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Home , Chalcolithic, HaGoshrim, Ohalo II

JOURNAL OF THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY Mitekufat Haeven Volume 45

Editors: Dani Nadel Danny Rosenberg Daniel Kaufman Guy Bar-Oz

Supported by the Irene Levi-Sala CARE Archaeological Foundation

THE ISRAEL PREHISTORIC SOCIETY 2015 Table of Contents

Editors’ forward 4

Jordan River Dureijat - A New Epipaleolithic Site in the Upper Valley 5 Ofer Marder, Rebecca Biton, Elisabetta Boaretto, Craig S. Feibel, Yoel Melamed, Henk K. Mienis, Rivka Rabinovich, Irit Zohar and Gonen Sharon

Renewed Fieldwork at the Geometric Kebaran Site of , Mount Carmel 31 Reuven Yeshurun, Daniel Kaufman, Nurit Shtober-Zisu, Eli Crater-Gershtein, Yona Riemer, Arlene M. Rosen and Dani Nadel

Renewed Excavations at Site K7: A Final Report of the 2012 Salvage Excavation at Har Harif Plateau 55 Jacob Vardi, Dmitry Yegorov, Onn Crouvi and Michal Birkenfeld

Sha’on Hol, Site 14 (HG14): A New Late Site in the Central Negev Highlands 77 Dmitry Yegorov, Alla Yaroshevich, Jacob Vardi and Michal Birkenfeld

The Natufian Site of Nahal Sekher VI: The 2009 Excavation Season 97 Omry Barzilai, Nuha Agha, Hila Ashkenazy, Michal Birkenfeld, Elisabetta Boaretto, Naomi Porat, Polina Spivak and Joel Roskin

El-Hamam : A New Natufian Site in the Samaria Hills 131 Ofer Marder, Hila Ashkenazy, Amos Frumkin, Leore Grosman, Boaz Langford, Gonen Sharon, Micka Ullman, Reuven Yeshurun and Yuval Peleg

The Natufian Sequence of el-Wad : Seriating the Lunates 143 Daniel Kaufman, Reuven Yeshurun and Mina Weinstein-Evron

Excavations at Holyland Park: An Underground Complex in 158 Ianir Milevski, Zvi Greenhut, Zinovi Matskevich, Uzi Ad, Anat Cohen-Weinberger and Liora Kolska Horwitz

Fazael 5: Soundings in a Chalcolithic Site in the Jordan Valley 193 Shay Bar, Haggai Cohen-Klonymus, Sonia Pinsky, Guy Bar-Oz and Golan Shalvi

Motifs on the Nahal Mishmar Hoard and the Ossuaries: Comparative Observations and Interpretations 217 Dina Shalem

Book review Shalem D., Gal, Z. and Smithline H. 2013. Peqi’in: A Late Chalcolithic Burial Site, Upper Galilee, Israel (Land of Galilee 2). Tzemach: Ostracon 238 Assaf Nativ

Note for authors 242

Hebrew abstracts 4* Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30

Jordan River Dureijat - A New Epipaleolithic Site in the Upper Jordan Valley

Ofer Marder1, Rebecca Biton2, Elisabetta Boaretto3, Craig S. Feibel4, Yoel Melamed5, Henk K. Mienis6, Rivka Rabinovich7, Irit Zohar8 and Gonen Sharon9

1 Department of Bible, Archaeology and Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel. [email protected]. 2 Institute of Archaeology, National Natural Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. [email protected]. 3 D-REAMS Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel. [email protected]. 4 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Wright Geological Laboratory, NJ, USA. [email protected]. 5 The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. [email protected]. 6 National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem and the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History and National Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. [email protected]. 7 National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. [email protected]. 8 National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel and The Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel. [email protected]. 9 Multidisciplinary Studies, Tel Hai College, Upper Galilee, Israel. [email protected].

In memory of Shoshana Ashkenazi

ABSTRACT Jordan River Dureijat (JRD), an Epipaleolithic site on the banks of the Jordan River south of its outlet from the Hula Valley, was discovered as a result of a drainage operation in the year 1999. The site, located 1.2 km north of the Benot Ya’aqov Bridge, is 14C dated to between 14,000 and 15,000 Cal BC. This paper presents the results of a survey and test excavation conducted during the summer of 2002 and their bearing on our understanding of the Epipaleolithic of the region, of which very little is known to date. As with all sites on the banks of the Jordan River in this vicinity, the sediments of JRD show exceptional preservation of organic remains, in particular, botanic finds. The paper describes the chronology of the site, the lithic assemblage, the fauna with special emphasis on the fish and mollusc remains, and the seeds and fruits retrieved from this preliminary excavation. The findings obtained from JRD have already yielded a wealth of environmental data and contributed significantly to our understanding of presence in the region.

KEYWORDS: Hula Basin, Jordan River, Early Epipaleolithic, Kebaran, Molluscs, Archaeo-botany, Subsistence strategies

INTRODUCTION Prehistoric sites excavated along the banks of the Upper the river drops into a deep canyon leading to the Sea of Jordan River, from its outlet south of the Hula Valley until Galilee, are among the most significant prehistoric sites

5 Marder et al. in the Levant. The earlier periods of the chronological et al. 2001; Getzov and Khalaily n.d.; Lechevallier et al. sequence of the region are explored. They include the 1978; Rosenberg 2010; Shaked and Marder 1998). Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (GBY; Goren- We know very little, however, about human presence in Inbar et al. 1994, 2000, 2002), additional Acheulian the region during and immediately after the Last Glacial locations along the banks of the Jordan to the north of Maximum. Not a single Early or Middle Epipaleolithic GBY (Sharon et al. 2002a; Sharon et al. 2010) and the site was ever excavated in the region on a large or even Middle site of Nahal Mahanayeem Outlet minimal scale. Jordan River Dureijat (“The Steps of the (NMO; Kalbe et al. 2014; Sharon et al. 2010; Sharon and Jordan” in Arabic; JRD), the site reported here, has the Oron 2014; Fig. 1). The Late Epipaleolithic period onward potential to shed light on this gap in our knowledge, with is also well-documented in the Hula Valley. Sedentary findings dated to just a few thousand years before the first hamlets appeared along the shores of the Hula Lake during agricultural settlements documented in the region. The the Natufian e.g( . Eynan-Ain Mallah; Valla et al. 2004), current paper reports the results of a small test excavation and during the period, several large, multi- of JRD and surveys conducted in the vicinity of the layer agricultural settlements were established. These Benot Ya‘aqov Bridge between 1999 and 2002. These early villages, up to 5‒8 hectares in size (e.g. Beisamoun, results have been combined with information collected Tel T’eo, Hagoshrim, ‘En Hashomer), were located on during the Israel Antiquity Authority (IAA) Hula Map alluvial fan soil spreading into the Hula Basin from the survey concerning new Epipaleolithic occurrences in this surrounding ridges (Bocquentin et al. 2014; Eisenberg region (Shaked and Marder 1998). Subsequently, the JRD

Figure 1. Location map and aerial photo of the Jordan River and prehistoric sites south of the Hula Valley.

6 Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30 excavation project was initiated with a short excavation season during the fall of 2014. The results of the 2014 season enabled us to gain better understanding of the extent of the site, its stratigraphy, and the nature of its layers. These results will be published at a date. The stratigraphy and the sedimentology are not presented in detail here given the small size of the test excavation of 2002. However, the results of the test excavation and survey published here are of importance as they provide the chronological, environmental, and cultural framework for the site. The study of the site’s molluscs by the late Shoshana Ashkenazi is of special importance, as it presents a unique description of the taxonomy and distribution of the molluscs of the Upper Jordan River during the Late .

