climate and planetary survival is at risk, human behavior towards land-ocean-climate interactions will require more than risk minimization. It behooves a fundamental shift in policy time frame and targets where human actions today have immediate as well as millennial consequences. © Seyllou Diallo/ FAO

42 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

Figure 19: Water flows and exchanges of materials including transported sediments, pollutants and species occur between source and destination transboundary water systems across water categories. These system-system interactions contribute to altering system states in terms of biogeochemistry, productivity and biodiversity. They also influence carbon storage and fluxes that impact climate change. Subsequent assessments should address these interactions.

BIOPHYSICAL INTERACTIONS AMONG TRANSBOUNDARY WATER CATEGORIES

Water quantity Water quantity Water quantity

Pollution Pollution Pollution None directly Sea level rise on deltas GROUNDWATER

Water quantity Water quantity Pollution Pollution Pollution None directly Fishery resources Biodiversity LAKES & RESERVOIRS

Water quantity Water quantity Water quantity LBS/WBS pollution Pollution Pollution None directly Fishery resources Fishery resources Biodiversity Biodiversity RIVER BASINS

Pollution Fishery Pollution Pollution resources Fishery resources Fishery Biodiversity Biodiversity resources Sea level rise Sea level rise on coastal areas on deltas Biodiversity LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Hydrological cycle Hydrological cycle Hydrological cycle drought and flood drought and flood drought and flood Fishery resources Pollution Pollution Hydrological cycle drought and flood Biodiversity Fishery resources Sea level rise Sea level rise on coastal areas on deltas Biodiversity OPEN OCEAN

FROM

GROUNDWATER LAKES RIVER LARGE OPEN & BASINS MARINE OCEAN RESERVOIRS ECOSYSTEMS

Water quantity: Water itself moves between aquatic systems. Overextraction in a source system or blockage of flow to another system can lead to shortages that impact users in the recipient system.

Pollution: As water flows it carries with it contaminants, nutrients, sediment and solid waste. Fishery resources: Many types of exploited resources move between lakes, rivers, coastal waters and Open Ocean either seasonally or during different life history stages and depend on the health of these systems for their productivity.

Biodiversity: Many species move between lakes, rivers, coastal waters and Open Ocean either seasonally or during different life history stages and depend on the health of these systems for their productivity.

Hydrological cycle (drought/flood): Circulation, temperature and evaporation in the Open Ocean are major drivers of the global hydrological system which determines when, where and how much water is returned to terrestrial freshwater systems.

Sea level rise on deltas: Sea level rise can inundate low lying coastal freshwater systems, especially deltas and render them unsuitable for many human

43 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Table 3. The assessed transboundary water systems by category and by region (number). Adding the number of systems for a category across regions will yield global total numbers that include multi-regional systems.

NORTHERN AMERICA (50)

AQUIFERS (5) LAKES (7) RIVERS (19) LMES (19)

• Cuenca Baja del Rio Bravo- • Amistad • Alsek • East Bering Sea Grande • Champlain • Colorado • Gulf of Alaska • Edwards-Trinity-El Burro • Erie • Chilkat • California Current • Merged: Poplar; Judith River • Falcon • Columbia • Gulf of California • Milk River • Huron • Fraser • Gulf of Mexico • Northern Great Plains • Michigan • Firth • Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf • Ontario • Mississippi • Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf • Nelson-Saskatchewan • Scotian Shelf • Rio Grande (North • Labrador - Newfoundland America) • Pacific Central-American Coastal • St. Croix • Caribbean Sea • St. John (North America) • Canadian Eastern Arctic - West • Skagit Greenland • St. Lawrence • Greenland Sea • Stikine • Northern Bering - Chukchi Seas • Taku • Beaufort Sea • Tijuana • Hudson Bay Complex • Whiting • Central Arctic • Yaqui • Aleutian Islands • Yukon • Canadian High Arctic - North Greenland CENTRAL AMERICA & CARIBBEAN (41)

AQUIFERS (5) LAKES (1) RIVERS (32) LMES (3)

• Cuenca Baja del Rio Bravo- Azuei • Artibonite • Gulf of Mexico Grande • Belize • Pacific Central-American Coastal • Edwards-Trinity-El Burro • Candelaria • Caribbean Sea • Boca del Cerro-San Pedro • Changuinola • Ocosingo-Usumacinta-Pocom- • Chamelecon Ixcan • Choluteca • Peninsula de Yucatan- • Chiriqui candelaria-Hondo • Colorado • Coco/Segovia • Conventillos • Corredores/Colorado • Coatan Achute • El Naranjo • Grijalva • Goascoran • Hondo • Jurado • Lempa • Massacre • Moho • Motaqua • Negro • Paz • Pedernales • Rio Grande (North America) • Sixaola • San Juan • Sarstun • Suchiate • Temash • Tijuana • Yaqui

