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Central Pain: Clinical and Physiological J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry: First Published As 10.1136/Jnnp.61.1.62 on 1 July 1996

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Central Pain: Clinical and Physiological J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry: First Published As 10.1136/Jnnp.61.1.62 on 1 July 1996 626Journal ofNeurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 1996;61:62-69 Central pain: clinical and physiological J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry: first published as 10.1136/jnnp.61.1.62 on 1 July 1996. Downloaded from characteristics David Bowsher Abstract spinothalamic pathway, its relays, or projec- Objectives-To study the clinical and tions may cause central pain,' and modern pathophysiological features of central radiological techniques have tended to con- pain due to damage to the CNS. firm this.9 '" Because of this, and of recent Methods-156 patients (mostly with considerations on pathophysiology,'5 '" the ischaemic strokes, some with infarct after condition is now known as "central poststroke subarachnoid haemorrhage and other pain (CPSP)"'.'7 Stroke is not the only condi- cerebral conditions; one with bulbar and tion causing such central pains of cerebral ori- others with spinal pathology) with central gin.' lxII 2' Furthermore, identical pains occur pain have been investigated clinically and after some spinal lesions.- 22 varying numbers instrumentally with respect to quantitative somatosensory perception thresholds and autonomic Patients function. Between 1983 and 1993, 156 patients have Results-Pain onset was immediate in a been referred to me, in whom a diagnosis of minority; and from a week or two up to central pain due to a cerebral or spinal lesion six years in > 60%. For those with supra- has been made. Of these, 112 (64 (57)%'Y spinal ischaemic lesions, the median age male) had a history of a stroke episode (cere- of onset was 59; dominant and non- brovascular accident, CVA patients), includ- dominant sides were equally affected. ing four known to have had a cerebral embolus Two thirds of the patients had allodynia, and two known to have had an intracerebral including a previously undescribed move- haemorrhage; one had haemorrhage into a ment allodynia apparently triggered from tumour (lymphoma). Twelve (11%) of these group I afferents. Most patients exhibited patients were known to have diabetes mellitus, autonomic instability in that their pain and one had BehFet's syndrome. Nineteen was increased by physical and emotional patients (63% women) had infarcts after sub- stress and alleviated by relaxation; cuta- arachnoid haemorrhage (SAH patients); 15 of neous blood flow and sweating may also them had been treated by operation and four be affected. Pain occurred within a larger conservatively. Four patients (three women) area of differential sensory deficit. The had postoperative infarcts after brain surgery http://jnnp.bmj.com/ critical deficit seems to be for thermal for tumour removal (two vestibular schwanno- and pinprick sensations, which were more mata, one tentorial meningioma, and one pronounced in areas of greatest than in cerebellar haemangioblastoma) and another areas of least pain; whereas low threshold three men had had brain trauma (one while mechanoceptive functions, if affected, did playing rugby football, one in a street fight, not vary between areas of greatest and and the other unattributed). One male patient least pain. Skinfold pinch (tissue damage) had an enormous arteriovenous malformation on September 25, 2021 by guest. Protected copyright. pain thresholds were only slightly affected involving the thalamus, which had bled on in supraspinal cases, but greatly some occasions. Four patients had multiple increased in patients with spinal lesions; sclerosis; three had syringo/bulbia/myelia; and thermal (heat) pain did not show this dis- three had spinal ischaemic conditions. Seven sociation. patients (of whom six are reported else- Conclusion-The pathogenetic hypothesis where24) had postcordotomy dysaesthesia; six which seems best to fit the findings is that had had percutaneous radiofrequency lesions there is up regulation or down regulation made at C2 for painful malignant disease,21 of receptors for transmitters, possibly and the other had had open cordotomy at the mainly noradrenergic, over time. thoracic level for sciatica. Table 1 shows the mean age and the inter- (_ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996;61:62-69) val between stroke and pain onset and between stroke and presentation at the clinic Pain Research for the CVA and SAH patients. Institute, Walton Keywords: central pain; sensory thresholds; phys- Hospital, Liverpool, iopathological mechanisms L9 1AE, UK D Bowsher Methods Since the thalamic syndrome was described in Pain quality was assessed by direct interroga- Received 4 January 1996 1906,' cases with lesions in extrathalamic sites tion, by the McGill