THE SITE OF JORDAN RIVER DUREIJAT Jordan River Dureijat was discovered during a drainage operation of the Jordan River in December 1999 (Sharon et al. 2002a). Findings from the site were first observed on the bank of the Jordan River during a survey and later a wealth of lithic artifacts and animal bones were collected from piles of sediment on the east bank of the river, some 1,300 m north of the Benot Ya’aqov Bridge (Figs. 1‒2). Figure 2. Jordan River after drainage work in 1999. During the summer of 2002, a survey was conducted Location of sediment piles and Section 6-02 are noted. with the goal of evaluating the damage of the drainage operation along the banks of the Jordan River. As part uncovered in Section 6-02 illustrates the site’s complex of this survey, a test excavation one square meter in size stratigraphy, sometimes changing within a single meter (Section 6-02; Figs. 2‒4) was conducted on the east bank (Figs. 3, 4). The section is composed of a series of mud, of the Jordan River (Sharon et al. 2002a; Sharon et al. sand, and coquina horizons (Units II to VI, Fig. 3). All of 2002b). The excavation was concentrated in the eastern the exposed layers exhibited a wealth of botanical remains portion of the square because the western portion had been in an excellent state of preservation. Flint artifacts and eroded by the present day river (Fig. 4). The 2002 upper faunal remains appeared in different frequencies along floodplain (the flat area above the river channel, Fig. 3) of the entire 2.5 meter sequence. The resulting picture the Jordan River was measured to be 60.65 meters above is that of a sequence representing a lake shore or low sea level (MASL), some 2.5 m above summer water level energy, running water environment. Over two meters of of the river. A 1 m2 test excavation was dug into this river accumulation of inter-fingering of mud and beach deposits bank stand. The excavation was conducted in 5‒10 cm were documented (Fig. 3). The archaeologically richer spits (Fig. 3). During excavation, all the sediment was layers are, naturally, associated with shore conditions sieved in 2 mm mesh. In addition, sediment samples were where the stone appear in distinct horizons within collected for the study of micro-faunal and floral remains. the coquina like sediments (Unit IV and Unit VI). Clearly, At the site, along the east bank of the Jordan River, a fine-scale excavation of a large area is needed before horizons bearing archaeological remains extend for at a refined stratigraphy can be suggested for this sequence least 45 meters of the eastern river bank. The sequence and its accumulation rate can be estimated.

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the others, the dates cluster between 17.1 ky BP and 15.4 ky BP. The probability distribution for all the 14C JRD dates is presented in Figure 5. The chronology for the Epipaleolithic cultural sequence in the Mediterranean Levant is complex and in debate, yet it can be summarized concisely as follows (after Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris 2014) in calibrated 14C years BP: Early Epipaleolithic from 23,000–18,500; Middle Epipaleolithic from 17,500–14,500; and the Late Epipaleolithic (Natufian) from 14,500–11,500. Chronologically, all of the dates in this study, with the exception of RTT 4569, fall within the Middle Epipaleolithic.

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSEMBLAGES The lithic assemblage The flint assemblage from the JRD survey and test excavation comprises tools collected from the piles of sediments on the river bank, together with artifacts excavated in situ from Section 6-02. The sample contains 774 flint artifacts. The frequency of tools and cores, however, is low, n=33, n=16, respectively (see Table 2). The surface material was described briefly in previous publications (Sharon et al. 2002b). Hence, this report Figure 3. Section 6-02 stratigraphy. Location of dating focuses primarily on the flint artifacts originating from the samples noted - see Table 1. test excavation and refers to the surface material only when 14C chronology contributing significant data to the assemblage description. A total of seven samples from the JRD layers were 14C Considering the possibly complicated taphonomic process dated in the D-REAMS Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory at and depositional history of the site, surface artifacts the Weizmann Institute of Science (Table 1). Two samples, showing minimal retouch marks (use signs or irregular n. 1 and n. 3, were extracted from a sediment block piled retouch as well as flat notches) were excluded from the on the river bank (see Sharon et al. 2002b). An additional count. This caused slight differences in counts from two samples, n. 2 and n. 4, were collected from the piles of previously described analyses of the assemblage (Sharon sediments on the banks of the Jordan River. The additional et al. 2002b). three samples, EPI-GBY 02 #2, EPI-GBY 02 #11 and EPI- The lithic inventory of the entire JRD assemblage is GBY 02 #15 were collected from excavation Section 6-02 presented in Table 2. The presence of numerous chips (<2 (Fig. 3; Table 1). cm; n=477) supports the suggestion that the site layers All dates obtained for the material recovered from the were not subjected to large scale post-accumulation site of JRD are within the Epipaleolithic. The radiocarbon transportation. The percentage of tools is low, only 4.3% dates suggest that the sequence of JRD represents an of the excavated assemblage (n=33). Core trimming accumulation period of a few thousand years. When all elements are present, dominated by core waste dates are included, and the larger calibrated range (±2σ) (core tablets and ridge blades) and by other types of CTE considered, the age of the sequence can be attested to that were produced during the maintenance of the cores’ between 17.1 ky BP and 13.8 ky BP. When excluding the surface and lateral sides. These data suggest that youngest date (RTT 4569), which appears to deviate from at least some knapping activity took place at the site.

8 Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30

Figure 4. Section 6-02 during excavation in 2002. Note the splitting of the square into east and west sections.

Calibrated age Calibrated age δ13C 14C Age Lab # Type ±1σ ±2σ Collection Site (‰) year (BP) year Cal BP year Cal BP PDB Section I Upper archaeological horizon of 13,770 ± RTA 3653 wood 16,850‒16,450 17,010‒16,290 Section 1 (sediment piles): rich -28.9 110 in archaeological material 16,280‒16,060 Archaeological layer in the RT 3655 wood 13,440 ± 70 16,415 ‒15,925 -28.4 middle of Section 1 Section 6-02 RTT 4569 charcoal 12,190 ± 70 14,180‒13,990 14,320–13,805 Level: 58.90. -25.7 Level: 58.65; 16,850‒16,545 RTT 4570 charcoal 13,800 ± 70 16,975‒16,410 Contact between small molluscs -26.6 and clay layers Level: 58.45; RTT 4571 wood 13,900 ± 70 16,995‒16,710 17,105‒16,550 -28.4 Dark clay, lower part of section Sediment Pile 15,915–15,380 Randomly collected from the RT 3654 wood 13,075 ± 60 15,815‒15,560 -27.6 sediment piles 13,420 ± From piles; in immediate RT 3656 wood 16,340‒15,945 16,565–15,750 -25.9 135 proximity to flint flake

Table 1. Radiocarbon sample details: 14C age is reported in conventional radiocarbon years (before present=1950) in accordance with international convention (Stuiver and Polach 1977). Thus all calculated 14C ages have been corrected for the fractionation results to be equivalent with the standard δ13C value of -25‰ (wood). Calibrated ranges were obtained using OxCal 4.2 © Bronk Ramsey, using the radiocarbon data in Reimer 2013.

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Figure 5. Probability distribution for all the dates from JRD. The dates are ordered according to different contexts, and for the same context according to stratigraphy.