44 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

SOUTHERN AMERICA (64)

AQUIFERS (14) LAKES (5) RIVERS (38) LMES (7)

• Agua Dulce • Chungarkkota • Amacuro • Pacific Central-American Coastal • Amazonas • Itaipu • Amazon • Caribbean Sea • Aquidauana-Aquidaban • Lago de • Aviles • Humboldt Current • Boa Vista-Serra do Tucano- Yacyreta • Aysen • Patagonian Shelf North Savanna • Salto Grande • Baker • South Brazil Shelf • Costeiro • Titicaca • Barima • East Brazil Shelf • Grupo Roraima • Carmen Silva/Chico • North Brazil Shelf • Litoraneo-chuy • Chira • Merged: Coesewijne; A-Sand/B- • Chuy Sand • Cancoso/Lauca • Merged: Serra Geral; Sistema • Comau Acuifero Guarani; Caiua- • Corantijn/Courantyne Bauru-Acaray Aquifer; Litoral- • Catatumbo cretacico; Salto-Salto Chico • Cullen • Pantanal • Essequibo • Permo-carbonifero • Gallegos/Chico • Titicaca • Jurado • Yrenda-Toba-Tarijeno • Lake Fagnano • Zanderij • Lake Titicaca-Poopo System • Lagoon Mirim • La Plata • Mira • Maroni • Mataje • Orinoco • Oiapoque/Oyupock • Palena • Pascua • Patia • Puelo • Rio Grande (South America) • Seno Union/Serrano • San Martin • Tumbes • Valdivia • Yelcho • Zapaleri • Zarumilla

45 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

NORTHERN, WESTERN & SOUTHERN EUROPE (77)

AQUIFERS (3) LAKES (6) RIVERS (59) LMES (9) • Belgian - Dutch - German • Lake Maggiore • Bann • Barents Sea Lowland aquifer system • Macro Prespa • Bidasoa • Norwegian Sea • Merged: Ordivician - Cambrian (Large Prespa) • Barta • North Sea groundwater body; Cambrian - • Neusiedler/ • Castletown • Baltic Sea Vendian - Voronka groundwater Ferto • Danube • Celtic-Biscay Shelf body / Lomonosovsky aquifer • Ohrid • Dragonja • Iberian Coastal • Upper Pannonian Thermal • Scutari/Skadar • Drin • Mediterranean Sea aquifer • Szczecin • Daugava • Iceland Shelf and Sea Lagoon • Douro/Duero • Faroe Plateau • Ebro • Elbe • Erne • Fane • Flurry • Foyle • Glama • Garonne • Guadiana • Gauja • Isonzo • Jacobs • Kemi • Krka • Klaralven • Lava/Pregel • Lima • Lake Prespa • Lielupe • Lough Melvin • Mino • Maritsa • Naatamo • Neman • Neretva • Narva • Nestos • Oder/Odra • Olanga • Oulu • Po • Parnu • Pasvik • Rhine • Rhone • Roia • Salaca • Seine • Schelde • Struma • Tagus/Tejo • Tana • Torne/Tornealven • Tuloma • Venta • Vijose/Vardar/Vuoksa • Wiedau/Yser

46 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

EASTERN EUROPE (70)

AQUIFERS (11) LAKES (4) RIVERS (43) LMES (12) • Delger River • Cahul • Amur • East Bering Sea • Irtysh-Obsky • Caspian Sea • Danube • Barents Sea • Merged: Ordivician - Cambrian • Neusiedler/ • Dnieper • Sea of Japan groundwater body; Cambrian - Ferto • Dniester • Sea of Okhotsk Vendian - Voronka groundwater • Szczecin • Don • West Bering Sea body / Lomonosovsky aquifer Lagoon • Daugava • Northern Bering - Chukchi Seas • Middle Heilongjiang - Amur • Elbe • Beaufort Sea River Basin • Elancik • East Siberian Sea • Pre-Caspien • Har Us Nur • Laptev Sea • Shishhid River Aquifer • Jacobs • Kara Sea • South-Pred-Ural aquifer • Kemi • Black Sea • Syrt • Kogilnik • Central Arctic • Upper Pannonian Thermal • Kura-Araks aquifer • Lava/Pregel • Yenisei Upstream • Lake Ubsa-Nur • Zeya River Basin • Mius • Maritsa • Neman • Narva • Nestos • Ob • Oder/Odra • Olanga • Oral/Ural • Oulu • Prohladnaja • Psou • Pasvik • Rezvaya • Samur • Sarata • Struma • Sujfun • Sulak • Terek • Tuloma • Tumen • Velaka • Volga • Vardar • Vistula/Wista • Vuoksa • Jenisej/Yenisey