pain questionnaire,25 and and in final revised form 21 March 1996 have been described ; more recently it has by free description. Pain intensity was mea- Accepted 29 February 1996 been suggested that a lesion anywhere in the sured by the visual analogue scale. Central pain: clinical and physiological characteristics 63 Table 1 Demographic characteristics ofpatients J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry: first published as 10.1136/jnnp.61.1.62 on 1 July 1996. Downloaded from Postoperative CVA SAH infarct Trauma MS A VM Spinal Total No of patients 111 19 4 3 4 1 6 Immediate pain 41 (+7 N/K) 2 (+1 N/K) 1 3 - - - Later onset 63 16 3 - 4 9y 6 Age at stroke (y): n = 111 n= 19 Mean (SD) 59-2 (9-2) 46-1 (9 6) 95% CI 574-60-9 414-50-7 Median 59 45 38-5 58 30 57 Range 40-78 29-62 35-42 49-70 - 29-70 Stroke-pain interval (months): n = 63 n= 16 Mean (SD) 6-2 (10-0) 4-4 (2 8) 95% CI 3-7-8-7 2-9-5-9 Median 3 4 Range 0-08-72 0-25-12 Stroke-clinic interval (months): n=111 n=19 Mean (SD) 317-5 (36-7) 46-4 (53-4) 95% CI 30-6-44-4 206-72-1 Median 34 27 Range 1-176 2-204 Clinical examination included sensory test- to feel warmth, hot pain, or cold at these tem- ing for all somatic modalities and for the pres- peratures, values of 500 or 100 respectively ence or absence of allodynia-and its type if were arbitrarily assigned. All comparisons present. were made by the the non-parametric Mann- In addition, quantitative sensory perception Whitney method. All measurements were threshold testing was carried out at or soon made at four sites: the area of greatest pain after first presentation in 61 of the CVA (max) and its contralateral mirror image; and patients, eight of the SAH patients (the find- the area of least pain (min) and its contralat- ings in seven of whom were reported previ- eral mirror image. ously26), three postoperative, and two Skin temperature was measured with an syringomyelic patients. Perception thresholds electronic skin thermometer in 42 cases; were established by the method of limits, in all absolute values were obtained and so compar- cases using an average of three readings as the isons were made with paired or unpaired t value, for the following modalities: touch (von tests. In 48 other cases, skin blood flow was Frey filaments); results were expressed on a assessed by means of liquid crystal contact logarithmic scale up to 6-65. Patients who thermography. could not feel this filament were arbitrarily awarded a score of 7-0; pinprick sensation was assessed with weighted needles,27 and results Results were expressed in g. Patients who could not CLINICAL FINDINGS feel sharpness with the heaviest pin (5-2 g) Table 2 shows the extent of the painful area. http://jnnp.bmj.com/ were arbitrarily awarded a score of 6-0. In almost all cases, there were regions where Skinfold pinch pain was estimated by the use the pain was felt to be "worse" or more intense of forceps coupled to a strain gauge, and the than in other areas. These are referred to as results were expressed in kg. Two point dis- areas of maximum pain (max) and areas of crimination was measured with Weber's com- minimum pain (min). These differences per- passes; unobtainable measurements were sisted despite overall fluctuations in intensity expressed as 5 cm on the hand and 10 cm else- (see below), but sometimes varied over time, where, as actual numbers are required to per- often apparently as a result of treatment. on September 25, 2021 by guest. Protected copyright. form statistical operations. Warmth, coolness, Such broad categories, although necessary, and hot pain were tested with a reversible ther- fail to take account of regions within regions. mode.28 Results were expressed in °C up to Thus two patients with facial pain had only 500 and down to 100. If patients were unable one trigeminal area affected; whereas many with pain in the limbs had either the proximal limb areas or the extremities maximally affected. One man had abdominal pain Table 2 Distribution ofpain together with girdle pain in the T8 der- CVA (n = 111) SAH (n 19) MS Spinal matome; one woman had only the left side of Face +hemibody 23 (21) 4 1 her vulva and vagina involved. It was not Hemibody below face 19 (17) 2 - uncommon, particularly in patients with the Face only 8 (7) 0 - Face + limbs 9 (8) 0 - - cheiro-oral syndrome or crossed (brainstem) Limbs 25 (22 5) 5 - 3 stroke, to find pain in one site and painless Face + upper limb 3 (2-7) 2 - - Trunk + upper limb 0 1 - sensory change in the other. Upper limb 10 (9) 4 1 2 None of the patients with postoperative Face+lower limb 1 (0 9) 1 - - Lower limb 10 (9) 0 2 1 infarcts or head injury showed any striking dif- Other: ferences on clinical or laboratory testing from Face + both legs 1 - T6 + abdominal viscera 1 patients who had had spontaneous infarcts. Genitals + both feet 1 Table 3 shows the non-sensory clinical fea- Perineum 1 tures of the patients. In the great majority the Values are numbers of patients (%).
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