Section 6-02 Surface Sieve 1-6 Total Type n % n % n % n % Primary flakes 18 7.3 45 10.0 13 17.1 76 9.8 Primary blade/lets 4 1.6 11 2.5 1 1.3 16 2.1 Flakes 123 49.6 254 56.7 42 55.3 419 54.3 Blade/lets 75 30.2 77 17.2 12 15.8 164 21.2 spalls 4 1.6 12 2.7 1 1.3 17 2.2 Core tablets 2 0.8 11 2.5 0 0.0 13 1.7 Ridge blades 13 5.2 8 1.8 1 1.3 22 2.8 Overpassed 3 1.2 4 0.9 0 0.0 7 0.9 CTE –others 6 2.4 26 5.8 6 7.9 38 4.9 TOTAL DEBITAGE 248 100.0 448 100.0 76 100.0 772 100.0

Chips 443 92.9 141 76.2 172 94.5 756 89.6 Chunks 34 7.1 44 23.8 10 5.5 88 10.4 TOTAL DEBRIS 477 107.7 185 100.0 182 100.0 844 100.0

Debitage 248 32.0 448 58.4 76 29.5 772 42.9 Debris 477 61.6 185 24.1 182 70.5 844 46.9 Tools 33 4.3 89 11.6 0 0.0 122 6.8 Cores 16 2.1 45 5.9 0 0.0 61 3.4 TOTAL 774 100.0 767 100.0 258 100.0 1,799 100.0

Table 2. JRD lithic assemblage.

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Waste products and core Soreq sites (33Q and 33T; Goring-Morris 2009: table 1). The assemblage excavated from Section 6-02 is dominated These sites have similar flake to blade ratios as JRD, in by flakes (49.6%), but blades and bladelets are also a particular the Nahal Soreq 33Q surface collection. The significant component (Table 2). Flakes are even more divergence from the general trend seen currently at the dominant in the surface collection, alongside a higher Kebaran/Early Epipaleolithic of JRD and Eynan may be percentage of tools and cores (Table 2). This frequency attributed to the small sample size rather than to function is different than for most Early-Middle Epipaleolithic or culture. Levantine sites where blade/lets outnumber flakes e.g ( . Most of the JRD cores were designed for the production Hovers and Marder 1991: table 1; Nadel 2003: table 18.3; of blades and bladelets (>50%; Fig. 6:1, 2, 4). This Shimelmitz 2002: table 1). Nevertheless, there are some tendency is even more pronounced when amorphous cores exceptions to this rule, such as the Kebaran occupation/ (Fig. 6:5) and core fragments are excluded from the count layer at Eynan (Valla et al. 2004: table 2) and the Nahal (Table 3). The most prominent types of blade/let cores

Figure 6. JRD cores.

11 Marder et al. are narrow, single or double cores (ca. (n=75) and primary bladelets (n=4; cortex >30%) from 41% of the excavated cores). Generally, the bladelets were JRD underwent, therefore, a detailed attribute analysis. removed from the thick dimension of the core. Frequently, A large majority of the JRD bladelets are broken (ca. the narrowness of the platform was achieved by the 80%), hampering the recording of blank dimensions and removal of two lateral flakes from both sides of the striking percussion types. This is a similar breakage rate to other platform along the core. Such preparation typically results Early Epipaleolithic occurrences in the region (Valla et in a “nosed” striking platform (Fig. 6:1, 4). This is a typical al. 2004: table 3; Shimelmitz 2002: 16). Most of the JRD of Late and Early Epipaleolithic bladelets bear no remains of cortex on their dorsal faces core technology (Davidzon and Goring-Morris 2003; (ca. 85%). When cortex is observable, it normally covers Goring-Morris and Davidzon 2006; Shimelmitz 2002). less than 40% of the face. The bladelet profiles are most Wide striking platform (single or double) bladelet cores frequently indeterminate (n=42). Within the identified are also present in the JRD assemblage (11.5%; Fig. profiles, twisted profiles dominate (n=16), followed by 6:2; Table 3). This type of core is dominant in Middle straight (n=13), and then concave (n=7). Convex profiles Epipaleolithic assemblages, although it can also be found are rare (n=1). Slightly similar tendencies were observed in earlier Epipaleolithic industries (Marder 2003). Limited in the Early Epipaleolithic assemblage of Eynan, where production of larger blades from narrow cores was also bladelets with straight profiles are the most common, observed within the assemblage (Table 3). Finally, also and concave and twisted profiles are found in similar common in the JRD assemblage are different flake cores frequencies (Valla et al. 2004: table 3). for producing flake blanks for large flake tools (Fig. 6:3; It seems that the bladelet profiles at JRD indicate two Table 3). A few of these flake cores seem to have resulted different modes of production. The first mode is the use from unsuccessful attempts to produce blade/lets, evident of narrow-fronted cores for the production of twisted from the presence of elongated flake scars on the debitage or straight, partially retouched bladelets. The straight surface of the cores. profile bladelets were possibly used as blanks for the Bladelets are one of the most significant aspects of manufacturing of backed curved, obliquely backed, and Epipaleolithic assemblages (Fig. 7). The 79 bladelets truncated bladelets. The second mode applies wide-

Surface Section 6-02 Total Type n % n % n % Single striking platforms - flakes 5 11.1 3 18.8 8 13.1 Single striking platforms - blades/lets - narrow 14 31.1 4 25.0 18 29.5 Single striking platforms - blades/lets - wide 2 4.4 0 0.0 2 3.3 Two striking platform flakes 1 2.2 0 0.0 1 1.6 Two striking platform blade/lets - narrow 2 4.4 2 12.5 4 6.6 Two striking platform blade/lets - wide 0 0.0 2 12.5 2 3.3 Two striking platform flakes/blade/lets - wide 2 4.4 1 6.3 3 4.9 Two striking platform blades - narrow 1 2.2 1 6.3 2 3.3 Levallois core 1 2.2 0 0.0 1 1.6 Core on flake 3 6.7 0 0.0 3 4.9 Amorphous 5 11.1 1 6.3 6 9.8 Fragment 9 20.0 2 12.5 11 18.0 TOTAL 45 100.0 16 100.0 61 100.0

Table 3. Core type frequencies.

12 Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30 fronted cores for the production of straight or concave surface assemblage (Table 4). In addition, medium-sized profile bladelets (see below). These were used primarily tools, primarily burins and end-scrapers, are much more as blanks for the production of geometric (i.e. prominent within the surface collection (Table 4; Figs. asymmetrical trapeze and trapeze/rectangles). 8, 9). Most of the end-scrapers were made on flakes (11 of 13; Fig. 9:1–4) which are commonly thick and squat. Tools Three are atypical, carinated end scrapers (Fig. 9:4). In The tool assemblage from Section 6-02 is dominated by addition, massive scrapers (varia) and side scrapers are retouched blade/lets (Table 4; ca. 72%). The number of present. In one case, the recycling of a into a burin microliths is small (n=24) and most are narrow and broken was observed. (average width 6.5 mm). Within the microliths, two groups Some of the surface tools are definitely of Middle were observed. The first group includes backed microliths, Palaeolithic origin, including two side scrapers and three most of them fragmented (Fig.7:1–6). Within this group, flakes clearly produced on Levallois flakes (Fig. 9:8), two backed and truncated bladelets were observed that one Levallois core, and one broken Levallois point. In may actually be broken trapeze/rectangles. In addition, contrast, no intrusive elements were recorded within the blunt backed bladelets were also retrieved. The second excavated assemblage of Section 6-02. group is comprised of bladelets modified by fine or semi- abrupt, partial retouch on the dorsal or ventral surface. A artifacts few of these are twisted in profile. A stone implement made on an elongated, oval limestone The most distinguished type, both from the cobble (107×52×22 mm in size) was found in Section excavated and surface collection, is the micropoint, and its 6-02. It has two opposing, deep notches located in the curved variants (Fig. 7:1, 2, 4; Table 4). Other tool types middle of its lateral sides. A similar tool type was found are rare within the Section 6-02 assemblage: they include to be common in other Epipaleolithic sites located in lake notch/denticulates, side-scrapers (Fig. 9:6, 7), end-scrapers shore environments, such as Ohalo II (Nadel and Zaidner (Fig. 9:1–4), retouched flakes (Fig. 9:5), and burins, both 2002: fig. 4‒9) and Eynan (Perrot 1966: fig. 20:1‒4; Valla dihedral (Fig. 8:2, 3) and with truncation (Fig. 8:1, 4–6; et al. 1999: figs. 11‒3). It was also observed in the Pre- Table 4). It should be noted that asymmetrical trapeze Neolithic A site of En Dishna, located west of the and straight backed bladelets were found only within the (Birkenfeld et al. 2013) and in the Pottery

Figure 7. JRD microliths.