47 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

EASTERN & SOUTHERN AFRICA (67)

AQUIFERS (20) LAKES (18) RIVERS (25) LMES (4) • Afar Rift valley / Afar Triangle • Abbe/Abhe • Awash • Benguela Current Aquifer • Cahora Bassa • Baraka • Agulhas Current • Aquifere du Rift • Chilwa • Buzi • Somali Coastal Current • Baggara Basin • Chiuta • Congo/Zaire • Red Sea • Coastal Sedimentary Basin III • Cohoha • Cuvelai/Etosha • Cuvelai and Ethosa Basin / • Edward • Gash Ohangwena Aquifer System • Ihema • Incomati • Dawa • Kariba • Juba-Shibeli • Eastern Kalahari Karoo Basin • Kivu • Kunene • Gedaref • Malawi/Nyasa • Lotagipi Swamp • Jubba • Mweru • Lake Natron • Karoo Sandstone Aquifer • Rweru/Moero • Lake Turkana • Karoo Sedimentary Aquifer • Tanganyika • Limpopo • Karoo-Carbonate • Turkana • Maputo • Khakhea/Bray Dolomite • Albert • Nile • Mereb • Natron/Magad • Okavango • Merged: Sand and Gravel • Victoria • Orange Aquifer; Weathered basement • Josini/ • Pangani • Nata Karoo Sub-basin / Caprivi Pongolapoort • Pungwe deep-seated Aquifer Dam • Ruvuma • SE Kalahri Karoo Basin / • Sabi Stampriet Artesian Aquifer • Thukela System • Umbeluzi • Shabelle • Umba • Sudd Basin • Zambezi • Tanganyika

48 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

WESTERN & MIDDLE AFRICA (68)

AQUIFERS (19) LAKES (8) RIVERS (38) LMES (3) • Aquifer extension Sud-Est de • Aby • Akpa • Canary Current Taoudeni • Albert • Atui • Guinea Current • Aquifer Vallee de la Benoue • Chad • Benito/Ntem • Benguela Current • Aquifere Cotier • Kivu • Bia • Aquifere du Rift • Lake Congo • Chiloango • Baggara Basin River • Congo/Zaire • Coango • Mweru • Corubal • Cuvelai and Ethosa Basin / • Selingue • Cross Ohangwena Aquifer System • Tanganyika • Cestos • Cuvette • Cavally • Irhazer-Illuemeden Basin • Cuvelai/Etosha • Karoo-Carbonate • Gambia • Keta / Dahomey / Cotier basin • Geba aquifer • Great Scarcies • Lake Chad Basin • Komoe • Nata Karoo Sub-basin / Caprivi • Kunene deep-seated Aquifer • Lake Chad • Nubian Sandstone Aquifer • Loffa System (NSAS) • Little Scarcies • Senegalo-Mauretanian Basin • Mana-Morro • Tanganyika • Mbe • Taoudeni Basin • Moa • Volta Basin • Mono • Niger • Nile • Nyanga • Ogooue • Okavango • Oueme • Sanaga • Sassandra • Senegal • St. John (Africa) • St. Paul • Tano • Utamboni • Volta • Zambezi

49 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

NORTHERN AFRICA & WESTERN ASIA (51)

