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Convenient Fictions CONVENIENT FICTIONS: THE SCRIPT OF LESBIAN DESIRE IN THE POST-ELLEN ERA. A NEW ZEALAND PERSPECTIVE By Alison Julie Hopkins A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2009 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge those people who have supported me in my endeavour to complete this thesis. In particular, I would like to thank Dr Alison Laurie and Dr Lesley Hall, for their guidance and expertise, and Dr Tony Schirato for his insights, all of which were instrumental in the completion of my study. I would also like to express my gratitude to all of those people who participated in the research, in particular Mark Pope, facilitator of the ‘School’s Out’ programme, the staff at LAGANZ, and the staff at the photographic archive of The Alexander Turnbull Library. I would also like to acknowledge the support of The Chief Censor, Bill Hastings, and The Office of Film and Literature Classification, throughout this study. Finally, I would like to thank my most ardent supporters, Virginia, Darcy, and Mo. ii Abstract Little has been published about the ascending trajectory of lesbian characters in prime-time television texts. Rarer still are analyses of lesbian fictions on New Zealand television. This study offers a robust and critical interrogation of Sapphic expression found in the New Zealand television landscape. More specifically, this thesis analyses fictional lesbian representation found in New Zealand’s prime-time, free-to-air television environment. It argues that television’s script of lesbian desire is more about illusion than inclusion, and that lesbian representation is a misnomer, both qualitatively and quantitively. In order to assess the authenticity of television’s lesbian fictions, I sampled the opinions of New Zealand’s television audience through focus group and survey methodology, and analysed two primary sources of lesbian representation available between 2004-2006. Television and other media provide the social and cultural background − the milieu − against or within which their fictions, dramas and comedies are set. Even when media texts are clearly non- or anti realistic (fantasy films, for instance), they usually attempt to produce their narratives as consistent, familiar and in keeping with the cultural characteristics, values and proclivities of mainstream contemporary society. This is not realism so much as a set of arbitrary conventions that are read as, or stand for, reality and the real. In short, the media is a teller of stories and fairy tales; and since mainstream Western culture has naturalised homonormativity, television’s fairy tales are almost exclusively tales of heterosexuality. Television, from this perspective, reinscribes and reinforces what Pierre Bourdieu refers to as the ‘masculine order’. Television uses reality to frame messages of compulsory heterosexuality, and it rarely presents homonormative messages. Lesbian representation is, therefore, difficult for a heteronormative medium to render without effort. Homonormativity is, for lesbian audiences, a central part of the cultural background − the components of realism, if you like, within which representations of lesbians would ‘play out’ their stories in media texts. Television stories which ignore this imperative deny both the audience’s ability to interpret for themselves the integrity of the representation, and their ability to acquire new knowledge of lesbians. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . ii ABSTRACT . iii List of Tables . viii List of Figures . ix List of Appendices . ix 1. CHAPTER ONE: Introduction . 1 Lesbians in heterosexual spaces . 1 Media Representations and Heteronormativity . 4 Conclusion . 6 The Organisation of this Thesis . 6 2. CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical Perspectives and Contexts . 9 Introduction . 9 Patriarchy and Oppression . 10 Defining and Classifying Lesbians . 12 Feminist Definitions of Lesbianism . 16 Femme with a Lower Case ‘F’ . 20 Lesbianism as Absence . 21 Visibility with an Asterisk . 23 Lesbian Chic . 27 Pre-Ellen Representations of Homosexuality on Television . 29 The New Protocols of Same-Sex Desire . 35 iv Appropriating Lesbian Sexuality . 38 Symbolic Violence and the Butch . 41 Conclusion . 47 CHAPTER THREE: Representations of Lesbianism in Television . 48 Introduction . 48 Studies of Gay and Lesbian Visibility in the Media . 49 Lesbian Representation and Self-Validation . 58 Significances and Pleasures of Identification . 61 The Politics of Stereotypes . 64 Conclusion . 68 CHAPTER FOUR: Methodology . 69 Introduction . 69 Research on Television ─ Effects . 70 Techniques for Analysing Lesbian Representation on Television . 71 Coding Non-Heterosexual Representations . 73 Content Analysis . 74 Secondary Sources . 75 Ethical Issues . 76 Questionnaire . 