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Figure 8. JRD burins.

Section 6-02 Surface Total Type n % n % n % Retouched blade/lets – dorsal 7 21.2 13 14.6 20 16.4 Retouched blade/lets – ventral 3 9.1 0 0.0 3 2.5 Micropoint and curved backed bladelet variants 2 6.1 3 3.4 5 4.1 Straight backed pointed bladelets 0 0.0 2 2.2 2 1.6 Backed and truncated bladelet 2 6.1 1 1.1 3 2.5 Blunt backed bladelet 2 6.1 0 0.0 2 1.6 Asymmetrical trapezes 0 0.0 2 2.2 2 1.6 Retouched\backed blade/lets - fragments 8 24.2 3 3.3 11 8.2 End scraper on flake 1 3.0 10 11.2 11 9.0 Nosed and carinated end scrapers 1 3.0 3 3.4 4 3.3 End scraper on blade 1 3.0 1 1.1 2 1.6 Retouched flakes 5 15.2 5 5.6 10 8.2 Denticulates/Notches 1 3.0 11 12.4 12 9.8 Awls 0 0.0 6 6.7 6 4.9 Multiple tools 0 0.0 3 3.4 3 2.5 Side scrapers 0 0.0 12 13.5 12 9.8 Burins 0 0.0 10 11.2 10 8.2 Truncation 0 0.0 1 1.1 1 0.8 Varia 0 0.0 3 3.3 3 2.4 Total 33 100 89 100 122 100

Table 4. JRD tools.

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Figure 9. JRD scrapers.

Neolithic site of Sha’ar Hagolan (Rosenberg and Garfinkel were counted and the presence or absence of young and 2014: figs. 11.4–11.6). Nadel and Zaidner (2002) identified old molluscs was noted and their frequencies estimated. this tool type as a fishing net weight or sinker. In addition, the presence of embryonic stages and eggs Two ground stone artifacts made of basalt were retrieved was recorded for each taxon in the samples. The tiny Pea from JRD. One is a pestle made from a dense, elongated mussels, Pisidium, very common in the samples, were massive cobble (207×79×71 mm in size). Clear battering identified by the late J. G. J. Kuiper (the Netherlands). marks are visible at both ends of the cobble, which was Species Taxonomy. A total of ca. 18,000 molluscs was not shaped carefully into a finished, symmetrical tool, examined and classified from the JRD samples. Sixteen and the surface is unpolished. On both lateral faces of the families were identified, out of which 13 are gastropods and pestle, a pit was created more or less in the middle of the three are bivalves. Altogether, 22 genera (18 gastropods flattened face of the tool. The pits are shallow, yet wide and four bivalves) and 47 species (38 gastropods and and clearly defined. They were possibly formed in order nine bivalves) were identified and classified. Among the to improve implement handling. The other is a identified species, at least six inhabit dry, terrestrial or rounded, broken pounder. Both artifacts were collected moist environments. Table 5 summarizes the taxonomy of from the river bank (unexcavated) at the site. the JRD molluscs. Extinct species. Of the mollusc species identified, at Fauna least 22 (47%) are extinct from the fauna of Israel. One Freshwater and Land Molluscs species of Pisidium is probably new to science. A second During the survey and excavation of the site, 27 samples of species of the same genus, Pisidium henslowanum, has sediment were collected ranging in volume from 0.5‒2.5 never been found before in Israel. Many of the young liters. For each taxonomic group, the individual molluscs specimens belonging to two species, Bellamya and

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Theodoxus (Neritaea) jordani Valvata (Cincinna) saulcyi jordani (Sowerby, 1836) Bourguignat, 1853 Family Neritidae Theodoxus (Neritaea) michonii Family Valvatidae †Valvata sp. (very flat) (Bourguignat, 1852) †Borysthenia naticina (Menke, †Bellamya sp. (wide smooth) 1845) Family Viviparidae †Syriomargary apameae galileae †Gyraulus (Armiger) crista (Schütt, 1993) (Linnaeus, 1758) Heleobia (Semisalsa) contempta Gyraulus (Gyraulus) ehrenbergi (Dautzenberg, 1894) Family Planorbidae (Beck, 1837) †Heleobia (Semisalsa) longiscata Gyraulus sp. (Bourguignat, 1856) Family Hydrobiidae †Heleobia sp. (diagonal spirals) “Planorbid” †Heleobia sp. (with distinctly Lymnaea sp. keeled bodywhorl) †Staja sp. (?) Family Lymnaeidae Galba truncatula (Müller, 1774) Bithynia phialensis (Conrad, Radix sp. 1852) †Bithynia multicostata (Tchernov, Family Succineidae Oxyloma elegans (Risso, 1826) Family Bithyniidae 1975) †Bithynia sp. (dwarf) Family Enidae Euchondrus sp. Family †Bithynia sp. (dwarf, flat top) †Calaxis sp. Ferussaciidae Melanoides tuberculata (Müller, Family Thiaridae Family Limacidae Unidentified sp. 1774) Melanopsis buccinoidea (Olivier, Unio terminalis terminalis 1801) (Bourguignat, 1852) Family Unionidae †Melanopsis sp. (smooth with †Unionid (fossil, not identified) wide top) Melanopsis costata (Olivier, Family Corbiculidae Corbicula sp. 1804) Pisidium (Odhneripisidium) †Melanopsis costata (robust moitessierianum (Paladilhe, form?) Family 1866) Melanopsiidae †Melanopsis costata (long and †Pisidium (Pisidium) amnicum thin form?) (Müller, 1774) Pisidium (Pseudeupera) Family Sphaeriidae subtruncatum (Malm, 1855) †Melanopsis sp. (with weak ribs) †Pisidium (Henslowiana) henslowanum (Sheppard, 1823) †Pisidium sp. (new species?) †Melanopsis sp. Sphaerium sp. (only non- indicative fragments) Additional 3-4 different species of land snails represented by tiny fragments only

Table 5. List of identified freshwater and land molluscs from JRD. Nomenclature after Mienis (2012a, 2012b). † = currently extinct species in Israel.