AQUIFERS (11) LAKES (6) RIVERS (29) LMES (5) • Baggara Basin • Aras Su • An Nahr Al Kabir • Mediterranean Sea • Gedaref Qovsaginin Su • Asi/Orontes • Canary Current • Irhazer-Illuemeden Basin Anbari • Astara Chay • Arabian Sea • Merged: Tawil Quaternary • Caspian Sea • Atui • Red Sea Aquifer System: Wadi Sirhan • Darbandikhan • Baraka • Black Sea Basin; Saq-Ram Aquifer System • Dead Sea • Congo/Zaire (West) • Galilee • Coruh • Merged: Umm er Radhuma- • Nasser/Aswan • Daoura Dammam Aquifer System • Dra (South): Rub’ al Khali, (Centre): • Gash Gulf; Wajid Aquifer System; • Guir Wasia-Biyadh-Aruma Aquifer • Jordan System (South): Tawila-Mahra/ • Kura-Araks Cretaceous Sands; Fraction • Lake Chad of: Neogene Aquifer System • Medjerda (South-East): Dibdibba-Kuwait • Maritsa Group • Niger • Merged: Wasia-Biyadh-Aruma • Nahr El Kebir Aquifer System (North): Sakaka- • Nile Rutba; Umm er Radhuma- • Oued Bon Naima Dammam Aquifer System • Psou (North): Widyan-Salman; • Rezvaya Fraction of: Neogene Aquifer • Samur System (South-East): Dibdibba- • Sulak Kuwait Group • Tafna • Neogene Aquifer System • Terek (North-West): Upper and Lower • Tigris-Euphrates/Shatt Fars al Arab • Northwest Sahara Aquifer • Velaka System (NWSAS) • Wadi Al Izziyah • Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS) • Senegalo-Mauretanian Basin • Taoudeni Basin

50 CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

SOUTHERN ASIA (30)

AQUIFERS (3) LAKES (6) RIVERS (20) LMES (1) • East Ganges River Plain Aquifer • Aras Su • Aral Sea • Arabian Sea • Indus River Plain Aquifer Qovsaginin Su • Astara Chay • Bay of Bengal • South of outer Himalayas Anbari • Atrak aquifer • Caspian Sea • Dasht • • Darbandikhan • Fenney • Dead Sea • Ganges-Brahmaputra- • Mangla Meghna • Sistan • Hari/Harirud • Hamun-i-Mashkel/ Rakshan • Helmand • Indus • Irrawaddy • Kaladan • Karnaphuli • Kowl E Namaksar • Kura-Araks • Muhuri (aka Little Feni) • Murgab • BahuKalat/ Rudkhanehye • Tigris-Euphrates/Shatt al Arab • Tarim EASTERN & CENTRAL ASIA (58)

AQUIFERS (20) LAKES (4) RIVERS (28) LMES (6) • Amu-Darya • Aral • Amur • South China Sea • Birata-Urgench • Caspian Sea • Aral Sea • East China Sea • Buir Nuur-Khalkh river Aquifer • Sarygamysh • Atrak • Yellow Sea • Dankhan Khudgiin Sair aquifer • Shardara/Kara- • Beilun • Kuroshio Current • Delger River Kul • Ganges-Brahmaputra- • Sea of Japan • Downstream of Lancang River Meghna • Oyashio Current • Ertix River • Han • Hong River Basin • Hari/Harirud • Illi River • Har Us Nur • Irtysh-Obsky • Bei Jiang/Hsi • Middle Heilongjiang - Amur • Ili/Kunes He River Basin • Indus • Pre-Caspien • Irrawaddy • Shishhid River Aquifer • Lake Ubsa-Nur • South-Pred-Ural aquifer • Mekong • Syr Daria • Murgab • Syrt • Ob • Tacheng Basin / Alakol • Oral/Ural • Yalu River Basin • Pu Lun T’o • Yenisei Upstream • Red/Song Hong • Zeya River Basin • Salween • Shu/Chu • Sujfun • Talas • Tarim • Tumen • Volga • Yalu • Jenisej/Yenisey

51 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

SOUTHEASTERN ASIA (40)

AQUIFERS (7) LAKES (NA) RIVERS (28) LMES (5) • Cambodia Mekong River Delta • Beilun • Bay of Bengal Aquifer • Bangau • Gulf of Thailand • Downstream of Lancang River • Ca/Song-Koi • South China Sea • Hong River Basin • Digul • Sulu-Celebes Sea • Khorat Plateau Aquifer • Fly • Indonesian Sea • Lower Mekong River 1 Aquifer • Ganges-Brahmaputra- • Lower Mekong River 2 Aquifer Meghna • Salween River Aquifer • Golok • Bei Jiang/Hsi • Irrawaddy • Jayapura • Kaladan • Karnaphuli • Loes • Maro • Ma • Mekong • Pakchan • Pandaruan • Red/Song Hong • Saigon • Salween • Sebuku • Sepik • Sembakung • Song Vam Co Dong • Tami • Tjeroaka-Wanggoe Vanimo-Green OCEANIA, MICRONESIA & CENTRAL PACIFIC (8 + WPWP)

AQUIFERS (NA) LAKES (NA) RIVERS (8) LMES (1 + WPWP) • Digul • Insular Pacific-Hawaiian • Fly • Western Pacific Warm Pool (WPWP) • Jayapura (not an LME) • Maro • Sepik • Tami • Tjeroaka-Wanggoe • Vanimo-Green AUSTRALIA & NEW ZEALAND (8)