79 Conclusion . 80 v CHAPTER FIVE: Results of Television Landscape Analysis and Focus Groups . 82 Introduction . 82 Media Policy and the Representation of Minorities . 82 Landscape Analysis . 84 Focus Groups . 88 Lesbian Visibility on New Zealand Television . 90 Heterosexual Lesbians . 98 Non-Feminine Lesbians. 101 Visual Signifiers of Lesbian Sexuality . 103 A Catalogue of Conditions . 105 Reactions to Representations of Same-Sex Intimacy . 108 Realism . 111 Gay Male Visibility . 113 Tensions of Compromise: Testimonies of Lesbian Viewers . 116 Conclusion . 124 CHAPTER SIX: Critical Communication Theories and the Politics of Television Representation . 125 Introduction . 125 Hegemony and Television . 126 Cultivation Theory . 127 Theories of Media Effects . 129 Active Audience . 131 Reinscribed Narratives . 133 vi Conclusion . 135 CHAPTER SEVEN: Television, Soaps and Lesbian Representation . 136 Introduction . 136 Soaps and Sexuality . 137 Soaps and Sociability . 138 Shortland Street’s Sapphos . 139 Confessions and Coming Out Narratives . 141 Mainstreaming Lesbians . 142 George, the Butch Lesbian . 148 Disconnecting Lesbians . 150 Conclusion . 154 CHAPTER EIGHT: Shortland Street . 155 Introduction . 155 Not a Real Wedding . 155 Lesbian Desire and Intimacy . 160 Homophobia as Violence . 165 Reading Lesbians Normatively . 165 The Vicissitudes of Identification . 169 Conclusion . 175 CHAPTER NINE: The L Word . 177 Introduction . 177 The World of The L Word . 177 vii Sexual Expression in The L Word . 179 The Reality of Homophobia . 180 A Privileged World . 182 Bisexuality . 185 The Good/Bad Gay Dichotomy . 188 The Myth of the Affluent Gay . 189 Conclusion . 191 CHAPTER TEN: Discussion . 195 Introduction . 195 Focus Groups: Comparisons and Contrasts . 196 Reading Shortland Street and The L Word . 197 Looking at Identification . 202 Limitations . 204 Future Directions . 205 Conclusion . 207 A Final Word . 208 REFERENCES. 210 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 . 85 Table 2 . 85 Table 3 . 88 viii Table 4 . 89 Table 5 . 90 Table 6 . 96 Table 7 . 109 LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 . 86 Fig. 2 . 87 Fig. 3 . 90 Fig. 4 . 91 Fig. 5 . 161 Fig. 6 . 162 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A . 228 Appendix B . 230 Appendix C . 234 Appendix D . 236 Appendix E . 250 Appendix F . 252 Appendix G . 254 Appendix H . 258 Appendix I . 260 Appendix J . 262 ix Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis considers, analyses, and evaluates the representation of lesbian characters in prime-time television texts, a phenomenon about which media scholar Kelly Kessler finds little has been published (Kessler 2006, p.131). Communication theorist George Gerbner and colleagues argue television tells “most of the stories to most of the people most of the time” (Gerbner et al. 1986, p.18). So influential is television as a medium, media critic Roger Horrocks argues, any person or news item to appear in the prime-time slot translates to “nationwide exposure and the possibility of becoming a topic of dinner-table or morning-tea discussion in every corner of the country” (Horrocks 2004a, p.22).1 Academic Ann Ciasullo insists one of the best ways to understand what the lesbian figure signifies in popular culture is to “examine the tales it tells about her” (Ciasullo 2002, p.7). What tales are told about lesbians is the primary concern of this thesis. This study offers a robust kōrerorero, a critical and informed interrogation, of Sapphic expression in the New Zealand television landscape.2 I will describe and analyse fictional lesbian representation available in this country’s prime-time free-to-air television texts. In a foundational lesbian feminist text written over 30 years ago, lesbian activists Sydney Abbott and Barbara Love wrote: “Lesbians are [told] by society as a whole, by the media – especially on television – that women love men” (Abbott and Love 1972, p.37). This thesis will consider to what, if any, extent this situation has changed. No longer isolated oddities, the panoply of sexual minority characters now found in many Western mainstream television texts has been noted by many cultural critics, including Suzanna Walters (Walters 2001, p.5), Stephen Capsuto (Capsuto 2000, p.xiii), Gail Hawkes and John Scott (Hawkes and Scott 2005, p.80) and David Gauntlett (Gauntlett 2002, p.13). Lesbians in Heterosexual Spaces To what extent are television’s Sapphic fictions ideologically neutral? Drawing directly on the art-reflects-reality paradigm, communication theorist Larry Gross maintains media visibility reflects real social power (Gross 1994, p.143). Fellow communications theorist 1 The prime-time period in New Zealand is from 6.00 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. and it is during this time that the largest
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