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Syriomargary apameae galileae, were found in most of the are known to lay their eggs on river bed pebbles, on the samples of Section 6-02. This is surprising, considering exterior of other living snails or in the interior of empty current knowledge that the family Viviparidae became shells. A round dome made of organic matter strengthened extinct at least 240,000 years ago (Ashkenazi et al. 2010; with calcium crystals is spread over the eggs to protect Moshkovitz and Magritz 1987; Spiro et al. 2009). One them until they hatch. When the young snail is ready to of the terrestrial extinct species, Calaxis, was also found hatch, the dome is severed leaving only its margins. The in the archaeological layers at the specimens observed in the JRD shells are grouped in 2‒12 site of Amud Cave (Hovers 1998), the Natufian site of such domes attached to each other. In most of the shells Eynan (Valla et al. 2004) and the Neolithic site of Motza only a remnant of the domes remains; however, in three (Khalaily et al. 2007). An unidentified shell belonging examples, broken Melanopsis shells were found with egg to the Unionidae can also be counted among the extinct groups still covered by domes containing unhatched eggs mussel species. (Fig. 10). All of the Theodoxus eggs at JRD belong to Species frequency. The identified specimens were either T. michonii or T. jordani jordani. counted for each of the samples and the data is presented The preservation of unhatched Theodoxus eggs that in Table 6. The presence of terrestrial snails and the extinct survived at least from the Early/Middle Epipaleolithic representatives of the family Viviparidae are indicated. The age is unique and, to the best of our knowledge, has never most abundant species at the site is Heleobia longiscata, been reported. It should be noted that a few examples of comprising 29% of the entire assemblage. The second most Theodoxus eggs were also observed at the neighboring abundant species is Melanopsis costata. Sample 2, from a Acheulian site of GBY (Ashkenazi, pers. com.). level of 58.70 m, is the richest sample, with 28 species. Species indicative for certain habitats. Some of the However, even the layers with the smallest number of genera identified at JRD can serve as indicators for the species (Sample 6) yielded as many as 19 species each. ecological habitat in which the sediments accumulated. Reproduction, presence of eggs, embryonic stages The genus Pisidium, found in most samples, is one such and young specimens. All of the studied samples contained example. From this genus, five species were identified. young specimens of different species. Embryonic stages Two (Pisidium moitessierianum and P. sp.) are typical of the genera Valvata, Bithynia, Heleobia, and Pisidium of a lacustrine environment while the other three (P. were identified in all samples except the one collected amnicum, P. henslowanum and P. subtruncatum) are from the eastern part of Section 6-02 at level 58.60 m typical of a fluviatile stream environment. Figure 11 (Sample 6). shows the different frequencies of the Pisidium species in In all samples, except for Sample 4, the remains of egg the samples. The two lacustrine species appear in all of capsules of the genus Theodoxus were observed nestled the samples studied. The only sample containing all five in the inner part of broken shells of Melanopsis (Fig. 10). species is Sample 5 from the contact between the coquina Specimens from the genus Theodoxus (family Neritidae) and clay lens.

Level and Most abundant species (number and Terrestrial Sample # n Viviparidae layer % of total within each sample) species 1 58.85-58.82 3,242 Melanopsis costata (262, 8%) 1 + 2 58.70 6,411 Heleobia longiscata (3,192, 49.8%) 4 - 3 59.68-58.65 874 Melanopsis costata (212, 24.2%) - + 4 58.60-58.59 2,120 Heleobia longiscata (762, 35.9%) - + 5 58.64-58.61 2,705 Heleobia longiscata (936, 34.6%) 1 + 6 58.60 1,687 Melanopsis costata (400, 23.7%) - + 7 58.60 852 Heleobia longiscata (272, 31.9%) - -

Table 6. JRD mollusc species frequency.

17 Marder et al.

presence of these molluscs in the Hula Basin is based on the very fragmentary data obtained from a single geological core (Moshkovitz and Magritz 1987). It is possible that the genus disappeared from some of the habitats in the basin yet survived in others. The small size of the shells found at JRD may be explained by the harsh conditions the molluscs faced in these environments. 2) The Viviparidae shells at JRD were re-deposited from a nearby Middle Pleistocene outcrop. This suggestion is supported by the presence of numerous, as of yet unidentified, now extinct Melanopsis species most probably of GBY Acheulian origin, and three imprints of Foraminifera, 2 mm in size, on one of the flints at the site. The Foraminifera were identified by L. Grossovicz of the Israel Geological Survey as belonging to the species Figure 10. Theodoxus egg capsules inside an old Biplanata peneropliformis. Hence, the young Viviparidae Melanopsis shell. The opening in the domes marks the exit shells were most likely washed out of a nearby Middle of the young snails. Photo by Dr. N. Ben-Eliahu. Pleistocene outcrop and re-deposited at the site of JRD. The presence of Viviparidae in the layers of JRD According to the literature, members of the family Crabs Viviparidae were present in the Hula Valley for only The JRD samples yielded a total of 38 freshwater crab a short period and became extinct abruptly ca. 240,000 fragments ranging in size between 1‒20.5 mm. The years ago. The data, obtained from geological core L-12 fragments identified are primarily cheliped fragments at the Hula Basin, also indicate a change in the δ18O values (pincers) and propodus, pereiopods, and carapace shortly before the disappearance of the Viviparidae from fragments. Among the fragments, the pincers are the the region (Moshkovitz and Magritz 1987). This reduction larger in size, of which 18 could be further identified to the in the δ18O is interpreted as indicating a cooling of the specific type of pincers. The relative abundance of body paleoclimate at that stage or, alternatively, a change in parts is presented in Table 7. the hydrology of the region. The genus Syriomargarya The fossil crab material of JRD contains four differently (with the spirals) and the genus Bellamya (with the shaped pincers (upper movable and lower fixed) on smooth shells) of the family Viviparidae are both found large and small asymmetric chelipeds. According to the in abundance in some of the layers of the GBY Acheulian taxonomy of the freshwater crabs currently living in the site (dated to 780,000 years BP) and were not found in Mediterranean region, all freshwater crabs from Israel any of the younger archaeological sites of both the Jordan belong to a single species, Potamon potamios (Brandis et and the Hula Valleys (Ashkenazi et al. 2010; Spiro et al. al. 2000). Four different pincers (heterochely) are typical 2009). to this species (Hartnoll and Bryant 1990), dating at least The presence of both genera of the Viviparidae family to the Early-Middle Pleistocene as reported at the site of in most of the JRD site layers, dated to the , Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (Ashkenazi et al. 2005). raises many questions. All of the shells found intact The most abundant pincer type is the larger cheliped belong to young specimens (7‒8 mm in size), but many fixed pincer (n=8). Based on the completeness of these fragments of larger shells of adults are also present. At the pincers, a minimum number of eight crab specimens GBY Acheulian site the large specimens of Viviparidae were recovered. The relatively large number of crab reach 40‒45 mm in size. The following hypotheses can be specimens recovered from a very limited excavation area suggested to explain this observation: (Section 6-02) is remarkable. Five of the crab fragments 1) The genus survived in the Hula Basin to a much later show evidence of possible burning. Recently, crabs were stage than was previously known. Our knowledge of the reported as part of the human diet at the site of Eynan

18 Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30

(Valla et al. 2007: 307‒315). The JRD crabs may represent especially those that change in response to habitat and a similar phenomenon. feeding adaptation (Adriaens and Verraes 1998; Albertson and Kocher 2006; Banister 1973; Zohar 2003). The Turtles pharyngeal bones and teeth (fifth branchial arch) were A total of 22 turtle remains were retrieved from the site, used for identification of Cyprinidae and Cichlidae to 18 from Section 6-02. All the carapace and plastron pieces species level (Alkahem et al. 1990; Nakajima and Yue identifiable to species were identified as tortoise (Testudo 1995; Otero 2001; Smits et al. 1996). We used the number cf. graeca). The remains are pieces from the bony plates, of identified specimens (NISP) as a basic quantitative unit carapace and plastron ranging in size between 7‒25 mm, for taxonomic abundance (Edinger et al. 2001; Grayson 11 of them bearing possible evidence of burning. 2014; Lyman 1994; Van Slyke 1998; Whitfield and Elliott 2002). Skeletal element richness is low and included 18 Fish different elements (Table 8). Most of the remains are either A total of 151 fish remains were recovered from eight from the vertebral column (47%) or from the pharyngeal samples of sediment sieved through 0.5 mm mesh. Since arch (41%). A single fish scale was recovered as well. the full composition of the past ichthyofauna of the Paleo Of the five current, native freshwater fish families of Hula Lake is unknown, and its modern community became the Hula Lake, three were identified in the assemblage: extinct as result of the lake drainage during the 1950’s, we utilized diverse reference collections of both modern Body Part n % and fossil fish to aid in identifying the fish remains. These Carapace 6 16 collections included native fish fauna from the Hula Lake, Pereiopods 2 5 the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan River, and the coastal rivers Propodus 3 8 of Israel (Zohar 2003). We also used modern and fossil Unidentified pincer 9 24 reference collections from the Levant and housed Large cheliped movable pincer 5 13 at the Natural History Museums of Brussels, Tervuren, Large cheliped fixed pincer 8 21 London, and Paris. Small cheliped movable pincer 2 5 We used the terminology of Wheeler and Jones (1989) Small cheliped fixed pincer 3 8 and Butler (1990) for listing of skeletal elements (bones Total 38 100 and teeth). Identification to species level included a study of intra-specific variations in the skeletal elements, Table 7. Crab body parts.