AQUIFERS (0) LAKES (0) RIVERS (0) LMES (8) • North Australian Shelf • Northeast Australian Shelf • East Central Australian Shelf • Southeast Australian Shelf • South West Australian Shelf • West Central Australian Shelf • Northwest Australian Shelf • New Zealand Shelf ANTARCTICA (1)

AQUIFERS(0) LAKES (0) RIVERS (0) LMES (1) • Antarctic LME

53 TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS SYSTEMS: STATUS AND TRENDS

Acknowledgements Lead Authors: Liana Talaue McManus (Consultant, UNEP/DEWA), Robin Mahon (Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies, University of the West Indies, Barbados) (Co-Chairs, TWAP Crosscutting Analysis Working Group).

Members, TWAP Crosscutting Analysis Working Group:

Name, TWAP Component Primary affiliation Alice Aureli, Aquifers Component Principal UNESCO International Hydrologic Programme (IHP), Paris, France Leszek Bialy, Aquifers (Former) Component Coordinator UNESCO International Hydrologic Programme (IHP), Paris, France Julian Barbiére, Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Paris, France Component Principal Maija Bertule, Rivers Component UNEP-DHI Partnership Centre on Water and Environment, Denmark Emanuele Bigagli, Open Ocean Component UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Paris, France Peter Bjørnsen, Rivers Principal UNEP-DHI Partnership Centre on Water and Environment, Denmark Bruno Combal, LMEs and Open Ocean Components UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Paris, France Aurélien Dumont, Aquifers Component UNESCO International Hydrologic Programme (IHP), Paris, France Lucia Fanning, Co-Chair Governance Crosscutting Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie University, Canada Working Group Albert Fischer, Principal and (Current) Open Ocean UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Component Coordinator Paul Glennie, Rivers Component Coordinator UNEP-DHI Partnership Centre on Water and Environment, Denmark Sarah Grimes, (Former) Open Ocean Component University of Geneva Coordinator Sherry Heileman, LMEs Component Coordinator UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Paris, France Pierre Lacroix, Data and Information and Crosscutting University of Geneva Working Group Matthew Lagod, (Current) Aquifers Component UNESCO International Hydrologic Programme (IHP), Paris, France Coordinator Masahisa Nakamura, Lakes Component Research Center for Sustainability and Environment, Shiga University, Japan Geert-Jan Nijsten, Aquifers Component International Groundwater Centre (IGRAC) Walter Rast, Lakes Principal and Component Coordinator The Meadows Center for Water and the Environment, Texas State University, USA Center for International Earth Science Information Network, Columbia University, Alex de Sherbinin, Rivers Component New York, USA

Science communication:Nieves Izquierdo Lopes and Janet Skaalvik (GRID-ARENDAL)

UNEP Secretariat: Liana Talaue McManus (Project Manager), Joana Akrofi, Kaisa Uusimaa (UNEP/DEWA) and Isabelle van der Beck (Task Manager)

Design and layout: Audrey Ringler (UNEP) and Jennifer Odallo (UNON)

GIS: Jane Muriithi (UNEP/DEWA)

Central Data Portal: Pierre Lacroix and Andrea de Bono (GRID-Geneva)

Administrative Boundaries: Source of administrative boundaries used throughout the assessment: The Global Administrative Unit Layers (GAUL) dataset, implemented by FAO within the CountrySTAT and Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS) projects.

ISBN: 978-92-807-3531-4 Job Number: DEW/1953/NA special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate

be addressed to the Director, DCPI, UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, Kenya. Disclaimers.

This document may be cited as:

Programme (UNEP), Nairobi.

UNEP promotes environmentally sound practices globally and in its own activities. This report is printed on paper from sustainable chlorine free, and the inks vegetable-based. Our distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s carbon footprint The water systems of the world – aquifers, lakes, rivers, large marine ecosystems, and open ocean- sustain the biosphere and underpin the socioeconomic wellbeing of the world’s population. Many of these systems are shared by two or more nations. These transboundary waters, stretching over 71% of the planet’s surface, in addition tothe subsurface aquifers, comprise humanity’s water heritage.

A Summary for Policy Makers accompanies each volume.

VOLUME 6: CROSSCUTTING ANALYSIS

www.unep.org United Nations Environment Programme P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Tel.: +254 20 762 1234 Fax: +254 20 762 3927 e-mail: [email protected] www.unep.org

ISBN: 978-92-807-3531-4 Job Number: DEW/1953/NA