Figure 11. Frequencies of the Pisidium species in samples.

19 Marder et al.

Cyprinidae (carps, 79%), Cichidae (tilapinii, 19.9%), and Ortal 1999). Of these, only three species were identified Clariidae (catfish, 1%). Based on species-specific bones, from the JRD samples. Despite the small sample size, the 33 remains were identified to species level and include endemic species M. hulensis (Lavnon Hahula; Cyprinidae) Luciobarbus longiceps (Cyprinidae), Mirogrex hulensis was identified, indicating a freshwater habitat. Since (Cyprinidae), and Clarias gariepinus (Clariidae). M. Cyprinidae are primarily freshwater fish, their presence at hulensis is a small carp endemic to the Hula Lake. the site implies that the water salinity level did not change The native fish population of the Hula Lake prior to dramatically and that the ecological conditions at the lake its drainage comprised 17 species of fish (Goren and were relatively stable and comparable with present day conditions. Fish body size was evaluated from bone size and divided into four primary groups: tiny fish (<5 cm in length), small fish (5‒15 cm in length), medium fish (15‒25 cm in length), and large fish (>25 cm in length). Most of the remains belong to the tiny and small fish groups. These fish are too small for consumption and may have died a natural death. However, the 10% of remains belonging to fish larger than 15 cm in body size could have contributed significantly to the economy of the Figure 12. a) Luciobarbus longiceps large molariform inhabitants. The remains of L. longiceps (Cyprinidae) and tooth (pharyngeal region); b) Luciobarbus longiceps perforated molariform tooth C. gariepinus (catfish) belong to fish longer than 50 cm and the molariform teeth belong to Luciobarbus longiceps Skeletal element n % that may have been more than 90 cm in length (Fig. 12a). Atlas 2 1.8 Interestingly, one of the L. longiceps molariform teeth Atlas/Axis 4 3.6 recovered from Section 6-02 was perforated in a way that Axis 2 1.8 resembles perforated ornaments recovered in later periods (Fig. 12b). This may be the first and earliest evidence 4th Thoracic vertebrae 1 0.9 of secondary use of Cyprinid molariform teeth as an 5th Thoracic vertebrae 1 0.9 ornament. Thoracic vertebrae 9 8.1 Caudal vertebrae 2 1.8 Mammals Vertebrae 31 27.9 The sample of mammal remains excavated from Section Pharyngeal bone 5 4.5 6-02 is small. Out of the sample of 55 bones, 31 were nd 2 pharyngeal tooth 2 1.8 identified to species or body size group (Table 9). They Molariform tooth 5 4.5 include elements of aurochs (Bos primigenius), mountain Pharyngeal tooth 34 30.6 gazelle (Gazella gazella), Mesopotamian fallow deer Ceratohyal 3 2.7 (Dama mesopotamica), boar (Sus scrofa), wolf (Canis Fin ray 1 0.9 lupus), unidentified small carnivore, and unidentified bird. Fin spine 4 3.6 Body representation includes both cranial (horn cores, Opercle 1 0.9 auditory meatus, orbit), maxillary teeth, and postcranial Pterygiophore 1 0.9 elements (ribs, vertebrae, limbs, pelvis, and phalanges). Rib 1 0.9 It is interesting to note the existence of both large animals Scale 1 0.9 such as aurochs and small ones such as birds and small carnivores. Bone surfaces are either black-brown or gray Supraoccipital 1 0.9 and some have signs of pitting by water. Such appearance Total 111 100.0 is typical of waterlogged sites in the area (Rabinovich Table 8. Fish remains identified, by skeletal element. et al. 2012). Under such circumstances it is almost

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Section I are represented by remains of submerged species such Section Species and Jordan as Pondweed (Potamogeton sp.) and Water crowfoots 6-02 Bank (Ranunculus subgen. Batrachium), and by the calcified Aurochs (Bos primigenius) 2 oogonium of a stonewort-family (Characeae) algae (Fig. Gazelle (Gazella gazella) 1 13c). Mesopotamian fallow deer While the majority of the identified remains suggest that 1 3 (Dama mesopotamica) the sediment accumulated in a lake margin environment, Boar (Sus scrofa) 1 more than half of the identified taxa are plants of dry Wolf (Canis lupus) 3 habitats. The conspicuous plant in the ancient landscape Small carnivore 3 is the oak tree (Quercus sp.), which is represented in Aves unidentified 2 the JRD botanical assemblage by an acorn hilum and a BSGE (Fox size) 1 female flower that is connected to a small twig fragment (Figs. 13e). Two other perennials of the dry habitat are BSGD (Gazelle size) 3 Caper (Capparis sp.) and curled-leaved St. John’s-Wort BSGC (Fallow deer size) 6 3 (Hypericum triquetrifolium). However, these perennial BSGB (Aurochs size) 2 species are rather small and less conspicuous in the Total 22 9 landscape. Most of the identified dry-habitat taxa are Table 9. JRD large fauna. annual or perennial herbs that inhabit open park-forest, bathas and herbaceous vegetation. impossible to recognize burnt surfaces; however, two long The seeds and fruit assemblage contains some charred bone splinters are suspected of bearing signs of burning remains (Table 10). These include grains of the grass accompanied by striations. On two tibia shafts the size family, seeds of legumes, as well as achenes of Mother of fallow deer and auroch, marrow extraction impacts on die (Conium maculatum) and Chamomile (Anthemis sp.). both sides of the shaft were observed. These charred seeds appear in four samples together with many small charcoal fragments suggesting repeated, Flora (seeds and fruits) intentional fire events. Seeds and fruits were analyzed from five samples The identified species make up a varied assemblage extracted from levels between 58.70 and 58.40 MASL. of edible plants. These plants are a source of diverse Preliminary examination of the excavated sediments has vegetal foods such as tubers (Alisma, Scirpus lacustris), yielded dozens of seeds and fruits (Table 10). green vegetables (Chenopodium, Rumex), fruits (Ficus Most of the seeds and fruits are wetland environment carica, Vitis sylvestris and Capparis), grains, and seeds species that in present days inhabit several nearby water (Chenopodium, Hordeum and other Gramineae species, habitats. The most common remains are those of the lake Vicieae). Some of the unfamiliar and yet unidentified seed bulrush (Scirpus lacustris) which is emergent (i.e. plant and fruit remains from the JRD assemblage seem to belong whose upper branches and leaves are above water or mud to foreign species that are not found in the Flora Palaestina surface while its roots and lower branches are submerged region today. Foreign species are of great interest since in water) sedge of fresh or brackish shallow water (Fig. they provide evidence of different habitats, environments, 13a). This type of wet habitat is also indicated by remains and sometimes even climate, than those prevailing in the of other emergent plants such as Cut sedge (Cladium Hula Valley today. mariscus) (Fig. 13b), Adrue (Cyperus cf. articulatus), Gipsywort (Lycopus europaeus), and Cluster-headed club-rush (Scirpus cf. holoschoenus). The remains also DISCUSSION include two edible trees, the wild fig tree (Ficus carica) The studies presented above of various aspects of JRD and the wild-grapevine (Vitis sylvestris), which usually open a rare window into the past environment of the Hula inhabit rivers, ponds, and spring banks. Open, sluggish Valley and into the human occupation on the shore of the water bodies or loose stands of emergent water plants Paleo-Hula Lake. Preliminary observation from a short

21 Marder et al.

58.58- 58.64- 58.65- 58.85- Plant name Organ 58.70 Total 58.55 58.61 58.64 58.83 Riparian forest plants Ficus carica nutlet 32 32 Vitis sylvestris pip 1 1 Total of Riparian forest plants 33 33 Emergent water plants Alisma sp. seed 1 1 Cladium mariscus nutlet 1 2 3 Cyperus cf. articulatus nutlet 2 1 2 5 Lycopus europaeus mericarp 1 1 Scirpus cf. holoschoenus nutlet 1 2 3 Scirpus cf. lacustris nutlet 15 2 16 18 3 54 Total of Emergent water plants 16 6 17 25 3 67 Submerged water plants Characeae oogonium 2 5 22 4 33 Potamogeton sp. nutlet 1 1 Ranunculus subgen. Batrachium nutlet 2 5 2 9 Total of Submerged water plants 2 7 22 9 2 43 Dry habitat plants Adonis sp. nutlet 1 1 1 1 1 5 Aegilops/Triticum grain 1 (ch) 1 Anthemis sp. achene 1(ch) 1 Capparis sp. seed 2 2 Chenopodium sp. seed 2 2 Conium maculatum achene 1(ch) Cruciferae silicle 1 1 Euphorbia cf. valerianifolia seed 2 1 6 9 Euphorbia cf. chamaesyce seed 1 1 Fumaria densiflora/parviflora seed 1 6 9 2 18 Fabaceae seed 1(ch) 1(ch) 2 1(ch) 5 Galium sp. seed 1 1 Gramineae grain 2(ch) 1 (ch) 1(ch) 4 Hordeum sp. grain 1(ch) 1 Hypericum triquetrifolium? seed 1 1 Hypericum sp. seed 2 2 Neslia apiculata silicle 1 1 2 4

Table 10. Seeds and fruits from JRD section 6-02.

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58.58- 58.64- 58.65- 58.85- Plant name Organ 58.70 Sum 58.55 58.61 58.64 58.83 acorn hilum 1 1 Quercus sp. young cupule 1 1 Ranunculus arvense var. nutlet 4 1 5 1 11 tuberculatus Rumex sp. seed 2 1 3 Solanum sp. seed 1 1 Thlaspi arvense seed 1 1 Thymelaea passerina seed 1 1 Vicieae seed 1 2 Umbelliferae achene 1 2 Total of Dry habitat plants 15 8 22 29 6 81 Unidentified 6 1 3 16 6 32 Grand Total 39 22 74 80 50 256

Table 10. cont.

Figure 13. JRD botanical remains. A) Cladium mariscus. Nutlet, the outer spongy layer is missing; B) Oogonium of Characeae species, lateral view, the oogonium is enveloped by 5 spiral cells; C) Scirpus cf. lacustris. Nutlet, dorsal view; D) Quercus sp. acorn base (hilum); E) Quercus sp., female flower, the upper part of the ovary and the scale edges are broken.

23 Marder et al. excavation season conducted during the autumn of 2014 groups during and immediately after the Last Glacial indicates that the boundaries of the site extend over 45 m Maximum are in debate. Similar preservation conditions of river bank. The 2014 season also revealed the presence at the Late Upper Paleolithic site of Ohalo II on the shore of archaeological remains within the sequence of inter- of the Sea of Galilee have revolutionized our knowledge fingering mud and lake-shore accumulation. The data and interpretation of the life ways and subsistence of late presented here was retrieved from surface collection and Pleistocene hunter-gatherers (Nadel and Werker 1999; from a small test excavation conducted in 2002, less than Nadel et al. 2012; Piperno et al. 2004; Weiss et al. 2008; one square meter in area (Section 6-02). Nevertheless, out Weiss et al. 2004). of this limited area and somewhat problematic context, the The data collected from the site to date suggest that site has already provided a wealth of data that contributes no dramatic changes can be observed between the post- significant information toward our understanding of glacial conditions and the present day environment of human presence and paleo-environment during the the site. However, some changes can be recognized. A Epipaleolithic of the Hula Valley. significant number of mollusc species became extinct, The small excavation at Section 6-02 exposed a and some plant species most likely suffered a similar fate. sequence of sediments comprising mud, sand, and Many of these species are known to have existed at the coquina and, at the bottom of the section, a layer of Early-Middle Pleistocene site of GBY. This indicates that basalt cobbles and boulders. It seems that water was the species survived most of the Pleistocene and most present year-round, as suggested by the preservation of likely became extinct during the . Whether this botanical remains indicating a waterlogged condition of occurrence was caused by climate change during the last the site’s layers since their accumulation. The presence of inter-glacial or by human agency, namely agriculture, is molluscs that inhabit a variety of environments, including a question for future research. At present we can only lacustrine, swampy, and terrestrial water bodies, suggests point out these differences and define future directions for a complex accumulation history of the site layers. While study. the accumulation environment is always defined by a nearby water-body, the actual conditions in each of the Significance of the mollusc assemblage layers changed between lake-shore, possibly swamp and The wealth of mollusc species at JRD (47 taxa) is maybe even slow flowing stream. surprising considering the fact that they were collected The degree to which human agency was involved in from a rather limited excavation and from a relatively the formation of the site layers is the primary question short accumulation time period. For comparison, Schütt for future research. The stone tools, modified bones, large and Ortal (1993) classified only 43 taxa from all localities fish remains, and fishing instruments, and the presence of of the Jordan Valley, including ‘Erq el-Ahmar, ‘, burned bones and charcoal, all point to significant human and Gesher Benot Ya’aqov. In a recent, more detailed presence and activity. study of GBY, ca. 70 taxa were identified for a section The chronological framework of the site was obtained representing ca. 100,000 years of sediment accumulation from seven 14C dates. Even though only three of the (Ashkenazi et al. 2010; Mienis and Ashkenazi 2011; Spiro samples were collected from an archaeological context, the et al. 2009). At the Natufian site of Eynan some 30 taxa dates cluster within the Middle Epipaleolithic period. were classified. This number includes species that were imported into the site by (Mienis n.d.). Paleo-Hula Basin environment The species richness is demonstrated by the number of The Hula Valley is among the better researched regions species in each sample. The minimum number of species in the Levant in terms of past environments and climate. in a sample is 19 and the range observed between the However, the sequence is fragmented and based on small layers (19‒28) is surprisingly small. At the neighboring segments of the past revealed in its archaeological and Acheulian site of GBY, the number of species ranges geological exposures. The very end of the Pleistocene is from zero, in a paleosol layer, to 28, in the coquina and one of the most fascinating time intervals in the study of black mud, organically rich layers (Mienis and Ashkenazi the region. The climatic conditions facing hunter-gatherer 2011). Such richness in species most likely indicates the

24 Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30 presence of different ecological habitats in the vicinity of None of the sites mentioned below has been excavated JRD, enabling the existence of a variety of species with on a sufficient scale to draw a detailed description of the different needs. period. Nevertheless, the presence of Early Epipaleolithic The molluscs excavated from JRD clearly indicate sites around the Hula Basin is clear, and the number of the presence of an aquatic environment since all layers sites suggests a significant human presence during the include large numbers of fresh water molluscs. However, Final Pleistocene and Early Holocene (Shaked and Marder the presence of terrestrial mollusc species as well as 1998; Valla et al. 2004). terrestrial fauna and flora indicate a more complex picture. The Kebaran site of ‘En Hashomer is located north Fish remains are common in all samples and may indicate of the Hula Valley, approximately half-way between water habitats of different water tables (unless brought to the city of Qiryat Shemona and the town of Metulla the site by humans). (Fig. 14). To date, an excavated Epipaleolithic layer has revealed flint artifacts, animal bones, and the remains of The Epipaleolithic occurrences in the Hula Basin a feature (Bar-Yosef and Mintz 1979; Shaked and The small test excavation at JRD revealed a complex Marder 1998; personal observation). At present, it is not stratigraphic sequence. Stone tools and bones were found possible to determine from the lithic assemblage whether along most of the sequence in different frequencies. ‘En Hashomer represents a single Kebaran occupation The 14C dates obtained present some difficulties for the or, alternatively, both Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran interpretation of the cultural sequence represented within occupation layers. The site of ‘Bitza’ is located in a the site layers (see below). It is clear, however, that the rich plowed alluvial field, approximately 50 m north of the Tel organic assemblage of the site offers solid datable material Hai Junction on the eastern side of Route 90 (Fig. 14). and good chronological resolution can be achieved in the The microlith component of the assemblage suggests two future. distinct stages of Epipaleolithic occupation at the site, The typological analysis of the in situ lithic assemblage Kebaran, characterized by slightly curved back points from the test excavation (Section 6-02) suggests that the and Geometric Kebaran, recognized by wide trapeze/ majority of the assemblage can be typologically attributed rectangular microliths (personal observation). A third to the Early Epipaleolithic, Kebaran lithic tradition. This Early Epipaleolithic entity was documented in the vicinity typological attribution is also supported by preliminary of the Natufian settlement of Eynan (Fig. 14). A small observation of the assemblage excavated from the test excavation (ca. 5 m2) was conducted within Eynan site during the 2014 season. Such cultural affiliation structure 26 (Valla et al. 2004: table 2, table 8). This potentially conflicts with the14 C dates obtained from JRD assemblage was attributed to the Early Kebaran (Valla et that seem to cluster within the time frame of the Middle al. 2004: 78). Epipaleolithic. In an earlier publication (Sharon, et al. We have presented here the results of a limited, 2002b) we pointed out a similar chronological issue at the preliminary study of the site of JRD. The exceptional site of Urkn a-Rub (Hovers and Marder 1991) where the preservation of organic material combined with the lithic 14C dates are much younger than the chronology suggested assemblage yielded significant information regarding the by the lithic assemblage. It is likely, however, that there Epipaleolithic foragers in the southern Hula Basin during was a later occupation at the JRD site. It may be indicated the Final Pleistocene. The large amount of high quality by the finding of wide-fronted blade/let cores used for the data that emerged from this limited excavation indicates production of straight bladelets, and the presence of two that JRD is a significant contribution to the “Hula Valley backed and truncated bladelets (possibly broken trapeze\ Cluster” of Early Epipaleolithic sites. Study of JRD can rectangle), which can suggest a Middle Epipaleolithic deepen our understanding of human presence and its occupation. environmental background on the shores of the Paleo- The site of JRD is not a unique phenomenon in the Hula Lake during a dramatic time in , Hula Valley. It is part of an Early Epipaleolithic settlement the shift from small hunter-gatherer bands to sedentary cluster recorded in the region over the last several decades. hunter-gatherer groups/societies.

25 Marder et al.

Figure 14. Location map of Hula Valley sites mentioned in text.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Bar-Yosef O. and Mintz E. 1979. The Epipaleolithic We wish to thank the many people and organizations that and Neolithic Industries. In: Horowitz A. (ed.), The have supported the JRD project: The staff at the Israel Quaternary of Israel, pp. 307–319. New York/London: Antiquity Authority, in particular D. Barshad, D. Avshalom, Academic Press. H. Khalaily, and I. Shaked (who discovered JRD); L. Belfer-Cohen A. and Goring-Morris A.N. 2014. The Zeiger for drawing the artifacts and A. Baltinester for the Upper Palaeolithic and Earlier Epi-‎Palaeolithic of aerial photography; P. Kaminski for graphical editing and . In: Renfrew C. and Bahn P. (eds.), redrawing the figures; T. Rom for the map in Figure 14; The Cambridge World ‎, pp. 1381–1407. the members of for their hospitality and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. support, in particular Y. Arbel, who also participated in Birkenfeld M., Brailovsky L. and Vered A. 2013 (n.d.). En the 2002 survey field work; Y. Langsam (The Mina and Dishna: A Pre Poterry Neolithic A Site in the Zalmon Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Valley. Paper presented at the 2013 Annual Meeting of University) for the SEM photography; the many students The Israel Prehistoric Society, Jerusalem. who participated in the lab work during years of study Bocquentin F, Khalaily H., Bar-Yosef D., Berna F., and those who spent countless hours of sorting under a Biton R., Dubreuil L., Emery-Barbier A., Greenberg microscope at the Bar-Ilan University laboratory. Finally, H., Goren Y., Horwitz L.K., Le Dosseur G., Larnau a special thank you to N. Goren-Inbar. O., Miens H.K., Valentin B. and Samuelian N. 2014. Renewed excavations at Beisamoun, investigating the 7th Millennium cal BC of the . BIBLIOGRAPHY Mitekufat Haeven - Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Adriaens D. and Verraes W. 1998. Ontogeny of Society 44: 5–100. the Osteocranium in the African catfish, Clarias Brandis D., Storch V. and Turkay M. 2000. Taxonomy and Gariepinus Burchell (1822) (Siluriformes: Clariidae): zoogeography of the freshwater crabs of , North Ossification sequence as a response to functional Africa, and the Middle East (Crustacea, Decapoda, demands. Journal of Morphology 235: 183–237. Potamidae). Senckenbergiana biologica 80(1–2): 5–56. Albertson R.C. and Kocher T.D. 2006. Genetic and Butler V.L. 1990. Distinguishing Natural From Cultural developmental basis of Cichlid Trophic diversity. Salmonid Deposits in the Pacific ‎Northwest of North Heredity 97: 211–221. America: 218. Washington‎: University of Washington‎. Alkahem H.F., Behnke R.J. and Ahmad Z. 1990. Some Davidzon A. and Goring-Morris A.N. 2003. Sealed osteological distinction among four Arabian Cyprinid in stone: The Upper Palaeolithic Early Ahmarian species. Ichthyological Research 36: 477–482. knapping method in the light of refitting studies at Ashkenazi S., Klass K., Mienis H.K., Spiro B. and Abel Nahal Nizzana XIII, Western Negev, Israel. Mitekufat R. 2010. Fossil embryos and adult Viviparidae from the Haeven - Journal of The Israel Prehistoric Society 33: Early-Middle Pleistocene of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, 75–205. Israel: Ecology, longevity and fecundity. Lethaia 43(1): Edinger E.N., Pandolfi J.M. and Kelley R.A. 2001. 116–127. Community structure of Quaternary coral reefs Ashkenazi S., Motro U., Goren-Inbar N., Biton R. and compared with recent life and death assemblages. Rabinovich R. 2005. New morphometric parameters Paleobiology 27: 669–694. for assessment of body size in the fossil freshwater crab Eisenberg E., Gopher A. and Greenberg R. 2001. Tel Te’o: assemblage from the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot A Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Age Site in Ya’aqov, Israel. Journal Of Archaeological Science The Hula Valley. (IAA Reports, 13). Jerusalem: Israel 32(5): 675–689. Antiquities Authority. Banister K.E. 1973. A revision of the Large Barbus Getzov N. and Khalaily H. (eds.). n.d. Hagosherim. IAA (Pisces, Cyprinidae) of East and ‎Central Africa. Studies Report. Jerusalem. on African Cyprinidae part II. Bulletin Of The British Goren M. and Ortal R. 1999. Biogeography, diversity and ‎Museum of Natural History 26: 1–148‎. conservation of the inland water fish communities in

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